INDEX

S.No. PRACTICAL DATE SIGNATURE

1. SQL BASICS

2. PROGRAM TO CREATE TABLE

3. PROGRAM TO INSERT VALUES

PROGRAM TO VIEW DATA IN

4.
THE TABLES

PROGRAM TO DELETE
5.
RECORDS

6.
PROGRAM TO ALTER TABLE
PROGRAM TO UPDATE THE
7.
CONTENTS OF A TABLE

PROGRAM TO APPLY DATA

8.
CONSTRAINTS ON THE TABLE

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1. SQL BASICS
The Structured Query Language (SQL) is a language that enables you to create and
operate on relational databases, which are sets of related information stored in tables.

The basic structure of a SQL expression consists of three clauses:

 Select
 From
 Where

SELECT:- The select clause is used to list the attributes desired in the result of a query.
It corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra.

FROM:- The from clause lists the relation to be scanned in the evaluation of the
expression. It correspond to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.

WHERE:- The where clause consists of a predicate involving attributes of the relations
that appear in the from clause.

A TYPICAL SQL QUERY HAS THE FORM:-

Select A1,A2………,An
from r1,r2 .......... ,rm
where P

Here,
Each Ai represents to an attribute.
Each ri represents a relation.
P is the predicate.

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2. PROGRAM TO CREATE TABLE

SYNTAX:
CREATE TABLE <TABLENAME>
(<ColumnName1> <DataType>(<size>), <ColumnName2> <DataType>(<size>));

Create the table described below:

Table Name: CLIENT_MASTER

COLUMN NAME DATA TYPE SIZE

CLIENTNO VARCHAR2 6
NAME VARCHAR2 20
CITY VARCHAR2 15
PINCODE NUMBER 8
STATE VARCHAR2 15
BALANCEDUE NUMBER 10

SQL> CREATE TABLE CLIENT_MASTER

2 ( CLIENTNO VARCHAR2(6),
3 NAME VARCHAR2(20),
4 CITY VARCHAR2(15),
5 PINCODE NUMBER(6),
6 STATE VARCHAR2(10),
7 BALANCEDUE NUMBER(10));

Table created.

SQL> DESC CLIENT_MASTER;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
CLIENTNO VARCHAR2(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(20)
CITY VARCHAR2(15)
PINCODE NUMBER(6)
STATE VARCHAR2(10)
BALANCEDUE NUMBER(10)

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3. PROGRAM TO INSERT VALUES

SYNTAX:

METHOD1

INSERT INTO TABLENAME VALUES(‘&COLUMNAME’,’& COLUMNAME’);

METHOD2

INSERT INTO TABLENAME VALUES(‘VALUE1’,’ VALUE2’);

METHOD3

INSERT INTO TABLENAME(COLUMNAME1, COLUMNAME2) VALUES(‘VALUE1’,’

VALUE2’);

Insert the following data into CLIENT_MASTER

CLIENTNO NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

C0001 IVAN MUMBAI 400054 MAHARASHTRA 15000
C0002 MAMTA MADRASS 780001 TAMIL NADU 0
C0003 CHHAYA MUMBAI 400057 MAHARASHTRA 5000
C0004 ASHWINI BANGALORE 560001 KARNATKA 0

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METHOD-1

SQL> INSERT INTO CLIENT_MASTER VALUES(

2 '&CLIENTNO', '&NAME', '&CITY',
3 '&PINCODE', '&STATE', '&BALANCEDUE');

Enter value for clientno: C1

Enter value for name: IVAN
Enter value for city: MUM
Enter value for pincode: 400054
Enter value for state: MH
Enter value for balancedue: 15000

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for clientno: C2
Enter value for name: MAMTA
Enter value for city: CHENNAI
Enter value for pincode: 780001
Enter value for state: TN
Enter value for balancedue: 0

1 row created.

OUTPUT:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- -----------------------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0

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METHOD-2

SQL> INSERT INTO CLIENT_MASTER VALUES('C3', 'CHHAYA', 'MUM', '400057', 'MH',

'5000');

1 row created.

OUTPUT:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- -----------------------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000

METHOD-3

SQL> INSERT INTO CLIENT_MASTER(CLIENTNO, NAME, CITY, PINCODE, STATE,

BALANCEDUE)
2 VALUES('C4', 'ASHWINI', 'BANG', '560001', 'KA', '0');

1 row created.

OUTPUT:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- -----------------------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000
C4 ASHWINI BANG 560001 KA 0

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4. PROGRAM TO VIEW DATA IN THE TABLES

A. ALL ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS

SYNTAX:
SELECT * FROM TABLENAME;

B. FILTERING TABLE DATA

 SELECTED CLOUMNS AND ALL ROWS
 SELECTED ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS
 SELECTED COLUMNS AND SELECTED ROWS

SELECTED CLOUMNS AND ALL ROWS

SYNTAX:
SELECT COLUMNAME1, COLUMNAME2 FROM TABLENAME;

SELECTED ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS

SYNTAX:
SELECT * FROM TABLENAME WHERE CONDITION;

SELECTED ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS

SYNTAX:
SELECT COLUMNAME1, COLUMNAME2 FROM TABLENAME WHERE CONDITION;

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A. ALL ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

OUTPUT
CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE
------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- -----------------------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000
C4 ASHWINI BANG 560001 KA 0

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B. FILTERING TABLE DATA

SELECTED CLOUMNS AND ALL ROWS

SQL> SELECT NAME, CITY, STATE FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

OUTPUT

NAME CITY STATE

-------------------- --------------- ----------
IVAN MUM MH
MAMTA CHENNAI TN
CHHAYA MUM MH
ASHWINI BANG KA

SELECTED ROWS AND ALL COLUMNS

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER

2 WHERE CITY='MUM';

OUTPUT

CLEINT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------------------------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000

SELECTED COLUMNS AND SELECTED ROWS

SQL> SELECT NAME, CITY, STATE FROM CLIENT_MASTER

2 WHERE CITY ='MUM';

OUTPUT

NAME CITY STATE

-------------------- --------------- ----------
IVAN MUM MH
CHHAYA MUM MH

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5. PROGRAM TO DELETE RECORDS

REMOVAL OF ALL ROWS

SYNTAX:
DELETE FROM TABLENAME;

REMOVAL OF SPECIFIC ROWS

SYNTAX:
DELETE FROM TABLENAME WHERE CONDITION;

TRUNCATING TABLES

SYNTAX:
TRUNCATE TABLE TABLENAME;

DESTROYING TABLES

SYNTAX:

DROP TABLE TABLENAME;

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REMOVAL OF ALL ROWS
SQL> DELETE FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

4 rows deleted.

//Data can be rollback//

OUTPUT:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

no rows selected

// Output is no rows selected because all the four rows are deleted from table
CLIENT_MASTER. But data can be ROLLBACK //

ROLLBACK

SQL> ROLLBACK;
Rollback complete.

// All the deleted rows will be rolled back //

DROPPING THE TABLE

SQL> DROP TABLE CLIENT_MASTER ;

Table dropped.

// TABLE IS DELETED //

TRUNCATING TABLES

SQL> TRUNCATE TABLE CLIENT_MASTER ;

Table truncated.

// RECORDS ARE DELETED. BUT RECORDS CANNOT BE ROLLED BACK //

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REMOVAL OF SPECIFIC ROWS

SQL> DELETE FROM CLIENT_MASTER WHERE CITY='BANG';

1 row deleted.

OUTPUT:

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- -----------------------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000

// Record where city is “Bang” is deleted from CLIENT_MASTER //

SQL> DELETE FROM CLIENT_MASTER WHERE CITY = 'MUM';

2 rows deleted.

OUTPUT:

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE

------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- -----------------------
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0

// Further in the Record where city is “MUM” is deleted from CLIENT_MASTER //

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6. PROGRAM TO ALTER TABLE

ADDING NEW COLUMNS

SYNTAX:
ALTER TABLE TABLENAME
ADD ( NEWCOLUMNNAME DATATYPE(SIZE),
NEWCOLUMNNAME DATATYPE(SIZE));

MODIFYING EXISTING COLUMNS

SYNTAX:
ALTER TABLE TABLENAME
MODIFY (COLUMNNAME NEWDATATYPE(NEWSIZE));

// Datatype can be modified only when the column is empty //

//Size can be modified (decreased) only if the value in the column is equal to or less
than the new column size //

DROPPING A COLUMNS FROM THE TABLE

SYNTAX:
ALTER TABLE TABLENAME
DROP COLUMN COLUMNAME:

RENAMING EXISTING COLUMNS

SYNTAX:
ALTER TABLE TABLENAME
RENAME COLUMN OLDCOLNAME TO NEWCOLNAME;

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ADDING NEW COLUMNS

SQL> ALTER TABLE CLIENT_MASTER

2 ADD ( DEPT VARCHAR2(10), SECTION VARCHAR2(5));

Table altered.

OUTPUT:

SQL> DESC CLIENT_MASTER;

Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
CLEINTNO VARCHAR2(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(20)
CITY VARCHAR2(15)
PINCODE NUMBER(6)
STATE VARCHAR2(10)
BALANCEDUE NUMBER(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)
SECTION VARCHAR2(5)

// Two new Columns “dept”, “section” are added in the table CLIENT_MASTER //

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE DEPT

SECTION
------ -------------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------- ----------------- --------- ---
----------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000
C4 ASHWINI BANG 560001 KA 0

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MODIFYING EXISTING COLUMNS

Changing Column width

SQL> ALTER TABLE CLIENT_MASTER

2 MODIFY ( NAME VARCHAR2(10));

Table altered.

OUTPUT:

SQL> DESC CLIENT_MASTER;

Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------
CLEINTNO VARCHAR2(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
CITY VARCHAR2(15)
PINCODE NUMBER(6)
STATE VARCHAR2(10)
BALANCEDUE NUMBER(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)
SECTION VARCHAR2(5)

// Size of the column “ Name” is modified in the table CLIENT_MASTER //

//An ALTER TABLE MODIFY statement attempted to decrease the scale or precision of a numeric
column containing data. In order to decrease either of these values, the column must contain only NULL
values. An attempt to increase the scale without also increasing the precision will also cause this
message//

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DROPPING A COLUMNS FROM THE TABLE

SQL> ALTER TABLE CLIENT_MASTER

2 DROP COLUMN SECTION;

Table altered.

OUTPUT:

SQL> DESC CLIENT_MASTER;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------
CLEINTNO VARCHAR2(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
CITY VARCHAR2(15)
PINCODE NUMBER(6)
STATE VARCHAR2(10)
BALANCEDUE NUMBER(10)
DEPT VARCHAR2(10)

// Column “ Section” is deleted from the table CLIENT_MASTER //

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7. PROGRAM TO UPDATE THE CONTENTS OF A TABLE

UPDATING ALL ROWS

SYNTAX:
UPDATE TABLENAME
SET COLUMNAME1 = ‘EXPRESSION1’, COLUMNAME2 =’EXPRESSION2’ ;

UPDATING RECORDS CONDITIONALLY

SYNTAX:
UPDATE TABLENAME
SET COLUMNAME1 = ‘EXPRESSION1’, COLUMNAME2 =’EXPRESSION2’
WHERE CONDITION;

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UPDATING ALL ROWS

SQL> UPDATE CLIENT_MASTER

2 SET DEPT = ' IT ';

4 rows updated.

OUTPUT:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE DEPT

------ ---------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------------- ------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000 IT
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0 IT
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000 IT
C4 ASHWINI BANG 560001 KA 0 IT

// All the rows are updated in the table CLIENT_MASTER with the value of column dept
as” IT “//

UPDATING RECORDS CONDITIONALLY

SQL> UPDATE CLIENT_MASTER

2 SET DEPT = 'CS'
3 WHERE CITY = 'MUM';

2 rows updated.

OUTPUT:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CLIENT_MASTER;

CLIENT NAME CITY PINCODE STATE BALANCEDUE DEPT

------ ---------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------------- ------
C1 IVAN MUM 400054 MH 15000 CS
C2 MAMTA CHENNAI 780001 TN 0 IT
C3 CHHAYA MUM 400057 MH 5000 CS
C4 ASHWINI BANG 560001 KA 0 IT

// Only specific rows are updated in the table CLIENT_MASTER where the condition
that is City is “mum” is satisfied.//

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8. PROGRAM TO APPLY DATA CONSTRAINTS ON THE TABLE

PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS

SYNTAX
COLUMNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) PRIMARY KEY

FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINTS

SYNTAX
COLUMNAME DATATYPE(SIZE)
REFERENCES TABLENAME (COLUMNAME)

UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINTS

SYNTAX
COLUMNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) UNIQUE

NULL CONSTRAINTS

SYNTAX
COLUMNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) NOT NULL

CHECK CONSTRAINTS

SYNTAX
COLUMNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) CHECK(LOGICAL EXPRESSION)

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CREATING TABLE WITH DATA CONSTRAINTS

PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS

SQL> CREATE TABLE DEPT

2 ( DNAME VARCHAR2(10),
3 DNUM VARCHAR2(10) PRIMARY KEY,
4 DLOCATION VARCHAR2(10));

Table created.

OUTPUT:

SQL> DESC DEPT;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
DNAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNUM NOT NULL VARCHAR2(10)
DLOCATION VARCHAR2(10)

// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “DEPT” and column “ DNUM”//

FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINTS

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP

2 ( NAME VARCHAR2(10),
3 ADDRESS VARCHAR2(10),
4 SSN VARCHAR2(10) PRIMARY KEY,
5 SALARY NUMBER(10),
6 DNO VARCHAR2(10) REFERENCES DEPT( DNUM ));

Table created.

OUTPUT

SQL> DESC EMP;

Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(10)
SSN NOT NULL VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(10)
DNO VARCHAR2(10)

// FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ DNO”//
// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SSN”//

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UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINTS

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP

2 ( NAME VARCHAR2(10),
3 ADDRESS VARCHAR2(10) UNIQUE,
4 SSN VARCHAR2(10) PRIMARY KEY,
5 SALARY NUMBER(10),
6 DNO VARCHAR2(10) REFERENCES DEPT( DNUM ));

Table created.

// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SSN”//
// FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ DNO”//
// UNIQUE KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ ADDRESS”//

NULL CONSTRAINTS

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP

2 ( NAME VARCHAR2(10),
3 ADDRESS VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
4 SSN VARCHAR2(10) PRIMARY KEY,
5 SALARY NUMBER(10),
6 DNO VARCHAR2(10) REFERENCES DEPT( DNUM ));

Table created.

// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SSN”//
// FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ DNO”//
// NULL CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ ADDRESS”//

CHECK CONSTRAINTS

SQL> CREATE TABLE EMP

2 ( NAME VARCHAR2(10),
3 ADDRESS VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
4 SSN VARCHAR2(10) PRIMARY KEY,
5 SALARY NUMBER(10) CHECK( SALARY > 1000),
6 DNO VARCHAR2(10) REFERENCES DEPT( DNUM ));

Table created.

// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SSN”//
// FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ DNO”//
// NULL CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ ADDRESS”//
// CHECK CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SALARY”//

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DEFINING DATA CONSTRAINTS VIA THE ALTER TABLE COMMAND

ADDING A PRIMARY KEY

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 ADD PRIMARY KEY(SSN);

Table altered.

// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SSN”//

REMOVING PRIMARY KEY

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 DISABLE PRIMARY KEY;

Table altered.

// PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT is removed from the table “EMP”//

ADDING A FOREIGN KEY

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 ADD CONSTRAINT DNO FOREIGN KEY(DNUM) REFERENCES DEPT;

Table altered.

// FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ DNO”//

REMOVING FOREIGN KEY

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 DROP DNO;

Table altered.

// FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT is removed from the table “EMP”//

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ADDING NOT NULL

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 MODIFY (ADDRESS NOT NULL);

Table altered.

// NULL CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ ADDRESS”//

DROPPING NOT NULL

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 MODIFY (ADDRESS NULL);

Table altered.

// NOT NULL KEY CONSTRAINT is removed from the table “EMP”//

ADDING CHECK CONSTRAINTS

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 ADD CONSTRAINT S SALARY CHECK (SALARY >1000);

Table altered.

// CHECK CONSTRAINT is added to the table “EMP” and column “ SALARY”//

DROPPING CHECK CONSTRAINTS

SQL> ALTER TABLE EMP

2 DROP SALARY;
Table altered.

// CHECK KEY CONSTRAINT is removed from the table “EMP”//

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