CHAPTER ONE

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CARGO WORK

Bate capacity : lt is the cubic capacity of a space when lhe breadth

is taken from ine iniide of the cargo battens, the depth from the top of the
wood sheathing on the tank top to the underside of the deck beams and
the length lromlhe inside ol the bulkhead stifleners or spar ceiling where
fitted.

Grain capacity : lt is the cubic capacity of a space when the length,

breadth and depth ai'e taken right to the plating. Allowance is made for
the volume occupied by the frames, beams and stif{eners'

Grain C a po.,,g'doL

Sb'.ffener B.o-

D, B frnk

5po' Ce,firy a( Woode. Sheothr''rg

Ca"3o SaLLens or {ank-L.op Cili"g
Fig. 1.1 : Bale and Grain CaPacitY

obviously the bale capacity will be less than the grain capacity in
most cases but they can SometimeS be the same in certain bulk carriers,
 ro-ro ships, etc.
wherdthe hold sides
are. smooth with
sirength members
being carried inside
double bottom and
cA^ao wingtanks. However
tAf.tcN sALr^&
the bale capacity can
never be more than
the grain capacity.

<Le Af ,ol When loading grain

E^A Ll|at
' type cargoes which
can flow into allcor-
ners ol the hold and
in between frames
and spar ceiling, the
Fig. 1.2 : Frames and Spar Ceiling grain capacity of the
hold must be used.
When bales, bags, crales, cases, drums, etc. are being loaded, the bale
capacity must be used.

Stowage Factor : lt is the volume occupied by a unit weight of cargo

usually expressed in cubic metres/tonne (metric) or cubic feeulong ton.

e.g. Stowage factor of cork = 6.12 rn3A

Stowage factor of cop-per ingots = 0.32 m3/t

It will be noticed that stowage lactor is the reciprocal of density.

cargoes with a high density have a low stowage factor and vice versa. To
find out how many tonnes of cargo can fit in a particular hold, lhe volume
of the hold must be divided by the stowage factor of the cargo.

Worked example : How many tonnesof bicycles (SF 3.10), beer cases
(SF 1.95) and granite slabs (SF 0. B) witt tit in a hotd of tength 12.5m,
breadth gm and depth 6.3m ?
AnS* Volume of the hold = '12.5 x 9 x 6.3 = 708'75 m3'

Weight of bicycles that can lit in = 708'75 = 228'63 t'

3.10

" ,, beef CaSeS " ,, ,t ! - 708.75 = 363.46 t.

1.95

" "granite slabs"

r' ! " = 739J8 = 1476.56 t'
0.48

Broken stowage : lt is the space between packages which remains

untilled. This f actor vlries with the type of cargo and the shape of the hold'
It is greatest when the packages are of d large size and irregu.lar shape'
not of the
It is ixpressed as a peicentage ol the volume of lhe cargo and
space stored in. Broken stowage must always be added to the stowage
lactor to get the realistic space that the cargo will occupy'

worked example :..lf in the above example, the broken stowage ol

b''cycles, beei cases.and granite slabs was 14.5/", 7"/" and 11.2/"
respectively how many tonnes of each would you be able to load in the
given hold ?

Ans.Spaceoccupiedbybicycles=3.10+14.5"h=3.5495m3/t
o ' "beer'cases =1.95+77" =2'0865m3/t
" tt "granite slabs= 0.48 + 11.2% = 0.5338m3/t
weight of bicycles that can fit in = = 199.68 t.
ffi
" "bggrcases " " ' " = 798'73 = 339'68 t'
2.0865
' "granite slabs" " " = 739.75= 1327.74 l.
c

0.5338

Load Density : lt is the maximum weight that can be safely loaded

on a unit area. lt is expressed in lonnes/m2. The height to which cargo
can be stowed on a deck will depend on the load density of that deck and
the stowage factor of the cargo'

worked example : lf the load density of the above hold was 8'5um2, to
*hat height co"ld you load the above cargoes, taking into account the
broken stowage ?
Ang To f ind the weight loaded pei m2 in the hold , we divide the totat weight
loaded by the total area of the hold.
For bicycles, wblght lm2 = 199.69 = 1.775
12.5 x 9

For beer cases, weight I m2 = g39.6g = 3.019

12.5 x g

For granite slabs, weight I mz = 1gZZ.74 = 11.902

12.5 x 9

we can see that for bicycles and beer cases, the permissible load
density of the deck i.e. B.sVma is not exceeded. so we can load these
cargoes fully to the maximum height olthe hold. However in the case of
granite slabs the load density of the deck is exceeded if the hotd is loaded
fully. so the height of the cargo must be reduced so as to be within the
permissible load density. This height can be found out in two ways :

i. since a load density of 11.802um2 is obtained when cargo is loaded

to the maximum height of 6.3m, a load densityof g.5vm2 is proportionately
obtained when cargo is loaded to a height of 8.5 x 6.3 = 4.S37m.
1 1.802

ii. ll 8.5 tonnes can be loaded on an area of. 1ma, the total weight that
can be loaded over the entire area of the hold

= Load Density x Area = B.S x (12.5 x 9) = 956.25 tonnes.

The volume that this weight will occupy =
Weight x Stowage Factor = 956.25 x 0.5338 = 510.446m3.

The height of this cargo will be = Volume = 510.446 = 4.537m.

LxB 12.5 x 9

Deadweight Cargo : lt is cargo on which freight is charged on its

weight.

Measurement Cargo : lt is cargo in which freight is charged on the

volume occupied by the cargo.

o. How will a shipowner know when to charge freight on weight and-

when to charge on volume?
A.Ashipisuti]izedmosteffective|ywhenherho|dsarefu|laswel|as
means that she cannot
she is loaded down to her maximum draft. This
load cargo' lf
lo.O .n/*ore weight nor is there anyspace available to
gets down
rn" n.Or more of itignt cargo, the hoids willbe fullbefore she her to her
to her maximum draft, wheTeas a heavy cargo would bring
loaded draft before tne nous are full. A stowage factor of
around 1'2m31
freight. cargoes with a sF above 1'2
t is useo as the basis for charging
those having a SF less than 1'2
m3/t are charged on their votime while
should load deadweight
*.lt .ir cnarg-ed on their weight. Whether a ship
particulartime can be found out by dividing
or measurement cargo at an!
the available deadweight' This
the totat available .pL." on tt',e ship by
ine ilear Sr tot maximum capacity utilisation. The available
;lit ;;;
Jeaiweignt is the difference between the. load and light displacements
rfiing ;rowances for the weight of ballast, fresh water, fuel and diesel
oil. stores,constant etc.

optiona|cargo:|tiscargowhichistobedischargedatoneport
o1- .noih", as decided by the shipper before the ship reaches the
oir.t,"rgr ports. such catgo must be stowed so as to be available at either
ot the optional Ports.

CA.RGO DOCUMENTS
The Mate's Receipt : This is a receipt signed by the mate of a ship
for cargo that is loaded on board. lt contains details of
goods to be shipped
and sh-ould be available to the mate before loading starts' He can then use
them -
1. As a Pre-advice of what to exPect
2. To Plan the stowage of the cargo
3. To note on them any defects in thequantities,
condition of the cargo, shortages
marks and description
or other pertinent comments regarding
of the goods.

It is necessary that the mate's receipt reflects the condition of the

cargo accurately, tb prevent claims against the ship arising at the dis-
Bill
charge port as comments on the mate's receipt appear on the relevant
ot LiOing. The mate signs each rdceipt when lhe cargo covered by it is
loaded. it is given to th; shipper as a receipt who then tenders them to
the agent orlhipowner in exchange for the billof lading'
 L OF LADTNG
?o tE usED Wf?il (:r{AFrE*Pef,fl€3

(of -rlctr on {.€t .t Shl9p./! drki .th, Crrrttt nst

r-?so.rdbla tgr loa or c|Jn.cc troEo.n. .rhlnot
clr^F Enraaw drhd
FESIGH' AOVAI'CE
n.criy.(t olr recouni ot tntdnt:

:l,'il;';f i""t;t"'"?l'i:.'i,:::.':"::o,::r-:t:lE
f::,iif ilg;y.o.'tJ",l'ill;l'l,T'LTf.,::;':,',:i,1f "*i1",*i
Hl::: ''"!u.. {rr.tttt. qurnttt cnndriloG conrf,rtr rnd nru. rirb

*ififi#ffi lt:L{r*"f:}llil#,,,#1.,"s*r?o,,3r,7
FOR CONOfttoNS OF
clnntAoc SEE oVERLEAF
lnO Ol'l. c, rltst

Fig. 1.3 : EIi[ of Ladihg

6
 TheBi||ofLading:Thebil|ofladingperformsthreemain|unctions;
1. lt is a receipt roiii" "irgo signed by'the master or agent on behalf
.

of the shiPowner.
2. lt is a document of title to the cargo. The holder ol the bill ol lading
istheownerofthecargoanditisanegotiabledocument,whichmeans
rhar the cargo can b;;[ iu.i UV signing and
transferring the bill o{ lading
in the name of the new buyer'
3. lt is evidence of a contract between the shipowner an(J shipper,
governing the terms and conditions o{ carriage'

Theinformationinabi|lof|adinginc|udesnameandaddressofthe
marks, descrip-
shipper and consign"r, fo,t. of loading and destination,
of originals and copies,
tion and weight or volume of the cargo, number reverse
of the ship. The
irelght paioo-i payable, date ol loading and name (see
of carriage'
,iOJoi[n" Uitt 6t 6Oing contains the teims and conditions
Fis. 1'.3)
The bill of lading must contain an accurate description of
the
it.is noi possible to
condilion of cargo andits weight and quantity. Where
determinetheexactweight,quantityorqualityofcargo!u:9'ilbulkcargo
of lading
oiiitn" cargo is in casei, cartons, crates or containers), the bill"shipper's
should contain rermi like "said to weigh", "said lo contain",
Very often
weight", "in apparent good order and Condition" and so on'
any clauses as
shiipers insist'on a "ciean" bill of lading i'e. one without any
to condition of cargo, even offering to indemnify the
shipowner against
."igo ii"i*s. Ho-wever this is i
traudulent practice as the shipper's
will not be able
inO6mnity letter has no legal slanding and the shipowner
to escape his liability for'cargo claims'
Abillof lading is a negotiable document and transfer of ownership
practice in
and the buying and settini of bills of lading is common
before it
internationaltrade. A bill oilading may change several hands
of the cargo
reaches the party who will eventually claim and take delivery
port. The buyer expects cargo to be as described in the
at the discharge
they will
billof lading; hence if any defiiiencies are not mentioned therein,
of cargo'
be ascribed to the shipowner's neglect in the care and carriage
on the
The cargo Manifest : The cargo manifest is a list o{ allcargo
primarily but comes
ship at any timie. lt is prepared for customs Purposes
in useful tor several other purposes such as tallying of cargo, checking
whose bills ol lading
rg"i;i o""rcarriage and lor ticking off the cargoes
have been sighted'
 Besides the names of items of cargo, it containsthe weight,
quantity
or num.ber of packages and the compartiment
roaded in. wnlioangerous
cargo is loaded a separate manifest for the
Proper shipping names must be used for
ri*"
n.r'io]oelr.p"r.o.
dangerorr *rgo,iii" n",nu.
are not permitred. in addirion the commodit!
must beiJentitieo by its
U.N.No.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

1.- How many tonnes of the foilowing cargoes wourd
fit in a hord 12m
x 9m x 3.5m,

iii.
Without any broken stowage?
With the broken stowage as mentioned?.

C.aroo StowAge facto(m3./0 BrokenStowage

a. Copper Ingots 0.31 B%
b. Machinery Cases 1.03 13%
c. Rubber Bales 1.61 6%
d. Jute bales 1.94 6.5%
e. Chemicaldrums 1.64 11.2%
f. Cinnamon 2.86 NIL
g. Steelbillets 0.34 7.5%
h. Wire coils 0.76 13.5%
i. Tyres 4.12 15%
j. Logs 2.38 11.3/"
2.: How many tonnes of the foilowing commodities wiil fit in a hord of
dimensions 13 x 10 x 8.5 and bale ca[acity 101Sm3?
Cargo Stowage factor(my0 Broken Stowage

a. Wheat 1.32 Nil

b. Fruit cases 1.98 4s%
c. Bones in bulk 2.23 0.8%
d. Bagged Rice 1.63 6.0%
e. Scrap metal 0.67 't.2%

3r A ship's hold has a bare capacity of 5g0m3 and a grain capacity

of
635m3 and is filled with maize stowing at1.s7m%. lt is-now intended to
discharge 125 t of maize and load bagged maize in the same hold. The
bags are 0.5m x 0.4m x 0.3m and weigh 50 kgs. rne space torib"tr."n
the bags is 11%. How many tonnes of bagged maize can be roaded?
B
 is same through-
(Assume that the ratio ol bale capacity to grain capacity
out the depth ol the hold.)

4.Thedimens|onsofat,weendeckwhichgaveaba|e-.capacityof
7B0m3are13mx10m*o*.rni'spaceistobefil|edwith220tofcotton
(4m in length and
bales (S.F. 2.34m31t A.S. Z'S'A) and carpet rolts
0.85m in diameter).
""J is the maximum
Wn"t number of carpet rolls you can
carryandshowhowyou*itttittneminwithaplanviewofthet'weendeck.

5.Aho|dSmx6mx4mistobefi||edwithsteelpipes(S'F.1.06m3/t)
the tank top is 3.201/
uno p"inl-orurs (s.F. r .esmVt). tt the load density of
mz, upto what height ,h;;il the steer
be roaded so that the hold is tilled
withoutexceedingtneloaddensity?Howmanytonneso|steelpipesand
paint drums can be loaded?
e?
6.Aho|d14mx10mx3mistobe{i|ledwithjuteandnbottonbales.The the cotton
iute bates measure 1m x
0'5m x 0'6m and weigh 180 Kgs- and
2SO fgs' How many bales
bales measure 1m * O'S* x 0'8m' and weigh
of jute and cotton would you load.i{
i. the shipowner was paid by the tonne?
ii. the bab density ot ine deck was 1'B6t/m2? for cotton was
iii. in, tr.ignt ior iuie was 95.50 pertonne and the {reight
$5.20 Per tonne?
iv.|fthesWLoftheslingsusedforloadingwasl.5t,howmanys|ings
*oufO Vou iequire in the above three cases?
 CHAPTER TWO

CARE OF CARGOES

PRECAUTTONS BEFORE LOADING

HOLD PREpARATTON:.

1. Hotds shou,O O: s.ryeqt and washed depending on rhe

lf]1:tshty
cargo to be roaded.^A finar rinss with iresh water retaids corrosion
accererates drying. speciarattention and
to be paid to ina.ceiriore praces e.g.
behind.Jrames, top of beams, unOersiJe
o, hatch covers etc.
2. Bitges to be thoroughry creaned and
wasned.--Birge Ju-;tions to oe
tried out satisfactorirv. it i6 irport"nit"t
loading, as shourd water enter the hord
tnir-u" ;;;;;;' ro every
cannot be pumped out, lhere is. every
through ,".n, tn" birges
"nythe ship sinking.
danger of "nJ
l:position.
...Ror" boxes (strum boxes) to U.
"t""ned
and placed securety in
4.. Birges may be rime or cement washed
or coated with bitumastic
paint.
5. Bilges shourd be free_from any traces
of previous cargo and contain
no waler or foul odours. T'ween deck
scuppers should be clear.
6' Dunnage shouJd be raid
for the particurar cargo.
Dunnage to be crean..and "r
uno*iblo.
"pp.priateExtra dunnage to be neatry
stacked and ready for rifting on oect.bamqoe!
dunnage-anJsweepings
-' - "
to be tifted out from the hold and d,-rsposeO
ot propeii.
7 'Ventiration systgr to_betried ort roiprop.rand
efficient functioning.
Flaps.to rorate freery. Venrirarion
ryri"r ,"ybe used to dtl;;
hord after
washing.
9' -co2
system and smoke detecting system of
The COr-system
rhe hord to be checked.
is to. be blown inior-gh'"rith compressed
intervals and checked that all nozzle-s"are air at regular
clear.
9 spar ceiling to be examineo ano reprir"o it required. Limber boards
. and if necessary cautked wirh oakum
li,"o;..n""ned t",. oi patented
"nJ
10. Hatch boards and tarpaurins to be checked
to be in good condition.
tf mechanicar hitches are fitted
*'"iiney aie *eair,"'n-iiitltn" rr".r.
ways are crear and the underside
"rrec*of the pontoons
residues of the previous cargo. are fr6e from any

10
11. Guard rails, chains and staunchions are to be placed around open
tiween decks as per dock regulations.
12. Biiges to be covered with burlap and sealed with cement'
13. Lighting in the hold to be properly functioning.
14. trrtLansLt'access to be clear and safe from any hazards'
15. cargo gear to be thoroughly checked to be in good condition and is
to be rigled ready for loading. Winches to be tested and confirmed
working.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN CARRYING CARGO

FIRE :

A thorough knowledge of the fire fighting system, fixed and portable

on the ship is required of the duty officer keeping a cargo watch. When
loading any cargo. the ways and means of fighting a fire, should it occur
and th6 location of equipment necessary for fire fighting should be known.
Some cargoes are liable to heat up spontaneously and catch fire. The fire
hazards oi such cargoes and others must be known to the ship's o{ficers'
Appropriate precautions must be taken to prevent a fire which will include;
1. No smoking signs put up and strictly enforced.
2. No naked lights permitted on deck or in the holds.
g. Fire hoses io be rigged, fire main charged and other fire fighting
apparatus kept in a constant state of readiness.
+.' Spark airesters to be fitted overthe funnel, galley exhausts and hold
ventilators.
5. No hot work, chipping or painting to be in progress on deck to avoid
creating sources of ignition.
6. Ftashlights, walkie-talkies etc. to be intrinsically safe.
7. No oily waste, wood, rope, gunny, etc. to be left in holds or on deck
where it can catch {ire by spontaneous heating or otherwise'
8. Fire patrol and gangway watches to be maintained.

SWEAT AND VENTILATION :

Humidity is the amount of water vapour contained in a parcelof air.

Relative Humidity is the ratio of the amount of water'vapour

contained in a parcel ol air to the amount of water vapour that will satu rate
it at ihe same temperature.

Dew point is the temperature at which a parcel of air if cooled,

becomes sdturated and water vapour begins to condense out'
11
 sweat is formed when th'e waler vaporr in the air condenses out anto
water droplets when cooled below ils dew point. sweat may be formed
in two ways and is known as ship's sweat and clrgo sweat:

ship's sweat is formed when a ship goes from a warm place to colder
places. The air in lhe cargo hord is waim buttne air surrounding
the ship
is cold. This cotd air cools the ship's structure and the warm air inside
the
hotd which is in contact with the ship's sides and deck gets cooled below
its dew point. This causes it to give out water vapour which condenses
in fqrm of water droplets on the ship's side and oecr. rnis ship's sweat
may run down or drip onto the cargo.
cargo sweat mosily occurs when ventilation is carried out while
going from a cold to a warm place. The cargo is cold and the incoming
air is warm, which when coming into contact with the cargo is cooled below
its dew point and water droptets condense on the carfo. tn such cases
ventilation should be restricted until more favourable conditions are
obtained. lndiscriminate ventilation often does more harm than no
ventilation whatsoever.

To prevent the lormation of sweat, a careful watch should'be kept on

lhewet and dry bulb temperature of the air. ll it is lound that the dew point
of the outside air is less than
the temperature of the air inside the hold, then only should ventilation be
carried out. The aim qf ventilation should be to i.eplace the air in the hotd
with colder, drier air which has a lower dew point and so prevent the
formation of sweat as far as possible.

Note : ldealty the dew point of the outside air should be less than the dew
poinl of the air inside the hold when ventilation is carried out. But since
it is not practicable to whirla psychrometer or tower a hygrometer inside
the hold we use the temperature of the hold air instead of tne dew point
to obtain a fairly good idea whether ventilation should be carried out or not.

worked example : state if ventilation is to be carried out in the following

cases:

Outside Temp. oC Hold Temp. oC

Dry Wer Dry

1. 32 28 24
?. 27.5 26 26
3. 24 22 21

12
Ans. From the dew point tables find out the dew point temperature.
t. rne dew point of the outside air (26.8"C) is greater than the
temperature of the air inside the hold so ventilation is not to be carried out.
2. Yes, ventilation can be carried out as the dew point of the outside
air (25.5"C) is less than the hold air temperature.
3.' Thedew pointtemperatureof the outside air (21.1"c) is almostsame
as the hold airiemperature and ventilation may be carried out if necessary
for the cargo or lor entry into the hold.

Ventilation can be carried out in two ways - through and surface.

In through ventilation air is passed over the entire area of the hotd
right down to ine bottom. This is done by trimming the leeward ventilator
inio the wind and the windward ventilator away from the wind. The
direction used here is the apparent wind direction. The greatest air flow
rates are achieved with through ventilation'

Surface ventilation is carried out with the windward ventilator turned into
the wind and the leeward turned away from the wind. This is necessary
for certain cargoes where only the surface of the cargo is to be ventilated
e.g. Coal.

lvl kDUGH Su Q-F ALE

Wi",d \tJi"d
+--

i--; j

Fig. 2.1 : Throlgh and Surface Ventilation

13
 ventilation can ideally be achieved if mechanicalfans are fitted
and
there e.xists a system whereby the air in the hold ;; be dried
and
recirculated. lt will not then be necessary to depend on
tne weather and
dewpoint of air.

DUNNAGE:

- The damage caused by sweat may be minimized by adequate use

of dunnage to line the boundaries of the compartment. ihe permanent
dunnage on the ship's sides is known as sparceiling or cargo'battens.
lt
consists of timber 1s0 mm X 50 mm fitted over tne iioe fraires, horizon_
tally into cleats on the frames. These cargo battens spacuo approxi-
mately 230 mm apart. They may also be fitted vertically. "t" sparceiling may
also be fitted on the fore and aft lrulkheads of the hold. ihe iank top shoutd
be covered with a double layer of dunnage consisting of wooden beams
50 mm X 50 mm or broader, spaced approximatety 1 ri apart. The bottom
layer is laid athwart ship to ensure freedrainage io the uitges. The upper
la_yer consists of planks 25 mm x 1s0 mm laid fore and-att
about 20 to
30 cm apart. In some ships a permanent wooden sheathing about 70 mm
thick is laid on the tank top in the square ol the natcn- closely fitted
together. This is to protect the tanks top and does not replace the
dunnage just mentioned.

A similar arrangement of dunnage to be laid in t'ween decks especially

at the ship side as water tends to accumulatethere. second hand timber
may be used for dunnage. But care should be taken to ensure that it is
free of stains, nails, large splinters etc. New timber should be free of
strong smells or resin coatings.

SEPARATION:

separation is to prevent different cargoes or different parcels of the

same cargo from inadvertently getting mixed. The method of separation
depends on the type of cargo oeing cairied e.g. bagged cargo isieparated
by cloth or nefling. steel billets, pipes, rogsLr picrageo-timber can be
separated by chalk marks or water paints. plastic or polythene sheets are
increasingly being made use of nowadays. when cirgo is packed in
containers the need for separation is reduced.

Proper separation can substantially reduce overcarried cargo which

can cause a great deal of unnecessary expense and inconvenience. The
system of.checking the discharged cargo with the manifest as well as the
physical inspection of the cargo hold should be canied out.

14
PILFERING :

The ship is responsible for the safe carriage of cargo. lf valuable

cargo has to be loaded great care should be taken to prevent pilfering.
The following precautions may be followed :

'1. Valuable cargoes should be stored in lockers which can be locked

or it should be overstowed with other suitable cargo.

2. Preferably work only by day. lt night work is unavoidable, good

lighting in all corners of the hold to be provided.

3. Watchmen to be put on duty. lf shore watchmen are used, ship's

officer must check on them frequently.

4. Ventilators and other means of access should be covered.

5. Hold accesses to be locked after cargo work and other means of

entry like portable ladders to be removed.

CONTAMINATION:

Certain cargoes that can taint easily e.g. tea, coffee, tobacco, flour,
meat, etc., should be kept well away from strong smells. lf a pungent
cargo e.g. cloves, cinnamon, lurmeric etc. is carried previously, the
odours may still persist in the hold and deodorising may be necessary.
Particular attention must be paid to the bilges. Special precautions must
be taken to separate cargoes likely to mix. e.g. grain and seeds. Dirty
cargoes e.g. paints, oil, animalproducts, coal, etc., should not be carried
in the Same compartment as clean cargoes e.g. textiles, foodstuffs etc.
Liquids in drums or barrels should not be stowed over olher cargoes.
Some cargoes have an inherent vice. e.g. perishable goods.

HANDLING, CHAFING, CRUSHING :

cargo must be prevented {rom damage due to careless winch work

which results in crushing against the shipside; railings, hatch coamings
etc., dragging of cargo by winch to and from the wings, improper use of
hooks, crowbars, slings, dropping of packages from a height' improper
slinging and other ways. Paper rolls and baled goods are susceptible to
chaf ing especially when the vessel is working in a seaway. This can result
in spontaneous combustion. To prevent this, goods must be stowed on
15
flat and firm platforms, secured carefully and broken stowage filled in with
dunnage. Crushing may resutt from inadequacy ol packing or by overstowing
with heavy goods. Tea chests, rubber cases, canons of lootwear, etc., are
frequently damaged this way.

LASHING:

All cargoes should be stowed and secured in such a way that the ship
and persons on board are not put at risk.

The sa{e stowage and securing of cargoes depends on proper

planning, supervision and execution.

Personnel executing tasks of cargo stowage and securing should be

properly qualified and experienced.

Personnel planning and sqpervising the stowage and securing of

cargo should have a sound practical knowledge of the application and
contents of the "cargo securino Manual", if provided. lf not, then refer-
ence should be made to the "Code ol Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage
and Securing."

ln all cases, improper stowage and securing of cargo will be potentially

hazardous to the securing of other cargoes and to the ship itself.

Decisions taken for measures of stowage and securing cargo should

be based on the most severe weather conditions which may be expected
by experience for the intended voyage.

. Ship-handling decisions taken by the master, especially in bad

wehther conditions, should.take into account the type and stowage
position of the cargo and the securing arrangements.

No Cargo Operation can be safe il the sat€ty of

dockworkers and crew is not ensured. For Regulations
peftaining to the safety of dockworkers, please lak up
the Dock Labour Regulations explained in Chapter 12.

16
 CARGO.RELATED DUTIES
BALLASTING OR DEBALLASTING :
, .

This should be carried out according tb the mate'S instructions.

When ballasting tanks, DB tanks must not be pressed up,as should there
be a leak in the tanktop, cargo would be damaged. Ballast and liquid cargo
operations must be carried out in close liaison and co-operation with the
engine-room stafl. Soundings and flow rates must be monitored continu-
ously. When loading, discharging, ballasting ordeballasting at a high rate,
ensure that moorings are laut, ship is alongside the jetty arld gangway is
clear of obstructions

LOG BOOK ENTRIES :

During cargo work appropriate entries must be made in the Mate's

log book to prevent cargo claims being made later. Entries should include:

1. Inspection of the cargo hold by Surveyor prior to loading.

2. Opening and closing of the hatches.

3. Time of arrival and departure of the stevedore labour on the ship and
the number of gangs.

4. Time of coinmencement and ceasing of cargo work.

5. Any interruptions or stoppages during cargo wbrk and their reason.

e.g. machinery break down, strikes, inclement weather, shortage of
cargo, etc.

6. The hatch numbers being worked.

7. The morning and evening Oratts.

At sea, entries should be made of the weather and sea conditions,

especially if adverse. Times when ventilation is carried out, the wet and
dry bulb temperatures when doing this and inspection and tightening of
cargo lashings€re also to be entered.

17
DAMAGE

An alert watch must be kept for damage to the cargo or to the ship.
Damaged cargo is to be rejected or the number, marks and description
must be noted. A damage reporl must be prepared fordamage to the ship
describing hatch number, location, nature of damage, and reasons for
damage and the signature of the cargo foreman obtained as soon as the
damage occurs.

STABILITY

During the loading of cargo, due regard must be had forthe vessel's
stability. The cargo should'be so distributed that there is a reasonable
metacentric height (GM) on completion of loading. A high GM makes a
ship stiff, resulting ih violent movements in rough weather causing cargo
to strain the lashings and shift especially on deck. A low GM may become
negative making the ship unstable, if D.B.Tanks are consumed, lree
surfaces are created or weight accumulates on deck by snow falling, ice
accretion, shipping of seas, shifting of weights, etc.

Excessive trim and list to be avoided.

Load density of the deck and tanktop must be kept in mind especially
when loading high density cargoes.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

State if ventilation is to be canied out in the fotlowing cases:

Outside Temp. oC Hold Temp..C

Dry Wet Dry

1. 15 12 14
2. 19.5 17 14
3. 14 10.5 14

18
 CHAPTER THREE

LIFTING GEAR

Aliftinggearismadeupo|severalcomponents.e.g.aderrick
consists of the derrick boom, blocks, shackles, wires, etc'

Each component ol a lifting gear can bear only a certain load salely
without danger of it breaking. il ine toaO is increased progressively, a
load
stage willbe-reached whenthe component will not be able to bearthe
and will give waY and break.

safe working Load is the stress that a component of a lifting

apparatus can safely bear in normal use'

Breaking stress or Breaking strength is the stress at which a

component will fracture.

Factor of safety is a factor used to divide the Breaking stress to

obtain the Safe Working Load.

Whenever any equipment such as ropes, wires, blocks, shack|es,

etc. are received 6n tne ship, they should be accornpanied by a test
certificate. The test certificate will include:
i) Size or dimensions of the component
ii) The breaking strength
iii) The safe working load
iv) Name of the testing authority-
v) Name of the certifying authority
ln the fac*ory, every one in a batch (for blocks, shackles, etc.)
or the
lasl two metres in a coif (for ropes and wires) are tested to destruction'
The breaking stress so obtained is divided by fhe appropriate factor of
safety for thh component (as recommended in the chain register)' to
obtain the safe working load.

Breaking strengths can be oblained from the lollowing formulae,

where D is thl diameter in mm, and the result is in tonnes;

19
ROPE : Manila egz potypropylene
!e2 Terytene 4e. . Nyton
300 gO0 g0o 5p.
s00
CHATN :Grade tstud 20Da Grade ll stud 39ga Grade ill Stud 43Da
600 600 600
WIRE ; 6 strand, 12 wires per strand 15D2/S0O
6 Strand, 24 wires $er,strand 2OD?SOO
6 strand, 37.wires per strand 21D3l500

The safe working load must be.ilearly

and legibly marked on every
componenl of'a lifting g€ar,

where a riftino geai is made up of severatcomponents

swls, the swl otine gear of different
is rhe swt o-f itrs weakest component.

The. swL of a component cannot

be exceeded at any time during
normal use. lt can only be exceeded
when the component is being tested,'or
1l
z) wnen at is beino used.for an emergency
such as the use of ground
tackle for ungrounding a ship.

when.a component of a lifting gear is to be

. tested we cannot test
it lo its.breaking strength as this *oitI
oestroy the compon.ni.-w" h.u.
to apply a road on it, more than th'e sale workihg
road siirii.6ni to assure
us that when il.is toaded. upto its^SWL, it will
load that wg appry mori than the swL, is
sifefi 0"", inf tad. This
called the irrooi uoio. The proot
load depends on the cornponent,and its
size.

. QOMPONENT pROOF LOAn

1. Chains, rings. hooks, shackles,
swiv6ls,S25t
' !-':r--- 2 x SW-
2. Sjngte. sheave pulley blocks
3. Mutupte sheave blocks g25t SWL
i; ;Wi
2 x SWL
" '
:. 3 SwL
2Sr -tSot .9sI * Swi iizt
' >160t swL i.d; lwf
4.
litcled chains, hand operated gear i.5 x SWL
5. Deiricks <20t SWL SWL + 25%
20r - SOr SWL SWL + 5t
>50t SWL SWL + 10"/o
Derricks and cranes can be t'ested in two ways.
A static test and a
dynamic test. In a static test a spring barance is
fnactreo io on
"n "y"
deck and the derrick or crane runner wire is used to pull on it till the proof
load is reached. This method is normally used lor smaller capacity
derricks and cranes. In a dynamic test a pre weighed load equalto the
proof load is brought by a barge or truck to the ship side from where it is
lifted by the derrick or crane. The derrick is swung side to side and up
and down with the weight suspended. After testing it is most important
to check components of the lifting gear for any elongation, deformation or
fracture.

The regulations for maintenance, testing and annealing ot

cargo gear form a paft of the Dock Labour Regulations
which are explained in Chapter 12.

Blocks and Purchases

A purchase is used to advantage when the load moves in the same
direction as the effort. When the load moves in an opposite direction to
the effort it is rigged to disadvantagg. The words, advantage and disad-
vantage do not have their literal meaning in this context. They only pertain
to the direction of movement of the load and effort.
ln fig. 3.1 if the top blocks are fixed and lhe load is attached to the
lower blocks, they become rigged to disadvantage. lf the lower blocks are
fixed and the load is attached to the upper blocks, the purchase is rigged
to advantage.
The names of the purchases and their rigging should be studied in
order to be able to solve problems.

Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of load to effort.

M.A. = Load (without friction) or Resistance

Effort Applied force
Velocity Ratio is the ratio of velocity of effort to velocity ol load.
Velocity = Distance/Time and since the time when the effort and load
moves is the same, (the load does not keep moving after the elfort is
stopped,\.,the formula can be modified to

V.R. = Velocity of effort = @

Velocity of load Distance load moves
Velocity Ratio is also equalto
i. Number of parts of rope at lhe moving block
ii. 'n + 1' when the purchase is used to advantage and 'n' when used
to disadvantage, where n = number ol sheaves.
21
 vArcH oR
TACK L E LU FF TACXI. E

ffi

Fig. 3.1 : Blocks and Purchases

ln a perfect machine, all the effort that is put in is used to do work

on the load. However there is no perfect machine. Part of the effort that
is put in is used to overcome friction which is present in all machines. This
is not usetul work. ln a purchase, friction increases the load by about 10%
per sheave. Thus, work put in by elfort =
Work done on load + Work spent in overcoming friction.
 Effort x D. = (Load + n x 10% x load) x D,

Rearranging, E =(W+ nW/10)

V.R.

where E = efforl, W = load, [ = Distance effort moves V.R.

D; Distance load rnoves =
The formula will change if friction is other than 10%.

Efficiency of a system is = Useful work done on weight x 100%

Work applied by effort

=WxD"x100% =!!1\x100%
ExD" VR

Worked examole :
i. A gun tackle rigged to advantage is used to lift a load.of 3 tonnes.
Find out the effort and minimum size of polypropylene rope required.
ii. lf the hauling part of this purchase was secured to the moving block
of a watch tackle used to disadvantage, find out the eftort required,
efficiency of the system and minimum size of
nylon rope required for the watch tackle.
(Assume lriction as 12e/o per sheave for both the
purchases and use a factor of safety=6)

Ans.
A gun tackle has 2 sheaves.
Son=2.W=Stonnes
The velocity ratio for a gun tackle used to
advantage is 3 using any of the three methods.
Friction = 12o/o per sheave.

E = ( W + nw x 121100 ) =( 3 + 2 x 3 x 121100 )
V.R.

= 3s0-fL= 1.24 t-
3

It will be noticed that the effort is borne by

the single rope of the hauling part, while the load
Fig.3.2 is being shared by three ropes. Therefore the
23
rope musl be able to bear a SWL of 1.24 tonnes which is the effort.
Breaking Stress of this rope will be 1.24 xG = 7.44 |
Breaking Stress of polypropylene rope =ffi.
\
Therefore, 3E = 7.44
300

D = 27.3 mm or 28 mm.

The minimum size of polypropylene rope required forthe gun tackle

is 28 mm diameter.

Now 1.24 tonnes, the effort of the first purchase, becomes the load
forthe second purchase. W = 1.24, o = 3, V.R. = 3 for watch tackle used
to disadvantage.

E = ( W + nW x 1 2/1 00 ) = ( 1.24 + 3 x 1.24 x 121O0 ) = 1 .24 + 0.4464

v.R. 3 3
= 0.562 t.

Thus the SWL that the nylon rope of the watch tackle will have to bear =
0.562 t and its breaking stress will be 0.562 x 6 = 3.372 t. Also Breaking
Stress for nylon rop€ = glp
300
Therefore, 5Da = 3.372 D = 14.22 mm or 15 mm
300
The minimum size of nylon rope forthe watch tackle is 15 mm diameter.

Efficiency of the system = M.A. M.A.= Load =l-=5.338

V.R. Effort 0.562
Velocity Ratio of the combined system may be considered to be the
product of the individual velocity ratios i.e. 3 x 3 = 9

Efficiency = 53?ll x 100 = 59.31%

I

24
THE SIMPLE DERRICK

A simple derrick consists of derrick boom which is raised, lowered

and moved sideways by several different purchases. The derrick boom
is supported at it's base and allowed to turn around as well as up and down
by a gooseneck arrangement which is welded tothe mast orsamson post.
The load is lifted by means of the ginfall or runner Wire which is the only
wire connected to a winch. The derrick is moved sideways and positioned
by means ol the side guys. Once the derrick is positioned the weight is
taken bythe preventer guy which has to be made taut. The preventer guy
is a thick wire with a chain or other easy means of securing at one end.
It takes the weight of the derrick and load during working of the derrick.
The side guys are rope purchases and are not meanl to lake the weight
of lhe derrick and load during cargo work. They should be slightly slacker
than the preventer guy. The derrick is raised or lowered by means of the
topping lift. This wire is wound on a drum nearthe winch. The drum also
carries a bull-wire. To raise or lower the derrick, the bull-wire is wound
on the winch drum, the brake on the topping lift drum is lifted and lhe winch
is rotated to drive the topping lift drum in the direction desired - to raise
or lower the derrick. When in the desired position, the brake is lowered
and the bull-wire is unwound from the winch drum.
Simple derricks come in sizes ranging lrom 2 - 20 tonnes SWL. They
are easy to operate and maintain; requ-iring little attention besides regular
greasing, painting and inspection. '

THE UNION PURCHASE SYSTEM

A simple derrick, by itself, is not of much use. Most oflen, two are
used together in what is known as the Union Purchase system. Here the
runner wires of both derricks are 'coupled'or'married'through swivels to
a union hook and worked in coniunction with each other. The inshore
derrick is plumbed overthe quayside and the otherderrick is plumbed over
the hatch. The preventer and side guys are rigged so as not to obstruct
the movement of cargo between the hatch and quay. Sometimes the side
guys are replaced by a schooner guy which always remains clear of the
cargo working area.

When working a union purchase system the following precautions

must be taken into account:

1. The SWL of a union purchase rig must be calculated in accordance

with classification society ordock labour regulations. ln the absence of the

25
 G
a
.1,
t
L.

qt
'n
q'
c

Fig. 3.3 : The Simple Derrick

above, the code of safe working practices for Merchant seamen recom-
mend that the swl should not exceed one-third the swL of the smaller
derrick.
? The operating angle of the derrick should preferably be not less than
300 to the horizontal and in no case should.it be less than 150.
3. The maximum included angle between the cargo wires should not
exceed 1200 so that forces in the rig are kept to a minimum. To ensure
this, unduly long slings must not be used and winchmen must not lift the

26
 f,oegiag VtZlspantojiz
S*.r,.rlSiaG,ry

Rr."ocr!dire.

Fig. 3.4 : The Union Purchase SYstem

load above guard rails and hatch coamings beyond the minimum required
for safety.
4. Runners should not be altowed to rub against the hatch coamings
and guard rails or butwarks as this will resuh in their deterioration.
5. winchmen shoutd be experienced and should coordinate well.

THE HEAVY LIFT "JUMBO" DEFRICK

The simple derrick lacked manoeverability and the union purchase

was restricteit in it's capacity. The heavy lift derrick was designed to
overcome these limitations. it's components were of a larger size and
strength to bear the greater load, ropes were replaced 9y wires and all
purch-ases led to winJhes so that slewing, topping and raising or lowering
of the load could be carried out simultaneously'
Several pat?.nt designs of heavy lifts were developed by various ship
27
 A! lincs lcad lo ulnchcs.
Fig. 3.5 : A Heavy Lifl Derrick

yards; most famous of these being the 'Velle'and 'Hallen'derricks for

loads upto 50 tonnes and the'stuelcken'derrick which can lift upto 500
tonnes or tflore:

Precautions when handling heavy litts :

1. All gear involved should be carefully examined before use.
2. All wires and blocks to be checked for any defects; sheaves to be
examined for free rotation.
 of adequate SWL'
3. All gear selected should be tor plus the purchase
4. Ailowance,shdjl;;.Je the weight lifted
weight.
5.Endlinks,ringsorshacklestoridelreelyfromwhicheverpointthey
that they are o{
flnn'r,roor, wire srings, eye borts etc. to be examined
adequate strength.
packing to be usec ti) nrotect the sling
7. While slinging, wood or other
|romanysharp"og"'onthe|oad'andto-preventthesling|romcutting
load.
-n""io
into the starts'
b.'- shocks due to load slipping or sudden
well and operate
9. Winch-men sduH l; L*prii.n.eO, co-ordinate
smoothlY.
GM because when the
10. Stability : The ship must have an adequate
toad is lifted its ."nir" Lr gravity rises
to the denick head. Hence the
A negative metacentric height
('GM)
centre ot gravity ot t;; snifi tises. have to be
lred surlace eltect may
must be avoided. fn inii
"bnnection
reduced.
11.Theves:selshouldbeinitial|yuprightwithmooringstautandmanned
as the vesser wiil acquire a rist when
the load is swung out board'
jettY'
GangwaY must be clear of the
12. Barges tntt in immediate use must be cast off'
"t"-not rigged onto the mast'
13. Preventer stays may have to beg,eat'
1i. Winches must be put in double of the
15. steadying ti*;;;;;i be secured if possible to the corners
load.
16. Remove guard rails if possible'

STUELCKEN DERRICKS

ThemainfeatureofaStue|ckenDerrickisthefork.type,tw]n,V;
mastswhichenaotetnederricktobeswungthroughthemastsandwork
hatchesforeand.ttotit''positionwithoutanyre-rigging.Thereare
on the way the cargo
;1i;;;; types of stuetct en Derricks; mainly classed
Likr" is brought trom for'd to aft and vice versa'
lrom for'd. to.aft and vice
1 .Rotary Type : The cargo tackle is brought
wh-en in the vertical position' In
versa by rotating m" io".itnrough 1800
(below the slewing/topping
this type there is a r*iu"i"itn" tofi of
the boom
pivot at the bottom'
blocks and above the ginblocks) and a

2.Pendu|umType:Thecargotackleisarrangedononesideottheboom
29
 Fig. 3.6 : A Stuelcken Derick

from for'd to aft position or vice versa

when the boom is swung
,1|ff}j*t
3.Double pendulum Type In this,
:
both sides of rhe boom and attached
the cargo tackle is suspended on
to the-cross uar. io-J*ing from
forward to aft or vice versa, the
rower orocr<s on
disconnected rrom the cross bar, one til;";;";ckre are
attached at the opposite ends of tn"
ii tak.n around the boom and
bar. The ta.*r" i, iow reaoy
to be operated on the other side of "..r
fne Olrricf<.
30
 to
4.High speed version : In this type a second drum can be attached
or the
tn" i"pprg lift or to the gin fall; thfi the speed of reeving the tackle
span is doubled.

S.Log or Container Type : For simu|taneous operation

on both sides,
this type is equipped with two cargo booms'

Advantages of a Stuelcken Derrick :

l.Absence of all guys and preventers for slewing the derrick.

2.No manual tackie work even when srvinging the derrick
through the post
or when changing to smaller loads.
i.f""if',ty ot siinling the derrick through the post permits hatches both
fore and aft of the mast to be served'
is also
4.One man can operate all controls. Remote control operation
possible. ___-_ 1..
whole derrick installation needs minimal maintenance by equipping
's.
rn"
it with sealed anti-friction bearings.
6. speed ol cargo handling can be substantially increased by using
suitable Powered winches.
posts and operated
7.Ordinary light cargo derricks can be attached to the
on nr sides-oppos.,te to which the stuelcken derrick is operating.
extremely heavy lifts upto 500
B.stuelcken derrict<s can be built to handle
tonnes.

CRANES
very
Cranes are the most easiest to use of hll ship's gear. They are
Ship's cranes are
versalile and have a high degree of manoeverability.
from two
norrifry built from St -}St cipacity. Cranes are manoevered
controli - one for the cargo'hook and the other for slewing/topping'
raised or
Automatic cut-outs can be set to prevent the iib from being
being slewed beyond
lowered beyond set limits, to prevent the crane from
set angles or to prevent a load greater than the swL from being lifted.
These limits can be by-passed wnen parking the crane, testing it to its
prool toaO, etc. Craneiand some derrickwinches too have anothersafety
feature that in ih" electric or hydraulic system fails at a crucial
""r"
*orn.nt when the load is suspended, iiis possible to bring the load safely
down by manual means.

31
 Ttl
dorlf suwn!1rcnrc

atllN€ loot

c(mg 2e3,

Fig.3.7:ACrane
32
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

In the following problems unless mentioned othenrvise, use

a value
of 6 for
of 10% of the load, per sheave for friction and a factor of safety
ropes and wires.
purchase to
1. A weight of 8 tonnes is to be lifted using a two-fold
of the system' use
advantage.-Find the elfort required and the efficiency
the diflerent formulae to confirm your answer'

2. using a three-fold purchase rigged to disadvantage, to lift a weight

of 9.6 tonnes, find :

i. the tension in the hauling Part

ii. the efficiencY of the system
iii. rnr minimum size of manila rope that can salely be used in
the
purchase.

3. A steel girder weighing 6 tonnes is to be lifted by a single denick

head leads
using a gun tickle to adj-vaniage. A lead block at the derrick
size of 6 X 24 wire to be
tne iire?own to the winch. FInd the minimum
used for the runner wire.

4. a@ounts lor 1?/oof the.load per sheave, findthe minimum

lf friclion
a weight of
size of nylon rope that can be used in a watch tackle to lile
5.5 tonnes.
ll
5. A 6 tonne weight is to be lifted using a gyn-tackle to advantage.
there is a lead block on the masthead find:
i. the effort required
ii. the eflbiencY of the system
iii. the minimum size of polypropylene rope per
to be used'
Assume friction to be B% of the load sheave'

A gun tackle reeved to disadvantage is used to litt a weight of

4.5
6. to the block of a
tonnes.-Tne hauling part of this purchase is secured
system is equal
iingrL wnip rigged toldvantage. lf the. velocity ratio of the
1o li;; probuc't-ot the individu-al velocity ratios,
find the effort required to
lift the weight and the efficiency of the system'

7. A gyn tackle reeved to advantage lnq _1

btf tackle rdeved to
weight is
disadvaiiage are together used to lift a load ol-22 tonnes. The
iuspenOeO'trom thJ gyn tackle_whgge hauling
part is secured to the
*ouing block of tne Uif tacXle. Find the minimum size ol6 X 37 wire to
be used in these two Purchases'
33
 CHAPTER FOUR

CODE OF SAFE PRACTICE FOR

SOLID BULK CARGOES

AIM OF THE CODE :

1. To highlight the dangers associated with the shipment of bulk

cargoes.
2. To give guidance on procedures to be adopted.
3. To list typical materials curently being shipped in bulk.
4. To describe test procedures to determine various characteristics of
bulk cargoes.

DEFINITIONS:

solid Bulk carqoes : solids in particle or granularform, generally

homogeneous in composition, loaded directly in the ships hoHl without
any packaging.

Anole of Re-
ill;
l, . \ pose : lt is the
l'i i\
, angle between a
horizontal plane
-z .
/'.r'
/'t'
\ \tr , and the cone
slope obtained
z2 '\\- when bulk cargo
. /4& "cX..
is loaded on this
plane.

Fig. 4.1 : Angle of Repose

Goncentrates : lt is material obtained after physical or chemicat

separation of undesirable ingredients from natural ores. Natural ores
contain a large percentage of large particles ard lumps. concentrate$
usually consist of fine particles or pellets.

34
 Moisture.Migration : Concentrates have moisture entrained in
them. Due to compaction and vibration at sea this water may coqre to the
top and eause the surface of the concentrate to behave like a liquid. Thus
a flow slate develops, when the mass looses its internal shear strength;
resulting in a wet shift of cargo.

Moisture Content : Moisture content of a sample is the percentage

weight of the water contained in the total weight of the sample.
MC = Weioht of water x 100%
Totalweight of sample

Flow Moisture Point (FMP) : lt is the percentage moisture content

at which a flow state develops.

Transportable Moisture Limit ffML) : lt isthe maximum moisture

content of a concentrate considered safe for carriage by a general cargo
vessel. lt is around 90% of the flow moisture point (FMP):

HAZARDS DUE TO BULK CARGOES

STRUCTURAL STABILITY CHEMICAL

Reaction
Load Shear Force & r--
Density BendingMomenls Corrosion Toxic Spont Extnl
(Local) (overall) Vapours Combus lgnitn

Initial GM Shift of G
Too stiff or
too tender
Horizontal (List) Vertical (Loss of GM)
I I
Dry Wet
(Ores & Others) (Concentrates)

STRUCTURAL HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS :

High density cargoes are those that have a stowage factor less than
.56m3 / tonne. General cargo vessels are usually full up of space and
down to their marks at stowage factors between 1.39 to 1.67m3 / tonne.
There is a danger that because the hold looks empty after loading high
density cargb, due to igrorance too much caryo may be put into the hold.
At any time the load density ol the deck mubt not be exceeded.

1. Hold wise distribution of high density cargo by weight should not

dilfer appreciably from that of general cargo. This prevents excessive
Shear Force and Bending Moments.

2. Maximum quantity of cargo loaded in any hold should not exceed 0.9
x Lx B x D, where L = length of the hold in metres, B = ?v€r?9€breadth
in metres and D = sufirfiler had draft in metres and the resuh is in metric
lonnes.

3. Where cargo is untrimmed or partially trimmed, the height of cargo

peak above the tank top should not exceed 1.1 x D x SF metres, where
SF is the stowage factor in m3ltonne and D is the summer dratt.

4. lf cargo is trimmed leveJ,20o/o increase over No. 2 is permitted but

complying with No. 1.

5. lf a shaft tunnel passes through the hold, 107o increase over Nos'
2,3 & 4 is,permitted but again complying with No. 1.

NOTE : The above points may be ignored where the shipyard has given
precise loading instructions for high density cargo on a particular ship.

TRIMMING REOUIREMENTS

A" For Bulk Cargoes having an Angle of Repose i FSr

a'go Surhatz

Fig. 4.2 : Trimming o{ Gargo wilh Angle of Repose > 35'

36
1 . The cargo should be loaded to coverthe entire tank top and trimmed
to reduce the' pile peak heigtrt and- equalise the load on thg bottom
structure.
2. The cargo should be levelled within the hatch square, sloping
uni{ormly to tte hpld sides and the fore and afi bulkhead'
3. cargo may extend through the I'ween deck hatchway.provided :

i. The peak height is not exceeded.

ii. Load Line Rules are not contravened.
go
iii.The cargo is clear of the t'ween deck so that if it slides it will
into the lower hold.
iv. The t'ween deck has no cargo in it.
v. The tank top is not overstressed.
vi. The angle of repose is > 35".
:

4. lf cargo is carried in the t'ween deck the material should be trimmed

reasonablf level or secured in bins. :

E For Bulk Cargoes with Angle of Repose < or = 351

1. Compartment to be filled lully or if not practicable then the surface

to be levelled reasonablY.
2. lf shift ol cargo in t'ween deck or lower hold is likely to result in
excessive list, then shifting boards or slowing in bins may be necessary'
f ,nbu Pla"ks
Lctt x 25 "t^

ShoreS
l0cmrlOtrn

Fig. a.3 Shifting Boards

37
GENERAL PREGAUTIONS WHEN LOADING BULK GARGO :

1. Inspect hold foi suitability prior loading.

2. Ensure that bilge wells, strainer plates, sounding pipes, bilge suc-
tions etc. are tested and satisfactory.
3. Protect deck machinery against dust.
4. Accommodation air+onditioning system to be screened and put on
recirculation.
5. Sound bilges before and atter loading.
6. while loading high density cargo th6 cargo should not falldirecily into
the empty hold as the tank top may get damaged. A few slings of cargo
should be gently lowered at first.
7. With a high GM, for a given transverse shift of cargo, the list will be
less for a stiff ship than for a tender ship. Because of this, the entire cargo
is to be loaded in the lower hold only. However, if the lower hold tank top
gets overstressed or if the vessel tends to become too stiff then some
minimum amount of cargo may be put in lhe t'ween deck.
8. Bulk cargoes are loaded at a high rate so deballasting, loading
sequence, trim, list,gangw-ay, moorings etc. must all be attended to.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS :

1. While loading discharging or transporting bulk materials, all appro-

priate national and intemational safety regu.llations are to be observed.
Medical advice is given in the MFAG (MedicalFirst Aid Guide for use in
accidents involving dangerous goods.) Certain bulk materials are liable
to oxidation, emission of toxic fumes and self heating, particularly when
wet. Shipper should inform the Master prior to loading on all chemical
hazards.

2. Bulk material may cause oxygen depletion in a cargo space. Entry

ol personnel into enclosed spaces should not be permitted until adequate
ventilation and testing of the atmosphere is done with appropriate instru-
ments. Emergency entry may be undertaken only with self-contained
breathing apparatus and protective clothing. :

3. Dust created by certain cargoes may constitute i health as well as

an explosion hazard. Use of dust masks, ventilation and hosing down
rather than sweeiping are methods to combat this hazard.

38
 CONCENTRATES
PROPERTIES OF CONCENTRATES

Cargoes which may lique|y includes concentrates, certain coa|s and

other materials listed in Appendix R. At a moisture content above the
TML, shift of cargo may occur as a result of liquefaction.. suctr cargoes
in irelatively dry, granular state when loaded. But due to
cbmpaction and vibration'onine voyage, the moisture migrates to the
"pp-."itoU"
surface. ln the resulting lluid state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship
with a roll. But allcarg-o will not return with the rollthe other way' Thus
the ship may progresiively list dangerously and capsize'

HAZARDS OF CONCENTRATES

1. High density
2. Dry shift (below TML)
3. Wet shift (above TML)
4. Spontaneouscombustion

PRECAUTIONS WHEN CARRYING CONCENTRATES :

1. General cargo vessels may carry concentrates only when cargo is

at or below tne tVtt. However concentrates having moisture content
prior approval of the ad.ministration
treaterthan TML may be carried with
firovidedthat speciai divisions are fitted to reduce the shift of cargo'
These divisions should not be constructed ol wood and should be
sufficient in strength to reslrain the immense forces generated by the
movement of high density bulk cargoes.. The ship's structure bounding
moisture
such cargoes may also have to be strengthened. Cargoes with
with
content t fUl may be carried in specially constructed ca-rgo ships
permanent boundiries arranged to reduce the shift of cargo to an
acceptable limit.

2. wet cargoes or liquids should not be loaded in the same compart-

ment as concentrates.

3. cargo work should not be carried out during rain. Entry of water, rain,
spray etJinto the hatches at sea should be prevented'

4. To decrease the elfect of oxidation the cargo should be trimmed

reasonably level on completion irrespective of ihe angle of repgse, to
reduce the Surface area.
39
5. Some concentrates as surphides are subject to oxidation
spontaneous comhnrstirn11cfr
if the moisture content i6 ,e.v ro*. In
and
cases' water may be used onry as a such
-spraylo
the npisture content. However, a ttiw'state
coor the carg" ;o
bring up
shourd not be arbwed to
develop.

6. Shipper ,Tust produce a ceilificate from a

comperent tabratory
stating the FMp. TML, and MC. Test sampres
'r to be tak'entrom me stoct<
pile nearest to the shipping point.
7- In case the stock pite i.s exposed to precipitation
then test sampres
musl be taken iust prior to loading.

9 ..Whul delivery of cargo is by road, rairor b'rge and entry of water

into the vehicle is suspecteo,
tnen random checks at the surface and at
half ciepth should be made ol one in five
vehicles.
SPOT CHECK ON BOARD

Half fitl a can (e.g. beer can) with

a sample of the concentrate. Bang tire tin
sharply against a sotid table or dn deck
120 carr {rom a height of about 20 cm. Repeat rhe
same about 25 times at one or two
second interuals. lf ,free moisture ap_
pears on the surface or a flow state
develops, get alaboratory analysis of the
concentrate done to check the FMp, TML
and MC
before any lurther loading.

Fig. 4.4 : Spot check

Worked Exampfe : In.a hold 17m tong, 12.Sm

broad and IOm high, how
f!ny.!o11e_s of soyabean mear (sp i.qsm.lr1 ano min!"n*. concen-
tra.te (sF 0.55m!A) woutd you road and what
wourd tne ridximum height
ol the cargo be, in the foilowing cases, if the summer
draft of the ship was
8.8m ?
i. the cargo was untrimmed
ii. the cargo was trimmed
iii. a shaft tunnet ran through the lengrth of the hold
Agi. Maximum cargo that can be loaded in the hold
= 0.9 x L x B x D = 0.9 x 17 x12.5 x 8.8 = 1683 tonnes

The formula used above is independent of the stowage factor so the

figure obtained (1683 tonnes) is the maximum weight that can be loaded
whether the cargo is soyabean rneal or manganese concentrate.

However before making a decision, it would be prudent to see

whether 1683 tonnes of the cargo would actually fit in lhe hold given its
dimensions.

Volume of hold = 17 x 12.5 x 8.8 = 1870 m3.

Volume of soyabean meal = 1683 x 1.48 = 2490.84 m3.

Obviously 1683 tonnes of soyabean mealwill not fit into the hold. The
maximum amount of cargo that willfit in = lllT!, = 1263.51 tonnes.
1.48

The maximum height of the soyabean cargo pile peak

= 1.1 x D x SF= 1.1 x 8.8 x 1.48 = 14.33m.

Since this height is greaterthan the height of the hold, the maximum
height to which the cargo can be loaded whether there is a shaft tunnel
passing through the hold or not is 10m.

The volume occupied by 1683 t of manganese concentrate = 1683

x 0.55 = 925.65 m3
This is less then the volume of the hold so we can load 1683 tonnes
of manganese concentrate.
The maximum height ol the concentrate pile peak = 1 .1 x 8.8 x 0.55
= 5.324m.

lf the cargo is trimmed, then the amount loaded can be increased

by 20o/", giving a weight of 1683 + 20o/o = 2019.6m.

This will occupy a volume of 2019.6 x 0.55 = 1 110.8 m3 which will

fit into the hold.

lf a shaft tunnelpasses through the hold, the weight and the height
ol the cargo pile peak can be increased by 10%, giving a height of 5.324
+ 10"h = 5.856m.

41
 The increase in height and wqight is permitted provided the weights
in..each hold should not ditler appreciably from il general cargo was
loaded.

Ahhough not asked in the question, note that if the cargo was
trimmed and there was a shaft tunnel passing throrgh the hold the weight
of cargo loaded can be increased by 30%.

EXAMPLE FOR EXERCISE

1. HoldNo. 1 (L=14m,8=9m)andHoldNo.2(L=17.5m,8= 10.5m)

are available to load coal (SF = 1.23m34) and iron ore (SF = 0.38m31t) on
a bulk canier whose summer draft is 12.8m. Find out how much of each
cargo you would be able to load in bglh holds separately and lhe maximum
height of the cargo if;
i. 'the cargoes were loaded without trimming
ii. lhe cargo was trimmed
iii. the holds had a shaft tunnel passing lhrough them
iv.the cargo was loaded and trimmed in a hold containing a shaft tunnel.
State what restrictions given in the code could prevent you from loading
the full amount of iron ore as calculated.

42
 CHAPTER FIVE

SOME COMMON CARGOES

cqAL
See IMDG Code, Code of Safe Practice folBulk Cargoes, M 'Notice
Nos. 970, 971 and MS - Notice Nos. 19/69,4n5. ,

HAZARDS

Coal is categorised according to the hazards associated with it.

Whenever coal is shipped from any place, the history of previouS ship-
ments must be known, so as to be aware of the hazards of that particular
type ol coal. Coal may have allor some of the following hazards.

1. Spontaneous heating

Coal is very liable to spontaneous heating. Freshly mixed coal

absorbs oxygen, forming peroxides which break up into carbon
monoxide(CO) and carbon dioxide(CO.). This is an exothermic reaction
and the heat produced causes further oxidation and more heat. CO has
a large flammable range (1?/" - 75% by volume) and besides is also highly
toxic. lf the heat is not dissipated, spontaneous combustion can occur.
Oxidation depends on the surface area available for absorption ol oxygen.
Hence breakage of coal into smaller pieces while it is being loaded is to
be prevented. lf considerable breakage occurs, the small pieces will
accumulate in the centre of the hold while the large pieces will rollto the
sides. This aggravates the situation as the large coal gives way for the
airto llow to the smaller coalwhere spontaneous combustion is most likely
to occur.

2. Emission of Methane

Coal emits methane or marsh gas particularly immediately after

loading and when newly worked or freshly broken. Methane is a flam-
mable gas and when mixed with air forn:s an explosive mixture. lt is lighter
than air and therefore accumulates in the upper regions of hold and other
spaces. This gas can find its way into tanks, cofferdams, store rooms etc.,
so these compartments have to be kept well ventilated at alltimes and

49
tested before man entry. lf gas is present, a self-contained breathing
apparatus must be used during entry.

3. Corrosion

"Pond Coal" is the term given to coal left over from earlier mining
which has been dumped into fresh water ponds and later reclaimed for
shipment. lt has a high moisture content together wilh a high sulphur
content. This type of coal gives rise to high temperatures from self heating
and in the presence of moisture and sulphur leads to the release of
sulphuric ackl, resulting in conosion of the ships holds.
The ship should carry instruments lor measuring ph value of bilges which
must be done regularly.

4. Liouefaction

Liquefaction is the process whereby moisture in the cargo migrates

to the surface due to compaction and vibration resulting in the develop-
ment of a flow state This is particular in the case of coal slurry, coal dutf
and mud coal. The surlace of the cargo behaves like a liquid and a
transverse shift of cargo results in reduced ship stability which can be
extremely dangerous.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Ventilation

Surface ventilation is an important necessity during the carriage of

coal for lwo reasons :
i. To carry away any methane gas which may be given out
ii. To dissipate any heat formed by oxidation of the coal.
Through ventilation must in no way be carried out as introduction of
air into the cargo promotes oxidation and thereby spontaneous combus-
tion. lt is recommended that for the first five days after loading all
ventilators should be utilized for removing lhe gas; thereafter the venti-
lators to the lower holds are to be plugged and opened only for 6 hours
every two days. Each hold containing coa! should have at least two
ventilators - one forward and one aft and t'ween deck and lower hold
ventilators should be independent. Before discharge carelul ventilation
should be directed towards removing the gases from both bctiveen deck
and lower hold. A sudden influx of air into coal comparlments before-

44
 be
discharge may have disastrous results. In fine weather hatches may
op"n.dto tacititate surface ventilation. Attention to be paid to store
can
rooms, lanks and other spaces where methane or carbon monoxide
accumulate

2. Temperature

Temperature pipes leading down to the bottom of the cargo are to

be provided particuiaily below the hatchways' Monitoring of temperature
at tfrree levels in the irold to be done at least once a day' Particular
to be paid to cargo stowed against hot butkheads, which is to be
i"oiO",l it posiiOle. Thelecks are to be kept cool in.tropical areas by
"tt"ntion
Temper-
rigging awnings, covering with dunnage or running deck,water.
be closed to prevent entry of air into the c?rgo:, Spon'
O'*"r tem'
"ig "r"-to can become accelerated in some coal
t"fidoirs heating cargoes at
plratures as liw as 3BoC (1OO"F). At temperatures.around 55"C and
lno*ing rising tendencies, the existence of a fire should be strongly
,urp"ci"d. Tlie cargo spaces should be shut down and sealed against
entry of air.
consider
The'master should seek expert advice immediately and should
making lor a suitable port of refuge'

3. Fire

2)' ln addition,
(See Fire/ChaPter
i.Asu{ficientnrtU".ofsafetylampsaretobecarriedinallcoal
carrying vessels.
in cargo spaceg shoutd
ii. Allelectricalcables and components situated
in a methane / dust atmosphere.
be rree f'om derects and suitabre ior use
points of entry ;;ii;i;auiei snourd be sealed to prevent passage of
""d
gasintoadjacentspaces.lfnecessary,e|ectrica|circuitsinspaceswhere
isolated till the space is gas-
6", .*r"iufation is suspecteO snouid be
lreed.

iii. of cargo burning the.space should be closed'

rf there is evidence
entry of air...Bol1darr cooling to
ventitation stopped-inJieareo igainst to the
be carried out but r"" no wat;r or steam to be directly appliedmonoxide
"i
coat as coat reoucJs in. *"t"r to
hyd^rogen and forms 3arb91
_ both *ammaor" g"r";. tntroouce ce,Inert gas or high expansion foam
inro the ,o.p"**l-ni. x.rp tn.
holdcbsed till arrival pon and obtain
pr.r*tions n opening and the time
ecessary belore
specialist advice
"r-io
45
when it is safe to open the hold. water or steam may be used in port
in
tj no Co.or ingrt s?g is avaitabte. H-owever, due iegard
:??l:".:tr_1lll'::t
ntust be hdcl for the stability of theship. :

iv. The ship should regularly monitor the methane, oxygen and carbon
monoxideconcentrations inthe hold and in spaces wnereine gases
could
accu mulate with su itably calibrated instruments

4. Shifting

A certiticate is obtained from shippers stating the moisture content

of the cargo. l{ this figure is suspected, an on bpar test of tne moisture
content is to be carried out and ascertained that it is not higher than the
Transportable Moisture Limit. precautions should be ta*Jn io prevent
ingress of water into the cargo. cargo work to be suspended and hatches
closed during wet weather. stock. piles must be drained and freshly tesred
{or moisture content before loiding. The cargo should be trimmed into
the wings and ends of the compartment as lar as is reasonable and
practicable. Hold bilges should be regularly pumped out remove
to any
water. Trimming also prevents air f rom permeating to the body ol the coai.
coal shipped in a wet condition could turn out about 3% less by weight.
Bills of Lading should be claused accordingly to protect
tnainif irom iny
claims.

PREPARATION OF HOLDS

(See Hold Preparation/Chapter 2). In addition, ,

i. Allcargo battens shourd be removed to prevent

air pockets forming
and helping through circulation of air.

ii' Boundaries of cargo compafiments should be resistant to fire and

liquid. coarshourd noJ b.e srowed against not uuirneail.
per IMDG Rules are lo be carrieil out. sdr;.tion
vvv'v\ as

46
 SULPHUR
S€e IMDG Code.

PROPERTIES

Sulplulr is toxic in nature. tt does not heat spontaneously but is

easily inilammable. lt readilyfuseo when heatedslightly. When it burns
it gives out sulphur dioxidC whi*r is toxic and'has a pungent smell.
Sulphur combines with salt water producing zulphuric acid.

HAZARDS

1. Fire 2. Dust ExPbsion 3. Corrosion.

PRECAUTIONS

1. (See Fire/Chapter 2). In addilion,

i. No loose metalobiects e.g. bitge @vers, lashing gear, etc. to'be left
in holds, as during discharge the grab could strike against it and produce
a spark.
ii. Fresh water hoses to be rigged on deck.
iii. lf fire occurs a fire spray of tresh water may be used or more sulphur
shovelled onto the burning area to smother it. lf the fire is large, close the
hatches and hatch entrances and use CO..

2. Sulphur dust can readily ignite causing an explosion. Hence Sulphur

is wetted with fresh water belore loading to prevent dust rising. While
sweeping the holds, this hazard may arise and hence holds should be well
ventilated. By hosing down instead of sweeping, this danger may be
avoided.

3. Sulphur is loaded in a wet condition to prevent dust being raised and

to retard flammability. The presence of water enhances the corrosive
power of sulphur and on discharge it will be seen that the steel work in
the hold especially the tank top and rusted areas have been badly
conoded. To protect the hold it shonld be liberally coated with lime,
particularly arbas where the paint coating is removed.

47
HOLD PREPARATION

1. Holds should be cleaned thoroughly and all inflammable tat"iial like

rags, pieces ol wood, etc. to be removed. No loose metal objects to be
left in the hold.
2. Bilges to be tested and covered with limber boards. Any chinks
should be caulked, to prevent dust from finding its way into the bilges.
3. Holds to be lime washed prior loading.
4. CQ system tq be tried out.
5. On'Oiicnarge, holds lo be thoroughly cleaned with particular atten-
tion being paid to underside of hatch covers, box beams and ledges where
dust can lodge.

As Sulphur is loaded wel, the quantity may tum out to be less by weight.
Bills of Lading should be suitably claused to prevent claims.being made
against ship. Bilges may fillup on voyage and a record must be kept of
soundings to determine quantity of water being pumped out. This record
is to be produced if the discharged quantity is disputed by consignees.

COTTON
HAZARDS

Cotton is shipped in tightly pressed bales covered with coarse gunny

and bound by steel, wire or nylon bands. A great risk pf fire is present
with botton cargoes. This cargo.,is liable to produce heat especially if wet
and can be subject to spontaneous combustion by frict(on between bales
or if the bales have been stained by oil or grease.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN LOADING COTTON

1. The hold must be clean, perfectly dry, well aired and absolutely lree
of oil or grease. Cotton must not be stowed in freshly painted holds as
heat produced is likely to cause ignition of paint vapours.

2. Fire fighting equipment must be tested and ready for immediate use
and all other precautions observed. (See Fire/Ghapter 2). lf using steam
to fight a fire, ihe decks should not be cooled as this causes the steam
to condense creating a vacuum inside the hold'which draws air into the
hold thus assisting the spread of the lire instead of containing it.

,t8
3. All bales should be clean, perfectly dry and free.frorn any grease or
oil stains. Wet bales if stowed'in a confined space will heat and
deteriorate. Wet and dry bales should not be stowed together. Wetness
may not be readily apparent as the outside of the bales may ge! dried
quickly.

4. Loosely packed bales orthose with broken bands and toin wrapping
should be rejected as these permit air circulation and catch fire easily.

5. Where second hand hessian wrapping is used some countries may

insist on fumigation of the bales. So new material must be used for
wrapping and for replacing parts of wrapping cut otf lor sampling or
grading of the cargo.

6. Port marks should not be obliterated and the cargo should be well
segregated to prevent over carriage or delay in discharge.

7. Dunnage used.should be clean, dry and free from oil or grease

stains.

RICE
PROPERTIES

Rice is mostly carried in bags except for very short voyages when
it may be carried in bulk. In such cases holds shcjuld be prepared as for
grain cargo and loading to be carried out ds per grain rules. Rice requires
an efficient and elaborate ventilation and drainage system because :
1.lt evolves carbonic acid gas,
2.lt has a high moisture content which can lead to ship's sweat
forming,
3.lt is liable to heat.

The loss of weight in rice could be as much as 5% due to moisture

being given out. This moisture condenses on the ships sides, decks and
steel bulkheads. lf the cargo is dampened or wetted by this moisture, rice
in stowage quickly rots. This reaction generates great heat and emits a
foul odour which affects other rice bags in the vicinity. Rice is easily
tainted and the taint is not noticeable till after it is cooked.

49
HOLD CLEANING AND PREPARATION

Holds should be cleaned and made free from loul odours by thor-
ough washing and then complete drying. Bilges should be cleaned and
sweetened. No dampness to be present in the holds or bilges. lf sufficient
time is not available for washing and drying, then the holds may be
sprinkled with sawdust and broomed down thoroughly with hard brooms.

DUNNAGE

Dunnaging of the rice cargo has to be very thorough with special

attention being paid at lhe turn of the bilges and on stringers, brackets and
other parts likely to collect condensed moisture. Double dunnage is laid
on the tank top consisting of B cmz wooden battens laid athwartships and
Zll"crn x 15 cm wooden planks laid on top ol them. The lower battens are
spaced 25cm apartandthetop ones 10 cm apart. The aim of the dunnage
is to prevent any bags coming into contact with the steel tank top and to
facilitate free drainage of water to the bilges.

SPAR CEILING

Spar ceiling is to be closely spaced and carried well upto the top of
the hold, if not, bamboo is to be secured to the same, closely spaced, to
prevent any bags coming into contact with plating, frames etc. as wellas
to ensure free circulation of air between the ship side and the cargo.
Matting to be placed over any steel parts not covered by spar ceiling. e.g.
pillars, beams, etc.

RECEIVING THE CARGO

The cargo must be inspected before it is loaded. Bags are checked

that they are dry and not lorn or bleeding. Bags are filled with a mixture
of clean rice and paddy. This is because paddy prevents the rice grains
lrom forming an aggregate which is impervious to ventilation air currents.

LOADING AND VENTILATION

Temporary vertical box ventilators are fitted in position as follows;

one at each corner of the hatchway and one in the middle of the hatch
coaming on each side making six in all for the hatchway. Two are fitted
at each end of the hold, one to port and one to starboard. These lead to
permanent ventilator shafts.

50
 Fig. 5.1 : Box ventilator for rice

Fig. 5.2 : Transverse cross section of hold showing layout of ventilators

 Three tiers ol cargo, bag on bag, are loaded all over the hold.
Horizontal wooden ventitltor boxes are now laid athwartships at every five
Uig ipace. Bags are loaded all over h between the athwartships box
ueifititors. Horizontatfore and aft box ventilators are now laid on top of
fore and
the athwartships ventilators. Bags are now loaded in between the
att ventilators. mis completes one system. lt is repeated after every
iniee tiers. Above the finaltier of bags there $rould be a clear space of
15 cms for ventilation.

Through ventilation is to be canied out throughout the voyage and

sweat formation prevented at all cosl. ,__.

Fig. 5.3 : Position of box ventilators within the cargo

52
 CEMENT
:
GENEHAL There are many lypes of cement, varying greatly in
their relative densities, and therefore in their stowage factors. lt may be
shipped in barrels which should be paper lined, in krafi bags or gunny
bags. More recently it has been shipped in bulk in specially designed
ships with mechanical means ol discharging the cement (Self-unloading
ships).

PREPARATION : Holds should be well swept, and the limber

boards made dust tight, this should enable the siftage to be recovered as
clean as possible and there will probably be a considerable amount o{ this.
Should sugar have been recently carried in the comparlment, then the
cleaning of frames, beams etc. should be thorough, and the hold carefully
inspected prior to loading, as sugar, to the extent of only .001 percent
mixing with cement has the effect of rendering the cement worthless as
a binding mixture. The hold should be welldunnaged to prevent the bags
coming into contact with the steelwork. Use could be made of dunnage,
paper and bamboo mats to cover bulkheads and pillars.

:
LOADING Care must be laken to avoid damage to containers
during loading. Canvas slings toltre used with bags. Slings must not be
dragged and a proper landing platform should be used.

STOWAGE : As mentioned above, cement should not be loaded in

the san:e compartment as sugar, ammonia or its sulphate as their fumes
or gas alters the character of the cement to a quick-drying cement. When
overstowing other cargo with bagged cemerit a firm and level floor or
platform is essential. Boards should be.placed so as lo withstand the
weight. As there will be a lot of dust, any goods which might be adversely
affected should not be overstowed with cement. Any fine goods should
be carefully covered.

DURING THE VOYAGE : Sweat and anyform of moisture must be

kept to a minimum. ln order to achieve this careful attention must be paid
to ventilation. (see notes on ventilation).

:
DISCHARGING The same care must be taken as in loading to
prevent excess leakage. separation of different parcels is usually made
easy by the shipper using bags of different colours for different ports.

53
 CHAPTER SIX

DANGEROUS GOODS (IMDG) CODE

AIM

1. To regulate the transport by sea of daqgerous gtoods to reasonably

prevent iniury to persors or damage to ttle ship.

2. To regulate transport by sea ol madnepollutants to prevent harm to

the marine. environment.

However any regulations should not unnecessarily impede the

movement of dangerous goods.

REG. 1 : APPLICATION
Appties to all ships carrying dangerors goods as classified in Reg.
2 in packaged lerm or solid form in bulk except ship stores and equipment.

REG.2 : CLASSIFICATION l

Dangerous goods are divided into the loltowing cJasses :

Ftg.6.1 : Labels

Arl

Glass 1 : Explosiyes ORAilGE

e.g. Nitrogtycerine,
(RDX), ammunition
cycfonite-, SD
EXPtOStvE

Class 2 : Gases. comoressed. liquefied

qr. dissolved dhder Pressure.
iION.FI.AMMABLE
e.g. Argon, Nitrogen, VinYl COMPRESS€D
chloride, Petroleurn Gases.
 3
g
Class : Flammable liouids
e.g. Wood preservatives, tolu-YYH|IS
ene, petroleum distillates.
POTSON
GAS
Class 4.1: Flammable solids
...e.g..Zinc dust, texlile waste,
paint or varnish in solid form.
\z/
REO
4
INFI-AMMAAL€
GAS

Class 4.2: Substances lia.ble to sponla-

neous combustion \,./
e.g. lron and steelswarf, phos-
phorus;

Class 4.3: Substances which in contact

with water. emit llammablq
9ases
OANGEROUS WH€N
e.g. Sodium, Potassium, Cal'wxtte
,cium.rmetals and certain al-
loys.'
SPONTAN€OUSLY
COMBUSTIELE

Class 5.1: Oxidising substances \

e.g. Strontium Peroxide, Po-'
tassium Chlorate, Sodiumr
Peroxide.

Class 5.2: Organic peroxides

e.g. Peroxyacetic
Decanoyl Peroxide.
g
ORGANIC
PEROXIOE

Class 6.1: Poisonous (toxic) substancesi

e.g. Tear Gas, Prussic Acid,,
Tetraethyl Lead. 'g'
v
ANYL\

oxrDlzlt{G
AGEI\IT

FOTSON

55
\ s,/
Class6.2:@
e.g. Biological substances ard
diagnostic sPecimens.
WHITE

Class 7 Radioactive materials

e.g. Thorium and certain iso-
topes of cesium, strontium,
cobalt and even iron.

Class I Conosives
e.g. Sulphuric Acid, Caustic
Soda.

ti?!?,ifT,Yl
Class 9 M iscellaneous dangerous sub-
stances
\n+
e.g. Ammonium Nitrate Fertil-
izers, White or blue asbestos,
Dry lce (Solid COr,. re
coRRostvE

\'/
REG.3 PACKING

1 . Packing to be well made, in good condition and capable ofwithstand-

ing orCinary-risks ol handling and carriage by sea. The interior surface
otine pact<ing which comes into coniact with the contents should not be
dangerously a{fected bY it.

2. where absorbent orcushioning material is used in the packaging of

liquids in receptacles, it should be capable of minimising the danger
aisociated withthe liquid, not be'subiectto movement but ensurethatthe
receptacle remains surrounded and be ol sufficient qqantity to absorb the
liquid in the event of breakage of the receptacle.

3. An ullage should be kept sufficient to allow for expansion at the

highest temperature normally expected on the voyage'

56
 4- cylinders for gases under pressure shoutd be adequatety con-
structed, tested, maintained and correctly filled.

5.Empty uncleaned receptacles to be treated as filled receptacles

unless adequate measured are laken to nullify any hazard.

REG.4 : MARKING, LABELLTNG, PLACARDTNG

.
1. conect technical name is to be durably marked; not trade or local
name alone.

2. Packages are to be provided with distinctive labels, stencils of the

labels or placards to make clear the dangerous properties of the goods.

3. The information provided by labels, stencils or placards are to be

identifiable on packages surviving at least three months immersion in the
sea. Hence account shoutd be taken of the method of marking and affixing
the labels, durabitity of the materials used and surface of t[e packagel

4. Packages containing. dangerous goods of a low degree of hazard,

or packed in limited quantities or if stowed and handled i-n units that are
identified by labels orplacards are exempted fromthe requirements
olthis
regulation.

REG.5: DOCUMENTS

1. correct technical name is to be used in documents and correct

description given according to classification in Reg. 2.

2. Documenfs are to include a signed certificate ordeclaration from

the
shipper that the shipment is properly packed and marked, labelled or
placarded and in proper condition lor carriage by sea.

q Every ship shall have a special list or manifest or stowage plan for
'--
dangerous goods, showing crass and rocation of goods on udaii.
REG.6 : STOWAGE REQUTREMENTS

Dangerous goods are to be stowed salety and appropriately accord-

]
ing to the nature of the goods. lncompatible goods sirall'be seiregared
from one another.

57
2. Explosives are.lo be stowed in a magazine, securely closed while
at sea and segregated from detonators. Etectricalapparatus and cabling
in such compartments shall be so designed and used as to minimise the
risk of fire or explosion.

3. Dangerous goods in packaged form which give off vaBours shall be

stowed in a mechanically ventilated space oron deck. .Dangeous goods
in solid form in bulk which give off dangerous vapours shall be stowed in
a well ventilated'space.

4. In ships carrying flammable gases or liquids special precautions

shall be taken against fire or explosion.

5. Substances which are liable to spontaneous heating or combustion

shall not be carried unless adequate precautions against fire are taken.

REG.7 : EXPLOSIVES lN PASSENGER SHIPS

Explosives are divided into subdivisions 1.1 , 1.2, 1.3 1.4 and 1.5.
They arb further grouped into compatibility groups A, B, C, D, E' F, G,
H, J, K, L and S.

1. Explosives in subdivision 1.4, compatibility group s may be caried

in any amount in passenger ships together with any one of the following:
a. Explosives in compatibility groups C, D, E - maximum 10 kgs'
b. Explosive articles in compatibility groUp G, hot requiring spe-
cial stowage - Maximum 10 kgs-
c. Explosive lrticles in compatibility group B - Maximum 5 kgs'
d. Explosive articles for life saving purposes - maximum 50 kgs'

2. Additionalquantities ortypes of explosives may be canied.in passen-

ger ships in which specialsalety measuies approved by the Administra-
tion are taken.

Annex llt of the tntematio'h#Convention for'the Preven'

tion of Poltution trom ships 1973 as modified by the
Protocolof 1978 (Marpol73/78) isreproduced infull inthe
IMDG code. tt contains regulations for the prevention of
pollution by harmful substances carried by sea in pack'
aged form.

5B
SEGREGATION

Dangerous goods belonging to dilferent classes cannot be

stowed toletner.-Tney have to be segregated from one another and the
iype of sejregation depends on the properties of substances in each class
and the way they react with substances of another class. The following
table shows the general segregation required between eqch class. How-
ever individual entiies should always be consulted.

Class 2(a) - Inflammable

gases rt-"fft J t. 7 E 9

Class 2(b) - Non-inflam- l. N .l 2 4 .l 4 4 4 4 x T ) t x

mable gases ., .,
x x t I x
x 2 I I rt

Nqmbers pertain to the 2tt 't x 2 x x x 2 x x I x l

following terms which are 3 4 t , I 2 2 I '3 x x 2 I I
defined below : . 4. 4 I x I I I t 2 x 2 I
x I
., .t I I x ,, I
x x
1. Away from
4.2 4 2 2 2

2. Separated from 4.: 4 I x 2 I I 2 2 T x I t I

3. Separated bY a 5.1 I t x I I 2 2 2 x x I 2 T
complete compartment .,
x x 2 2
5i ,l 4 2 3 2 2 2
or hold from
4. Separated longitu- 6.tx x x x x x x x x x x x x
dinally by an intervening 6l x x x x x x x x x x x x x
complete compartment 7
., .,
I 2 2 2 ) I 2 x x 2 x
or hold from
2 x x
.,
X. No general segre- E I x t t I 7 1 x

gation recommended. 9 x x x x x x x x x x x N x
Consult individual en-
tries.
Fig. 7.2 : Segregation Table

TYPES OF SEGREGATION

REFERENCE PACKAGE.
I
PACKAGE OF INCOMPATIBLE GOODS .
%
DECK RESISTANT TO FIRE AND LIQUIDS. H

59
 Fig.7.3 : Types of Segregation

1. Awav from

aii\ lr),'',
ll
ll
Maybecanied
inthesamecompan-
ment or on deck pro-
lt+;
vided a minimum
horizontalseparation
of 3m projected ver- tl
tically is maintained.
f-"1
EMT? W
2. Separated
from
Can be caried
inthe samecompart-
ment if the interven-
ing deck is resistant
m
to fire and liquids;
otherwise separate
holds.
On deck, a
horizontalseparation
m
ol at least 6m.
3. Separated bya
complete compart-
menl or hold from
There must be
either a vertical or
longitudinal separa-
tion by a complete
compartment or
m r
hold, and two bulk-
heads or decks re-
sistanttofire and liq-
m
uids.
Ondeck-ahorizon-
tal separation of at
least 12m even if one
m %
package is stowed
below deck.
60
4. Separated lon-
gitudinally by an in-
tervening complete
compartment orhold L*n +intcg$;r t
from
Averticalsepa-
ration is not allowed.
The packages must
be horizontally sepa-
,,ia
!
rated by a complete
compartment.
On deck a horizontal
%
separation of at leaqt
24m is required and
between an "on
%
deck" and "under
deck" package,24m
+ an intervening
compartment.

There are separate rules for segregation on container ships, Ro-Ro

vessels and LASH ships.

GENERAL INDEX

SUBSTANCE IMDG UN CLASS PACKAGING SUBSIDIARY EMS MFAG TABLE

OR ARTICLE CODE NO. GROUP RISK LABEL NO. NO.
PAGE

Allyl Acetate 3180 2333 3.2 il poison 3.02 330

ln the first column proper shipping names have been used. other
names have been included in the index with a feference to the page on
which the proper shipping name appears.

second column shows the IMDG code page where the particulars of
the individual substance appears.

uN Number : The united Nations committee of experts on transpor-

tation of dangerous goods has compiled a report dealing with the classi-
fication, listing and labelling of dangerous goods and the transport docu-
ments required. lt has assigned a number for every substance, materiat

61
orarticle and this number is called the UN rumber. The UJ{.trlo. hetps
over@me language baniers when ldentilying dangerans goods. There is
a numericalindex also which lists goods according to their U.NNo.

Ctass : lt lists the IMDG class and.subdivision and for Class 1, the
conpatbility group also.

:
P.ackaging Group Except for classes l, 2, 6.2 and 7 dargercus
goods have been dvided into three packagirq groups according to the
degree of danger they present.
Great danger - packaging goup 1 (l)
. Medium Danger - Packaging group 2 (ll)
Minor danger - Packaging group g (llt)

:
Subsidiary Risk Goods which present a secondary dangerous
property (or properties) stould be labelled with a secondary label(s)
showing the hazard (or hazards). Class number should not be present
on a subsidiary risk label.

Ems No. : The "Emergency Procedures for ships carrying Dangerous

Goods' is a supplement to the IMDG code. lt describes the action,
procedures and emergency equipment to be canied when carrytng goods
of that schedule number. In the general index the substances forwhich
emergency procedures vary {rom group emergency schedule are under-
lined.

MFAG Table No. The *Medical First Aid Guide tof U." in Accidents
:
involving Dangerous Goods" is a supplement to the IMDG code. After
looking up the M FAG Table No., see the table in the MFAG. lt gives likety
signs, symptoms, treatment and other advice as per the effect of goods
under that table. lt suggests treatmenl in case of skin @ntact, eye
contact, inhalation and ingestioh. Tne procedures for the treatment are
also mentioned.

PRECAUTION FOR LOADING DANGEROUS GOODS

In addition to other normal precautions, (see Chapter 2)

1. Refer to the IMDG code and find out the particulars for the cargo to
be loaded with regard to hazards. compatibility, stourage and segregation.
2. The appropriate intemational code of signals by day and by night is
to be displayed.
62
3. No bunkering operations are to be canied out during loading or
discharging.
4. Wireless transrnission should not be done of voltage exceeding 50
volts.
5. Radar should not be operated during loading or discharging.
6. Forklifts should not to be used in the vicinity of dangerous goods.
7. Loading is to be suspended if inclement weather threatens.
8. Defective packages should not be accepted.
9. Port regulations are lo b€ complied with.

Additionally for Explosives

1. Explosives must be stowed in a magazine, which is a wood or wood-

lined compartment, sometimes specially constructed to stow explosives
safely.
2. No electric cables should pass through the magazine. lf this is
unavoidable, the cables should be sheathed by an approved, sealed, non-
combustible barrier and tested before loading.
3. Explosives are unstable when wet and should be stowed in a oool,
dry, well-ventilated space away {rom hot bulkheads or deckq.
4. Electricalfittings must be disconnected in compartments containing
dangerous goods;ventilation fans to the space must be flame-proof , if not
disconnected.
5. Explosives must be stowed away frolir living quarters.
6. Masts must be fitted with an eflicient lightning conductor as lightning
presents a grave danger.

63
 CHAPTER SEVEN

UNIT LOADS AND CONTAINERS

'. a

The concept of unit loads is to increase the speedof cargo work by

reducing the number of occasions when a cargo is handled and
replacing
manuallandling by mechanical means. Unitisation means consolidatingr
of several smaii pict<ages into one unit ol standard size. The cargo is
-bands
iecureO togethei with or shrink wrappers to form 3 lnit which
iojetner *,iin a base i.e. a pallet or a skid allows mechanical handling
eq'uipment such as fork lilts to lift and lransport the unit'

Forms ol unitisation include :

1. Preslinging the cargo
2. Palletisation
3. Containerisation &
4. Lighters or barges on lash ships and RO-RO vehicles'

PRESLUNG CARGO
'In this method the cargo is loaded in units with the lifting slings
in
place so that at the port ol Jischarge it is only. necessary to hook in the
iiingr and lift o{f the cargo. Preslung loads should be made up and held
iodthrr in one unit by ,tieans independent ol the siing. lt canbe used lor
-variety
a of cargoej like steel prpes, limber, etc.' lt results in quick
turnaround and iubstantial savings in discharge ports where stevedore
costs are high, notwithstanding the cost of the slings'

PALLETISATION

ln palletisation the cargo is consolidated into a unit and placed on

a pallet. The packages sno-utd be lashed into a unit and secured to the
p"tt"t. patletised cirgo handling is used lor a wide variety of cargoes
*nian are carried in boixes, bags,iartons, cases, drums and bales or rolls
of paper. Four way entry pallets are considered to be the most suitable
lor ship board use.

M.
 ADVANTAGES OF PALLETISATION :

l.lt eliminates the

cost of heavy pack-
aging.
2.lt reduces hardling
and thereby the
labour required.
S.lncreases 'the
speedof loadingand
discharging.
4.Reduces the
amount of dunnage
required.
S.Permits cargo to
be storedcompactly
and tidily thereby
reducing broken Fig. 7.1 : Four way entry Pallet
stor€ge.
O.Facilitates tallying of cargo.

DISADVANTAGES:

1.Loss of space if the cargo hold is other than a square shape.

2.Loss of space below the deckhead..
3.Loss of space due to the space occupied by the patlet.
4.Extra cost for the Pallet..

Pallet sizes depend on the size and type of cargo, the duration of the
voyage and the mode of transport to the loading port, The load itsell on
the paltet must be solid, secure and evenlydistributed on the pallet. The
pallet must be loaded on a level base. In all unit loads, a discount in freight
tariffs is given to shippers; thus the benefit of time saving is shared.

CONTAINERS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A CONTAINER :

of steel, aluminium or f'rbre glass. The

A container is a box made
standard sizes as recommended by the ISO (lnternational Standards
Organisation) is 20 ft lengrth x I ft height x 8 ft width, called TEUs (20 fi.
I I
equivalent units) or 40 x x called FEUs (40 ft. equivalent units).
c_ontainersrvelgh around 42 tonne4tjt for a FEUI andcan,cairy about
10 tonnes (26 t for a FEU).

A container is an article of transport equipment having the fottowing

fedtures:
1..1t is of a permandnt character, strong enough for repeated use;
2.lt is designed to facilitate the transport of goods from one modb'to
?rylhef i.e. fo'm road to sea or rail to sea without intermediate reloading.
S:lt is designed so as to be easy for stuffing or destuffing.
4.lt is fitted with facilities to permit easy hdndling when transfening from
one mode of trangport to another.

The container has a strenlthened deck and comers. The deck is

lined with wood. The sides are corrugated to provirJe strength asihesides
and roof of the container are very susceptible to.damige. The.main
strength lies in the frame. The Intemational convention forSafe Gontain-
ers (lsc 1972) specifies structural requirements for containeis and
contains regu lations f or inspection, approval and maintenance of contain-
ers. Most.containers are built with fork lift pockets.
WPES OF CONTAINERS :

1. Closed box orgeneralpurpose containers ar€ most@mrpn and are

used for various types of cargoes.
2. Open sided contaihelg can be loaded from either qirle forward or aft
and have hatch covers that dtrop down on eithei side.
3. Dry bulk containers have loading hatches in the rqgf and one or more
discharge hatches on the sides.
4. Tank coqtainers are used for carrying bulk liquHs.
5. Half height containers are normally used for high density cargo.
6. Reefercontainers have a compartment for the compressor. There
should be special provisions for the supply of porver especiilly at dock and
inland points. Streamlined procedures are required for clearing and
fonvarding to prevent variations in temperature. Most cargo claims arise
in reefer containers.
7. other specialtlpes are pen @ntainers for livesfodq tittable contain-
ers for grain, open top containers, collapsible containes etc.

Containers are mainly canied on specially designed ships which

have special blocks or cell guides giving permanent secure stowage tor
sea transport. The cell guides run vertically and divide the hold vertically,
transversely and longitudinally into bays. Each bay.is indicated poeition-

66
 r__

_._

@
ffi
Fig. 7.2
e
: Types of iontainers
K"['"
67
wise by a @rnbination of letters and number. 8 to 10 liers may be loaded
below decks and 3 to 5 tiea above deck. Containers can also b6 canied
in general cargo ships provided specialgearlor lashing and seorring the
containers are available. Some,of the gear is shown in fig. 7.3.

STOWAGE AND SECURING:

It is not possible {or ship's staff to examine or nionitor the securing

of cargo inside the container; although the Master has the right to open
and check any container if he suspects that all is not in order. In addition
to the normal precautions lor deck cargo (see Chapter 8) following are
some recommendations lor the safe stowage and securing of containers
on deck :

1. Containers are to be stowed in a fore ard aft direction with the doors
preferably aft, to prevent sea and spraylrom entering through leaks in the
doors.
2. Containers containing valuable goods should if possible, be placed
door to door flush with each other.
3. Containers should be secured on the top as well as bonom as they
can become extremely buoyant when water is shipped on deck.
4. Containers on deck or on the hatch top should be canied one high
unless the upper containers are secured to prevent the container lrom
sliding or tipping.
5. The securing systems should not impose'on the container or its
fittings any stress in excess of that which the centainer is designed for.
6. The container should not over stress the deck or the hatch top.
Hatches should be battened down completely belore loading containers
on top. The structural strength of the deck and hatch covers should be
kept in mind when loading containers and also when lixing lashing points
on deck.

STABILIW :

The otd rute of heavy weights at the bottom should be followed for
containers as well, to give a large GM. ln a filled container the centre of
gravity generally lies below mid-height of the container. This is due to the
extra slrengthening ol the deck and the wood lining. For stability
calculationsthe centre of gravity of thecontaineris assumed at mid-height
to make an allowance for safety

68
fwrst Lock

Locotor & shoe

A
t-J
Eull-
!og
G;iys

Ouick
Relensr-
hear

fur',bucHa
+-- -

Fig. 7.3 : Container Lashing Gear

-69
tainer, is de-
signed to be
lifted {rom iti four
topcorners. Any
otherformof lift-
ing imposes
strain on the
container and
may cause it to
over balance. A
container sling
consisting of a
rectangular
frame ri/ith 4
hooks hanging
vertically is nor-
mallyused. The
hooks being in-
serted into the
corner castings
pointing out-
wards from the
ends ofthe con-
tainer. Contain-
ers should never
be lifted directly
by wire slings
fixed to the cor- Fig. 7.4 : Litting a Container
ners without the
use of spreaders. In modern terminals spreaders with automatic locking
arrangements which do not need the presence of a man are used.
Containers that are loaded without seals or locks on the door should be
suitably claused and lresh seal or locks put.

ADVANTAGES OF CONTAINERISATION :

1 . Saving in packing costs as the container itself is of sturdy construc-

tion and forms a skin.
2. Less damage to cargo during handling.
70
3. Prevent'urn.of lhettard.pifieEge.
4. Less{randling time'at evety'lort resulting in cost saving.'
5" Lower insurancre premium for shippers due lo less chances of
damage and pilferage.
6. Preserves'the qrality and purity of cargo from taint.
7. Reducesthepodtimeforshipandimprovestheworking ratio. (Time
running to time sp€nt in port.)
B. Easy tallying and documentation.
9. Amenableto conputerisation. .
10. For a shippbr less inventory costs and stable inventory control is
made possble by a regular conlginer ship schedule.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Highly capital intensive as container ships cost twice as much'as
other ships and shippers have to pay for leasing of the containers.
2. High degree of training is necessary for smoolh operation.
3. Repositioning of containers after discharge is required.
4. Infrastructureon land like roads, bridges and availability of transport
has to be developed for successful transportation of containers on land.

The biggest advantage that containerisation offers is door to. door

delivery onan international scale via intermodaltransportation systems or
combined transport system. Here a combined transport operator under-
takes to pick the container from the shippers premises and deliver it
virtually to the consignees door step by various modes ol transport which
may include road, rail or air together with sea. The lacilities provided are
customs formalities, provision of bill of lading or combined transport
document, competitive freight rates, regular shipping scheciules, single
window lor payment of freight. etc: ln India inland container depots have
been lormed to cater to the needs of inland shippers and the multimodal
syslem is being developed and streamlined to fulfil its objectived of door
to door delivery.

LASH AND RO.RO SHIPS

Lash stands forUgtner f,board gfllip. This concept came about as

a means to avoid delays in waiting for a berth. cargo is loaded into lighters
or barges which can be covered and made watertight. The lighters are
towed out into the anchorage area where the mother ship lifts ttrem up
from astern by means of a large gantry crane and loads them into the
holds. Lightep fordischarge are picked up lrom the ships hold and ftoated
in the water lrom where they are towed to a ietty.

71
. Theconceptof lash shipshas notcaughtonforvariousreasons. A
largecapital investment in ships and lighters is.required. Besides, waiting
for a berth was experienced in ports with inadequate facilities and these
same ports did not have the towing and other administrative capabilities
to cater to these type of ships. Further an improvement in port'facilities
coupled with a slump in shipping reduced waiting time at ports making
the investment in these ships unrenumerative.

Lash ships are useful in coastal trade where lighters have to be

towed lhrough inland watenvays between lactories and industrial areas
and the sea.

RO-RO SHIPS

(For a diagram, see lront cover).

The roll on - roll off system is a radical change from the traditional
method of lifting cargo in and out of the ship's holds. lt has incorporated
sweeping changes in ship design with absence of any lifting gear, cargo
area exlending the length of the ship and divided vertically by movable
decks with ramps connecling the decks. The bow, stern and sometimes
a section o{ the shipside too opens up and can be lowered to form ramps
over which the vehicles are driven into the ship. The ramps rest on the
jetty and can be raised or lowered to take changes in the ship's draft or
tidal effects. In laler designs, the ramps can be slewed sideways also.
The ship is geared to carry cars, trucks and anyil"iing thht can be driven
on and off it. The main deck may be fitted with cell guides to stow
containers. Cargo is ioaded on a trailer and properly Secured to form a
unit. The trailer is driven to its stowage position on ship by a motorised
vehicle where it is detached and secured. The motorised vehicle returns
to tow other trailers.

The greatest advantage of ro-ro ships is the speed at which cargo

can be loaded and discharged. Port calls last for a few hours only and it
is possible to completely load or discharge the ship in less than a day.
Securing of cargo is the most important aspect to be attended to. Because
of the units being on wheels, the decks should not be wet, greasy or
slippery, brakes should be on and the engine in gear and lor heavy
vehicles, besides the normalsecuring arrangements, movement must be
resisted by jacking or placing rough material between the unit and the deck
to increase the lriction.

72
 CHAPTER EIGHT

REFRIGERATED AND DECK CARGOES

Refrigerated Cargoes can be divided into three classes.

1 . Frozen Cargo : eg. meat, butter, poultry dnd fish. Thes6 cargoes are
carried in a hard frozen state at temperatures around -g.C to -teO rc
prevent thb growth of bacteria,
b.'-'-Cnifleo-Carqo : eg. cheese, eggs anC freiir Vegetables. Tempera-
tures maintained in the compartment for these cargqgs are dround -z:c
to 6"c. Beef may also be carried in a chilled staie as the tlssues get
damaged sometimes by freezing. Maintaining the right temperatures is
more criticalwith chilled cargoes than with lrozen cargoes ai condensa-
tion of moisture due to variation of temperature enlourages bacterial
growth.
3. _ Air cooled cargo : eg. fruits. Here temperatures of around ?c to
1?C are maintained by air circulation.
The temperatures at which individual cargoes are.carried may vary'
beyond the above-mentioned limits depending on the nature of the cargo,
the.arnbient temperature at the loading port, the duration of the voyage.
and the state in which the cargo is to be detivered. (whether ripe, froze-n,
ready for consumption, etc.)

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Just as the naturalflow of water is from a high fevetto a low level,

the natural flow of heat too is from a body at a highiemperatrr to
a body
at a low temperature; and iust as we would nee=d a pump to reve.rse
the
flow or pump water upwards, we need mechanicalwork'to be done
or a
heat pump to transfer heat from a body at a low t"rp"ratli"
and give it
awayto abodyat a hightemperature. This isthe prinipte of refrigerition.

.-
l.n refrigeration system, gas at a high pressure p., tow vorume
V-
and high" temperature is o-UtaineO trom iht;;;;;;;:
It is altowed to expandT,(g::l"4eC)
btigtrtty ano cool in the condensei to a tiquid at
Vt and sea warer tenperature T.. Th.,s cooted- tiquid
l11.,lrj?-lf-r,3!,T
gas s suddenty ailorred to expand by passing through in expansionvaiue-

73
 lall in
The expansion of the gas to volume V, is accomp3nits.$' a slight
iir prrirrt. and a hrf,e lall in its temftrature tlfr.lnO ft (+5" to 25C)
i"r-p"Aln.fy. Tne gaiis now kcpt in contact wittrthe substance to be
I a6sorbs heat from the substance cooling it, while in turn its own
t.rp"t.trt. rises to T. (ZS" to 35oQ) and pressure and volume
"ooteO. to Po and
to its pressure'
V. rb.p.aiuely. lt is ttien compressed in a compressor
u&u*b and temperature at the first stage, i'e' P', V,, and T,'

P+Vfi
Cooli
-):- -

^r,
rfl-EESUft KEGUIAThNA
0R'
fxrnnsroruYalvE
*o compa
Pr Vr Ta
?J,T,

PsY!,It

V
Fig. 8.i : Principle and working of a relrigeration system

The refrigerant is so chosen 6"""u'" its physical and

.
chemical
elimi-
prop"rti.. incr-ease tne etficiency of the plant, reduce its size andseveral
was used for
nate hazards in tranotiir;ih;;;i;g"rant.'Ammonia
which was less toxic' Today
;il tiltii was reptacdOV ttUq-t', gioxide
to pressure
irlon i, used extensively, although it is being phased out due(CFCs) which
from environmentatist; l" it"ontiins chloro--lluoro carbons
have been lound to harm the ozone layer'

74
 .. I-a. ship's refrigeration systems, direct expansion and circutation of
the refrigeranl is not advisable except for small iefrigerated chambers and
provision stores. This is because inlarge inslallatio.-ns it becomes
difficult
to monitor th9 pipes for leakages which woutd result in a wastage of
expensive gas. For large refrigeration systems we therefore usE tne
indirect method and a second refrigerant. ihe primary refrigerant isused
to cool? tank of brine and this cooled brine is then ciiculat& through the
compartment. Brine is chosen because of its low freezing point, 2s to
30oC, depending on its concentration and composition.

Seo. W.iter A
loling R
GS
OP
A
C
L
Gas Return Lin
s,
Fig. 8.2 : Brine grids

The brine is passed through separate grids surounding the same

compartment. ll one grid is blocked or choked, thb brine sufply can be
increased to other grids so that cooling will not be affected. Also different
groups of grids, each with its own expansion valve is used to maintain
different compartments at different temperatures by adjusting the flow of
gas. For fruit cargoes, not only cooling but alsoveniitatlon is t-o be carried
out. Forthis, instead of circulating the brine around the compartments, air
is passed over the brine grids and this cooled air is blown ihrough ducts
into the compartment. cooling is often carried out by a combination of cold
brine and cool air circulation.

75
CARGO OPERATIONS

The success of re{rigerated trade depends prirrcipally on the condi-

tion in which cargo arrives at the discharge port. This not only depends
on lhe efficiency of the refrigeration plant or the insulation but greatly
depends on the efforts of the cargo oflicers with respect to stowage
precautions prior to and during reception of cargo and maintenance of
correct temperatures in transit. Any departure from the highest standard
of efficiency can cause deterioration of cargo resulting in loss ol value and
large claims to the ship.

Following are the main points to be borne in mind during the carriage
of relrigerated cargo.

1. Preparation of the Compartment : The compartment must be clean,

dry and free from any odour or taint. lf necessary, it must be deodorised
using ozone, sodium bicarbonate or patent
deodorisers but strong disinfectants must not be
used. Bilges are to be cleaned, deodorised and
suctions checked. The insulation and permanent
dunnage is to be checked and repaired as nec-
essary. Scuppers are to be cleaned and brine
traps checked, tested and refilled. Brine traps
prevent warm air from entering the compartment
and cold air from escaping; at the same lime
allowing drainage of water. Thermometers shou ld Brr"tel---
be in position and ventilalor plugs to the compart- ,--+[-_!
ment fitted in place and tightly wedged. Allopen.
ings are to be sealed against'entry ol air. Brine
pipes are to be tested to ensure that they are not
choked and that no leaks occur at the joints.

fig. 8.3 : Brine traps

2. PrecoolingoftheCompartment :Thecompartmentshouldbecooled
down prior to loading, to a temperature slightly lower than the transit
lemperature, to allow lor fluctuations during loading. Dunnage laid in the
compartment is alsoto be cooled before cargo is loaded, otherwise it will
stain the cargo in contact with it. when the compartment is ready lor
loading a survey is carried out by a cargo surveyor who inspects the
compartment for cleanliness, litness for the loading of the cargo con-
cerned and for satisfactory working of the refrigeration plant. A loading -
76
certificate, showing the temperature of each compartment, is issued
before any cargo is stowed in the space.

3. Reception and Loading of cargo : Local port regulations should be

known to ship's officers with respect to opening and closing of compart-
menls and accepted working temperatures for stevedores to avoid friction
with them and delay to the ship. The stowage should be so aimed so as
to allow a free circulation of cold air around the cargo. The cargo should
be secured in a seaway. Clean cargo should notcome in contact with dirty
cargo. Utmost care should be taken to inspect the incoming cargoes for
inherent damage. This can be done by taking random samples. Any
overripe or damaged cargo must be rejected. When loading a lower hold
through a refrigerated t'ween deck, canvas or tarpaulins must be hung
around the opening to restrict the escape of cold air. Temperature must
be maintained during stoppages for meals, etc. During loading or dis-
charging when the compartment is open frost may form onto the brine
pipes. This mustbe brushed awayontotarpaulins and removedtoprevent
its falling on cargo and causing damage by wetting. After loading, all
outside accesses should be.sealed with paperto ensure good circulation.
The hatch covers are normally self sealing. The shipper must provide the,
vessel with loading and carrying temperatures and any other special
requirements.

4. During Transit : Temperature control is most essential and must be

strictly maintained. Daily records showing the temperature in each com-
partment are to be kept for each watch. Nowadays automatic temperature
recorders keep a continuous record of temperatures. During transit of
chilled meat, a certain amount of co. (10%.by volume) is introduced to
preserve the meat. Excessive CO. can discolourthe consignment. Hence
it is essential to keep a record and control of CO. concentration. An
instrument called a thermoscope is used to monitor the concentration of
CO' Conversely, in the case of fruits, the ripening of the fruit causes'
evolution of CO., which, if present in concentrations of above 5% spoils
the fruit. This excess CO, can be dissipated by allowing fresh precooled
air occasionally into the hold, taking care not lo cause large variations in
temperature.

5. During Discharge : Priorto discharge a cargo surveyor is generally

called to check the transit temperature and CO, records. lf the concen-
tration of CO, is higher than 7"/o the compartm-ent must be vented with
fresh air prior to man entry for discharge.
 Here are some properties of refrigerated cargoes with theircarrying
temperatures.

Apples (-1" to 2"C) should be in good condilion. Can taint othercargoes.

Bananas (around 1?C) are canied as a specialtrade. They are shipped

on their stems in a hard, unripe State. Daily inspections of the compart-
mentare to be made and any ripe fruit plucked. Too low temperatures
can permanently anest the ripening process. Shipment is done in such
a state aslo arrive atthe discharge ports and reach the markets, ripe and
ready for consumption.

Butter is carried frozen, while cheese (3o to 6.C) is chilled. Bolh are liabte
to taint.

Citrus Fruits (3"to 7€) leave behind a strong, fruity smellwhich must be
removed belore loading any other cargo.

Chilled beef (-2"C) should not have any whilish, mould marks.
It is hung from hooks, not too close together, to permit ventilation and
prevent chafing.

Frozen meat (-10"C) Soft carcasses should be rejected and bloodstained

wrapping regarded with suspicion. May be loaded in smaller pieces in
bags.

Eggs are fragile and must be handled carefully. They are easily tainted
and may require stowage in a separate compartment.

Drugs and experimental samples are ofien sent in refrlgerated ships.

Instructions of the shipper must be sirictly followed.

Chemicals and gases are shipped in refrigerated condilion in special

ships. Their carriage is a separate subject in itself.

DECK CARGOES

Cargoes are often carried on the decks of ships like container and
timber carriers. General cargo ships too carry a wide range of cargoes
on deck which may include motor cars and other vehicles, iron and steel .

pipes or girders, dangerous goods, containers and sometimes even

livestock. Besides, heavy lifts and unusually shaped goods such as
78
locomotives, yachts and small launches, large tanks or pressure vessels
and othei such machinery may also be shipped on deck.

Deck cargo requires special attention during loading and'carriage

which will include the following :

1. Lqad Density

The deck load should not be concentraled but should be distributed

over a large area by using dunnage to spread the load. The load density
of the deck must never be exceeded. lf necessary, the deck may be
supported from underneath by rigging temporary wooden or metalbeams
and pillars.

2. Stability

The metacentric height (GM) which is a measure of the ship's

stability, shou ld be adequate at all stages of the voyage. Shift of the centre
ol gravity due to fuelorwaterconsumption from DBtanks, creation of free'
surface effects or accumulation of water, ice or snow on deck should not
adversely affect the stability. The weight should be properly distributed
to avoid any list or excessive trim. Deck cargoes offer a greater wind
resistance and can increase the heeling moment due to wind.

3. Stowage

All openings in the weather deck e.g. hatch covers, hatch accesses,
etc. must be securely closed and battened down before deck cargo is
stowed on top of them. Ventilators, air pipes and other working gear must
be in good order and protected from damage. Access is to be maintained
to salety equipment, controls tor remote operation of valves, pumps, etc.,
emergency steering gear, sounding pipes, machinery spaces, crew quar-
ters and all fore and aft parts used lor the working of the vessel like
storerooms, etc. lt should be possible to properly close and secure
openings to such places. The height of deck cargo should be such as not
to impair visibility from the bridge. Deck cargoes should not extend
beyond the shipside.

4. Lashing

Proper lashing is important not only lor the safety of the cargo but
have
also {or the safety of tite and ship. lmproper securing of cargoes
79
 caused several ship casualties and loss of life, even during loading and
discharging. Lashing must be carried out by competent persons in
accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual or Code of Safe Practice for
Cargo Stowage and Securing. The size of lashing rnaterialshould take
into account the forces exerted on the cargo as a resutt ol the motion of
the ship in the most severe weather conditions expected forthat voyage.
The method o{ lashing is to be appropriate for that type, size and weight
of cargor, Chocking may have to be carried out and spaces between the
cargc -ft/ed with dunnage. Eyes for lashing should be welded at
ffengthened points. Lashings should be regularly inspected and tight-
ened and particulars ol the same entered in the mate's log book.

5. Protection of Personnel

A clear walking space on deck at least 600mm wide should be

provided for access for personnelto and from their work places. ll this
is not possible, then a walkway is to be built over the deck cargo. The
walkway is to be of sound construction and firmly secured. Three courses
ol wire or rails to a height of 1m are to run on each side of the walkway,
supported by staunchions along its lengrth. Proiections, slack steel bands
and other such foot traps and hazards should be marked and highlighted.

80
 CHAPTER NINE .

TANKER OPERATIONS

FLAMMABILITY

The surface of petroleum evaporates into vapourwhen left standing.

The anrount of evaporation depends on the volatility of the liqukl' its
t*rp.i.trr., surlace area and other factors. The vapour is hydroca6on
gis'(CH gas), so named, because it consists of hydrogen and carbon
itoms in various complex combinations.

Petroleumgasandairformsa|lammableandexplosivemixture.
percentage of
However all vapour - air mixtures are not explosive. lf the
and is said to be "too lean"'
CH u.pug is too low the mixture will not ignite
tttnrirr..ntage of CH vapour is too.high, the corlesponding percentage
mixture will not
of airirather thi oxygen in the air) will.be too low and the
totbustion.- lt is then said to be "too rich". The mixture willonly
iupp.irt
called the
igniie wnen the vapour - gas proportion is within a certain range
flammable range.

DEFINITIONS

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) or Lower Explosive.Limit.(LEL) : lt

is
ttre concentration of CH ges in air below which there is insulficient 0Hto
support and propagale combustion.
" trpper Flamm;ble Limit (UFL) or Upper'Exolosive Ljmit
(UEL) : lt
is tne concentration of ctl gas in air above which there is insuificient eul
to support and propagate combustion.

Flammable Limits and Flammable Range of a few petroleum vapours

expressedasapercentagevo|umeofCHgasinairaregivenbelow:
Gas Upper Lower

Propane 9.5 2.2

Butane 8.5 1.9
Pentane 7.8 1.5

A value of 10% and 1% is taken in practice lor most oil cargoes.

'81
 Look at the graph in Fig.9.1

The,flammable range is between 1% and 10% torcH gas, 21yo and

11.5% for oxygen. lt 1a% of cH gas is introduced in air, the proportaon
of oxygen ieduces to 21 x 90 = l6.9plo (point D)
100
When oxygen is minimum (11.Sol"), CH gas must be at teast 1.5%
(Point E)" At 1% cH gas, the oxygen must be at least zo.goa for the
mixture to be llammable (Point c). lf the concentration of cH gas and
oxygen is outside the flammable range, the mixture will not burn.

U
J
J
o r ll
. l---*3',r,.
3
r,
F
,.t
S i to

fl '{otnJ"", 9
oz
u 8
F' \
G
I
5r \t. 7

3
1'
z5 5
3c
G +
U
o I
t
6
a
I

Fig.9.1 : Flammable Range Diagram

When we dilute a CH gas - air mixture with air, (let's say having the
concentrations as shown at poi'nt F), air will slowly replace the cH gis tilt
the mixture becomes 100% air. The concentrations otcH gas and oiygen
will take the path FA. The path passes through the flammable range -nd
al some time during the dilution, lhe mixture could explode if a spark was
applied. we musi tryto avoid passing throughthe ftammable range during
dilution with air. To do this the mixture is diluted with inert gas litong tne
line FH) till a point H is reached below the criticaldilution line. This is
known by sampling and testing the tank atmosphere with gas measuring

82
instruments. Now if oxygen (ai4 is let in freely, the dilution willtake place
along line HA, without plssing through the flammable range at any time
causing no danger of fire or explosion.

METHODS OF GAS.FREEING TANKS

Tanks must be gas-freed before man entry or hot work is carried out.
Inert gas, air or steam is used lo replace the tank atmosphere.

1. Usino Inert Gas : The tank atmosphere can be diluted with inert gas
or displaced by purging. In dilution, the inert gas is introduced at a high
velocity into the tankto penetrate to the bottom as CH gas is heavierthen
inert gas or air. To maintain this velocity, many tanks should rpt be diluted
at the same time.

In displacement, inert gas enters from the top of the tank at a low
velocity. The interface o{ the incoming and outgoing gas must be stable
without any turbulence. The CH gas escapes through suitable piping
leading out from the bottom of the tank.

The oxygen - gas concentration must be monitored at dilferent

heights often during the operation using suitable instruments. The
outgoing gas must be vented at a safe height above the deck.

2. By Air : Hydraulic, pneumatic or steam driven fans may be used to

blow in air or: extract the gas. The materials used in the construction of
these fans must be spark-free. Vented gas must not be allowed to enter
the accommodation or other tanks. The capacity and penetration of the
fan should be such as to gas free the tank in the shortest possible time.
It takeb about 25 - 30 replacements of the atmosphere to bring down the
concentration of CH gas in air from 50% to below LFL. Tank lids must
not be opened tillventilation starts and should be shut immediately afler
the ventilation operation when the gas is tested to be safe. Wind sails with
long canvas trunking, were often used.previously as an inexpensive way
of ventilating when lans were not available.

3. BJr steam : Steam was used previously to inerl tanks before inert gas
became available. The hazard with steam is that because of its high
temperature, it assists the evaporation of oil, especially with volatile oils,
forming llammable mixtures. Steam introduced at a high velocity causes
a static charge to accumulate, which may lead to creation of a spark.
Steam velocity must hence be kept low and steam must not be put into
a tank having an earthed probe nor should a probe be put into a tarik till
at least 10 minutes after steam is stopped to allow it to settte and stabte
distribution of charge and concentration is achieve{. .

TANKER.OPERATION SYSTEMS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED PIPE-

LINES :

1. Cargo : The cargo pipelines commence from the manifold on deck.

The shore pipeline is connecled at the manifold and the manifotd valve
opened to let in oil. The bargo pipelines run on deck and branch out to
the ditferent tanks where they lead dowp to the boltom. The discharge
pipelines start from the various tank suitions and lead to the cargo
pumproom and the cargo pumps. While loading cargo is pumped from
ashore and during discharge, ship's pumps are used. From the pumps
the oil is led to the deck and out through the manifold.

2. Stripping : A smaller diameter cargo line is used to strip the last

remains of cargo which is below the suction of the main cargo pumps.
Stripping lines lead to stripping pumps which may be of the reCiprocating
or eductor type, also situated in the pumproom.

3. Ballast : Ballast may be taken into cargo tanks before which they
must be washed. When cargo is loaded, the ballast must be pumped out.
Care must be taken that ballast pumped out is clean within the limits as
set out in the Marine Pollution Regulations to avoid stiff penalties. Ballast
is also taken in tanks which are exclusively used for ballhst. However the
cargo pipelines and pumps service these tanks. They are known as Clean
Ballast Tanks. lf ballast tanks have their own pipblines and pumps
separate lrom that used for cargo, they are called Segregated Ballast
Tanks. Segregated ballast tanks are often protectively located around the
hull to reduce damage to the cargo tanks and the resultant pollution in
case of an accident. (collision, grounding, etc.)

Ballast tanks have their own stripping arrangemenls.

4. lnert Gas : To maintain the atmosphere in an inert condition, inert

gas is generated in the inert gas generator which is usually situated near
the funnel, aft o{ the accommodation. The line branches out to the
different lanks where inert gas is let in at the top. While loading, this gas
is displaced by the cargo and it must be let out safel!'as it willbe mixed
with CH gas. The ventilation system leads to the PV valves (Pressure-
Vacuum valves) and PV breaker which functions as a safety valve. ln

u
some ships High velocity Vent Valves (HWV) may be fitted to discharge
the gas high above the deck.

S. Cn,ee Oil Washing (CbW) : The crude oil washing (QOWI lines lead
ott trfr tne main Oiscnar-ge line to the COW mach;nes. The cargo-itself
is used to wash the tanli and stir uir and dissolve the waxy, asphaltic
deposits which are carried out as the cargo is discharged. COW has been
lound to be more ef{ective than water washing. When water washing is
done, sea water is led from the deck fire main through hoses or pipes to
the washing machines.

6. steam Heating coils : To maintain the cargo in a viscous state and

redufilne tnrckening and formation of waxy deposits, it is heated slightly.
Steam, generated inthe boiler,is passed through coils running along the
bottom of the tank.

For other ship operations involving compressed air, deck water and
to fresh water, fuel oil and other tanks there are several other smaller
pipeline systems.

TYPES OF CARGO PTPELINE SYSTEMS

Tankers have a varied and sometimes complex pipeline system

which is basically based on three main types;
1. The Free Flow SYstem
2. The Direct Line SYstem and
3. The Ring Main System

1. fhe Free Flow System : This system is-mainly used on large crude
carriers which carry only one grade of cargo which is required to be
discharged quickly. Large gate valves built into lhe bulkheads of the tanks
allow th-e oil to flow from the side tanks to the centre tanks, from where
the stern trim of the vesselcauses the oilto flow to the aftermost tank,
where the suctions of the main cargo pumps are situated. The large
bulkhead sluice valves permit a good drainage of the cargo. Any residues
are discharged by the stripping pumps-

2. The Direct Line system : This system permits two or three grades
to be carried and is suitable for VLCCs as it facilitates quick loading and
discharging. The arrangement is simple with lines leading directly to the
tanks. bue to the straight lengths of pipeline, there is better suction and
less loss ot.pressure due to friCtion. Fewer bends and valves mean less
85
 ru
(}
tt, sL
E + , P + + t
lrJ .5
F
t/l X
vl + + + t +
z q,
-e
:sL
a + + h + ,
E
f- s
(.'
z E f
d.
a
a,
J
t
o
E
LU
<Jl
r r r r r *
nl .c
cl.
T
q.D

.Jl
g : 'G(lJ
+ + + + + \
fr, {
z U

:i
A.
F
(J L L L L E
trl
g a
F
a q

-S
C
.9

f
t
+ +.
iL
E a
lrj
t-
vl , +
rl
( l+ I

+
o
= i n_ t *
lt

(r L= v+ .{
.g
c
+ .t +
hS
\-s
trJ
rrj
d,
u
f
Fig. 9.2 : Cargp Pipeline systems
-86
. erosion and leaks, reducing the
mainten'ance required. The time spent
'in
line washing is also reduced; however thorough washing uf.the line is
not possible unless the washings are flushed into the tank and discharged
from there. Due to there being fewer valves, leaks are difficult to control
and many grades cannot be carried as the required line and valve
segregation is not provided.

3. The Ring Main System : This system is ideal for product carriers
where several diflerent products are to be carried simuttaneously in the
different tanks. From the figure, it will be noticed that any pump can be
connected to discharge any tank, making-it very versatile. Cargo may
have to be pumped in a roundabout route but the required two valve
segregation between products can always be met. Line washing can be
carried out thoroughly without flushing into the tanks but it takes a longer
tirhe due to the number of bends, ioints and valves. Due to this the
pumping rate also is affected and leaks due to erosion become common
as the ship becomes older. The initialcost of litting this system is higher'

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

The procedures for loading are discussed here. Similar procedures

have to be followed (maybe in reverse) for discharging.

1. Before the tanker arrives at the berth, an exchange of information

takes place between the port and terminal authorities and the ship
regarding
i) Particulars of the ship, draft and trim..
ii) Any defects in hull, machinery or equipment.
iii) Berthing arrangements, tugs, maximum draft at berth, etc.
iv) State of the cargo tanks, whether inerted, washed, etc. and the
oxygen concentration in the tanks.
v) Ship's manifold details, including size, location, number, type and
material of the connections
vi) Any requirements for tank cleaning, disposal of slops and/or oily
ballast residues.

2. After the ship is berthed the terminal representative appraises the

chief officer of the following:
i) Specifications of the cargo to be loaded (flash point, vapour pres-
sure, etc.), and any other characteristics requiring special attention.
ii) Quantity of the cargo to be loaded and the loading sequence.
ii0 Number and sizes of hoses or arms available and the manifold
connec1ionsrequiredfor.eachproductorgradeofcargo.
iv) Thqmaximum shore pumping rate, tofping off rateind the pressure
availablei at the manifold.
v) Establishment ol an efficient communication system with signals for
emergency stop and the standby time required for normal pump stopping.

3. The chief officer informs the terminal representative of any timita-

tions.which may require adjustments to be made to the loading operation.
In addition he has to appraise the terminal representative oi
Iii) {ny part cargq already on board; its grade, votume and location.
Quantity, distribution and composition.of ballast and pumping out
time.
iii) Proposed method of venting tanks.

4- on the basis of the above exchanged information, an operarional

agreement in writing is made between a responsible ship's officer and the
terminal representative. A ship/shore safety check list is also completed
jointly, wherein a physicalverification of the items contained is canied
out.
(The items in the check list are covered in Safety procedures).

5,. A cargo surveyor or inspector may board the vesselto inspecl the
ship's tanks prior to loading. lt is possible to use ultage or sighting ports
for this but if entry into the tanks is required, they must be qas tree.

6. The pipelines are now set lo receive the cargo ih the appropriate
tanks. The valve positions must be checked by the duty officer noi only
fronr the indicators in lhe cargo control room but also by physical
verification. Direct loading is carried out bypassing the pumproom.

7. The gas relief lines are set up by shutting the bypass valves and
checking that the PV valves and pV breaker arb setlo operate at the
correct pressure. sea intake and overboard discharge valves are to be
securely shut and lashed.

B. Gargo is started at a slow rate to ensure that it is going into the

correct tank and to reduce the build up of a static charge. Gangway and
moorings must be constantly tended to, lo prevent the ship from surging
or ranging which may cause the hose to rupture.

B8
g. As the cargo is being loaded,.samples of the cargo, its temperature
ind relative deisity is talien to determine the finalullage. This may be
different from the pre-computed ullage due to actual temperature and
relative density of the cargo being different from the assumed values'
When this level is neared, the tank vatve is slowly shut, at the same time
another tank valve is slowty opened to prevent excess pressure being built
'
up in tne line. When the fihaitank is being loaded, the pumping rate from
ashore is first reduced and finally stopped when the required ullage is
attained, The pipeline is emptied into the tank by blowing through with
compressed air or inert gas.

10. The manifold valve is closed. final uffages, temperatures and

retative density values are taken, quantities are determined and docu-
ments signed.

11. Other valves,'ullage openings, etc. are securely closed, PV valves

are reset, pipeline is disconnected, oilspills are cleaned up and the ship
prepared for sailing.

While discharging,

1. The inert gas system must be able to cope up with a large demand,
otherwise discharge may have to be slowed down or stopped.

2. Emergency shut down procedures must be decided and remote

operated switches lor cargo pump shut down tried out.

SAFETY PROCEDURES

The general principle in eliminating risk of fire or explosion on a

tanker is to avoid a source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being
present in the same place at the same time. In cargo comparlments,
pumprooms and the tank deck, petroleum vapours can always'be ex-
pected and so sources of ignition must be strictly eliminated from these
areas. In the accommodation and engine room there are innumerable
sources of ignition from electric appliances, motors, smoking, tools, etc.
and so flammable vapours should not be allowed to enter these spaces.
In deck workshops, storerooms and lorecastle areas both flammable
gases and ignition sources are to be safely controlled.

89
1. ,- smoking is to be permitted onry at times and in ptaces designated
by the M.aqt9r., such praces are so chosen nhere.i-,try.or
frammabre
vapours is highly irnprobable. Matches and cigarettb tgnieis
shoutd not
be garrigd outside rhe accommodation. rt is e-xtremerv-roorisn
to smoke
in hiding.
2. . 'Naked lights should.nor be pe.rmitted on the tank deck. Altftashlights
and other portable equipment should be approved ov a co*pdient
authority for safe use in a flammable atmosphere. They inouH be care-
fully examined for defects, with no oamaled insulat'ion and securely
attached to the cable..Notices against smoking and the use of naked lighti
sh6uld. be prominently displayed. Fixed.edorical equipment must be
properly maintained so that it or its wiring does not become a source
of
ignition. Airdriven lamps, fitted with meani to avoio accumutation of static
electricity may be used in flammable atmospheres.

3. UHFA/HF transceivers should be intrinsically safe. wireless trans-

mission of medium or high frequency can induce in electrical potential in
derricks, masts, stays, metal posts, etc. so these shoutd be efficiently
earthed. Radar, telephones and closed circuit television should not be
operaled if the ship is in a hazardous zone where an electric potential can
be.induced in shore conductors. vHF, UHF and sateilite communications
are generally safe.
4. Befoie a, ry chipping, hammering or any other hot work is carried out
or any power toot is used outside the engine room or accommodation, the
officer should ensure that a hot work ceiiticate is'obtained and the space
remains gas free throughout the work period. The space should be
checked for adequacy ol oxygen and absence of any,toxic or flammable
gases.

5. Before entering into enclosed spaces, spaces which have flammable

or toxic gases or are delicient in oxygen and the pumproom whenever it
is used; thorough and efficient ventilation must becariied out. Entry into
the pumproom is to be only permitted when the extractor (or blowerifans
are running and extracting air right kom the bottom of the pumproom. A
breathing apparatus set should be rigged ready and easily iccessible. All
doors , portholes and otheropenings into the accommodition ana engine
room must be kept shut. ventilation or air-conditioning units must be put
on recirculation.

6. Aluminium equipmem like gangways, portable tadders, etc. when

dragged on deck leaves a smear which, if subsequently struck, can give

90
 afuminium
rise to an incendive spark, Magnesium, and to a lesseiexlent'
rusty ste€l''Only
.noa"r, give riseto in inceqd'iv€ spark on'impact W1h
zinc inodes are permitt€d in oiltanks'
;, -

oil; espqntty
Z. Cloth, wood and bthermateriils, when stained with
ignite by spontaheous combuS-
u"g.tiUl" olf, graduaityn""t up,ahd can
stored-near oil, paini or c.hemicals or
tioi. Sucn maierials ihouU not Ue
qpgltaneou.s.ly ig.nite'When
be lvinq around. eirtain chemicals:€n
Any petroleum or other oils should not be allowe!
;;#ii[di;rporat". hot surfaces''
io fall or be,sprayed onto
.:'.:'
g. Fire fiQhting equipqrent must be kept in constant readiness' Portible
fire extinguisrre6 ruli.'U" r."pt tt"ndby at thb mani{old, lt should be
othef areas with sea-water or foaln
poiriOi. io ,oue, tne minifofd and
irom two nozzles.simultaneously. ,
1

g. special precautions to control sources of ignition'must betaken

in
gas uptakes and boilertubes must
inu.ndin" room. funneluptakes, inert
onf' Ul bbwn Uetoie-aiiiuit ot aier departure from.po.rt.'rSpark
"t
arrestors must be in good condition, oil spills cleaned and lrigh
a standard
In the galley, only stoves with
of personal safety ani hygiene maintained.
and these tocfiuSt be shut
in integrat heatihg etem6nt should be used
down if stern loading is in progress-
bollards
10. Emergency towing wires must be made fast to the otfshore
with su{ficiint slack srtp"nded about a metre above the water' The
main engines must "nJ be available at short notice'
red
11 .lnternational code of signals 'J' (B flag by.day and one all round
light by night) is to be continuously displayed'

12. scuppers and overboard discharges should be plugged, oilcontain-

pollution prevention
ing and disfersing equipment kept ready and allother
measures taken.

STATIC ELECTBICITY - HAZARDS AND PREVENTION

certain tanker operations give rise to an accumulation of electric

suddenly
charge, especially on dissimilar metals, which may be released
in electrostatic discharges with sufficient energy to ignite llammable
vapours. The two.metil. oppositely charged and the charge seeks
"re
the easiest way to travel between the two metals and neutralise
itself in
the form of a qPark.
91
 . 4 static charge may be formed in difterent ways e.g. passage of oit
through a pipeline (forming especiafly at the ftangei), ei'6ciion ot-a tiquio
or gas through a nozzle, creation of a mis or spray, siiaining or
agitaiion
of a liquid.if dropped from a height, bursting bt iir tiuootds-in oil, at the
interface due to the relative motion of two difi-erent liquids, p.rsing
a steel
tape or sounding line through gtoved hands, etc.

Atter loading a tank, suflicient time must be given forthe charge to

..
disperse before introducing an ullage tape, samplirig bontainer, thermom-
eler or anything else into the tank. synthetic ropeJmust not be used for
lowering as they accumurate a charge. Ail ship/sirore hoses, tank washing
machines, etc. must be properly bonded to present a pith=iorthe charg6
to flow to earth. An insulating flange is inserted between the shore pipeline
to prevent charge from travelling to the ship. white oils are static
accumulalors and should be made to flow as smoothly as possible.
compressed air or inert gas should not be used lor line ilearing unless
the air or gas is not allowed to enter the tank. '

GAS DETECTING INSTRUMENTS

1. Explosimeter or combustible gas indicator

It is used for the detection and measurement of combustible gases and

vapour. lt depends for its opera.tion on the heat developed uylne actual
combustion of the flammable portion of the sample. The sampte is drawn
over a heated filament which forms one arm of a balanced wheatstone's
bridge circuit. The current for the circuit is provided by six standard dry
cells. combustible gas in the sample is burnt on the iilament. Thus iti
temperature is raised and its resistance increaseslin proportion to the
amount of combustible gas burnt i.e. in proportion to the amount of
combustible gas in the sample. The circuit is now unbalanced which
causes a deflection of lhe meter. The scale is graduaied in percentage
ol the lower explosive limit. The initial balance of tne circuit is achieveo
in fresh air with the meter at zero by adjustment qf a rheostat R. in the
figure.

The limitations of the explosimeter are :

1 . As the explosimeteronly indicates the presence of llammable gases

and vapours it may be dangerous to enter the compartment as no
indication of toxicity is given, or sufficiency of oxygen.

92
 ConrburE"l Va,lve$
Chemtcr.

beter;Eof
Ftlqmta9

Fig. 9.3 : Explosimeter or combustible gas indicator

2. A compartment which is initially.safe may be rendered unsafe by

luture operations e.g. stirring or handling bottom sludge in a crude oiltank.
Hence frequent tests are required while the work is in progress.
3. l{ a compartment having a high boiling point liquid iS heated by
welding or other processes the vapour concentration will incfease and
such an atmosphere which originally showed a low Concentration vapour
may now be rendered exPlosive.
4. When testing at a high temperature some of the vapour may
condense in the sampling tube of the instrument, so only a smallconcen-
tration of vapour will be indicated by the instrument.
5. As the instrument'depends on combustion of,the tlammable portion
of the sample it cannot detect.in a steam or inert atmosphere due to the
absence of Or. ln the case of inerted tanks of vessels carrying ctude.or
refined petroleum products an instrument called a tankscope has been
specially designed to detect and measure the concentration of hydro
carbon vapour in the absence of oxygen-
Tankscope (Diagram same as lor explosimeter)
., .

The sensor element ol this instrument is a non+atalytic hot filament. The

composilion ol the surounding gas is determined lrom the rate of loss of
heat lrom the filament, withoul combustion, which is indicated by its
temperature and resistance. The presence of CH gas changes the
resistance of the sensor filament and this is shown by a deflection on the .
wheatstone's bridge meter. The filament is rpt alfected by the concen-
lration of the gas in the sample. In a very rich gas mixture the meter goes
to the maximum. position and remains there. The scale is directly
graduated in percentage volume of cH. The instrument is calibrated using
gas mixtures of a known CH concentration.

Multigas detector or Draeger Multitube detector

lic ?rna3a

heltftlr. fube Ct"

bnoltcn of 6oUr cnds)
I i".it,ct -tr3-SJ
Claia '-
-F FL
C,G
-- Q.ga -

ErhcgsE

Fig. 9.4 : Multigas detector

This is used to delect the presence of a variety of ioxic gases inside the
compartment. They work on the principle of chemical absorption of the
gas to be detected by a re-agent which gets discoloured. A sample of the
atmosphere is drawh into a tube containing crystals of the reagent. The
tube is graduated and the levelof discolouration indicales the concentra-
tion of the vapour in the sample. The amount of air drawn through the tube
must beexactly the same each time; to ensure this the bellows must be
lu lly compressed and allowed to expand to the full limit of the limiter chain.
The tubes have a shelf life of two years. Both ends of the tube are broken
before use and one end is fitted into the pump head. Diflerent tubes are
used for detection of different gases.

94
Oxygen Anafyser

Fig. 9.5 : Oxygen Analyser

fhis instr:ument is used to check the O., conteni pf the atmosphere w.ithin
a tank or other conlined gpace:' Samples of the atmosphere:are drawn
by means of a rubber aspirator bulb and pasged over a sensor". The
sensor is the most important part of the instrument and can be of various
types :

1. Parqmagnetic Sensqr,:.The,magnetic properties of oxygen is used

to deflect a light, metal body;suspended in a magnetic field: When the
gas is drawn the eell, the suspended body experiences a force
T:ounn
F
L t r-, t t , | .-r' I

u
E

0
A
S ElcVl.r.nts ffi' +scRuB

Fig. 9.6 : Insert Gas System

proportionalto the magnetism of the gas. An equal and opposing force

is produced by an electric cunent passing through a coilwould round the
suspended body. This equalising current is proportional to lhe magnetic
torce ol the gas which depends on its O. content.

2. Electrolytic Sensor : In lhis type oxygen is passed into an electrolytic

cell causing a curr€nt to flow between two electrodes separated in a liquid
electrolyte. The currenl flow between the electrodes is directly propor-
tionalto the O. concentration in the sample. In this type, certain gases
may aflect the sensor or poison the electrolyte giving rise to lalse
readings.
: .

3. Ghemical absorption li,quid : In lhis type a known volume of the

sample gas is brought into'contact with a measured volume of a liquid
which absorbs O; causing'a change in its volume. The change in volume
is a measure of lhe O, bontent of the sample.

Before use, the O. analyzer must be conectly calibrated. Zero

calibration can be done by immersing the probe in nitrogen or CO..
Maximum check is carried out in air. The adjustment screws are used to
set the melerto the correct reading. The instruction manual must always
be consulted for proper operation and maintenance.

96
 P/v Vai"a
VEntzdto rjcnL, \ine(
atros$erel

il,,c'flw,l|
I U-6.I eOt
An 5er
f
7re99ut€ r{on&tul'n t
Rraulabnq Valv0.
Vrilva tt\qin

THE INERT GAS SYSTEM

Flue gas from the boiler is cleaned, cooled and tested before use,
Exhaust from the main engine is not used for two reasons :
1. Inert gas is most required during discharge in port, when the main
engine is not running.
2. To ensure complete combustion of the fuel, extra air is ted into the
engine (turbocharged) resulting in a greater concentration ol oxygen in the
exhaust.

The Boiler Uptake Valve must be opened before the system is

started. The gas passes through a back flow plevention device, which
acts like a deck seal. The back pressure has to push the waler up the
U-tube whose height is made sufficient to take the maximum back
pressure expected.

ln the scrubber, the gas is cooled by bubbling it through sea water.

It is then washed thoroughly under a water spray by making it take a
tortuous path through venturi slots, impingement plates and baffle trayS

containing silica, Ceramic chips, stones, etc. The gaS is now almost free
of solublegases like SOz, SO3, NO and NO. as well as insoluble particles
like soot, dust, etc. lts t-empdrature has come down from 250" to 300"c
to within 5" of the sea water temperature. Moisture is trapped by the
97
Demister Pad ard the gas flows to the blowers. The scrubber is internally
coated with a good polyurethane or epoxy coating to resist conosion.'

The Blowers must be at least lwo in number with a total capacity of

1.25 times the total rated capacity of all the cargo pumps. Vatvei to
controllhe flow (and backflow) of gases, are fitted on the tine, on both
sldes of the blowers. some shipowners go in for two similar blowers, so
that same spares can be used and parts interchanged. other prefer one
large blower to be used during discharge and a smafler blower when
topping up at sea.

An oxygen Analyser tests that the gas does not contain more than
5% oxygen. The oxygen content of an oiltank should not exceed g%. At
the same time its temperature should not be hQh othenrvise the gas is
vented to the atmosphere or recirculated.

A Pressure Regulating Valve regulates the supply pressure and

alarms sound if the pressure becomes too high or too low.

The Deck Seal and Non-Return Valve are automatic and manual
devices to prevent backflow. Backflow of gas could result in cH gas from
the cargo tanks reaching the boiler, leading to an explosion.

The line branches out on deck, after the Deck Main Valve. to the
various cargo tanks. Gas from the tank is vented out to the atmosphere,
high above deck through PV Valves, P]tEfeakets or High Velocily Vent
Valves (HVWs).

Crude OilWashing (COW)

Washing the tanks with crude oil has been found to be advartageous
in several ways. Crude oil stirs, agitates and disperses sludge and
sediment, holding it in suspension and canying it out during discharge.
sludge deposits reduce elficient drainage resulting in prolonged stripping
operations. lt also lowers the shipls carrying capacity causing loss in
earnings, prolongs water washing, dirties clean ballast and can cause
pockets Of CH gas to lorm, lhus impeding gas freeing of tanks. COW
saves time and expenses in tank cleaning and also improvesthe oul turn
of cargo. Pollution risks are reduced, so is conosion of pipes and plating
and contamination of cargo by.sea uraler.

98
 However, COW increases the
work load in port'.reduces the dis-
personnelto carry it out salely.
charge rate and it,"q,iii"i irained

CoWiscarriedoutusingfixedmachineswithoneoitwonozz|es.
The nozzles can rot;te in ti" vertical and
horizontal plane and the
prog;r.rd tanks as the cargo
to wash sec,tions of the
machine can be
is discharged.
CgW' is also
Tanks must always be inerted during ry"t"iYtng ballast or
oil on the next voyage or
to be carried out it caifuing a cleaner
for man entry.

v,-_

5rece I SrnGE II

| -.
l'
I
Srnap E
I

Fig.9.7 : Crude Oil Washing

POLLUTION
oI substances delete-
Pollution is introduction into the sea by man,
causes harm to marine birds
rious to the marine unui.l.*"nt. Po||ution
beaches' marinas' scenic
aquatic ffoi" anO fauna' lt harms
""Ojittt'a"O
99
spots, harbours, desarination plants, fish farms, etc. -
the.rist is endress.
It reduces the amenitieg f9r iishermen, sairors, preasure
craft owners,
thosewhodriil foroirand mineforminerars, forths;;; h;pr";ty
in abundant quantity, hydrographic and omer suruey;;:;il of them
legitimate users of the sea. -
a[ other

Pollution is caused by shore based industries as wert

as by marine
transportation, especially of oil and other marine pollutants.
At sea, it is
caused in two ways :
1. operationar poilution during tahk washing, debailasting, etc.
2. Accidental Pollution when stranding, grorinding or coltiiion
occurs.
The lMo has had pollution prevention regulations in force for
several
years - the latest being the Regulations fortie prevention
of pottution at
sea (MARP)L 7a/78) and all iis subsequent amendments. The regura-
tions have 5 annexes covering.oir, noxious liquid substances in 6urk,
harmful substances carried in packages, sewage and garbage. rt
regulates the concentration of oil in oily-vvster rnix[ures to de oiscnarged
and controls the discharge rate and quantity of oildischarged. oily *iter
cannot be discharged in special areas and is restricted at sea, especially
close to land. ships must be fitted with an oil Discharge trtonitoring
ano
control system (oDMcs) and oity waler separator
fows).
top, slop tanks, cow and retention on board for disposai ro a shore
Load-on-
reception facility are mandatory methods for reducing ind disposing
of{
slops. All operations involving roading, discharginglnd transfer of oil
must be entered in the Oil Record Book.

To reduce pollution, cargo officers must be duty conscious and

knowledgeable. Tanker operations, if carried out correctly will always be
sa{e. The International safety Guide for oil rankers ano rerminari
(lscorr) must be followed. A continuous uratch must be kept for
pollution. In case of an oil spill, shut down cargo, raise the alarm on ship
and at the terminal and take measures to conirol the spill and prevent a
fire or explosion.
CARGO CALCULATIONS
The weight of cargo is determined from the product of its volume and
density. The depth o{ cargo is measured from uilage readings and tables
give the volume of the tank for various depths. Both thJvolume and
density are affected by changes in temperature, so this must be carelully
measured and allowances made. American petroleum lnstitute (Aplj
Tables are extensively used on board ships for this purpose.

100
Worked Example 1 : A tank 9m x 8p x qT
it to be loaded witlr oil of RD
qfbitshbuld be loaded if an allowance
,n;;il;;,
0.92 ar 20€. How the oilat the
expansiolot
ol3%of rhe tank voli#e.r i"-U:;ioe.for
hishest temperature file€j
on the voyagei .I1t--fsperature
at the toadport is 1
"iptied ipacg ocgu^qttd space
s"Cl-Wriai i5 ihe ratio oi tree !o
correction factor 0'0005fC)
in the tank at rhe Io"Ojng poni iO"n.ity
AlgOnceoilisloadedinafank,itsmassdoesnotchange;onlyitsvolume
rt g7' of the tank volume isto be
changes with changJoi;il;t;ttte'
't
left will
left for expanrion tn. igh;tt t.tperature, then the ullage to be
"t oitiellnfi"tt,iting the tankto be ot constant area)'
be 3% of the freignt
sounding = TotalHeight-- ulllge
Volume of oil = L x B x Sounding
9,x g^11'J6 =^558'72m'
Therefore, Volume = 9 x 8 x (8 - 37o of 8) =
-
RD at 28oc = d:et ' o.ooos iza zo) 9'92 : ' 0'004.= 0-s16
with increase of temperature
Note that retative denshy decreases
and vice versa.
Masso|oi|at2S"Cwhichissameasthemasso|oi|tobe|oaded
is fherefore= 558.72 x 0.916 = 511'79 tonnes'
Thevo|umethatthisoiloccupiesatthe|oadingporttemper}ture
= 511.7d = 554.79
m3'
0'92 + 0'0005 (20 - 15)
9 x 8 x 8' 554.79 : 554'79
Therefore ratio of tr"lip""", occtipieO spice =
= 1 : 26.16
Worked Examole 2 A tank of :
constant area has a volume ol
20,000 ms and a dePth ol 20 m'
Oilof RD 0.79 @ 20"G (correc-
tion factor 0.0009/"C) is being
loaded. lf the maximum tem-
perature expected during the voY-
age is 4?C, and a safetY margin
oi tt of the volume of the tank
is required at that temPerature'
find the ullage on comPletion ol
loading and the mass of oil
loaded, it top ol the ullage PiPe
extends 0.5 m above the tank
top.
Fig.9.8

101
 exeu+rs rnn EtEAerip
of ccinst-ant
1.. ,{tgn!q:86 area is l0mdeep and has a vorume of 3000 m{
9jfl'lp @ s0.C-(correcrion facto? o.oooenC) oeinj,fo"ded atr
ot 2% or rhe vorume of oir roadLd is-to b1 made for
l9l9_]la
expansrQn, 1ilo.y3nce
fincl the ullage on completion and the mass of
': oil.loaded.'
2' A vessel'has a redangular tarik of depth
22m and cross section 1g
m X 18 m. The roading is cirried out ar 2?b.
is required during the voyage with maximum
A;inil;; trirajeor r.sm
pectedj Given sOecific.gravity of ollis p.gj -temperature of 38oc ex-
at 15"C; bOrrection for specific
gravity = 0.0006/€, .{ind the uilage ai loading pJ.t
Voyage if the temperalure unexpe-ctedly rises
'
ano urrale during
u-pio 41.C. ..-,'

3. A tank of constant area has a votume of:g500,nrul(inctuOing a

*:jlyy. gg)j rhe depr h of e ra nk a lon e is r b mi"o tie iL. r.*-"v,
r h
anorner:I"lto
m. 5670 t of coconut oil of RD,0.7 is to be loaded. .Find the
unage on comprerion of roading, it tne uflage
trunkway.
prlgtrr;ith" id; il;;

4. ' A tank of volume 6000m3 is 12 m deep. tt is being'toade.!

with oil
of RD 0.762. The rank hqs an uilage pipe extending
0.7 rn'"uou"'inel'ini_
t9.n, Tfe shore piperine is 8 km tongand 40 cm inioaretei.
it rne entire
oil in the pipeline is also to be loaled, and an allowance of 2o/oof
the
vo|umeofthetankistobe|eft|orexpansion;'find
(i) the ullage at which the order to shut the refineryr--':----'
valve should be
given, '
{iil the ullage on compterion of toading and .

(iii) the mass o{.oil toaded. (Take t6 Ue S.t+t SS1.

102
S.Ashipof40,oo0tDWThasfivecentretanksof4000m3vo|umeeach
rnO t.n *ii g tanks of 3OO0 t ea"h. Bunkers ard
stores and FWtotalling
(conection-factor 0'00077
ro iOOO t ar6 on UoarJ.- bitot nO 0.85 @ 20"C
;Ciis';-G toaOed. Each tank is ol constant area and 10 m deep, and
lf all are lo be
n.''t .. ,ff"ge pipe p.i"aing 0r5. m above the tank-top'
of 30oC
lilled so as to reach an'ullagE of 1 m at a maximum temperature
tYI owing lo
;;;"g., t'to.s c6ntre which mav remain rytt!3llv
tank on
to hermarks, find ullage and mass of oil in each
"*""pt
riii[ ULi"g d'"wn
completion of loading.

103
 .CHAPTER,TEN ,

: MORE CARGOES

; SUGAR .

sugar in bags is a moist commodity from which a conslderable

amount of syrup drains, resulting in a loss olweight of nearly 10-12%. The
worst form is jaggery (unrefined sugar). This shoutd not 6e stored near
or above dry, reflned sugaras it is readilydamaged bythedraining syrup.
Sugar may also be carried in bulk.

Hold cleaning and preparation Holds should be made free of

:
acid and oilstains and thoroughly washed, cleaned and dried. Bilges are
to be washed, cleaned, tested and cement washed. DB tank manholes,
sounding pipes and all air pipe connections to the tank top plating should
be checked for water tightness. Limber boards should be made sugar
tight by caulking.

Receiving the cargo : The cargo should be inspected before

loading especially if it is arriving by barges. The cargo should not be
wetted by salt water. Bags should not be torn and bleeding. port marks
to be clearly legible on the bags. separation ol the cargo ihould not be
carried out by paint marks or water colours.

Loading the,Cargo : The cargo is loaded all over the holds. No

loading should be carr.ied out during wet orthreatening weather as sugar
ferments in the presence of moisture. The fermentation can be detecied
by the presence of alcoholic vapours. when such vapours are detected
thorough ventilation should be carried out. No naked lights should be
permitted in the vicinity of the hold. Any entry inside the hotd shoutd be
with proper breathing apparatus. ln case of fire, flooding of the compan-
ment is recommended but this should not be carried out in open seds.
Ventilation should not be restricted during the voyage except during wet
and very damp weather.

:
Discharge Before discharging, the hold should be thoroughly
ventilated before entry is allowed into the compartment. After compteiion
of discharge, the hold should be thoroughly washed with salt water and
rinsed with lresh water.

104
 g1.r
Properties of salt : The rnain property of salt isthat it is hygroscopic
i.e. it absorbs moistirre and.dissolVes-into a liquid. The bilges will have
to be pumped out regularlyduring th'e voyage. Saltis also corrosive and
damages ihe ship's itructure. Sitt is a crystat and in hot, dry conditions
will give out its water by evaporation.

Freparations for toading : Prior loading, all steelwork in the hold

is given a coat of lime (white-wash). The bilges are cleaned and
swietened. Side battens may be removed or covered with mats made
of palm leaves. Pillars in the hold must be similarly covered.. Separation
cloth may be used to keep the salt away from the steelwork'

Loading, carriage and discharge : Salt may be loaded by con-

veyor. belt or by canvai slings. After loading, the cargo_should be neatly
trimmed from side to iide. Good ventilation must be maintained through-
out the voyage to prevent Sweat formation. The air inside the hold must
be kept dry. bn tong voyages, the loss of weight may be 51"or more due
to evaporition. Dry goods liable to cake lrom moisture should not be
stowed..with salt. Salt should neither be stowed near wet or moist goods
or in insulated compartments or refrigerated containers. On completion
of discharge, the hold should be thoroughly hosed down, removing all
traces ol salt particles and finally rinsed with fresh waterto ensure proper
cleaning.

RUBBER

Rubber is the coagulated sap or milk obtained from a variety of

tropicaltrees, originally from Brazil but now also from Malaysia, Indonesia,
lndia and Sri Lanka from where it is exported to Europe and the U'S.A.
Rubber is a clean cargo and is suitable for slowage with most other goods.
However, fine cargoes such as tea and coffee, may get tainted with the
smellof rubber.

Factors affecting rubber :

1. Rubber is readily damaged by heat. Hence effective ventilation

should be carried out to prevent.accumulation of heat.

2. .
Rubber is damaged by contact with oils, grease or acids. "

Rubber which has come into contact with any oil is useless. Hence it
should be effectively separated.lrom oily cargoes.
. r05
3. Rubber will deteriorate and get inouldy if il comes in contact with
moisture or moist goods which are liable to heat and srreat lke cotton or
copia. Many claims arise from mildew damageiWffich is caused"either
beoause the contents i,vOie-not thoroughly dried wheri paoked.or be-cause
the packdQes were rivetted by rain bef6re shipm6nil Very oftbn the outside
of the packages get'quickly dried under the{ropical Sun bui it.is very
difficult to know the true condition of'the car$o;whethdr wet or-dry; inside
the package. Hence a thorougl watch should be kept and any stained
packages should bb iejected. When ubing dunnage'only thoroughly dried
dunnage is to be used as wet or damp du-nnale in contact with packages
of rubber will cduse mildew to form on iheir contents.

4. Rubbeii is mostly oflen shipped in thiri ptywood Cases whictt are liable
to c6llapse under very ordinary pressures, resulting in splinters penetrat-
ihg the contents and getting embedded in the.wiapping. CruShing damage
is the other reason for heavy claims. The result being that sheets become
compressed and siuck together. To prevent crushing damage, cases or
bales of rubber should not be stowed on rough, uneven surfaces. lf
stowing gn loB of anolher cargo, the surfaee should be made level'by
adequate use of dunnage. The eniire rubber case should be supported
uniformly on a firm and levelfloor. Fairly wide dunnage lengths should
be used for flooring and should be closely spaced so that packages are
well supported along most of its underside. Cases should be stowed
square and upright, never tilted and as compactly as possible. Ample
dunnage should be used at the turn of bilge, in Way o! slringers and
brackets and for filling broken stowage. Rubber cases should not be
stowed deep as the lower cases will be crushed by the yveight of higher
cases. Rubber should not be overstowed with another cargo unless the
cargo is very light. The spar ceiling should be overlayed with vertical
boards to avoid the bales part hanging on the edge of the bottom and part
unsupported

Separation : lt is best effected by a double layer of matting. Talc

should be only sparingly used to prevent sticking because of opposition
by labour in some countries. Separation may sometimes be done by
plastic sheeting which is difficult to retain in position as men walk and roll
bales over it. The cargo should be separated from ladders, pillars,
stiffeners, brackets etc. by dunnage and matting to prevent contact with
sweat. Rubber is shipped in sheets, blocks_ or crepe form and is packed
in cases, bales or bags. Crepe rubher is shipped in:a tacky, condition and
is subject to cold f low. To avoid it blocking squppers and bilges, it should
be given t'ween deck stowage, away lrom warm bulkheads and not in the

106
square of the hatch to.avoid exposure from the sun. Mats and dunnage
should not be used in this type of rubber but talc should be liberally spread
to prevent sticking. While discharging by slings, care should.be taken that
tne nale in the sling is not stuck to one in the hold, as it is liable to fall when
the load is lifted.
PULP AND PAPER FOLLS

Paper is made lrom vegetable matter reduced to pulp. wood of

balsam, spruce, hemlock, Coltonwood and other materials such aS es-
parto grass, flax refuse, straw, iute and rags also may be used. Paper
usuallf is shipped in rolls, the ends of which are, in some cases, protected
by ciriular discs of wood; in other cases the rolls are simply wrapped with
tnick paper wilh extra layers over lhe ends. Rolls of paper vary from 0.5
- 2 m in length, with diameters varying considerably, averaging in mixed
shipments io about 0.9 m. The main categories of paper consist of
newsprint, printing paper and Kraft paper.

Handling of Paper Rolls : Paper rolls are extremely sensitive to

mechanical damage particularly at the flat ends of the rolls. Any such
damage to the ends, flattening of the rolls or distortion of the core may
make them useless for modern high-speed printing machines and may
result in heavy claims lor damage. Modern mechanical, hydraulic or
vacuum operaied lifting equipment and trained personnel are employed
in loading. Slings made of webbing.(man-made fibre) or soft rope should
be used, if modern equipment is not available. Utmost care must be taken
.when using swinging derricks to prevent the rolls from banging against
hatch coamings, the ship's side, etc., which tehds to destroy their shape
and inf lict other mechanical damage. Dragging into or from the wings, and
the use of cargo hooks or crowbars should never be permitted when
handling paper.

Stowage : Holds must be properly prepared before loading' They

must be clean and any sharp protrusions should be cushioned in the best
possible manner, to avoid damage to the paper. Ventilator or fan
openings must however be left free to operate as air circulation is very
necessary to avoid sweat damage to the paper.

Paper rolls are most often stowed on end in a vertical position as fork
lifts are designed to handle them this way. However, to tit in under the
deck, the top roll may be stowed on the bilge or roll (sides). A few slings
in the hatch Square may be preslung, to provide Space for landing and
working the fork lift at the discharge port.
107
 1,./ -.r---\\
'\z'
.r7'
/, l
/
V'? ,/

{ c 'it/ ***'.
\*-J'*"

Fig. 10.1 - Handling of paper

108
 Rolls ol paper should be stowed solid and well chocked,
to avoid
top tier is stowed on its side
movement whenthe vessel is at sea. ll the
or bilge, every precaution must be taken to ensure that this top tier
is
aOrqu.iefy.noiftO. lf the vessel is stitf or normally has a violent motion
in i""*iy, this form of top tier storvage shoqld be. avoided if other
"
suitable caigo is available. lt is extremely difficult to.chock the top tier,
."u.ing serious'claims in such stowage due to rolls breaking loose'
ln end holds, where the sides taper, care should be'exercised lo
is both level
ensure that the platlorm on which the upper tiers are stowed
and firm. The most satisfactory way of doing this by is building a series
ol pt.tfor*r (or bridges) of suitible width to take the diameter of the larger
roils, the platforms themselves regting on firm supports'

Allstaunchions, ladders, etc., should ue weitcovered with burlap or

other protecting maierial to avoid chafing; dunnage sh.ould be used
throughout to fill in gaps and prevent movement of the rolls, particularly
so if t6e cargo doesirot entirely fillthe hold or compartment. Nowadays,
air-filled bagi are available in piace ot dunnage, lor chockingthe rolls' The
amountof broken stowage wiih a cargo of paper is very considerable- The
smaller rolls may, with reasonable care, safely be utilised {or filling in
between larger rolls.

Rolls of paper very considerably in their moisture content. ln a totally

enclosed space therefore (e.g. a closed box container), sweat may be
formed. Ventilation must be carried out in holds'

Fire : ln case of fire in a hold Containing paper, never use water.

close all openings.and flood the hold with co.. laper absorbs water
causing the rollslo swell and rupture the sides-and top of the hotd.

PULP

Woodandpaperpulpisshippedincompressedba|es.as..dry''and
,Wet" pulp. lt is made from various kinds of timbers, and is shipped in large
quantities from the timber areas of the world, e.g. scandinavia, canada,
British Columbia, U.S.A., etc'

Woodpulpisveryliabletodamageandcontaminationbydirt
(parficularly'fibies) or the remnants ol previous commodities in a ship
hold. During handiing it must be kept clearof anycontactwith ropes, etc"
and should be loaded and discharged with wire or chain slings'
Remnants

109
 of the previous cargo (and-particurar grain)
shourd be carefuily removed
and the space creaned before tne coirmencement
of roading purp.
Bares of purp may be unitised with wire
bands securing the bares.
It is very often permissibre anc acceptable
to rift by these bands, and some
equipmenl is designed to do so. However, it is
advisabi", rn"t
of strengrth be provided for the banding. ""rtiricates

IRON AND STEEL CARGOES

Referto MS Notice No. M 931 and the stowage

and securing Gode.
lron and steel cargoes.include prg iron, steel
billefs, round bars,
pipeq' steel plates, coirs of sheet meiaiano
wire coirs, iteei-scrap ano
swarf. The danger with steercargoes is that if they ,n,tt,
inJv damage
other cargoes because of their weight or even rupture
the"rn
ship,s side.
Hence securing these cargoes properry becomes'v"rv
best way is to rever them and over stow them with
irp"nant. The
otn6, i,iitaore cargo.
since'these cargoes are heavy they must nor be carried
in rhe fween
decks as the GM reduces and there ii a greater risk
of cargo shitting. The
height to which these cargoes can be stowed is restricied
by the load
density of the deck and tank top.

l'.9 lron I onrv a minimum necessary.ro prevent the ship becoming

too stiff shourd be srowed in the t'ween -oeci<s. rne
caigJshould be
spread over the entire tank top and trimmed level
as tar ai possible. lt
should be or.'er stowed with orher suitabre cargo to prevenr
it shifting. rf
this is not possible then shifting boards or bins, oi robust
construction
rising to a height above the rev;r or pig iron, wiil have
to be fitted.
steel Biilets : steer biilets shourd be stowed from burkhead
ro
bulkhead tightly. Any empty space shourd be riiled
wilh dunnage to
prevent lhe cargo f;'orn shifting. Dunnage
should also be used to make
a level platform for loading. the bilrets esplcially when
thiy aie irregurarry
shaped. The cargo shourd be overstowed and idditionalpiecautions
such
as tomming and lashing may be taken.

Round Bars and pipes : These shourd be stowed rore

ancr aft,
level, from burkhead to burkhead and carefuily
tommed or Lshed to
prevent shifting. overstowing may arso
be necessary. spaces between
large diameter pipes shourd ue totteo as shown
in tig. r'i0.2.

110
 llockine\"ottt \

wedges on eoch coil

mbe r f or shoring ond chocktng

oo
o
oooo
r| \\\-:L-
\.r-=-'l-'
notiot dunnoge
Fig. 10.2 : Stowage of coiled sheet metal

111
 Steel Plates : These cargoes must be stowed on firm bases. They
are prone to slip over decks, other cargoes or their own surfaces, so
trictibn must be increased by inserting dry dunnage between the plates.
when they move, restowage at sea is impossible so they stroirto be
secured by chain or wire lashings as well as by tomming.

Coils of Sheet Metal or Wirc : They should be stowed in regular

tiers lrom side to side making maximum use of pillarc, bulkheads etc.
Each coil is stowed hard against its neighbour and_ wedges of dunnage
driven under the rounds, to prevent the coil from rolling (see Fig.l0.2).
Locking coils should be lashed to the two coils supporting it. The stow
ihould be secured by using wire lashings to secure the coils together and
to lash each row to the bulkhead. Dunnage is to be used to fill in the gaps.
Wire coils may be stowed flat and tight against one another.

Steel Scrap and Swarf : This is loaded in bulk and must be levelled.
The tank top must be protec{ed by lowering a few slings gently at first till
a cushion is formed to absorb the impact of cargo falling from the conveyor
beh. The cargo may consist of turni4gs which are oil stained as well as
rags and other impurities which make il spontaneously combustible.
Metalscrap may also include large pieces in various sizes shapes
and mass, loaded by slings. Such cargo is to be securely lashed to
prevent shiftinE.

112
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

CARGO PLANS

The principle of stowing cargo is to :

1. Ensure the safety of ship and crew from danger arising {rom the
manner in which the cargo is stowed or the type of cargo.
2. Protect the cargo from damage, loss or deterioration and to ensure
a good out turn.
3. Ensure optimum use of the vessel's cargo space and henee maxa-
mize the freight earnings of the vessel.
4. Obtain the highest possible port speed.
9afety of Ship and Crew

The ship should be in a stable condition at alltimes or ballast must

be taken to obtain such a condition. Heavy weights should be stowed at
the bottom but care must be taken that ship is not too stiff nortoo tender.
Slack tanks should be kept to a minimum, to have minimum loss of stability
due to Free Surface Effect. Deck and engine room must closely liaise and
co-operate with each other io ensure that tanks are not lilled or emptied
without knowledge of both departments. stability can change by con-
sumption of fueifrom lower tanks during voyage, 9r by absorption ol
moisture by certain cargoes like timber, sa!t, etc. Damage to vessel's
structure s-hould be avoided during loading and discharging. Weights
should be distributed evenly transversely as well as longitudinally to avoid
a list, trim by the head or excessive trim by the stern. The maximum draft
snouid be within port limits. Load density of decks should not be
exceeded. Derricks and cranes should be of adequate SWL to handle the
weight of lifts,

Safety of crew is most important. A clear understanding of the risks

. involved while handling hazardous goods is required of the ship's officer'
Hazardous goods can be divided into three categories'
1. Cargo6s which governments and the international community con-
sider so dlngerous thlt they have legislated acts to govein their carriage.
e.g. grain.
z.- bargoes which because of their hazardous nature has prompted the
IMO (lnt6rnational Maritime Organisation) or the ICS (lnternational
113
Chamber Of Shipping) to produce.safety co$es or codes of safe practice
for e.g. bulk cargoes, concentrates, petroleum, chemical'and gas car-
goes.
3. Cargoes which are considered dangerous enough to require lhe
attention of owners and rnaste"is to,.be brought to them in the.form ol M
or MS notice. For e.g. iron and stdelcargoes, eoalcargoes.

Safety of Cargo

Cargoes must be stowed in such a way so aSto preVent damage due

to any reason suc

1. Chafing or crushing
2. Moistuie and sweit. Cargpes'like salt, oil ukes and dry sklnS
absorb moisture.
3. Leakage or drainage. Wet-i;r rnbist cargoessttould noiO" stowed
on top of dry goods.
4. Fire. Any substance:Wtth,vg'!et4ble oil or aniinql oil yvlll.'heat up
spontaneously and hence"should not be'stswed near'hot Uult<'ttaOs.
Proper ventilation is to be carligd oUt for such cargoes.
5. Tainting, contaminationor.ileontpatibi{ty.
6. Pilferage or theft.
Economy of operation and.port soegd

Cargo should bedistributed sothatthe maximum ngmberof hatches

can be worked simultaneously so as to ensure.a Quiqlt tulnarcrund.of the.
ship. Rotation of discharge ports is.to be kept h t*rind,when loading.
Overcarried cargo is to be avoided by careful cheqting. Oargo plans
should accurately reflect the actual stowage to pfeverit gver carriagei.
Optionalcargo and flexibility is to be maintained. Hold bbpacity must not
be exceeded when.planning the stowage. Theavailabttity of spade and
deadweight should be regularly for.warded to.tbe dhipowner or his agents
so that cargo can be.booked forshiprnent:

POTNTS WHEN MAKING A CAFGO Plf;.r{

The plan is made up as cargo id loaded agrO*roufO accurately show

lhe distribution of every singlepircltagg ![rpu.gnUul ihevessel. The cargo
plan need not be made to scale.-''djheient'ooldurs'lnay be.uged to
differentiate between different ports of dischar.ge. The dect arid tlween
deck are shown as a plan or bird's eye view, whereas lhe lower, hotd is

114
 likb loading port, discharge
shown.as a elevation or side View. Infornlition
every
p.t, wdight, number oimits;'Aescription i6"rnr'lsl be shownrfor
parcel of cargo.
.separation used
Rernarks.like prdslung or palletised car.'go typesof
plan.musi be'ready before departure
etc-mayoe added: r4.lrto*"ge
it is presented to stevedores
inO n"iO.O r,o.tne oWriei or ag[nt'so thgt
ig"nt at fhe digihaige pJrt before the arrival of the vessel.
"nA
PROPERT]ES OF S9ME CAHGOES

Asbestos':is. a dangerous cargo and'people handlirlg it rnust.be

suitablyl
protecta againit dust. lt must b.e kept dty'

to pilfbiaqe'and .1nuft;Ue itowbd

Qeellwine$and spirits are susceptible
toekerfireterauly, They are iragile aird oare must be'takdrf dudng
fi'nulurtrrgil.d-JO*t'gt.
Tnly r:rnrst 6e re$ in a cool plqce'

BoneS. B,one mear. 4riqc{ hloocl arrr similer animatpfQdrtots

ugt be kept dry'arid arvay f'rom'other
iargoe" liablb'to taint.

pungent'
Cloves. einfamon. tt'merie and plhe[ spices, give olf'a strong' 'i
*t-t[6-petsists even after theca+go is discharged'
"d"tt
cotton. Jute. Coir. sisal. Espartg gr.ass. straw and other such commodi-
tler ar" sh',ppeO in tigf'tly;ressed bales. Car.e must be taken.t'hat'the
bales are not wef, foo"sety packed, oil stained or subiect to chaliRglwhrin
stowed as this promotes bpontaneous combustign'
are
t,"l,,able Atg;and must'be protected frorn'damage or lheft' Shipment
in containerJ or stowage in lockers is advised'

Fishmeal has an oflensive odour and is spontaneously combustible.

Foodstuffs are perishable and liable to taint. They should be refrigerated

or f.ept in a cool, dry, place away from hot bulkheads'

Glass. China. Earthenware. Sanitaryware. Ceramic Tiles' elc' are

@arelully.
shdets and tiles must be stowed
viry
Top stowage isto be given. Glass
standing on edge and hever flat.
115
Grain includes wheat, maize (com)1u€, odts, barrey,
rice, purses, seeds
and.orher processed torms. The hiildmust # rh.r;i,s ht.Llneo
loadirrg and precautions against shifting ouring the voiagt
t"tor"
,'nuit u.t"t
"n.
anct Leather give off a pungent odour and can taint
Hl4es other cargoes.
Hides may be shipped dry or wei. wet hides pi.tr"o o/aooin6
"r.
and so giv.9 off a rarge amount or brine during rn"roirbr. -t{J""rgo sart
be stowed below or on top of wet hides.
..n

Machlnerv mostly comes packed in wooden crates in a variety of

shapes
and sizes. All machinery must be handled with care as damage to the
crate may cause damage to the machinery or loss of parts which are
packed inside the crate. Heavy machinery must be given
bottom stowate.
Hand tools, ball-bearings, etc. are susceptible to iheft.

Mail hags are likely ro be pilfered and should preferably be given locker
stowage. They should be correctly tallied and lree troh any damage.

Oilseeds. oilcakes. soyabean Meal and such products which contain oil
including oily rags are spontaneously combusiible.

onions and Potatoes must be kept dry as they germinate and rot in moist
conditions. onions, garlic and ginger also give off strong smells and are
likely to taint other cargoes.

ores and concentratgs are mainly loaded in bulk and are high density
cargoes. They shor.rld not be stowed near wet or moigt cargoei and care
should be taken against a flow state developing. They ma-y also give off
-
toxic vapours or cause oxygen depletion in a ipace.

silk. cotlqn or synthetic Textiles are clean cargoes which must be

protected from staining by diny cargoes, dripping liquids, etc. They are
also likely to be pilfered.

Wqrked example : M.V.Hindship is to load at Bombay the following cargo

in the spaces mentioned below {ordischarge at Housion (HSTN) and New
Orleans (NOLA) in that order.

116
 Dimension m.(l-xBxD)
Space
(cold chamber) 317.1
No 4 Port
No 4 Stbd. (--"-'- )
313.1
106.6
Specialcargo locker
No. 4 T'ween deck 467.1' 22x 7 x3
No. 4 Lower hold 924A.3 22x18x8

Boneless beel 1.74 | 175 4"/" NOLA

Tea cases 1.90 | 220 10% HSTN
Species(coins) 0.30 | 350 NOLA
Machinery 1.50 | 7s0 Optional
Frozen shrimP 1.95 | 160 NOLA
Bones in bulk 2.2s | 500 NOLA
HSTN
Trucks

Ans. Before any rash or rapid decisions are taken a good look at the
the available spaces are recommended. The properties of
""rgffind shoutd bethougirt about and soon itwillbecomeapparentthat
G;;;;";r
some of the cargoes chooie their own stowage location'- .
Thus species or coins must definitely go i{tto t!9 specialcargo
locker
while the boneless beef and frozen shrimp cannot be put anywhere but

: -
into- the cold chambers.
A ptuOent off icer would check that the cargo can indeed
fit into these
and can fit
,p..rr. Thrs species occupy a volume of 350 x 0'3 = 105rn3
into the special cargo locker.
Boneless beeioccupies a volum s = 175 x (1 '74 * 7'P = 316'7ms
anO so can only lit into the'P'cold chamber, while
lrozen shrimp occupies
a volume = t.its x 160 = 312m3 and willgO intO the's'"gld chamber.
We are now |eft with the bones, tea, machinery and trucks.
From
pad;tudies it should be apparentllt te.a and bones ca.Lryt be stowed
iogefher as the tea witl geiiainted. So obviously they
will have to go in
se-parafe compartments.-The question is which one
where? An inspection
of ihe cargo figures will reveaithat bones will not
fit into the t'ween deck
*l',it" teaiitt.-Rtsp tea is to be discharged at Houston which is the first
port, so it must be stowed in the t'ween deck'
117
 Bones and machinely,are tfiereforeto
be stowed in.ttrerowerfiord
i1t
ycn ? way' that.the maximum numbei of trucksrcan be canied., Note
rhar rrucks are for Houg10n, magf in"tE
orteans* Try to work this drt wm,ouii*riiig'ati6;tri;;:
opii";;i;il#;;,
for New
.".T vou carry? Do not just divide the ii-rn"i"i"g i,;ir;ein
i;;$;;;
!ry.q
after lciading bones and. machinery, by the the.hord
voitrnib.ori tio"r,._i+":'r."Jit
and breadrh or rhe hord.can onryiir6 ,r,"ie i
--":::' v' "ev' ;rr-o!i:iiirir"..
Arso
confirm,lhat hebht for the truci'ls araildb,
' '' i:
"

fzg {6 BaNeuesSG,er
350t NOLA'Zr Aarnrnv I Qccott*o*c]
Seeue3 2ZOLg TEA
Noai
Et
8pl"i.err- tt'o g,S F-?oLeA SxtllnF-
NOLA Et BanJhv f Qcot't-,c^.-.

36 ry-Pl fn'ucrs
Hsrr.r Er gpmany
SgA t 8orurS O^r8,rui l56L Mnunttn
'Nace Ex Barne,et Optrc,iet 0t
8p,nr'et (r t*kt p loo

Fig. 11.1
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

1. . The following cargo isto be loaded in No.4 t,ween deck lower hold
and on deck of M.v.Hindship to be discharged at Boulogne,
Antwerp anJ
Hamburg in that order. luse the dimensionJgiven in the-worked
exampte.
S.F.(m tt)

Containers ' I nos. 15t each' Antwerp

Beer caSe's 1.90 55 Hamburg
'Tobacco 3.05 150 Boulogne
Steelpipes 1.50 750 Antwerp
Bandnas 2.85 200 100/" Optional
Onions 200 : Boulogne
Chemicaldrul Maximum
 Plan your stoUrage to minimize damage by any means, keeping in
mind the optional port and state how muctr chemicaldrums You can carry.

2. A vesselis to load in No. 2 t'ween deck (1000m).and lower hold

(1700m!), the following cargo. from Calcutta first and then Colombo for
discharge at Boston first and then Philadelphia.

Cargo S.F.(m n) Weiglrt (t) BrokeqSto*age Disch. Port

Ore 4.52 400 Calcutta

Gunnies 1.70 450 Calcutta
Gunnies 1.70 350 Calcutta Boston
Rubber 2.00 100 Colombo Philade
Machinery 2.00 65 Colombo Boston
Tea 3.10 BO Colombo Boston

Prepare a stowage plan anilfrllany remaining space with'rubber for

Boston, stating how many tonnes you have loaded.

119
 CHAPTER 12

THE DOCK LABOURERS ACT, 1934

An Act concerning the protection against accidents of workers
employed in loading and unloading ship.ttrl tnoian oocr t_iuourers Act
11; explained here which is based on ihe
Factories Act, uK. Australia,
Canada and USA have simitar Acts.

INSPECTORS:

The central Government may appoint such persons as it thinks fit

to be Inspectors for the purposes of this Act within such local limits as it
may assign to them respectively.

faclory inspectors, municipar inspectors, erc.'for

other industries.

POWERS OF INSPECTORS :

.
1 An lnspector may enter any dock or vesset where dock workers are
employed,with such assistance as he thinks fit, and
i. inspect, examine, any building, plant, machinery, appliance or
equipment used in connection with the loading, unloading, movement or
storage of cargoes.
ii. examine any register or other document relating to the employ-
ment of dock workers.
iii. take on the spot or othenvise the statements of any persons or
hold enquiries which he may consider necessary, provided tlrai no person
shall be compelled to answer any question or give any evidence tending
to incriminate himself.

2. The Port Authoritiel, the employers of dock workers and owners of

machinery or plant shall alford all reasonable facilities to the Inspector for
entry, inspection, examination or enquiry under this Scheme.

NOTICE OF ACCIDENTS AND DANGEROUS OCCURRENCES:

1. Notice of any accident in a dock which disables a dock worker from

work on which he was employed shall be sent by any reliable means within
four hours of the occurrence, to the lnspector notified for the purpose.

124
When the accident b lil<ely to disable the dock worker from work for more
than ten days. the relatives of the dock worker in addition to the lnspector
have to be informed. In the case of fatal accidents, the Ollicer in charge
ol the nearesl police station, and the District Magistrate in addition to the
abovementioned two parties have to be informed-

2. In alt cases of accidents the iniured person shall be given first-aid '
and there after immediately conveyed to a hospital or other place o{
treatment.

3. Where any accident causing disablement results in the subseque'nt

death of the dock worker disabled, notice in writing of the death shall be
sent to the authorities mentioned above.

The following classes of dangerous occurrences shall be reported

to the lnspector in the manner described, whether death or disablement
is caused or not :-

1. Collapse or lailure of a lifting machinery used in raising or lowgring

of persons or goods, and breakage or failure of ropes, chains or other
appliances formirtg part of lifting mdchinery orthe overturning or displace-
ment of a crane.

2. Collapse or subsidence of any wall, floor, gallery, ;oof, platform,

staging and means of access.

3. Bursting of a vesselcontaining steam under pressure greaterthan

atnospheric pressure other than a plant which comes within the scope ol
the Boilers Act, 1923..

4. Explosion of a receiver or vessel used fqr the storage, at a pressure

greater than atmosphedc pressure, of any gas or lases (including air) or
any liquid or solid resulting lrom the compression of gas.

5. Explosion or fire causing damage to any rcom or place, in which dock

workers are employ.ed;

OBLIGATIONS OF DOCK WORKERS :

It shall be the dttty of arery dock worker if he discovers any defect

in the dock, staging, machinery or plant, to report such delect wilhout
unreasonable delay to his ernployer, his foreman or other person in
authority.

121
 No dock worker shall wilfully interferg with or rnisuse any means,
appliance, convenience or other equipment provided.
No dock worker shall wilfully and.without reasonable cause anything
likely to endanger hirnself or others.

No dock worker shall, unless duly authorised or in case of any

emergency, remove or interfere with any fencin(i, plant or rnachinery,
ladder, lifesaving means or appliances, lights, siaging or other things
whatsoever required to be provided underthis scheme. lf removed, such
things shall be restored at the end of the period during which their removal
was authorised or at the end of the emergdncy, as thercase may be, by
the persons last engaged in the work that necessitated such removal.
:'
Under this act certain facilities'have to be provided lo the dock
workdr:s in the fields of health, safety ahd welfare. The ship's officer may
take note, that of the following, certain basic facilities whi-;h are under-
lined, may also have to be provided on ships.

HEALTH : Cleanliness, drinking water. latrines and urinals, spittoons,

lighting, ventilation and temperature.

WELFARE : Washing facilities, first-aid appliances, arnbulance room,

ambulance carriage, notices, canteens, lunch- roorns shelters or rest-
sheds, welfare officers.

SAFETY : Walking surface. fencing of danqerous ptaces, Clea-f.alerof

passages. oates. construction. floor loading. stairs. oo'enings, means ol
escape in case of fire.

On the ship, a clear walking space on deck, free of obstructions and

hazards like ropes, dunnage, nails, lashings of deck cargo, etc. must be
provided ior dock workers in order lo access the holds. Any permanent
obstructions like manhole cover guards, eyes, rigged cargo gear etc, must
be painted white or marked, to warn the dock workers. Openings in the
decks to tanks, holds or lower holds must be fenced.

LIFTING IVIACHINERY AND GEAR

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE : In any dock, ail parts,

whelher f ixed or moveable of every lifting machinery and every chain, ring,
hook, shackle, swivel or pulley block used in hoisting or lowering shall be:

122
 i. of good construction, sound material, adequate strength and free
from defects;
ii. properly maintained; and ,.
iii.inorou6nly bxamined once at least ev6ry 12 months and particu-
lars ol such examination entered in the register approved by the lnspector.
(Chain Register)

Thorough examination means a visual examination supplemented,

if necessary, py other means such as a hammer test, carried out as
carefully as the condhions permit, in orderto arrive at a reliable conclusion
as to the qalety of the parts examined; and if necessary for the purpose,
parts of the lifting machinery and gear shall be dis.mantled.

No tifting machinery and no chain or other appliance shall, except for

the purpose of test, be loaded beyond the safe workirtg load which shall
be plainly marked thereon.

TESTING : No lifting machinery and no chain, ring, hook, shackle,

swivel or pulley block shall be used in hoisting or lowering unless it has
been tested and examined by a compelent person in the manner set out
in Schedule lV and a certificate of such test and examination in the form
approved by the Inspector obtained. Whenever a lifting machinery or any
component has been lengthened, altered or repaired by welding or
otherwise, it shall, before being again taken into use foi hoisting or
lowering, be adequately re-tested and re-examined by a competent
person and a lresh certificate obtained.

ANNEALING : Allchains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels used

in hoisting or lowering shall be annealed under the supervision of a
competent person and at the following intervals :

i. lf 12.5 mm ('/. inch) or less, every six months;

ii- all others, every twelve months :

Provided that for such gear used solely on cranes and other hoisting
appliances worked. by hand, the period is doubled.

Provided also that where an Inspector is of opinion that owing to the

size, design, material or infrequency of use of any such gear or class of
such gear, the requirement of this paragraph as to annealing is not
necessary for the protection of dock workers, he may, by a certificate in
writing and subject to confirmation by the Gentral Government, exempt

123
 such gear or crass of gear from such requirement
conditions as may be specified in such subiect to such
certificate.,
Particurars of such annearing shail be
entered in the chain Register.
Following gear is exempted from annealing:

1. Chains made of maileable cast-iron;

2. Plate link chains;
Chains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels made
9
4. Pitched chains;
of steet;
5: . Rings, hooks, shackres and swivers permanenily attached to pitched
chains, pultey blocks or weighing machines;
6. Hooks and swivers having Jcrew-threaded parts
or bafr-bearings or
other case-hardened parts; and
7. Bordeauxconnections.

chains and gear aforementioned shail be thoroughry examined

by
a competent person once al least in every la months
examination entered in the Chain Register.
ini
particulars of

loPEs AND WIRES : No rope or wire shail be used in hoisting or

lowering unless it is of suitable quaiity, free from p"t"nto"t."ts
and it has
been tested and examined by a competent person in the manner
set out
in schedule lv and a certificate of test and examination in the form
approved by the Inspector obtained.

- A rope must be condemned if it shows signs of excessive wear and

tear or deterioration, which can be made out from the broken strands or
hairy su-rface or the presence of powdering between the strands or at
the
heart of the rope.

A wire rope is to be condemned if in any length of g diameters the

total number of visible broken wires exceeds 10o/o of tne number of wires
in the wire rope.

DRIVERS oF ORANES : No person under 1g years of age and no

person who is not sufficiently competent and reliable shallbe employed
as driverof the lifting machinery, whether driven by mechanical power
or
othenrise or for giving signals to a driver.

124
HANDLING OF GARGO :

STACKING AND UNSTACKING :

1. Where stacking, unstacking, stowing or unstowingl of cargo or

handling in connecti6n therewith cannof be safely carried out unaided'
reasonable measures,to guard against accident shallbetaken by shoring
or otherwise.

2. Stacking of cargo shall be made on firm foundation not liable to settle

and the weigf{ ol th-e cargo shall be such as not to overload the floors'

3. Cargo shall not be stacked against partition or wall of warehouses

or store-[laces unless it is known that the partition or the wall is of
sulficient sttength to withstand the pressure.

4. cargo shall not be stacked to such a height and in such a manner

as would render the Pile unstable.

5. Where dock workers are working on stacks exceeding 1.5 m (5 ft)

in height, safe means of access to the stack shall be provided'

HANDLING OBJECTS HAVING SHARP AND PROJECTING

PARTS: Dock workers handling objeCts with Sharp edges, fins, slivers,
splinters or similar dangerous projecting parts, shall be provided with
suitable protective equ iPment.

STAGING
1. All staging shall be
a) securely constructed of sound and substantial material and
shall be maintained in such condition as to ensure the safety of all dock
workers.
b) inspected at regular and frequent intervals by a competent
person.

2. All planks intended to be used lor staging shall :

a) be carefully examined before being taken into use; and
b) be re-examined before they are used again after the stages
have been dismantled, by a person qualified to detect faults in timber.

3. All planks forming stages shall be fastened to prevent slipping,

unless they extend 45 cms. (18 inches) or more beyond the inside edge
of the thwart or support on which they rest.
125
4. All stages shall be o{ sutficient width to secure lhe safety of the dock
workers thereon. No stage at a height of 2 metres or more above the
ground, dock bottom, deck or tank top, shall be less than g0 cm. wide.

5. Planks supported on the rungs of ladders shall not be used to

support stages.

6. Stages susperded by ropes or chain shalt be secured as far as

possible so as to prevent their swinging.

7. Synthetic fibre ropes shallnot be used for suspending stages except

where such stages are suspended from ropes reeved through blocks.

6. Saf e means of access shall be provided for the use of workers to and
from stages. Ropes used for suspending stages shall not be used as
means of access.

RESTRICTION ON EMPLOYMENT : No person under 18 years of

age shall be required to work on a ship on a stage above the level of the
ground.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FALLING MATERIAL : In lhe case of

double banking, where dock workers are required to work on a stage and
other dock workers are at work directly beneath such stage, adequate
measures shall be taken to prevent the fall of articles or materials.

LIGHTING : All parts of the ship where dock workers are working on
stages shall be efficiently lighted.

DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES AND ENVIRONMENTS

The regulations deal with corrosive and caustic substances, olher

dangerous substances, dust fumes etc., deficiency of oxygen and fumi-
gated spaces.

General Precautions:

1. Dangerous subslances shall only be loaded, discharged or handled

under the supervision of a competent person who is lamiliar with the risks
and precautions to be taken.

126
 provision of mats' slings nets' boxes'
2. Special precaution such as
Jia[ u191en to prevent breakase of' or
and hish'side travs ;;"ili; dir ring loading, u nloading
dam age to containers oi J" ng" rorr su bstances
or handling.
are broken or damaged to a
3. lf containers ol dangerous substances
the dock workers moved to
dangerous extent, wJtk;l;il bL stopped and
a safe Place.

4.Dockworkershandlingdangeroussubstancesshal|beprovidedwith
suitable Protec{ive equiPment'

MACHINERY :

moving pa.tt any prime-

ln every dock, every fly-whe.el and every -oJ
motors' cog- *h9d9' chain and f riction
mover shall b" ,"ru,"ty t6ndeO' All
gearing, shatring #'"i;;;pip". iniu be s-ecurely fenced so lar as is
practicable.
shall not be removed
The fencing of dangerous pal-s of machinery
be replaced as soon
while the macnineryi, i,i rr", but if removed
shall
is taken into normal
aspracticabte and il;; U"ior" the
""rJ
machinery
use again.

Noparto|anymachinerywhichis.inmotionandwhichisnotsecurely by
fenced shal be iubricated, adjusted or repaired except
.r;ii'j,
persons dulY authorised'

Machinepartsshallbec|eanedonlywhenthemachineisstopped.

When machinery is stopped for servicing

or repairs' adequate
that it cannot be inadvertently re-
measures snail ue iair"n to
started.
"nrutr

ELECTRICAL EOUIPMENT:
adiust' examine' repair'
Only duly authorized perso.n to install'
or circuits'
displace or remove electrical equipment

Allportab|ee|ectricequipment-sha|lbeinspectedbyacompetent
person at least once in every day of use'

127
 Electricar equipment exposed to the weather,
protected. against wel or corrosion. shafl be adequatery

Ail non-current carrying metar parts of

erectricar equipment shail be
earthed.

LADDERS:

1. Ail metar, wooden, rope or other radders

that have to be used by dock
' workers shail be o{ sound materiar, good
construction ino aoequate
strength, and shall be properly maintai-ned

2. \,vooden radders shafl not be painted bur

oired orcovered with ctear
varnish.

3. Ladders sharr rise, or be provided with an adequate

handhotd, to
height of 1 mt. (g ft. g inches) above the top landing ptace. -

4. Portable ladders shall not stand on a loose base.

5.. Portable ladders shafl be properry praced and

secured in prace.
6. No ladder shall be used which has -
3. a missing or defective rung; or
.
any rung which depends foiits support on nairs, spikes orother
similar fixing.

7. All ladders shart be inspected at suitable inlervals by

a competent
person, and if dangerous defects are found in
any ladder, the ladder shall
be immediately taken out of service.

ACCESS TO & FROM SHIP AND PARTS OF THE SHIP :

ALONGSIDE euAy : Access to be by means of accommodation

ladder or similar access, properry secured, at reast 22
inches wide and
fenced on each side to a height oi e t g inches with
upper and iower rails.
ALONGSIDE orHER sHrp : safe means of access to
be provided
by ship with higher freeboard.

AcoESS To HOLDS : where depth of hord exceeds s ft., access

lo be by ladder and ladder cleats, or cups in coaming.

128
 Upper and lower ladders to be in tine'
inches for a
Ladders to provide a foothotciio a depth of at least 41l.
width of 10 inches and a firm handhold.
Uandholds and tootholdi on each side of shaft tunnel'

HATCH COVERST ,

Allbeams used for hatch.covering to have suitable gearfor lifting

on
and olf without persons having to go upon them to adjust'

Hatch beams to be secured.

hatch and
All hatch covers and beamsto be marked indicating deck,
position unless all are interchangeable.

Adequate handgrips to be provided on hatch covers'and lieamd.

lf working cargo in t'ween deck at least one section of hatch covers

to be in Place.

in tlw€en deck and allt'ween deck hatch covers are not

It working-opening
in place, then to lower hold must be fenced to a height of 3 leet'

FIRE PROTECTION :

Places where dock workers are employed shall be provided with

-
1.
a. sufficient and suitable fire-extinguishing equipment
b. an adequate water-supply at ample pressure'

2. Persons trained lo use the fire-extinguishing equipment shall be

readily available during all working hours'

Fire-extinguishing equipment shatl be properly maintained and

in-
3.
spected at suitable intervals'

RESCUE:
made and
Provision lor rescue from drowning ol dock workers shall be
maintained.

129
 THE DOCK LABOUR BOARD
The Government may estabtish a Dock
Labour Board for a port or
a group of porrs. The Board shail be t"rponrrui"
provisions of this Act and bhail exercise
i;r-;J;i;irtering rhe
such po*.i, ilJ pr.ror, .u.h
functions as may be confereO onl OV
tf,e Act.
The board shart consist of a chairman
and such number of members
to equally represent :
i. The Governmenl
ii. The dock workers
iii. The emptoyers of dock.workers & shipping
companies.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

1. state whether you wourd

i. A 6xz4wire 22mm incondemn the wire.in the fofiowing cases
diameter has 15 broken*ii"sin a rength
:

of 176mm.
ii' A 6 x 37 wire lgmm in diameter has 30 broken wires in a rength
of ?.16m.

130
 ANSWERS
to
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

Chapter 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS OF QARGO wORK.

1. il Without B.S.(tonnes) iU With Braken Stowage (tonnes)

a) 1219.4 1129.0
b) 367.0 324.8
c) 234.8 '221.5
d) 194.8 r83.O
e) 230.5 207.3
r) 132.2 132.2
g) 1 11 1.8 1034.2
h) 497.4 438.2
i) e1.7 79.8
i) 1s8.8 142J

2. G = Grain Capacity B = Bale Cap. acity

a) G:837.1t b) 8.490.6r c) G-491.6t
d) B-sB7.si e) G1629.7t

3. 2348 bags o{ maize.

117.4 tonnes

4. 2 tiers - 74 rolls total

5. Height of Steel - 2.58m
Steel Pipes 116.6 t
Paint drums 37.0 t

6. i) 1050 bales cotton

ii) 280 bales jute,
840 bales cotton
iii) lcOO bales iute
iv) 175 slings in each case. Chapter3: LIFTING GEAR
1. Effort =224 t Efficiency =71.4o/o
Chapter 2 : CAFE OF CARGOES 2. i.2.56 t ii. 62.5% iii. 48mm dia.
Dew Point 3- 20mm 4. 30mm
1. 9.70C Yes 5. i. 1.48 t ii. 67.6% iii.3Omm dia.
2. 15.50C No 5. Etfort = 1.46 t Efficiency =Tt.05/o
3. 7.60C Yes 7. Gyntackle 30mm Luff tackle 20mm
Chapter4 : BUL( CARGOES-
1. Hold 1 Coat konOre Ho|d Z Coal lon Ore
a. 14s1.5 r{51.5 t 21168 2116.8
ii. .1741.8 1711.8 .[. &o2 25/]a2
iil. 1596.7 |gla7 .iv.
m. m.5 a?a.s
iY. 1897.0 t887.0 27518 2751.8

Chaprer 9 : TANT{ER opERAitctNS

1. Ullage 0.196m ltass d olt 2515"3 t
2. Ullage @ lobdgqt = l.744rn ultage at 4tt = t.45kr.
3. - 0.8m.
Ullagre
4.i.2.951m ii.0940m fi.4rA0.SOr
5. Centre Tar{s t{'rg Tanks No. 5 Centre
Ullage 1.078m 1.078m 4.144rn
Mass 3tO3.'41 240aSt 2160.9r
Chapter lt : CARGO pt.ANS
1. Z.

Deck

65 t Macfiinery
Bosbn Er Colombo
Bmart 2OO t
Beer 3Gl5 tRtrbler
Tween Cases Ptiladdphel Er Colornbo
Deck 6()r Tob6 tso t
Hanr- 8crb9ne
burg
Benana (Optiordl .lSOtq,fU|bs
Phla<lCphia Er Calcuna

I AtO.ions

t- _T_
I
/l(lolOre
Ste€l Phtedcbhie E:r Catctrtra
Lower Pip€€
Hold 750 r
Antwefp I
t^<3.6 t
I Ctgdcal <lrrrns
l Opriq|al

Chapter t2 : THE DOCK LABOURERS ACT

f. i. Yes ii. No.