Chapter 2: Materials Science

Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

2.1 Cite the difference between atomic mass and atomic weight

Solution:

Atomic mass is the mass of an individual atom, whereas atomic weight is the average (weighted) of the atomic
masses of an atom's naturally occurring isotopes.

2.2 Silicon has three naturally-occurring isotopes: 92.23% of 28Si, with an atomic weight of 27.9769 amu, 4.68% of
29
Si, with an atomic weight of 28.9765 amu, and 3.09% of 30Si, with an atomic weight of 29.9738 amu. On the basis
of these data, confirm that the average atomic weight of Si is 28.0854 amu.

Solution:

Average atomic weight = {(fraction of 28Si × atomic weight of 28 Si)}

+ (fraction of 29 Si × atomic weight of 29 Si)}

+ (fraction of 30 Si × atomic weight of 30 Si)}

= {(0.9223 × 27.9769)

+ (0.0468 × 28.9765)

+ (0.0309 × 29.9738)}

= 28.0854 amu.

2.3 (a) How many grams are there in one amu of a material?

Solution:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1𝑔 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
#g/amu = (6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠)(1 𝑎𝑚𝑢/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚)

= 1.66 × 10-24 g/amu

(b) Mole, in the context of this book, is taken in units of gram-mole. On this basis, how many atoms are there in
a pound-mole of a substance?

Solution:

1 lb – mol = (453.6 g/lbm) (6.022 × 1023 atoms/g – mol)

= 2.73 × 1026 atoms/lb-mol

2.4 (a) Cite two important quantum-mechanical concepts associated with the Bohr model of the atom.

Solution:

Two important quantum-mechanical concepts associated with the Bohr model of the atom are (1) that electrons
are particles moving in discrete orbitals, and (2) electron energy is quantized into shells.

(b) Cite two important additional refinements that resulted from the wave-mechanical atomic model.

Solution:

Two important refinements resulting from the wave-mechanical atomic model are (1) that electron position is
described in terms of a probability distribution, and (2) electron energy is quantized into both shells and subshells--each
electron is characterized by four quantum numbers.

2.5 Relative to electrons and electron states, what does each of the four quantum numbers specify?

Solution:

The n quantum number designates the electron shell.

The l quantum number designates the electron subshell.

The ml quantum number designates the number of electron states in each electron subshell.

The ms quantum number designates the spin moment on each electron.

2.6 Allowed values for the quantum numbers of electrons are as follows:

n = 1,2,3, ...

l = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n – 1

ml = 0, ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ..., ±l

ms = ± 𝟏
𝟐

The relationships between n and the shell designations are noted in Table 2.1. Relative to the subshells,

l = 0 corresponds to an s subshell
l = 1 corresponds to a p subshell
l = 2 corresponds to a d subshell
l = 3 corresponds to an f subshell

For the K shell, the four quantum numbers for each of the two electrons in the 1s state, in the order of nlm lms, are 100
𝟏 𝟏
( ) and 100 (- ). Write the four quantum numbers for all the electrons in the L and M shells, and note which correspond to the
𝟐 𝟐
s, p, and d subshells.
 Solution:

For the L state, n = 2, and eight electron states are possible. Possible l values are 0 and 1, while possible ml values
1 1 1
are 0 and ±1; and possible ms values are ±2. Therefore, for the s states, the quantum numbers are 200 (2) and 200 (- 2 ).
1 1 1 1 1 1
For the p states, the quantum numbers are 210 (2), 210 (- 2), 211 (2), 211 (- 2), 21 (-1) (2), and 21 (-1) (- 2).

For the M state, n = 3, and 18 states are possible. Possible l values are 0,1, and 2; possible ml values are 0, ±1,
1 1 1
and ±2; and possible ms values are ±2. Therefore, for the s states, the quantum numbers are 300 (2), 300 (- 2), for the p
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
states they are 310 (2), 310 (- 2), 311 (2), 311 (- 2), 31 (-1) (2), and 31 (-1) (- 2); for the d states they are 320 (2), 320 (- 2),
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
321 (2), 321 (- 2), 32 (-1) (2), 32 (-1) (- 2), 322 (2), 322 (- 2), 32 (-2) (2), and 32 (-2) (- 2).

2.7 Give the electron configurations for the following ions: P5+, P3-, Sn4+, Se2-, I-, and Ni2+

Solution:

P5+ (Phosphorus Ion)

Atomic Number of Phosphorus atom, Z = 15

Electronic configuration of Phosphorus atom, P: 1s22s22p63s23p3

Electronic configuration of P5+ (Phosphorus Ion), P5+: 1s22s22p6

P3- (Phosphide Ion)

Atomic Number of Phosphorus atom, Z = 15

Electronic configuration of Phosphorus atom, P: 1s22s22p63s23p3

Electronic configuration of P5+ (Phosphorus Ion), P3-:1s22s22p63s23p6

Sn4+ (Stannic Ion)

Atomic Number of Tin atom, Z = 50

Electronic configuration of Phosphorus atom, Sn: [1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6]4d105s25p2

: [Kr]4d105s25p2

Electronic configuration of Sn4+ (Stannic Ion), Sn4+:[1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6]4d10

Se2- (Selenide Ion)

Atomic Number of Selenium atom, Z = 34

Electronic configuration of Selenium atom, Se: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p4

Electronic configuration of Se2- (Selenide Ion), Se2-:1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p4

 I - (Iodide Ion)

Atomic Number of Iodine atom, Z = 53

Electronic configuration of Phosphorus atom, I: [1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6]4d105s25p5

: [Kr]4d105s25p5

Electronic configuration of I - (Iodide Ion)=), I -:[1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6]4d105s25p6

Ni2+ (Nickel Ion)

Atomic Number of Nickel atom, Z = 28

Electronic configuration of Nickel atom, Ni: 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2

Electronic configuration of Ni2+ (Nickel Ion), Ni2+-:1s22s22p63s23p63d8

2.8 Potassium iodide (KI) exhibits predominantly ionic bonding. The K+ and I- ions have electron structures that are
identical to which two inert gases?

Solution:

Potassium has electronic configuration of [Ar] 4s1. But when it loses one electron to form potassium ion (K+), it
loses electron from its s-orbital and forms an electronic configuration similar to that of argon (Ar).

Therefore, the potassium ion (K+) will have electronic identical with Argon (Ar).

Iodine has electronic configuration configuration of [Kr] 4d105s25p5. But when it gains one electron to form iodine
-
ion (I ), the electron goes into the unfilled 5p orbital completing it and forming an electronic configuration of [Kr]
4d105s25p6. This is the electronic configuration of Xenon (Xe) which is the next ideal gas after Krypton (Kr).

Therefore, the iodine ion (I-) will have electronic configuration identical with Xenon (Xe)

2.9 With regard to electron configuration, what do all the elements in Group IIA of the periodic table have in common?

Solution:

IIA or halogens:

Fluorine (F): [F]2s22p5

Chlorine (Cl): [Cl]3s23p5

Bromine (Br): [Br]4s23d104p5

Iodine (I): [I]5s24d105p5

Each of the elements in Group IIA has 5 electrons in the outermost p orbitals.
2.10 To what group in the periodic table would an element with atomic number 112 belong?

Solution:

The element with atomic number 112 falls under Hg in IIB group.

2.11 Without consulting Figure2.6 or Table2.2, determine whether each of the electron configurations given below is
an inert gas, a halogen, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or a transition metal. Justify your choices.

(a) 1s22s22p63s23p5

(b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2

(c) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6

(d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1

(e) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d55s2

(f) 1s22s22p63s2

Solution:

(a) 1s22s22p63s23p5

In the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p5, as the outer orbital which is p-orbital requires one additional
electron to attain inert gas configuration, it comes under the category of halogens.

Therefore, the given electronic configuration is a HALOGEN.

(b) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2

In the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2 , as the outer orbital which is d-orbital requires three
additional electrons to attain inert gas configuration and as the element contains unfilled d-orbital, it comes under the
category of transition metal.

Therefore, the given electronic configuration is a TRANSITION METAL.

(c) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6

In the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6, as the outer orbital which is p-orbital is completely
filled, it comes under the category of inert gas.

Therefore, the given electronic configuration is an INERT GAS.

 (d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1

In the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s1, as the outer orbital which is s-orbital requires one additional
electron to attain inert gas configuration and as the element contains unfilled s-orbital, it comes under the category
of alkali metal.

Therefore, the given electronic configuration is an ALKALI METAL.

(e) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d55s2

In the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d55s2, as the outer orbital which is d-orbital

requires three additional electrons to attain inert gas configuration and as the element contains unfilled d-orbital, it
comes under the category of transition metal.

Therefore, the given electronic configuration is a TRANSITION METAL.

(f) 1s22s22p63s2

In the electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s2, as the outer orbital which is s-orbital is completely filled, it comes
under the category of alkaline earth metals.

Therefore, the given electronic configuration is an ALKALINE EARTH METALS.

2.12 (a) What electron subshell is being filled for the rare earth series of elements on the periodic table?

Solution:

The 4f subshell is being filled for the rare earth series of elements.

(b) What electron subshell is being filled for the actinide series?

Solution:

The 5f subshell is being filled for the actinide series of elements.

2.13 Calculate the force of attraction between a Ca2+ and an O2- ion the centers of which are separated by a
distance of 1.25 nm.
2.14 The net potential energy between two adjacent ions, EN, may be represented by the sum of Equations 2.8 and
2.9; that is,

Calculate the bonding energy E0 in terms of the parameters A, B, and n using the following procedure:

1. Differentiate EN with respect to r, and then set the resulting expression equal to zero, since the curve of EN versus r
is a minimum at E0.

2. Solve for r in terms of A, B, and n, which yields r0, the equilibrium interionic spacing.

3. Determine the expression for E0 by substitution of r0 into Equation 2.11.

2.15 For an Na+-Cl - ion pair, attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER, respectively, depend on the distance
between the ions r, according to

For these expressions, energies are expressed in electron volts per Na+-Cl- pair, and r is the distance in nanometers.
The net energy EN is just the sum of the two expressions above.

(a) Superimpose on a single plot EN, ER, and EA versus r up to 1.0 nm.
(b) On the basis of this plot, determine (i) the equilibrium spacing r 0 between the Na+ and Cl- ions, and (ii) the
magnitude of the bonding energy E0 between the two ions.

(i).

(ii).

(c) Mathematically determine the r0 and E0 values using the solutions to Problem 2.14 and compare these with the
graphical results from part (b).
2.16 Consider a hypothetical X+-Y- ion pair for which the equilibrium interionic spacing and bonding energy values
are 0.38 nm and -5.37 eV, respectively. If it is known that n in Equation 2.11 has a value of 8, using the results of
Problem 2.14, determine explicit expressions for attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER of Equations 2.8 and
2.9.
2.17 The net potential energy EN between two adjacent ions is sometimes represented by the expression in which r is
the interionic separation and C, D, and r are constants whose values depend on the specific material.

(a) Derive an expression for the bonding energy E0 in terms of the equilibrium interionic separation r0 and the
constants D and r using the following procedure:

1. Differentiate EN with respect to r and set the resulting expression equal to zero.

2. Solve for C in terms of D, r, and r0.

3. Determine the expression for E0 by substitution for C in Equation 2.12.

(b) Derive another expression for E0 in terms of r0, C, and r using a procedure analogous to the one outlined in part
(a).

2.18 (a) Briefly cite the main differences between ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding.

Ionic--there is electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Covalent--there is electron sharing between two adjacent atoms such that each atom assumes a stable electron
configuration.

Metallic--the positively charged ion cores are shielded from one another, and also "glued" together by the sea of
valence electrons.

(b) State the Pauli exclusion principle.

The Pauli exclusion principle states that each electron state can hold no more than two electrons, which must
have opposite spins.

2.19 Compute the percentage ionic character of the interatomic bond for each of the following compounds: MgO,
GaP, CsF, CdS, and FeO.
2.20 Make a plot of bonding energy versus melting temperature for the metals listed in Table 2.3. Using this plot,
approximate the bonding energy for molybdenum, which has a melting temperature of 2617℃.
2.21 Using Table 2.2, determine the number of covalent bonds that are possible for atoms of the following elements:
silicon, bromine, nitrogen, sulfur, and neon.

Silicon

Electron Configuration:1s22s22p63s23p2

Number of Valence Electrons for Silicon: N’Si= 2 + 2

=4

Number of Covalent Bonds = 8 - N’Si

=8–4

=4

Bromine

Electron Configuration:1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5

Number of Valence Electrons for Bromine: N’Br= 2 + 5

=7

Number of Covalent Bonds = 8 - N’Br

=8–7

=1
Nitrogen

Electron Configuration:1s22s22p3

Number of Valence Electrons for Silicon: N’N= 2 + 3

=5

Number of Covalent Bonds = 8 - N’N

=8–5

=3

Sulfur

Electron Configuration:1s22s22p63s23p4

Number of Valence Electrons for Silicon: N’S= 2 + 4

=6

Number of Covalent Bonds = 8 - N’S

=8–6

=2

Neon

Electron Configuration:1s22s22p6

Number of Valence Electrons for Silicon: N’Ne= 2 + 6

=8

Number of Covalent Bonds = 8 - N’Ne

=8–8

=0
2.22 What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials: solid xenon, calcium fluoride
(CaF2), bronze, cadmium telluride (CdTe), rubber, and tungsten?

Solid xenon

Contains only xenon atoms having weak Van der waals interactions. Hence, secondary bonding will be present
in the solid xenon atom.

Calcium fluoride (caf2)

Compound formed by combining calcium (metal) and fluorine (non-metal). The typical bonding between a metal
and non-metal is ionic. Thus, an ionic bond is formed.

Bronze

Bronze is an alloy of the combination of metals, copper and tin,. Hence, metallic bonding will be present in the
alloy.

Cadmium telluride (cdte)

Compound formed by combining cadmium (metal) and tellurium (mettaloid). Thus, it has covalent bond with
slight ionic character.

Rubber

An elastomer that occurs naturally and also made synthetically. Rubber contains the isoprene (2-methyl, 1,3-
butadiene) as its structural units which involves most covalent bonds. Thus, rubber has the covalent bonding.

Tungsten

A metal that exhibits strong covalent bonds due to the presence of atoms in 5d. Thus, a covalent bond exists.

2.23 Explain why hydrogen fluoride (HF) has a higher boiling temperature than hydrogen chloride (HCl) (19.4 vs. -
85℃), even though HF has a lower molecular weight.

In a hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecule, the difference in the electronegativity between H and F is greater than the
difference in electronegativity between H and Cl in a hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule. So, the HF molecule is more
polar than HCl as a result intermolecular attraction of the ions is greater in HF molecule. And to break these forces, high
boiling temperatures are required.

Due to the high electronegativity of F, the hydrogen fluoride (HF) is having intermolecular hydrogen bonds,
whereas for hydrogen chloride (HCl), the intermolecular bonding is Van der waals. Since the hydrogen bond is stronger
than Van der waals. Therefore, the hydrogen fluoride will have a higher boiling temperature than Hydrogen Chloride.