Introduction To Computer Networks

Modern world scenario is ever changing. Data Communication and network have changed the way
business and other daily affair works. Now, they highly rely on computer networks and internetwork.

A set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is called a Network.

A node can be a device which is capable of sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network like a computer, printer etc. These links connecting the devices are called Communication
channels.

Computer network is a telecommunication channel using which we can share data with other coomputers
or devices, connected to the same network. It is also called Data Network. The best example of computer
network is Internet.

Computer network does not mean a system with one Control Unit connected to multiple other systems as
its slave. That is Distributed system, not Computer Network.

A network must be able to meet certain criterias, these are mentioned below:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Scalability

Computer Networks: Performance

It can be measured in the following ways:

 Transit time : It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
 Response time : It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.

Other ways to measure performance are :

1. Efficiency of software
2. Number of users
3. Capability of connected hardware

Computer Networks: Reliability

It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less is the network's
reliability.

Computer Networks: Security

It refers to the protection of data from any unauthorised user or access. While travelling through network,
data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted. Hence security is also a very
important characteristic for Networks.

Properties of a Good Network

1. Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently and easily.
Example: emails, chat rooms, video conferencing etc, all of these are possible because of
computer networks.
 2. Resources can be shared: We can share physical resources by making them available on a
network such as printers, scanners etc.
3. Sharing files, data: Authorised users are allowed to share the files on the network.

Basic Communication Model

A Communication model is used to exchange data between two parties. For example: communication
between a computer, server and telephone (through modem).

Communication Model: Source

Data to be transmitted is generated by this device, example: telephones, personal computers etc.

Communication Model: Transmitter

The data generated by the source system is not directly transmitted in the form its generated. The
transmitter transforms and encodes the data in such a form to produce electromagnetic waves or signals.

Communication Model: Transmission System

A transmission system can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and
destination.

Communication Model: Receiver

Receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form which is easily
managed by the destination device.

Communication Model: Destination

Destination receives the incoming data from the receiver.

Data Communication
The exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium is called Data
Communication. The data is exchanged in the form of 0's and 1's. The transmission medium used is
wire cable. For data communication to occur, the communication device must be a part of a
communication system. Data Communication has two types - Local and Remote which are discussed
below:

Data Communication: Local

Local communication takes place when the communicating devices are in the same geographical area,
same building, or face-to-face etc.
Data Communication: Remote
Remote communication takes place over a distance i.e. the devices are farther. The effectiveness of a
data communication can be measured through the following features :

1. Delivery: Delivery should be done to the correct destination.

2. Timeliness: Delivery should be on time.
3. Accuracy: Data delivered should be accurate.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message: It is the information to be delivered.
2. Sender: Sender is the person who is sending the message.
3. Receiver: Receiver is the person to whom the message is being sent to.
4. Medium: It is the medium through which the message is sent. For example: A Modem.
5. Protocol: These are some set of rules which govern data communication.

History of Computer Networks

Computer networks are very essential to todays globalization as the world evolves to an advanced planet
in Information Technology. One of the key contributing factors of the Information Technology rise in the
world is network and data communication because technology’s advancement is not only on the gadgets
but the system as well. Networking started long ago by ARPANET. When Russia launched their
SPUTNIK Satellite in Space In 1957.The American started an agency named ADVANCE RESEARCH
PROJECT AGENCY (ARPA) & launched their 1st satellite within 18 month after establishment. Then
sharing of the information in another computer they use ARPANET. And this all responsibility on
America’s Dr.LIED LIEDER. Then in 1969, ARPANET comes in INDIA and INDIAN switched this name to
NETWORK. In the 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) started funding the design of
the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) for the United States Department of
Defense. Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s. The
ARPANET evolved into the modern Internet.

Computer Network
A computer network is a telecommunications network that enables sharing of resources and information.
Nodes in a network are connected with each other using either cable or wireless media and use a system
of digital rules for data exchange. Data is transferred in the form of a packet, a formatted unit of data.

If you have access to the Internet at home, your devices are part of a LAN (Local Area Network). Here is
how a simple LAN looks like:

In the picture above you can see that the computer is connected to the router which is then connect to the
Internet. The computer can send and receive data on the Internet using Internet protocols such as HTTP
and DNS.
To connect two computers together, we would use a device called a switch. Switches serve as a central
point to which all computers on a network connect to:

Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes. Nodes
are generally identified by network addresses, and can include hosts such as personal
computers, phones, and servers, as well as networking hardware such as routers and switches.

Computer networks support an enormous number of applications and services such as access to
the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers,
and fax machines, and use of email and instant messaging applications as well as many others.
Computer networks differ in the transmission medium used to carry their signals, communications
protocols to organize network traffic, the network's size, topology, traffic control mechanism and
organizational intent. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Network packet
Computer communication links that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point
telecommunication links, simply transmit data as a bit stream. However, the overwhelming majority of
computer networks carry their data in packets. A network packet is a formatted unit of data (a list of bits or
bytes, usually a few tens of bytes to a few kilobytes long) carried by a packet-switched network. Packets
are sent through the network to their destination. Once the packets arrive they are reassembled into their
original message.

Packets consist of two kinds of data: control information, and user data (payload). The control information
provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example: source and destination network
addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found
in packet headers and trailers, with payload data in between.

With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the
network were circuit switched. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets
from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link isn't
overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that
case the packet is queued and waits until a link is free.

What are network devices?

Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for communication and
interaction between hardware on a computer network.

End User Device: - It includes computer, printer, scanner and other devices that provide services
directly to the user.

 desktop and notebook computers

  desktop operating systems and applications
 smartphones, tablets, wearables and other mobile devices
 mobile, web and cloud applications.
 virtual desktops and applications

Network Devices: - Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required
for communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.

Here is the common network device list:

• Hub
• Switch
• Router
• Bridge
• Gateway
• Modem
• Repeater
• Access Point

Hub
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that it
amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the
simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components with identical
protocols.

A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured to
prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the
hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in
signal form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets to all connected
devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. There are
two types of hubs: simple and multiple ports.

Switch
Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that improves
network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the internal network,
and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using
switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to

the appropriate destination.

Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit capability.
Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult to examine with
network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the best capabilities of routers
and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI
model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which means that it can operate as both
a switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-performance device that supports the same routing
protocols as routers.

Router
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of interconnected
networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent devices, and they store
information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can be configured to operate as
packet-filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel
service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to WAN framing.
This is needed because LANs and WANs use different network protocols. Such routers are known as
border routers. They serve as the outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border
of your network.

Router are also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers can also be
connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish
communication by maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router contains
information about the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the destination isn’t known.
Routers usually communicate routing and other information using one of three standard protocols:
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic that is authorized
by network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured as static or dynamic. If they are
static, they can only be configured manually and stay that way until changed. If they are dynamic, they
learn of other routers around them and use information about those routers to build their routing tables.

Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks. They are
usually dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output network interfaces for
each connected network. Because routers and gateways are the backbone of large computer networks
like the internet, they have special features that give them the flexibility and the ability to cope with
varying network addressing schemes and frame sizes through segmentation of big packets into smaller
sizes that fit the new network components. Each router interface has its own Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) module, its own LAN address (network card address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address.
The router, with the help of a routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to
its destination. The routing table, like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon receipt of a
packet, the router removes the packet headers and trailers and analyzes the IP header by determining
the source and destination addresses and data type, and noting the arrival time. It also updates the router
table with new addresses not already in the table. The IP header and arrival time information is entered in
the routing table. Routers normally work at the Network layer of the OSI model.

Bridge
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of bridges in
network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge
connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking
at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or block it
from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to divide
larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments and managing
the flow of data between the two.

Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components with
identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for addresses before
they are forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the format or
content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with the help of a
dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each
computer in the LAN and the addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs.
Bridges, like hubs, can be either simple or multiple port.

Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches, which offer
more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because of how they
operate.

Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone lines.
Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies and
transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse
transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The
digital data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a serial line through an industry standard
interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies offer DSL services, and many cable operators use
modems as end terminals for identification and recognition of home and personal users. Modems work on
both the Physical and Data Link layers.
Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater as a
device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the signal can
cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical
layer.

When an electrical signal travels along a medium it gets attenuated depending upon the medium
characteristics. That is why a LAN cannot send signal beyond a certain limit imposed by the different
types of LAN technologies. To increase the length of the LAN, repeaters are frequently used. Repeaters
in its simplest form relay analog electric signal. It means that they transmit the physical layer signals or
data and therefore correspond to the bottom layer of OSI model.

Repeater amplifies the signal, which has got attenuated during the course of transmission because of the
physical conditions imposed by the transmission media. It also restores the signal to its original shape.
The specific characteristic of repeater is that whatever it receives it transmits to the other LAN segment.
This does not understand the frame format and also physical addresses. In other words, it is a
transparent device. Therefore, multiple LANs connected by repeaters may be considered as a single
LAN.
Generally, the maximum size of an Ethernet is considered to be 500 meters. When two Ethernet with
maximum size segments are connected together using repeater will make the total length to
1000meters.In the same manner two repeaters connect three segments together and transmit signal from
one end to another. That is, signal can travel up to 3000 meters. Is it possible to extend the length of LAN
in this manner up to any arbitrary length? The answer is no. Ethernet follows CSMA/CD access
mechanism for successful transmissions of signal which is based on low delay. By extending the length of
Ethernet beyond certain limit will greatly hamper delay time of CSMA/CD mechanism.

STANDARDS ORGANISATIONS FOR DATA

COMMUNICATIONS
An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standards organizations
and are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the standards. The intent is that all data
communications equipment manufacturers and users comply with these standards. The primary
standards organizations for data communication are

International Standard Organization (ISO)

It is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It is comprised mainly
of members from the standards committee of various governments throughout the world. It is even
responsible for developing models which provides high level of system compatibility, quality
enhancement, improved productivity and reduced costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and
coordinating the work of the other standards organizations.

International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T)

It is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva,
Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks, email
and directory services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension
Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many
countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations

International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T)

It is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva,
Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks, email
and directory services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension
Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many
countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

It is an international professional organization founded in United States and is compromised of
electronics, computer and communications engineers. It is currently the world’s largest professional
society with over 200,000 members. It develops communication and information processing standards
with the underlying goal of advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical
engineering.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

It is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting representative for the ISO.
ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of
data processing equipment and services. ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional
societies, industry associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.
NETWORK MEDIAS
In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter
and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission
Media is broadly classified into the following types:

Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:

 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this
purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High speed capacity
Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to external interference
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparitively faster
Disadvantages:
• Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky

Coaxial Cable:
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Optical Fibre Cable

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of
large volumes of data.

• Increased capacity and bandwidth

• Light weight
• Less signal attenuation
 • Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
• unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication

2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is required for
the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• Signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

(i) Radiowaves -
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas
need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used
in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

ETHERNET
Ethernet is the technology that is most commonly used in wired local area networks (LANs). A LAN is a
network of computers and other electronic devices that covers a small area such as a room, office, or
building. It is used in contrast to a wide area network (WAN), which spans much larger geographical
areas. Ethernet is a network protocol that controls how data is transmitted over a LAN. Technically it is
referred to as the IEEE 802.3 protocol. The protocol has evolved and improved over time to transfer data
at the speed of a gigabit per second.

Many people have used Ethernet technology their whole lives without knowing it. It is most likely that
any wired network in your office, at the bank, and at home is an Ethernet LAN. Most desktop and laptop
computers come with an integrated Ethernet card inside so they are ready to connect to an Ethernet
LAN.

What You Need in an Ethernet LAN

To set up a wired Ethernet LAN, you need the following:
 • Computers and devices to connect. Ethernet connects any computer or other electronic devices
to its network as long as the device has an Ethernet adaptor network card.
• Network interface cards in the devices. A network interface card is either integrated into the
motherboard of the computer or installed separately in the device. You also have USB versions of
Ethernet cards such as external dongles. An Ethernet card is known as a network card. It has
ports where you can connect cables. There are normally two ports, one for an RJ-45 jack that
connects unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables and one for a coaxial jack.
• A router, hub or gateway to connect your devices. A hub is a device that acts as a connecting
point between devices on a network. It consists of several RJ-45 ports to which you plug the
cables.
• Cables. UTP cables are commonly used in Ethernet LANs. This is the same type of cable used
for landline telephone sets, but fatter, with eight twisted pairs of wires of different colors inside.
The end is crimped with an RJ-45 jack, which is a larger version of the RJ-11 jacks that plug into
your landline phone. When the Ethernet spans beyond a room to a greater distance, coaxial
cable is used. This is the same cable with a round single-core jack you use for a TV.
• Software to manage the network. Modern operating systems like recent versions
of Windows, Linux and MacOS are more than sufficient to manage Ethernet LANs. Third-party
software that gives more features and better control is available.

How Ethernet Works

Ethernet requires technical knowledge in computer science to understand the mechanism behind the
Ethernet protocol fully. Here is a simple explanation: When a machine on the network wants to send data
to another, it senses the carrier, which is the main wire connecting all the devices. If it is free, meaning no
one is sending anything, it sends the data packet on the network, and all other devices check the packet
to see whether they are the recipient. The recipient consumes the packet. If there is already a packet on
the highway, the device that wants to send holds back for some thousandths of a second to try again until
it can send.

TYPES OF NETWORK MEDIAS

Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most modern
Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to provide
protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. When electrical current flows through
a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire. When two wires in an electrical circuit
are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. Thus, the two
magnetic fields cancel each other out. They also cancel out any outside magnetic fields. Twisting the
wires can enhance this cancellation effect. Using cancellation together with twisting the wires, cable
designers can effectively provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.
Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP).
The following sections discuss UTP and STP cable in more detail.

UTP Cable
UTP cable is a medium that is composed of pairs of wires. UTP cable is used in a variety of networks.
Each of the eight individual copper wires in UTP cable \is covered by an insulating material. In addition,
the wires in each pair are twisted around each other
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and wire twisting.
Each pair of wires is wrapped in a metallic foil. The four pairs of wires then are wrapped in an overall
metallic braid or foil, usually 150-ohm cable. As specified for use in Ethernet network installations, STP
reduces electrical noise both within the cable (pair-to-pair coupling, or crosstalk) and from outside the
cable (EMI and RFI). STP usually is installed with STP data connector, which is created especially for the
STP cable. However, STP cabling also can use the same RJ connectors that UTP uses.

Commonly used types of twisted pair

Category 1 – 1 Mbps, Used for telephone communication

Category 2 - 4 Mbps

Category 3 – 10 Mbps

Category 4 – 16 Mbps

Category 5 – 100 Mbps

Category 5e – 1 Gbps

Category 6 – 10 Gbps
 CRIMPING
Process to connecting cable to the jack.

A crimping tool is a device used to conjoin two pieces of metal by deforming one or both of them in a
way that causes them to hold each other. The result of the tool's work is called a crimp. A good example
of crimping is the process of affixing a connector to the end of a cable. For instance, network cables and
phone cables are created using a crimping tool (shown below) to join the RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors to
the both ends of either phone or Cat 5 cable.

How does it work?

To use this crimping tool, each wire is first placed into the connector. Once all the wires are in the jack,
the connector with wires are placed into the crimping tool, and the handles are squeezed together.
Crimping punctures the plastic connector and holds each of the wires, allowing for data to be transmitted
through the connector.

Difference of Straight Through and Crossover Cable

Ethernet cables can be wired as straight through or crossover. The straight through is the most common
type and is used to connect computers to hubs or switches. They are most likely what you will find when
you go to your local computer store and buy a patch cable. Crossover Ethernet cable is more commonly
used to connect a computer to a computer and may be a little harder to find since they aren’t used nearly
as much as straight through Ethernet cable. Then, what’s the difference between straight through vs
crossover cable? Read through this post to find the answer.
T568A And T568B Wiring Standard Basis

A RJ45 connector is a modular 8 position, 8 pin connector used for terminating Cat5e patch cable or Cat6
cable. A pinout is a specific arrangement of wires that dictate how the connector is terminated. There are
two standards recognized by ANSI, TIA and EIA for wiring Ethernet cables. The first is the T568A wiring
standard and the second is T568B. T568B has surpassed 568A and is seen as the default wiring scheme
for twisted pair structured cabling. If you are unsure of which to use, choose 568B.

Straight Through vs Crossover Cable

What Is Straight Through Cable?
A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in local area networks to connect a
computer to a network hub such as a router. This type of cable is also sometimes called a patch cable
and is an alternative to wireless connections where one or more computers access a router through a
wireless signal. On a straight through cable, the wired pins match. Straight through cable use one wiring
standard: both ends use T568A wiring standard or both ends use T568B wiring standard. The following
figure shows a straight through cable of which both ends are wired as the T568B standard.
What Is Cross Over Cable?
A crossover Ethernet cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices together
directly. Unlike straight through cable, the RJ45 crossover cable uses two different wiring standards: one
end uses the T568A wiring standard, and the other end uses the T568B wiring standard. The internal
wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses the transmit and receive signals. It is most often used to
connect two devices of the same type: e.g. two computers (via network interface controller) or two
switches to each other.

Straight Through vs Crossover Cable, which to choose?

Straight through vs crossover cable, which one should I choose? Usually, straight through cables are
primarily used for connecting unlike devices. And crossover cables are use for connecting alike devices.
Use straight through Ethernet cable for the following cabling:

• Switch to router
• Switch to PC or server
• Hub to PC or server
Use crossover cables for the following cabling:
• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router
• Router Ethernet port to PC NIC
• PC to PC
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are the guided media that carnes the signal of higher frequency range compared to
twisted pair cable. Coaxial cables are also called coax. (short form). Two types of coaxial cables are
widely used: 50 ohm cable and 75 ohm cable. 50 ohm cable is used for digital transmission and 75 ohm
cable is used for analog transmission. Due to the shield provided, this cable has excellent noise immunity.
It has a large bandwidth and low losses. Co-axial cables are easy to install. They are often installed either
in a device to device daisy chain (Ethernet) or a star (ARC net).

A coaxial cable consists of many small cables in a protective cover. The cover shields the cable from
physical dangers as well as from electromagnetic interference. Within the cover, the various cables are
shielded from interference with one another. Coaxial cables are used in communication networks that
require many simultaneous communication links. Each coaxial cable can provide more than 5000 links. It
has a data rate of 10 Mbps which can be increased with the increase in diameter of the inner conductor.
The specified maximum number of nodes on a thinnet segment is 30 nodes and on a thicknet it is 100
nodes.
Coaxial cable is a two-conductor cable in which one conductor forms an electromagnetic shield around
the other. The two conductors are separated by insulation. It is a constant impedance transmission
cable. This media is used in base band and broadband transmission.

Coaxial cables do not produce external electric and magnetic fields and are not affected by them. This
makes them ideally suited, although more expensive, for transmitting signals. This cable is suitable for
point to point or point to multipoint applications. In fact this is the most widely used medium for local area
networks. These cables are costlier than twisted pair cables but they are cheaper than the optical fiber
cables.

Types of Coaxial Cables

There are two types of coaxial cables:

Features: It provides better immunity than twisted pair. This cable is able to transmit data at higher rates.
Limitations: High installation cost. High maintenance cost.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

1. It can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
2. It offers higher bandwidth as compared to twisted pair cable and can span longer distances.
3. Because of better shielding in coaxial cable, loss of signal or attenuation is less.
4. Better shielding also offers good noise immunity.
5. It is relatively inexpensive as compared to optical fibers.
6. It has lower error rates as compared to twisted pair.
7. It is not as easy to tap as twisted pair because copper wire is contained in plastic jacket.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables
1. It is usually more expensive than twisted pair.
Applications of Co-axial Cables:
(1) Analog telephone networks.
(2) Digital telephone network.
(3) Cable TV
(4) Traditional Ethernet LANs
(5) Digital transmission
(6) Thick Ethernet

Fiber optics (optical fiber)

Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the medium and the technology associated with the transmission of
information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber. A fiber optic cable can contain a varying
number of these glass fibers -- from a few up to a couple hundred. Surrounding the glass fiber core is
another glass layer called cladding. A layer known as a buffer tube protects the cladding, and a jacket
layer acts as the final protective layer for the individual strand.

Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that pulse through a fiber optic
cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a different refractive index that bends incoming
light at a certain angle. When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core
and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a process called total internal reflection. The light
signals do not travel at the speed of light because of the denser glass layers, instead traveling about 30%
slower than the speed of light. To renew, or boost, the signal throughout its journey, fiber optics
transmission sometimes requires repeaters at distant intervals to regenerate the optical signal by
converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical signal and retransmitting the optical signal.
Power Over Ethernet (POE)

What is Power over Ethernet?

Power over Ethernet (POE) is a technology that lets network cables carry electrical power.

For example, a digital security camera normally requires two connections to be made when it is installed:

A network connection, in order to be able to communicate with video recording and display equipment

A power connection, to deliver the electrical power the camera needs to operate

However, if the camera is POE-enabled, only the network connection needs to be made, as it will receive
its electrical power from this cable as well.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected over
a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of
information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:

• Simplex Mode

• Half duplex Mode

• Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in
Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.

Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard
and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier,
but not at the same time.

For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one
workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the same
direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line
(one that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.

Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are sent
in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same time in other
words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.

Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by
a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time .
In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

CSMA is a network access method used on shared network topologies such as Ethernet to control
access to the network. Devices attached to the network cable listen (carrier sense) before transmitting. If
the channel is in use, devices wait before transmitting. MA (Multiple Access) indicates that many devices
can connect to and share the same network. All devices have equal access to use the network when it is
clear.

Carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD)

CSMA/CD is a MAC (media access control) protocol. It defines how network devices respond when two
devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously and encounter a data collision. The CSMA/CD
rules define how long the device should wait if a collision occurs. The medium is often used by multiple
data nodes, so each data node receives transmissions from each of the other nodes on the medium.

Carrier Sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)

In a local area network (LAN), all network participants share a transmission medium – a cable, the so-
called bus. Wireless networks naturally don’t use cables, but even with WLAN, all devices involved send
and receive using only one transmission medium, namely a certain radio range. In this respect, WiFi
(IEEE 802.11) is comparable to the early half-duplex Ethernet networks. So, there must also be a protocol
for a wireless network that regulates the use of the medium.

The most important rule, which you’ll know from communication situations when there are several
participants (e.g. a conversation with the family at the dinner table), is: only one person may send their
information at once. If everyone speaks at the same time, it’s confusing and no-one can understand
anything. The posts can also overlap in networks, in this case in the form of data packets. This is called
a collision, when the data packets meet and alienate their contents.

CSMA/CA tries to reduce the frequency of these collisions and provide a plan at the same time on how to
proceed if a collision does occur. The protocol is also important because the transmissions in the wireless
networks cannot run in the same order (due to the technology used) as they would have done with a
cable. In a decentralized network, it is necessary for all participants to follow a set of rules and organize
the communication among themselves.
Network Topologies

The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network topology. Some of the
factors that affect choice of topology for a network are −

• Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an infrastructure.
So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have to be considered when
designing a network.

• Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration of office

set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.

• Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time. Failure
of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network useless.

• Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of new devices
and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.

• Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software and
technical personnel requirements.

• Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.

Bus Topology
Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to which
many network devices and workstations are attached along the length. Server is at one end of the bus.
When a workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with destination address in its header along
the bus.
The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal sees the data, it
copies it to the local disk.

Advantages of Bus Topology

These are the advantages of using bus topology −

• Easy to install and maintain

• Can be extended easily

• Very reliable because of single transmission line

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

These are some disadvantages of using bus topology −

• Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control

• One faulty node can bring the whole network down

• Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus

Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a circular shape.
Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.
When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits it to the next
one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this way, data raverses the network and
reaches the destination node, which removes it from the network. If the data reaches the sender, it
removes the data and resends it later.

Advantages of Ring Topology

These are the advantages of using ring topology −

• Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

• Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction

• Very high transmission speeds possible

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

These are some the disadvantages of using ring topology −

• Failure of single node brings down the whole network

• Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty one is
identified

• Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact
Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called the central node. Any
exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the server. It is the most popular topology
for information and voice networks as central node can process data received from source node before
sending it to the destination node.

Advantages of Star Topology

These are the advantages of using star topology −

 Failure of one node does not affect the network

 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node immediately
 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the central node

Disadvantages of Star Topology

These are the disadvantages of using star topology −

• Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server

• Failure of central node brings down the whole network

Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. It incorporates
features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called hierarchical topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the advantages of using tree topology −

• Existing network can be easily expanded

• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and maintenance

• Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the disadvantages of using tree topology −

• Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology

• Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network

• Insecure network

• Maintenance difficult for large networks

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each
other.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
• Routing

• Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the
data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about
the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed
nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The
network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the
network.

Types of Mesh Topology

• Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as

mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.

• Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
• Fully connected.

• Robust.

• Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Each connection can carry its own data load.

• It is robust.

• Fault is diagnosed easily.

• Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration is difficult.

• Cabling cost is more.

• Bulk wiring is required.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an
office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these
topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
• It is a combination of two or topologies

• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

• Effective.

• Scalable as size can be increased easily.

• Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
• Complex in design.

• Costly.

Types of Networks
Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of security, or geographical range. We

will discuss some of the most popular topologies based on geographical spread.

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection between devices within the
range of a person’s private space, typically within a range of 10 metres. If you have transferred images
or songs from your laptop to mobile or from mobile to your friend’s mobile using Bluetooth, you have set
up and used a personal area network.
A person can connect her laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable printer in a
network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of wired and wireless.

Benefits of a Personal Area Network

PANs are for personal use, so the benefits might be more easily understood than when talking about wide
area networks, for example, that describe the internet. With a personal area network, your devices
interconnect for more accessible communication.

For instance, a surgery room in a hospital might have a PAN set up so that the surgeon can communicate
with the other team members in the room. It's unnecessary to have all their communication fed through a
more extensive network for people a few feet away to receive it. A PAN transmits data through short-
range communication like Bluetooth.

Wireless keyboards and mice also specialize in localized use. They don't need to operate computers in
other buildings or cities. They only need to communicate with a nearby, usually line-of-sight device like a
computer or tablet.

Since most devices that support short-range communication can block out unauthorized connections, a
WPAN is considered a secure network. However, just like with WLANs and other network types, hackers
can still access unsecured PANs.
LAN
LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an office, building or
manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members need to share software and hardware
resources with each other but not with the outside world. Typical software resources include official
documents, user manuals, employee handbook, etc. Hardware resources that can be easily shared over
the network include printer, fax machines, modems, memory space, etc. This decreases infrastructure
costs for the organization drastically.

A LAN may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is completely wireless is called
Wireless LAN or WLAN.

Benefits of local area network

 Compared to a wide area network, a LAN connection is relatively inexpensive to set up and
maintain. A WAN, or wide area network requires substantial investment, whether it be private
ownership or leasing from a telecommunications provider. The local nature of a LAN also makes
troubleshooting quick and cost-effective.
 To set up a LAN, all you need is internet service and a server, or central hub. This hub can be a
main computer or a router. From there, you can connect devices using Ethernet cables or
wirelessly via Wi-Fi transmission. There is no limit to the number of users you can add to a LAN,
and multiple LANs can be joined across multiple office locations to create a larger virtual LAN
 A LAN is very adaptable. As employees get shuffled between teams and departments and new
hires come on board, a LAN ensures that every user and every machine stays connected. You
can add or remove devices, move printers and computers to different areas of the building, and
modify user information for existing devices with minimum hassle. This versatility is essential in
today's fast-paced business world.
 Speaking of fast-paced, modern LAN speeds can easily reach or exceed 1 Gbps, several times
faster than the average WAN. From sharing files to uploading and downloading to high-definition
 streaming, applications and videoconferencing, a LAN provides all users with the speed needed
to conduct even the most data-intensive tasks.
 A LAN can be easily monitored by a small information technology team. If you use a router, you
will have a built-in firewall. All devices must provide a valid username and password, which can
be encrypted, to access the network. Automated backups to the server or to the cloud can be
scheduled to further safeguard your information for disaster recovery or when traveling.

CAN
Stands for "Campus Area Network." A CAN is a network that covers an educational or corporate campus.
Examples include elementary schools, university campuses, and corporate buildings.

A campus area network is larger than a local area network LAN since it may span multiple buildings
within a specific area. Most CANs are comprised of several LANs connected via switches and routers that
combine to create a single network. They operate similar to LANs, in that users with access to the
network (wired or wireless) can communicate directly with other systems within the network.

Advantages of campus area network (CAN)

Below are some of the advantages of CAN:-

Economical:
CAN is economical in the sense that it uses fewer cables, switches, hubs and routers.

Sharing of data is easy:

In CAN, the message is sent one time and is transferred to all the linked departments easily.

Use a wireless connection:

CAN use a wireless connection for connecting different departments and buildings across one
organization.

Transferring files is fast:

In CAN, files are transferred with high speed over the network (internet).

One ISP across all departments:

In CAN, the internet is used from the same ISP (Internet Service Provider).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the
similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a
number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single
private company or a public company.

Characteristics of MAN
• It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

• Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.

• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the network
that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain.
Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.
Characteristics of WAN
• It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).

• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by

routers.

Types of Messaging

The cast term here signifies some data(stream of packets) is being transmitted to the recipient(s) from
client(s) side over the communication channel that help them to communicate. Let’s see some of the
“cast” concepts that are prevailing in the computer networks field

• Unicast

• Broadcast

• Multicast

Unicast Messaging-
This type of information transfer is useful when there is a participation of single sender and single
recipient. So, in short you can term it as a one-to-one transmission. For example, a device having IP
address 10.1.2.0 in a network wants to send the traffic stream(data packets) to the device with IP address
20.12.4.2 in the other network, then unicast comes into picture. This is the most common form of data
transfer over the networks.
Broadcast Messaging–
Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types :

• Limited Broadcasting –
Suppose you have to send stream of packets to all the devices over the network that you reside,
this broadcasting comes handy. For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all the 32 bits
of IP address set to 1) called as Limited Broadcast Address in the destination address of the
datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information transfer to all the recipients from a
single client (sender) over the network.

• Direct Broadcasting –
This is useful when a device in one network wants to transfer packet stream to all the devices over
the other network. This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part bits of the destination address
to 1,referred as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information transfer.
 This mode is mainly utilized by television networks for video and audio distribution. One important
protocol of this class in Computer Networks is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) that is used for
resolving IP address into physical address which is necessary for underlying communication.

Multicast –
In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data transfer traffic. In this
method traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all).
Multicast lets server’s direct single copies of data streams that are then simulated and routed to hosts that
request it. IP multicast requires support of some other protocols like IGMP (Internet Group Management
Protocol), Multicast routing for its working. Also in Classful IP addressing Class D is reserved for
multicast groups.

Peer-to-Peer Networks

• In the peer to peer computer network model we simply use the same Workgroup for all the computers
and a unique name for each computer in a computer network.
• There is no master or controller or central server in this computer network and computers join hands to
share files, printers and Internet access.
• It is practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers making it common environments, where each
PC acts as an independent workstation and maintaining its own security that stores data on its own disk
but which can share it with all other PCs on the network.
• Software for peer-to-peer network is included with most modern desktop operating systems such as
Windows and Mac OS.
• Peer to peer relationship is suitable for small networks having less than 10 computers on a single LAN.
• In a peer to peer network each computer can not act as both a server and a client.
Advantages of Peer to Peer Networks

1. Such networks are easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
2. It eliminates extra cost required in setting up the server.
3. Since each device is master of its own, they are not dependent on other computers for their operations.

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Networks

1. In peer-to-peer network, the absence of centralized server make it difficult to backup data as data is
located on different workstations.
2. Security is weak as each system manages itself only.
3. There is no central point of data storage for file archiving.

CLIENT SERVER NETWORKS

• A Computer networking model where one or more powerful computers (servers) provide the
different computer network services and all other user'of computer network (clients) access those
services to perform user's tasks is known as client/server computer networking model.
• In such networks, there exists a central controller called server. A server is a specialized computer
that controls the network resources and provides services to other computers in the network.
 All other computers in the network are called clients. A client computer receives the requested
services from a server.
• A server performs all the major operations like security and network management.
• All the clients communicate with each other via centralized server
• If client 1 wants to send data to client 2, it first sends request to server to seek permission for it. The
server then sends a signal to client 1 allowing it to initiate the communication.
• A server is also responsible for managing all the network resources such as files, directories,
applications & shared devices like printer etc.
• If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first seeks permission from the server by
sending a request.
• Most Local Area Networks are based on client server relationship.

The OSI Model - Features, Principles and Layers

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to ensure,
national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are compatible to
communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO stands for International organization
of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly
known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system. They are:
• Application Layer

• Presentation Layer

• Session Layer
• Transport Layer

• Network Layer

• Datalink Layer

• Physical Layer

In the table below, we have specified the protocols used and the data unit exchanged by each layer of
the OSI Model.

Feature of OSI Model

• Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.

• We see how hardware and software work together.

• We can understand new technologies as they are developed.

• Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.

• Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Functions of Different Layers
Following are the functions performed by each layer of the OSI model. This is just an introduction, we will
cover each layer in details in the coming tutorials.

OSI Model Layer 1: The Physical Layer

• Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

• It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

• It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.

• Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.

• It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.

• Data encoding is also done in this layer.

OSI Model Layer 2: Data Link Layer

• Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer.

• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another,

over the physical layer.

• Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.

• This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.

Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.

• This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic control

over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.

OSI Model Layer 3: The Network Layer

• Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.

• It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.

• It decides by which route data should take.

• It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into messages

for higher levels.

OSI Model Layer 4: Transport Layer

• Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer

• It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units and

passes it on to the Network layer.

• Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently by
the network layer.

OSI Model Layer 5: The Session Layer

• Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.

• Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are

resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is

avoided.

OSI Model Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

• Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand the

information (data) and will be able to use the data.

• While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application layer.

• Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition

presentation layer plays a role of translator.

• It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer

• Application Layer is the topmost layer.

• Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services, directory

services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.

• This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.
Merits of OSI reference model
• OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.

• Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.

• Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.

• Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model

• Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

• Fitting of protocols is tedious task.

• It is just used as a reference model.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the
current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data between the source and
destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department
of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference model were:
• Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.

• The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and destination machines

were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets) another
application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

• Lowest layer of the all.

• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.

• Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer is

called a internet layer.

• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.

• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.

• Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.

• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.

• The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:

• Delivering IP packets

• Performing routing

• Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.

• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.

• Transport layer adds header information to the data.

• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently

by the network layer.

• Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some
of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine and run

applications on it.

• FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users connected

over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.

• SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail

between a source and destination, directed via a route.

• DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected over a

network.

• It allows peer entities to carry conversation.

• It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP

• TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol which

handles byte-stream from source to destination without error and flow control.

• UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less protocol that do not want

TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

• It operated independently.

• It is scalable.

• Client/server architecture.

• Supports a number of routing protocols.

• Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP
• In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

• The model cannot be used in any other application.

• Replacing protocol is not easy.

• It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

IP Address Classes and Definition Explained

This tutorial explains what IP address is, IP address format, types of IP address, IP address classes,
subnet mask, private IP addresses and public IP addresses in detail with examples. Learn how IP
address works and why an interface needs a unique IP address along with how to find the class of an IP
address.
What is IP address?
An IP address is a numeric identity of an interface. Just like a postal address provides a unique identity to
a house, an IP address provides a unique identity to an interface.

Why an interface needs unique IP address?

IP network uses IP address to find the destination interface and delivers the IP packets. In order to
receive IP packets, an interface needs a unique IP address. If multiple interfaces have same IP address,
IP network will not work.
Let’s understand it with an example. In a city all houses have same house number, suppose 195. If there
is mail for house number 195, how mailman will delivery that mail? To deliver the mail at correct house,
postal system needs unique address of that house. Exactly same way, to deliver an IP packet at correct
interface, IP network needs a unique IP address of that interface.

How IP address works?

IP address works in IP network just like a postal address works in postal system. A postal address is the
combination of two addresses, area address and house address. Area address is the group address of all
houses which belong to a particular area and house address is the unique address of a specific house in
that area. Each area is represented by a unique PIN code number in postal system.
PIN code helps in fast processing of mail. In a central post office where thousands or in some case
millions of mail are received, forwarded and delivered daily, processing mail based on complete address
is next to impossible. In a busy post office the clerk doesn’t read the complete address of a package to
make his decision, he only pays attention on the PIN code. He reads the PIN code and drops the
package in the container which will be forwarded to the nearest post office of the area which PIN code
represents. Same process is used at next post office and so on and so on until the package reaches at
the post office which delivers packages in destination area. At last post office, recipient’s house address
is used to deliver the package.
Exact mechanism is used in IP network. An IP address is the combination of two addresses, network
address and host address. Network address is the group address of all hosts which belong to a particular
network and host address is the unique address of a specific host in that network.
Just like PIN code, network address helps in fast processing of the IP packets. In IP network, routers do
exactly what post offices do in postal system. Routers use network address to find the destination
network and host address to deliver the packets.

IP address format
An IP address is 32 bits in length. These bits are divided in four parts. Each part is known as octets and
contains and 8 bits.
An IP address can be written in three notations; dotted-decimal, binary and hexadecimal. Among these
types, dotted-decimal is the most popular and frequently used method for writing an IP address.
In dotted-decimal notation, each byte (8 bits) of the 32 bits IP address is written in decimal equivalent.
The four resulting decimal numbers are separated by a dot and written in a sequence. 10.10.10.10,
172.168.10.1, 192.168.1.1 and 200.0.0.1 are some examples of IP address in dotted-decimal notation.

Subnet Mask
Subnet mask is used to separate the network address from the host address in IP address. As we
discussed earlier an IP address is the combination of network address and host address, subnet mask
helps us and programs which use IP address in identifying the network portion and the host portion.
Just like IP address, subnet mask is also 32 bits in length and uses same notations which IP address
uses to present itself.
Subnet mask assigns an individual bit for each bit of IP address. If IP bit belongs to network portion,
assigned subnet mask bit will be turned on. If IP bit belongs to host portion, assigned subnet mask bit will
be turned off.
In binary notation, 1 (one) represents a turned on bit while 0 (zero) represents a turned off bit. In dotted-
decimal notation, a value range 1 to 255 represents a turned on bit while a value 0 (zero) represents a
turned off bit.

IP address classes
There are 4,294,967,296 IP addresses. Managing all these addresses without any scheme are next
to impossible. Let’s understand it with a simple example. If you have to find out a word from a
language dictionary, how long will you take? Usually you will take less than five minutes to find
out that word. You are able to do this because words in dictionary are organized in alphabetic
order. If you have to find out the same word from the dictionary which does not use any
sequence or order to organize the words, how long will you take this time? It may take up to one
week to find out that specific word from all words. If an unorganized dictionary which roughly
contains 1 billion words can turn a five minutes task in a one-week task than suppose how nearly
4.3 billion addresses will make a search task complicated if they are unorganized.
For easier management, IP addresses are organized in numeric order and divided in following
five classes.
Class Starting Address Ending Address Subnet mask
A 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0
B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0
D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 255.255.255.255
E 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255
As we discussed earlier, an IP address is the combination of network address and host address. In each
IP address, few bits are reserved for network address. In class A, B and C first 8, 16 and 24 bits are
reserved respectively for network addresses.

How to find the class of an IP address?

To find the class of an IP address, simply pay attention on the first octet.
If the value of first octet is in range 1 to 127, it’s a class A IP address. Examples of class A IP address
are: - 1.2.3.4, 10.20.30.45, 125.234.123.23, 126.100.200.45, etc.
If the value of first octet is in range 128 to 191, it’s a class B IP address. Examples of class B IP address
are: - 128.200.100.50, 191.200.100.1, 172.168.0.1, 175.45.48.14, etc.
If the value of first octet is in range 192 to 223, it’s a class C IP address. Examples of class C IP address
are: - 192.168.1.1, 200.0.0.1, 223.224.127.1, 212.14.15.56, etc.

Private IP address and Public IP address

Private IP addresses are the IP addresses which are reserved for local networks and cannot be accessed
from a public network such as Internet. Vice versa a public network cannot be accessed from a private IP
address.
Following IP ranges are reserved for private IP addresses.
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

Public IP addresses
Public IP addresses are the IP addresses which are publicly accessible from any public network such as
Internet. In order to access a public IP address, we must have to use a public IP address.
Except private IP addresses, all IP addresses of class A, B and C are public IP addresses.
Special IP addresses
Special IP addresses are the IP addresses which are reserved for network testing and troubleshooting.
These IP addresses cannot be assigned to an end device or an interface. Following addresses are
reserved for special purpose: -
0.0.0.0: - This is the first IP address of IP addresses. It represents all networks.
127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255: - Reserved for IP protocol testing and troubleshooting. Virtual interfaces
such as loopback adaptor use this IP range for addressing.
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (Class D): - Reserved for multicast addresses. A multicast address is an
address which has multiple recipients.
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (Class E): - Reserved for future use. These addresses are not used
currently for any purpose.
255.255.255.255: - This is the last IP address of IP addresses. It represents all hosts.