Contents

Women workers in Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act............................2

Women Participation under MGNREGA: Statistics...............................................................................3
MGNREGA: its Socio-Economic Impact on Women workers and overall analysis of the act in its
relation..................................................................................................................................................3
North East Zone....................................................................................................................................9
South Zone..........................................................................................................................................10
North Zone..........................................................................................................................................12
East Zone.............................................................................................................................................14
West Zone...........................................................................................................................................16
Central Zone........................................................................................................................................16
Comparative study based on Heterogenous Zones............................................................................17
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................19
References...........................................................................................................................................21
Women workers in Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act.
MGNREGA is a rural wage employment programme which provides guaranteed work to
individuals who are willing to do labour at the statutory minimum wage, it is limited to 100 days
per household per year. The act incorporates gender equity and empowerment through its
provisions and Guidelines. It aims to ensure that women have equitable and easy access to
work, better working conditions, equal payment of wages and representation on decision-
making bodies.

Being a highly gender sensitive scheme, one third of the workers are supposed to be women, at
the national level being 40%. It is necessary to provide various facilities at the worksite like
drinking water and baby shelters. As the wage level for female labourers are less than that of
their male counterparts, the scheme attracts women workers through the incentives.

The programme intends to eliminate the gender wage differentials in the rural labour markets as
it ensures equality in payment. As majority of women in rural India live in virtual isolation with
little access to basic services, MGNREGA aims to empower women through its mission.

Empowerment can enable women to participate as equal citizens, in the economic, political and
social sustainable development of the rural communities being the most underprivileged and
discriminated strata of the society not only in India but the world over in spite of all government
and not governmental efforts, they are highly ignored at the financial sector.

MGNREGA plays a significant role to meet the economic as well as social needs of women by
contributing in the income generation which has helped them to think about the education of
themselves and their children as well as become aware about their health and hygiene. The act
has great impact on liberty and decision-making power of rural women. Their political
consciousness and active participation in local self-government and governance affairs become
evident yet it has its own limitations.

The implementation with inadequate facilities across the nation (such as lack of childcare facility,
worksite facility etc.) resulted into the gender insensitiveness towards the mandatory provisions
of the Act. Nevertheless, the economic activities of women have become directly visible even
though there is much to do in achieving gender equality and sensitivity, which requires a
comprehensive perspective.

One of the main constraints in integrating gender concerns and perspectives in large scale
development programs successfully is the complex role of gender in social protection (Holmes
and Jones, 2010). As Golla et.al (2011: 4) argue, economic empowerment of women involves a
dual stage process – first, in order ‘to succeed and advance economically, women need the skills
and resources to compete in markets, as well as fair and equal access to economic institutions;
second, to have the power and agency to benefit from economic activities, women need to have
the ability to make and act on decisions and control resources and profits’. It is thus evident that
equitable decision-making capacities, power and agency, and a supportive institutional
environment are required for women’s economic advancement (GSDRC, 2012). It is also
imperative to recognize that social protection measures/initiatives have to be designed to
respond to different gender specific categories of risk (such as health risks, life cycle risks,
household economic risks, and social risks).

There exists quite a few studies and literature on MGNREGA focusing on women’s issues and
pointing out several anomalies in regard to the implementation of the ‘women friendly’
provisions of the scheme.

Women Participation under MGNREGA: Statistics.

According to the Economic survey (2018)1 prepared by chief advisor, Arvind Subramanian and
his team; the second volume of the survey highlighted that India has lower women participation
in the labour force which adversely affects the growth potential of the economy. Approximately
4.6 crore households were given employment under NREGA out of which 54 percent of the total
employment was generated by women. The survey also pointed out the trend regarding women
taking up more than 50 percent of jobs offered through MGNREGA has been continuing since
2013-14. It could be seen that compared to the national analytics of women participation,
NREGA provided impressive results and contributed in increasing participation.

An article posted in the Development News, 20172 stated that MGNREGA for the year 2016-17
saw the highest participation of women since the programme started. According to the rural
development ministry; a total of 5.04 crore households had been provided employment in
138.64 lakh works out of which 56% have been generated by women; these numbers prove that
MGNREGA is seeing positive outcomes despite the backlash.

In an article published in DNA, India (2016),3 Lok sabha announced that women participation
under MGNREGA in the financial year 2015-16 was the highest (51%) recorded in the last three
years i.e., a total of 331.18 Lakh women out of the total of 650.14 lakh persons who participated
in the rural job scheme in comparison to 47.03%, 47.97% and 50.23% for the years 2012-13,
2013-14 and 2014-15 respectively. State-wise figures also show that Puducherry tops the list in
women representation in MGNREGA with 85.07%.

Women also outnumbered men in Andhra Pradesh in MGNREGA participation. Women

participation was 54.64% in 2012-13, 54.84% in 2013-14, 54.03% in 2014-15 and 53.54% in this
financial year so far. This data gives a comparative analysis of the increase in women
participation throughout the financial years which shows the impact of the scheme on a national
level in incorporating women in the labour force.

1 Economic Survey, (January 19, 2018) “More women than men take benefit of MNREGA, still remain ‘most
disadvantaged’.
2 Sreeparna Chakrabarty, (May 1, 2017) Development news. “56 per cent of NREGA jobs for women”.
3 DNA India, (Mar 10, 2016) “Around 51% women participated in MGNREGA, maximum in last 3 years.
MGNREGA: its Socio-Economic Impact on Women
workers and overall analysis of the act in its
relation.

Bhatt and Chavda (2018)4 in their paper on Social impact of MGNREGS: A review concluded
that the scheme has brought about a significant beneficial impact in rural area at the social level.
MGNREGS has been helpful in increasing school enrolments as well as status of health of rural
women and children. Most importantly, the role of MGNREGS has been substantial in initiating a
culture of economic independence amongst rural women. However, the scheme suffers from
many lacunae at the level of implementation such as erratic and irregular availability of
employment, corruption, as well as low level of involvement of local population especially
women and marginalised groups: in planning and monitoring of works undertaken under this
scheme. These loopholes when plugged in can make the act even more beneficial for the rural
people.

Fernando Bárcia de Mattos & Sukti Dasgupta (2017)5 in their paper MGNREGA, paid work and
women’s empowerment; it was seen that employment opportunities in rural area for women
were very less, so they resort to MGNREGA; it is more of a fall-back option that too is often not
realised as work demanded is not always provided. Fall-back options in MGNREGA - type
legislated employment, which are well-intentioned and carefully crafted to ensure social equity,
are indeed important. As their analysis and that of others shows, MGNREGA has played a role in
changing power relations, especially at the household level. It states that transformative gender
equality requires action addressing macro structures that create gender inequalities, including
social norms and interconnections with economic power which are ingrained in gender relations
across all levels.

Social norms about what constitutes appropriate behaviour for women still prevail in societies
and communities – and the bulk of care work continues to be women’s responsibility.
Employment opportunities for rural women in India are few, and even shrinking in the face of
the mechanization of agriculture. In particular, micro and macro level policies are needed to
change perceptions (both inside and outside of the household) of women’s worth and
capabilities, and acceptance of women working in paid employment outside the home. Only
then can transformative gender equality be achieved.

K. Keerthi & Dr. T. Sarah Kamala (2016)6 in their research paper on the topic, Socio Economic
Empowerment of Women Under MGNREGA- A Review stated that empowerment of women has
certainly happened due to MGNREGA. Enhancement of economic security, promotion of gender
equity and equitable opportunities to disadvantaged groups and increasing bargaining power of

4 Parimalsinh R Chavda & Dr. Sonal Bhatt (2018), “Social Impact of MGNREGS: A Review”, International
Research Journal of Management Science & Technology. Vol.9(1) PP: 45-54.
5 Fernanda Bárcia de Mattos & Sukti Dasgupta (2017), “MGNREGA, paid work and women’s empowerment”
International Labour office, Geneva, Switzerland. Working paper no.30
6 K. Keerthi & Dr. T. Sarah Kamala (2016), “Socio Economic Empowerment of Women Under MGNREGA- A
review”, Indian Journal of Research, 5(10); PP: 281-283.
the poor are envisaged in the policy. Factually majority of women collect their own wages,
broadened their choices and capabilities. The raised incomes were invested on higher education
of children, health and nutrition of families, particularly women. Access to bargaining and
increased purchasing power resulted in self-confidence and sustainable development, both
tangible and intangible benefits occurred due to MGNERGA.

Gnyaneswar (2016)7 in his paper on women empowerment through MGNREGS stated the role
of the act, the problems that get in the way of women’s participation and suggestions to make it
more responsive and effective to the needs of women. Since the introduction of the scheme,
there has been positive affirmations at the participation level of women by giving them a
platform to become self-sustained and get rewards for the disguised labour they did
nevertheless but there are also challenges that limit their freedom.

However, given the critical gains made by women workers, in accessing work and income, it
needs to be ensured that the problems in implementation do not destroy the gains achieved so
far and the objectives of MGNREGS. Women will go a long way by removing the short-term
barriers to women’s employment and participation to achieve longer term goals of gender
equality. Effective levels of awareness and sustained public initiatives are crucial to ensure that
the implementation problems are not only addressed but also resolved, and the objectives are
met.

Karthika K T in her research paper (2015),8 Impact of MGNREGA on Socio-Economic

Development& Women Empowerment evaluated the impact and analysed the implementation
process with a special focus on understanding the role of panchayat in the process. The
extensive participation of women in MGNREGA has meant that women are coming out of their
homes, not only to work but also to visit banks and Panchayat offices, which they may not have
done previously. This enhanced mobility comes with the higher status of being income-earning
workers.

The highest employment status amongst women in terms of person days could be seen in Kerala
(92.75%) and the lowest was seen in states such as Uttar Pradesh (26.97%) followed by Jammu &
Kashmir (28.38%), Mizoram (23.33%), Assam (24.87%) and Nagaland (27.23%). It could be
gathered from the study that panchayat in the sample area were actively working which enabled
the process of economic development. The involvement of community and collective decision
making has enhanced the rural capacities of the former states.

The high participation rate can broadly be attributed to three main factors, viz., labour market
conditions (including socio-cultural norms around women’s work), women’s perception of
MNREGS work and the village level provisions to facilitate women’s participation.

Sonalde Desai et.al (2015)9 in their research study stated that earnings for all workers grew
between 2004-05 and 2011-12 in a comparative analysis, concluding that the scheme has helped

7 Mr. D Gnyaneswar (2016), “Women Empowerment through MGNREGS” Anveshana’s International Journal of
Research In regional studies, law, social sciences, Journalism and Management practices. Vol. 1 (7); PP: 68-75.
8 Karthika K T (2015). “Impact of MGNREGA on Socio-Economic Development of Women Empowerment”. IOSR
Journal of Business and Management, Volume 17, Issue 7.Ver. II (July. 2015), PP 16-19.
9 Sonalde Desai, Prem Vashishtha & Omkar Joshi (2015), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act: A catalyst for Rural transformation. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research
(NCAER).
in reducing rural poverty. It provided women with their first formal employment and increased
financial inclusion. Qualitative studies of women workers in MGNREGA note significant
enhancement in their esteem, power control over resources. Many of the MGNREGA female
participants were either not employed in 2004–05 or employed only on a family farm or in a
family business. MGNREGA provided them with a unique opportunity to earn cash income,
which was instrumental in empowering them.

Their analysis shows that only 30% rural poor participate in MGNREGS while 21% non-poor
workers. These figures envisaged that MGNREGS more likely attract poor as compared to non-
poor rural workers having low education level and cannot find another work. This proves their
vulnerability. But this is a big question mark that why remaining 70% families are not
participating in MGNREGS?

Elizabeth Freud (2015)10 in her project, NREGA under Attack: The Erosion of India’s
Employment Guarantee Program and the Possible Effects on Women discusses about the
benefits of the world’s largest Employment generating programme and how it has shaped the
lives of those who are at the bottom of receiving remuneration for their labour with a special
focus on women workers. Being a gender responsive act, the paper tries to focus on whether it
has helped the women beneficiaries or not; as women usually take up jobs to sustain their
family with the added burden of childcare and household duties it was seen that MGNREGA
even though has many loopholes when it comes to inadequate payment methods, lack of proper
implementation of provisions and administrative issues; it still empowers rural women by
incorporating them to the national economy.

Additionally, in many states, women’s participation in the NREGA has shown to be higher than
their participation in the rural workforce prior to the implementation of the program. This shows
that perhaps the “female friendly” aspects of the NREGA have helped to mobilize women into
the workforce and alleviate some of the barriers seen in the labour market. Complete
dismantling or scaling back of the program can lead to adverse effects for female workers s
including the return to an unfavourable labour market, increased wage gap, and an increase in
the burden of unpaid work. The major question of the paper was to see what can be done to
make the program a success? A major suggestion made was of releasing necessary funds for
proper functioning which can help tackle monitoring issues and corruption, breaking down the
hierarchal and bureaucratic tendencies targeting on the disadvantaged groups.

Replacing the act entirely could be more disastrous as it is a much more powerful stabilizer of
the business cycle, enhance price stability by counterbalancing inflationary pressures, and
provide an important anchor for the value of the currency that cannot be offered by a cash
transfer system. The main argument of the project was that NREGA should be reformed keeping
in mind women workers to release unpaid work burden. Women have faced severe barriers in
the labour market, prompting them to fall into a spiral of poverty, however the guarantee that
one can have a secure and stable job has shown time and time again that it helps to weaken the
pull of this spiral; the project stated that many women have actually benefitted from the
scheme; reforming the programme instead of scraping it out will be beneficial in the long run.

10 Freud, Elizabeth Justine, (2015) "NREGA under Attack: The Erosion of India's Employment Guarantee
Program and the Possible Effects on Women" (2015). Senior Projects Spring 2015. Paper 142.
C. Goodrich, M. Bhattarai, A. Bose & C. Bantilan (2015)11 has reviewed and synthesized on
concept, methodology, and analytical tools and techniques on assessment of gender
implications of large scale social protection programs particularly in context of the Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), which is one of the largest
social protection program.

They have summarized the findings of recent studies on gender implication of MGNREGA; ;
described and illustrated a generic methodological and analytical tool (targeted to MGNREGA
study) that any practitioner in the field can use in the future for assessing and quantifying
gender dimensions of Social; Protection program such as MGNREGS and other program
worldwide. By using the example of MGNREGA, and specific component of the tools and
techniques, they have tried to show also the inter linkage between social protection and wider
dimensions of development (such as economic, environmental, social, institutional and
health/nutrition linkages), with a view towards providing a gender assessment tool which can be
adapted for different programs across regions.

The structure of gender relations in societies often hide inherent biases (favouring men) in
development programmes which in turn prevent women (who are ubiquitously overrepresented
amongst the poor) from accruing programme benefits due to them. In public works programmes
with a ‘wage for employment’ orientation, such gender differences are most often manifested in
inequitable allocation of labour roles, control over resources, and variable wage differentiation.
It is in this context that the paper seeks to address the methodological gap between social
protection interventions aimed at bringing about economic advancement and ‘perceptions of
development or empowerment’ from a beneficiary point of view and through a gender lens.

Richard Mahapatra (2015)12, in his blog How women seized NREGA, stated that more women
than men work under this scheme; more than 50% of the employment opportunities created
under the act was availed by women. He emphasized on the contradictory and unique aspects
that could be seen in the data presented by MGNREGA regarding participation rates. In Kerala,
where women only account for 15 percent of the workforce took up 79% of the employment
created under MGNREGA. Two other states, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan with low share of women
in workforce had 82% and 69% respectively. Whereas poor states with greater casual labour
potential such as Odisha, U.P. and Bihar reported low women participation (22-33%).

Contradictory to the assumption that poverty forces women to take up casual labour. Majority of
the women who were farm labourers remained unpaid but MGNEGA has provided them
employment; women take up these opportunities as economic freedom to revive their lands;
SC/ST community members benefiting the most.

In Rajasthan the campaign for social audits in which women play major role has contributed to
enhanced awareness and participation under MGNREGA, in Kerala management of work sites
and other logistics for implementation is placed in the hands of women self-help groups; which
has led to higher participation rate but there is still some hurdles when it comes to providing

11 Goodrich, C., Bhattarai, M., Bose, A. & Bantilan, C. (2015) “Gender Implications of Social Protection
Interventions: recent literature, concepts, methods, analytics, and survey tools”, ICRISAT - Socioeconomics
Discussion Paper Series. Series paper 31, PP: 2-44.
12 Richard Mahapatra (June 7, 2015) “How women seized NREGA”. Down to Earth.
women with supervisory roles in panchayats even though the act states so otherwise to have
50% representation.

Sudha Narayan & Upasak Das (2014)13 in their study stated that MGNREGA is inclusive of
women in their provisions and provide incentives to incorporate them into the program. The
researchers tried to study the extent to which it was inclusive, with a particular focus on
subpopulations of women such as widows and mothers of young children who typically face
serious constraints in the context of labor market participation, is examined in this study using
data from the National Sample Survey. The study finds that while the MGNREGA has indeed
been inclusive of women, the substantial variations both across states and the exclusion of
vulnerable groups of women demand attention.

Ekta Joshi (2014)14 in her blog titled as, MGNREGA: Women ‘s participation and its impacts has
reflected about the status of women’s participation in MGNREGS and its varied impacts on their
lives. The post shows insights into the implementation of the scheme in terms of providing easy
access to gender dissolved work and wages to rural women emphasizing on the provisions as per
MGNREGA guidelines i.e., since employment is provided within 5 km radius of the village/
panchayat, it potentially strengthens women’s participation.

By comparing NSSO data for consecutive years 2005-2014, it was gathered that there is a shift in
role of women from the previously assigned ones. In the rural households, women labour is
always disguised whether it is farming or non-farming activities. Being an essential component
yet it remains invisible due to not receiving any significant benefits from it which could be
monitored. MGNREGA has therefore increased women’s economic contribution by providing
money for the work they did regardless.

The official data taken from the MGNREGA claims that participation of women has increased
from 40% in 2006-07 to 53% in 2013-14 while keeping in view the variations that occur across
states and even districts within a state in mind. It is mandatory according to the act, that at-least
one-third of the beneficiaries have to be women. Taking into consideration state wise
proportions; it ranged from 22% in Uttar Pradesh to 93% in Kerala in 2013-14. The southern
states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh show a higher rate of participation. Among
the northern and some eastern states, however, the pattern has been low, with Rajasthan and
Himachal Pradesh being the exceptions.

MGNREGA Sameeksha II (2012-2014)15 gave an overall analysis of all the research studies done
on the act published in various journals or came out as stand alone. MGNREGA has certainly
upset the status-quo in explicit and implicit hierarchies that exist within rural households. It
suggests that states need to focus on other parameters as well such low literacy rate and skewed
sex ratios where participation is higher whereas states having lower participation rates clearly
needs to be studied so that the reasons can be addressed properly. Clearly, there is a need for
researchers to go beyond the obvious and manifest changes and look at the subtle complexities
and challenges that women continue to face like gendered work loafing on MGNREGA work

13 Sudha Narayan & Upasak Das (2014), “Employment Guarantee for Women in India Evidence on
Participation and Rationing in the MGNREGA from the National Sample Survey”
14 Ekta Joshi (2014) in blog titled as “MGNREGA: Women’s participation and its impacts”.
15 MGNREGA Sameeksha II, an anthology of research studies (2012-2014) United nation development
programme, 2015.
sites, difficulties faced by women headed households and the relevance of particular works for
women.

Dasgupta & Sudarshan (2011)16 in their study found that women participation NREGA has been
on the rise and it was seen that it was the highest than in any other forms of recorded works so
far in rural as well state wise. Women flock to work in this government aided programme as in
private sectors; their wage rate is lower than their male counterparts. This has inevitably raised
their bargaining power and help in reducing gender disparities in the labour market. There are
two potential impacts on wages because of MGNREGA – an upward movement in general
bringing market wages more in line with minimum wage, and a reduction in the gender wage
gap as women are able to earn minimum wages on NREGA sites.

The question of course is to what extent the implementation of the programme will adhere to
the Guidelines and to what extent other considerations would influence the actual roll out of the
programme in different state governments. The paper also found that the achievements or
outcomes of the NREGA as far as women are concerned are—as with any other government
programme—mediated by the intervening institutions including both the gendered nature of the
labour market and the efficacy or otherwise of the local government.

Navjyoti Jandu (2010)17 in her study ―Employment Guarantee and women empowerment in
rural India has discussed about the impacts of MG NREGS in the initial years. She said that
MGNREGA not only improved the economic status of women but also has increased their
awareness level along with their participation in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and gram
sabha as well. Significantly, women are increasingly visible as part of the MG NREGA workforce,
there is still much scope to increase their involvement in PRIs to tackle issues like water,
sanitation, health, education and of course the implementation of MG NREGA.

She has clearly mentioned that MG NREGA seems to have created reasons and opportunities for
people to work and remain in their own villages. The strengthening of this perception in rural
areas can have significant impacts on questions of security, health and children's education, all
of which are often compromised, in one way or another, during migration. Inevitably, women's
NREGA earnings are increasing their contribution to household income. The study also reveals
that despite numerous problems, MG NREGA is a programme that has begun to make a
difference in the lives of women. Furthermore, it is popular among the workers, who routinely
ask if more work could be made available to them under MG NREGA.

Clearly, there is a massive demand for MG NREGA work, and the administration should respond
to it by increasing the scale of employment. Other challenges too remain. The timely payment of
wages is a problem in most areas. As mentioned earlier, the low levels of awareness and lack of
worksite facilities are also troubling. Nevertheless, the overall impact of MG NREGA on women’s
lives is quite positive in many ways, whether it is by enhancing their economic independence
and self-confidence, contributing to food security, helping to reduce distress migration, or
fostering better awareness (and wider enforcement) of minimum wages. The role of MG NREGA
as a tool of women’s empowerment deserves much more attention than it has received so far.
16 Sukti Dasgupta & Ratna M. Sudarshan (2011), “Issues in labour market inequality and women’s
participation in India’s National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme”, International Labour Organisation
2011. Working paper No. 98.
17 Navjyoti Jandu, National Federation of Indian Women (2008), ―Socio-Economic Empowerment of Women
under NREGA, report prepared for the Ministry of Rural Development.
North East Zone.
In a case study conducted by Dibyalata Devee & Dr. Rupali Phukan Bhuyan, (2017)18 to
determine whether MGNREGA was functional for Tribal women (Assam) or not and to see its
economic impact on their empowerment using primary and secondary data sources it was
gathered MGNREGA is growing everyday yet there is unawareness. Tribal women are self-
sustained; largely dependent on traditional sources of income as they play a major role in the co-
management of their natural, social, economic resources and agricultural development yet they
remain backward due to traditional values, illiteracy, superstition and many other social and
cultural factors.

The participatory role of tribals in MGNREGA improving their living conditions in terms of
income, education, living standard, health etc. is not very much effective. The contribution of
MGNREGA is merely appreciable, which is the base of the present empowerment of rural ST
women. According to the job card holders or MGNREGA women workers, it is just a
supplementary work to their day to day economic activities. In conclusion, it can be said that
Government has formulated many programmes such as MGNREGA for the upliftment of the
tribal people as well as empowering tribal women. On one hand it is enriching the socio-
economic status of the tribal women. Where, on the other hand, it is noticed that inspection and
evaluation of this programme, whether these have reached the target group or not is not done
properly.

Kabita Borah & Rimjhim Bordoloi (2014)19 in their research paper, MGNREGA and its wages on
Daily Waged Workers: A case study of Sonitpur District of Assam has discussed about the
impact of MGNREGA on women empowerment and identified the obstacles in the path of the
implementation of the scheme. The paper revealed that female workers have significant benefits
from MGNREGA i.e. income gains, social empowerment, more say in intra household decision
making and creation of community assets such as increased presence in the gram-sabha,
increasing number of women in speaking out in the meetings, increasing capacity of interaction
etc.

The paper also identified limitations in the implementations of MGNREGA i.e. low level of
awareness, delay in payments, poor worksite facilities, non- availability of childcare facilities, lack
of dedicated staff and poor administrative set up etc. accrued the gender sensitiveness of this
Act mainly in north-eastern state. Certain initiatives and changes should be taken to remove
these barriers, but the valuable gains should not be derailed for poor implementation.

18 Dibyalata Devee & Dr. Rupali Phukan Bhuyan (2017), Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women Through
MGNREGA: A Case Study of Kamarkuchi Gaon Panchayat of Dimoria Development Block, Kamrup (Metro),
Assam, International Journal of Innovative Research and Advanced Studies (IJIRAS) Volume 4 Issue 2, February
2017. Page No. 376-382.
19 Kavita Borah & Rimjhim Bordoloi (2014), “MGNREGA and its Impact on Daily Waged Women Workers: A
Case study of Sonitpur District of Assam.”, IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance. Vol.4 (4) PP- 40-44.
In a research done by Bhattacharya & Vauquline (2013)20 on the topic, A Mirage or a Rural
Lifeline? Analysing the impact of Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act on Women
Beneficiaries of Assam. According to the statistics produced by MGNREGA, in Assam women
constitute 21% which increased to 25% (2012-13) of the total job cardholders, whilst the all India
figure shows that women occupy 53% of the total job cardholders. The evidence collected from
analysis shows that worksite is plagued by corruption where implementing agencies fail to
provide the job cardholders the minimum materials (such as the cart, spade) required of the job.
Instead, the beneficiaries themselves have to make arrangement or hire these materials; this
further reduces their daily wages.

Even after the exploitation, MGNREGA is a rural lifeline for these women. The findings suggest
that the Act recognises connections between gender equality and poverty alleviation but
persistence of inequality results to the vulnerability of the women workers; absence of childcare
facilities, toilets and work-site equipment’s reflects a handicap of poor institutional capabilities.

South Zone.
In a case study presented by Masenamma Chodipalli & Choudari Appa Rao, (2017) 21 on the
topic Socio-Economic Condition of Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe Women Workers of
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) (A Case Study of
Madugula Mandal in Visakhapatnam District) stated that major number of ST respondents were
working as MGNREGS labour, they prioritized agricultural labour more in comparison to SC
respondents, who were more into daily wage labour. The data deliberates regarding average
income of the respondents as well, that the average income of the ST respondents was less
before joining in the MGNREGS but after joining in the rural employment guarantee scheme 5.96
percent of SC and 7.54 percent of ST women worker’s average income had improved.

In a research study conducted by Dr. Basavaraj S. Benni & Nagaraja J (2017)22 on the topic,
Women Empowerment Through Mahathma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantees Act
(MGNREGA): In Ballari District Karnataka State examined some critical aspects of women
workers in that particular area through socio-economic assessment. There is overall a good
impact of the scheme on the respondents, even though the average wage provided is very less
and there was lack of awareness regarding key aspects such as right to demand work, role of
gram panchayat etc. There was 30% increase in the income due to employment provided by
MGNREGS, it was also the main source of alternative work for women in the sample area.

20 Bhattacharyya and Vauquline (2013). Space and Culture, India 2013, 1:1 “A Mirage or a Rural Life Line?
Analysing the impact of Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee Act on Women Beneficiaries of
Assam”.
21Masenamma Chodipalli & Choudari Appa Rao (2017), Socio-Economic Condition of Schedule Caste and
Schedule Tribe Women Workers of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(MGNREGS) (A Case Study of Madugula Mandal in Visakhapatnam District), International Journal of
Humanities and Social Science (SSRG - IJHSS) Volume 4 Issue 1 Jan to Feb 2017. Page No. 1-5.
22 Dr. Basavaraj S. Benni & Nagaraja J (2017), “Women Empowerment Through Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantees Act (Mgnrega): In Ballari District Karnataka State”, IOSR Journal of humanities
and Social Sciences. Vol. 22 (7) Ver.3; PP: 26-30.
MGNREGA focused on works related de-silting of tanks for water conservation, agriculture works
like digging of vermicompost pits, building cattle sheds, land development, construction of rural
connectivity roads, roads to farms, digging of wells, plantation work, building of water sheds etc
can be taken under the scheme. It should also be recognized in the light of undesirable
experiences and results in its implementation in the last 10 years period that a coordinated and
scientific strategy is needed for desired results and their sustenance. But the paper raises the
question that, how long women are accommodated just in low paid manual labour just for the
sake providing employment, why can’t they be accommodated in other sectors, when there is
scope, by educating, training in newly emerging production and services activities and by
developing modern small-scale industries in rural areas.

Nirmal Kaur (2017)23 in her research study stated that only 30% of the women in the sample
earned cash income from a source other than MGNREGA, in the three months preceding the
survey 50 per cent of the women surveyed said that in the absence of MGNREGA they would
have worked at home or would have remained unemployed. The southern states like Kerala and
Tamil Nadu show relatively higher participation in the scheme in comparison to Northern and
Eastern states. She tried to allocate few reasons for the same such as:

 Female participation being accepted by their culture in the labour force.

 Influence of Self-Help Groups (SHGs).

 Effective institutions at the state and local government level that are committed to
promoting female participation in MGNREGA.

 Wage differentials between MGNREGA and private sector.

 Higher rationing in poorer states such that there are still a higher percentage of women
in casual wage.

Biju Joseph (2017)24 in his research on women empowerment in a sample area from Kerala came
up with some unique findings that apart from MGNREGA providing economic independence to
the women workers, participation in the community-based organisations and civil society
institutions helped them to build social capital. There socio-political activities have also
increased after joining MGNREGA. There is notable progress in the saving pattern of women
through bank accounts and better wage payments. In short MGNREGA has brought in several
benefits to the rural households especially to the women population in rural area. It helped
them to have improved family income; improved household expenses guaranteed employment,
support to children education, improved family status, Improved social and political
improvement, increased role in rural administration and so on.

23 Nirmal Kaur (2017), “A critical study of the role of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural employment Guarantee
Scheme MGNREGA in Rural employment with special reference to Nainital District”.
24 Biju Joseph (2017), “Women empowerment through MGNREGA programmes with special reference to
Mavoor Grama Panchayat in Kerala”, SSRG International journal of Economics and Management studies
Vol.4(8) PP: 32-37.
Dr. M. Ashok Kumar & M. Mahesh Kumar (2016) 25 in their study of the impact of MGNREGA on
the women beneficiaries of Madukkari Block, Tamil Nadu came up with the finding that the
scheme does not improve the expected level of socio-economic conditions of rural women.
Through increasing the number of working days and wages, rural women would be able to
improve their income level. Though the conditions have improved gradually, but to fasten the
rate of improvement some developmental initiative can be integrated with the scheme mainly
targeting those women who are working regularly under the scheme for long periods. A multiple
scheme and multiagency approach could also be a fruitful idea for the development of socio-
economic conditions of rural women.

In a report by Kudumbashree-National Resource Organization (2015)26 titled MGNREGS and

Women’s Collectives Working together to build sustainable livelihoods The Kerala Experience
stated that in Kerala, the CBO network plays a role in creating awareness about the rights and
entitlements of participating in MGNREGS and the Gram Panchayat works in co-operation with
the Kudumbashree network to conduct the household registration process, provide training to
Mates who are selected from the ADS, and to ensure that worksite facilities are in place among
other activities. It helps in mobilisation of women to demand employment by forming labour
collectives. It has provided an opportunity to realise the importance of democratic decision
making to create sustainable community assets in addition to building a network of skilled
personnel.

Carswell and De Neve (2013) in their research paper titled, Women at the crossroads
implementation of employment guarantee scheme in rural Tamil Nadu 27 reflected that the
transformation of rural gender disparities was not an intended goal of MNREGA. It shows
evidently that MGNREGS has been very beneficial to the rural women in particular as availability
of work at local level throughout the year provides them with opportunities at their doorstep.
Upon investigation it was found that the women considered the labour easy with fixed and
gender equal wages which was also free from caste discrimination and subordination.

North Zone.
In an article from Times of India (2019)28 the State MGNREGA commissioner P C Kishan of Jaipur
(Rajasthan) had issued a directive to all the 33 districts to appoint at least 50 per cent and more
female mates at MGNREGA worksites to ensure transparency. The decision was made to ensure
improvement in wage rates, quality of work-site management and quality of engineering work
particularly focusing on engaging more female mates. While this order had been there for years,
it was not being executed properly and initially, didn't get any educated female mates.

25 Dr. M. Ashok Kumar & M. Mahesh Kumar (2016), “Study on the impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act with special reference to women beneficiaries in Madukkari block, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu.” IJARIIE-ISSN(O)-2395-4396, Vol-2 Issue-5 2016. PP: 1-8.
26 Kudumbashree- National Resource Organisation, (2015) “MGNREGS and Women’s Collectives Working
together to build sustainable livelihoods The Kerala Experience”.
27 Grace Carswell & Geert De Neve (2013) Women at the Crossroads, Implementation of Employment
Guarantee Scheme in Rural Tamil Nadu, December 28, 2013 vol xlviii no 52 EPW Economic & Political Weekly.
PP. 82-93.
28 Times Of India, (June 16, 2019) ‘Engage more female NREGA mates to bring transparency’.
In the current scenario, only 30-35% mates were women which is sparingly low, so it is being
monitored to at least raise it up to 50%.

According to the study conducted by Nirmal Kaur (2017)29 in Nainital, the perception regarding
Job cards, facilities and overall scheme was positive. The only problem that the workers faced
was in the implementation process, maintenance of assets was not done properly, and wage
payment was uniform for all type of work which can lead to wastage of skill and underpayment.

Rekha Rani & A.K. Pokhriyal (2016)30 in their paper Women empowerment and MGNREGA:
Myth or reality also conducted a field study in Uttarakhand. They tried to analyse whether
education level was directly proportional to the level of awareness they had regarding the
scheme. Apart from this, challenges faced by the rural women workers were also discussed such
as the lack of availability of child care facilities, improper safety measures at worksite, poor
working conditions such as lack of drinking water and resting places. It was concluded that lack
of awareness of scheme could lead to exploitation and promotion should be properly done in
such areas as there was lack of realisation about their own entitlements which lead to further
oppression.

Shamim Ahmad et. al (2017)31 in their research stated that even though the target of MGNREGA
to ensure the women participation of not less than one third of total has been achieved in the
country as well as Haryana but to be a real contributor to women empowerment the program
needs to be restructured, reorganised, promoted and monitored better depending upon the
area of application as different villages have their unique set of challenges and a holistic view
cannot be taken in such cases. Some sort of concession in working standards or design of the
project to suit them to raise their participation level. External agencies or the voluntary NGOs
should be brought in the system to plan, monitor, audit and promote the tasks for its successful
and timely completion. The whole process should be transparent and fair; and delays or hurdles
should immediately be detected and resolved by a well-coordinated system according to the
researchers.

H.P. State institute of Rural Development (2017)32 in its research study conducted in three
districts of Himachal Pradesh with High, low and average participation of women in percentage
terms in the year 2013-14 tried to study the factors facilitating the participation of women in
MGNREGS. The selected three districts represented three phases of MGNREGS implementation
in the state. Mandi district had the maximum participation of women (76.15.11%), Sirmour
district had low participation of women (31.46%) and Una district had average participation of
women (62.97%) in MGRNEGS in the financial year 2013-14.

29 Nirmal Kaur (2017), “A critical study of the role of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural employment Guarantee
Scheme MGNREGA in Rural employment with special reference to Nainital District”.
30 Rekha rani & A.K. Pokhriyal (2016), “women empowerment and MGNREGA: Myth or reality!”, Amity
business review, Vol. 17 (1). PP: 163-172.
31 Shamim Ahmad, Faizan Khan Sherwani & Mohammed Jamshed (2017), “Empowerment through MGNREGA:
An empirical study of Mewat (Haryana)”, International Journal of Management and applied science. Vol.3(2)
PP: 68-73.
32 H.P. State Institute of Rural Development (2017), “Factors facilitating participation of Women in MGNREGS
in Himachal Pradesh”.
It attempted to test the designed framework in terms of socio-economic and demographic
profiles of the sample and whether the individual traits affected the quality of participation and
thereby in their quality of life.

The data analysis showed that the major factors facilitating women participation included
insufficient agriculture work, migration, lack of skills to do other works, illiteracy etc. Besides
this, other factors which motivated respondents to participate in MGNREGS comprised of
support from family, group arrangement, equal wages, minimum wages, timely wages, work
taken up in their own land, mode of payment, worksite facilities, timely employment, sensitivity
of officials, SHG membership etc in contrast to the positive aspects; many women did not
participate due to untimely employment, delayed payments, health problems, rigid timings,
household works, own agricultural works, wages less than market wage rate, unequal wages,
gender and caste discrimination, worksite harassment, insensitivity of officials, problems in
getting employment, lack of mandatory worksite facilities, hard work and distance to worksite
etc which needs to be addressed administratively.

MGNREGS had motivated them to become more self-reliant and also given them access to
banks. The local level organisations like CBO’s, NGO’s and gram panchayat etc proved to be very
significant in increasing women participation rate in MGNREGS. The research also sheds some
light on the social capital and gender sensitivity, it was seen that women were deprived of
decision making, the process of empowerment through the scheme was taking a long time to
bring changes to their status particularly in the poorer households.
Pandey & AhmedWani (2014)33 also conducted a study focused on women participation in
MGNREGA in Kashmir based on primary data. It could be concluded that MGNREGA is still in a distant
dream of achieving for what it was actualised for with special reference to that of Kashmir. It is
flooded with a lot of loopholes from planning to implementation paired with socio-religious barriers
and the major problem that was analysed i.e., delay in payment hindered its sustainable growth in
the sampled area.

In a study conducted by Rehman, (2013)34 to understand the barriers and challenges to women’s
participation in MGNREGA in Kashmir, 100 interviews were conducted of poor and unemployed
women to generate opinion. The economic and social factors such as low daily wages and
religious restrictions limit their involvement. Inadequate administrative facilities and delayed
payment dull their zeal to work under this scheme, it was also inferred that mostly job cards
were not in the name of women workers. The low involvement of civil society groups in this
state as well as improper implementation of MGNREGA has led to increase in the gender gap in
the employment sector in these areas. The study also sheds light on the inequality and injustice
prevalent in regard to MGNREGA scheme in Kashmir.

In the year 2011-12 the district wise participation rate of women in the scheme varied drastically
both across and within the districts; with the highest being in Anantanag (i.e. 2.32%) and the
lowest from Pulwama (i.e. 0.06%). In other districts as well the female participation rates were
low compared to the National average.

33 Babita Pandey & Tanveer Ahmed Wani (2014). “An Impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in Kashmir”. International Journal of Information Technology and Management,
Vol. VII (X) pp. 1-4.
34 Atieq Ul Rehman (2013). “A Study of barriers and challenges to women’s participation in MGNREGA in
Kashmir”. Excellence International Journal of Education and Research (Multi- subject Journal), 1(1) p. 1-8.
His findings thus show, that there is gender discrimination in Kashmir in MGNREGA and require
special efforts to improve women’s participation and conditions to increase engagement by
eradicating the barriers and challenges faced by them to generate equal opportunities.

Khera and Nayak (2009)35 used qualitative data collected on 1060 NREGA workers from 98
NREGA worksites spread across 10 sample districts from six north Indian states (Bihar,
Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh & Rajasthan) to examine the socio-
economic consequences of NREGA for women workers. They report that significant benefit have
already started accruing to women even after a few setbacks in the implementation process
through better access to local employment, at minimum wages, with relatively decent and safe
work conditions. Almost half of the NREGA women workers responded that if they had not
worked at the NREGA worksites, they would have worked at home or remained unemployed.

Taking different case studies, the study also observed that NREGA has helped in improving
gender relations in some of the most remote areas of the country. Similarly, the impact of
NREGA on women empowerment in four North Indian states revealed a direct impact of NREGA
in increasing the social status of women. The study revealed that NREGA had benefited rural
women in two ways: first, it has opened a new avenue of paid employment; and, second, it has
broadened their choices and capabilities, by reducing dependence on other family members. It
was also revealed that MGNREGA can also have a significant positive impact on reduction in
child labour through income effects and women’s wellbeing and empowerment. According to
the study, the programme had increased income through higher wage rates, rise in agricultural
wages, decline in migration, and so on.

East Zone.
Field surveys in some of the villages of West Bengal suggest women are not encouraged to seek work
since they are turned away by the local authorities under the pretext that men are more efficient in
labour intensive work.

Smriti Ghatani (2016)36 in her dissertation on the impact of MGNREGA in a selected area of west
Bengal, it could be seen that implementation is poor as only 3% of the total work was achieved
under MGNREGA. When viewed from the micro level, the rural people have benefitted in terms
of inclusive growth with a high participation of marginalized groups, the empowerment of
women economically, politically and socially but the rise in income has not created full reduction
of poverty. Poverty has remained as an independent variable influenced by factors other than
income and limited working days is not a criterion for its reduction. However, the scheme has
acted as a powerful tool in the hands of the common people to get their basic livelihood, but
poor execution has deprived them of their rights. Thus, if the awareness and the number of
working days are increased, the scheme has the potential for being a role model in each village
of India.

35 Khera Reetika & Nandini Nayak (2009). Women Workers and Perceptions of the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act.
36 Smriti Ghatani (2016), Dissertation on “Impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme on the Livelihoods of Rural Poor: A Study of the Naxalbari Block in Darjeeling District” Sikkim
University, Sikkim.
Kakati & Behera (2014)37 in their research on women workers and their status in MGNREGS
programme in Jharkhand stated that the level of participation of women in NREGS in Jharkhand is
low as compared to national level. Although the gap of women participation in Jharkhand to average
national participation is decreasing year by year, still the gap is of about 22 percentage points which
is very alarming for gender mainstreaming to development process. As socially women are
marginalised in this area, they do not raise voice against discrimination related to low payment etc.

Delayed payments discouraged participation, but the rural unemployed women do not keep
themselves 100 per cent away from participation in the NREGS due to the absence of any other
alternative. There seems to be an element of exploitation in the process of implementation of NREGS
because people have to work under the scheme in the absence of any other alternative choice in the
village. This has also been proved by the data of government as the average wage paid to the wage
labourers of Jharkhand in MGNREGA is less than the actual payment.

It is a fact that women’s presence remains largely absent in global policy making arenas and
institution. This is because, as is the case in Jharkhand, “gender equality in most cases does not
feature as an explicit goal of the project, and this may be because of the assumption that gender has
been mainstreamed into the project design, yet in practice it leads to the exclusion of women,
particularly from decision-making and control position.

Bebarta (2013)38, in her paper Impact of MGNREGA in the Lives of Tribal People: A Study of
Rayagada Block in Gajapati District has tried to assess the implementation of MGNREGA
through quantitative study of 50 random tribal households to analyse the level of awareness
related to the different provisions of the act and its impact on the socio-economic conditions,
livelihood security, sustainable asset creation, agricultural productivity, migration and social
empowerment.

The findings of this study indicate that majority of labourers are unaware of the basic
entitlements of the scheme which deprives them from claiming their shares; it is implemented
more like target driven and less like demand driven which does not last in the long run. In order
to increase the demand, substantial amount of funds is to be allocated for generating awareness
using various media considering the local situation. There was delay in payment which
discourages workers to continue with the labour, grievance redressal isn’t time bound and often
left unanswered, there is no independent body to maintain transparency and conducting social
audit; yet the author concludes that the respondents have benefited through MGNREGA as it
has helped increase their income impacting their social and economic life in a positive way yet
many of the objectives of the act have gone unfulfilled in this area.

Dr. Smita Nayak’s case study (2013)39 attempted to assess the impact of the ongoing MGNREGA,
anti-poverty programmes on the socio-economic condition of tribal women of Sundergarh
district’s Rajgangpur block in general Malidihi Gram Panchayats in particular with reference to its
impact on tribal women of the district. The involvement of the tribal women in the NREGS

37 Bhaskar Kumar Kakati & M.C. Behera (2014), “Women workers and their status in MGNREG Programme: A
study in Jharkhand”, Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 33 No. (3) pp. 281-290.
38 Babita Pandey & Tanveer Ahmed Wani (2014). “An Impact of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in Kashmir”. International Journal of Information Technology and Management,
Vol. VII (X) pp. 1-4.
39 Dr. Smita Nayak (2013), Impact of MGNREGA on Status of Tribal Women in Odisha: A Case Study of
Rajgangpur Block of Sundergarh District, Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 2,
December 2013. Page No. 15-21.
programme in the study area was found to very marginal as compared to men and they are
more likely to be exploited than their male counterparts. The study finding revealed that various
bottle neck such as lack of tribal women’s involvement at the time of planning for NREGS work,
lack of awareness, lack of crèche facilities at worksites, lack of women’s ownership of job cards
and bank accounts, wage discrimination between men and women, harassment at the
workplace and lack of appropriate gender friendly methods of information dissemination etc
have adversely impacted and thus questioned the efficacy of the MGNREGA in enhancing the
status of the tribal women in the study area.

The researcher stated in order for the scheme to be effective in fighting tribal poverty and
empowering tribal women need to address governance lapses and sensitized the implementers
of the scheme and should provide free legal aid to the beneficiaries who are deprived of their
entitlement.

West Zone.
Dr. Suman Pamecha & Indu Sharma (2015)40 in their paper on a study conducted in Rajasthan
(Dungarpur District) stated that generally when income of a family increases, it has a profound
impact on the expenditure pattern. Majority of the respondents from the sample areas of Rajasthan
didn’t have access to basic amenities such as toilet facilities etc. Thus, a long way has to go to
improve the quality of life at village level because the absence of these basic amenities to the
households ultimately adversely affected the health front of the families. It was seen that female
members preferred local migration, therefore, the assured employment in local areas had certainly
reduced out-migration. MGNREGA has certainly checked the distress related to this issues in these
rural areas. Thus, study observed that the wages received by female-worker at migrated place was
not different from the minimum MGNREGA wage.

Hirway, and Batabyal, (2012)41 highlighted the impact of MG NREGA on women in the village of
Movasa, Gujarat and mentioned that MG NREGA has been found to certainly trigger processes
which enhance women’s empowerment through guaranteed daily wage employment with equal
pay, mobilisation of collective strength and participation in GSs and Social Audits. However, MG
NREGA has also added to women’s time burden and drudgery. Much is yet to be done in
empowering women to become active participants as well as real beneficiaries of MG NREGA.

Central Zone.

Rebecca Holmes et.al (2011)42 in their project briefing on the topic, An opportunity for change?
Gender analysis of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act conducted
a research study in Madhya Pradesh due to its relatively good implementation record of
40 Dr. Suman Pamecha & Indu Sharma (2015), “Socio-Economic Impact of Mgnrega - A Study Undertaken
among Beneficiaries of 20 Villages of Dungarpur District of Rajasthan”, International Journal of Scientific and
Research Publications, Volume 5, Issue 1. PP: 1-4.
41 Hirway, I. and Batabyal, S. (2012). MGNREGA and Women’s Empowerment. New Delhi: UN Women South
Asia.

42 Rebecca Holmes, Nidhi Sadana & Saswatee Rath (2011), “An opportunity for change? Gender analysis of the
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act” Project Briefing, Overseas development Institute.
PP: 1-4.
MGNREGA in comparison to other states. Primary research was conducted in four villages in two
districts, using a household questionnaire (100 households), focus group discussions (8), life
histories (16) and key informant interviews. The paper focused on the impact of MGNREGA on
men and women at the individual, household and community level. It was seen that women had
good access to the scheme exceeding the one-third quota at 44.2%; contributing to the
household income. Yet women received fewer days of work due to being assigned only ‘soft’
work which limits their capabilities.

At the intra-household and community level it was seen that economic issues were elevated but
due to improper creche facility implementation combined with household duties; the work
becomes tiring and burdensome. At the latter level, assets created didn’t benefit poor
households and employment was being done on the expense of development. The study found
that prevailing socio-cultural norms prevent women from contributing to community meetings
and decision making. They are less likely to participate in social audits and have little say in
deciding what types of work are carried out in the village and which one they can partake,
despite a high level of awareness of their rights. There is a need to focus on lifecycle
vulnerabilities, unequal work division, strengthening of administrative structures and better
promotion of gender equality in this area.

Banerjee, et al. (2010)43 examined the issues faced by the workers through a case study of the
NREGA in Chhattisgarh. The districts chosen were from the first 200 where the NREGA had been
implemented from 2006 onwards. These villages were also under the influence of the Maoists.
The developmental indicators had shown very clearly that Chhattisgarh lagged behind on every
indicator.

In terms of social groups, it was stated that Dalits, Adivasis, nearly all Backward Castes and
Muslims were marginalized whereas women were the most discriminated. Some of these
developmental woes were supposed to be addressed by the NREGA. Three years since the
inception of the programme, the results in these areas leave much to be desired. In terms of the
most backward areas, one of the chronic problems has been joblessness. Also, a substantial
portion of backward districts suffered from very low levels of agricultural productivity. The
annual average days of employment (during 2008-09) per household (except those in NREGA-
related works) were low in most of the studied regions. In particular, for the regions in
Chhattisgarh it was in the range of 60 to 70 days. By contrast, it was observed that Chhattisgarh
had done relatively better in terms of providing employment through NREGA as compared to the
other states.

Comparative study based on Heterogenous

Zones.
State level rationing rates reveal that there are states that have systematically lower administrative
rationing rates for vulnerable groups, widows, female headed households and female headed
households with no adult male members and to a lesser extent for women in households with
children. The southern states, and notably Rajasthan and Chhattisgarh and to an extent Himachal
Pradesh all appear to have low levels of “administrative discrimination” against most if not all of

43 Banerjee K and Saha P (2010), ‘The NREGA, the Maoists and the Developmental Woes of the Indian State’,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 55, no. 28, July 10, pp.42-47.
these groups. This is noteworthy and is indicative that the MGNREGA is a credible social safety net
for vulnerable groups of women.

Despite these positive indications, demand rates and registration rates in MGNREGA for these groups
continues to be very low in several states. The proportion of widows seeking work is remarkably
small in Uttar Pradesh (9.8%), Punjab (3.4%), Bihar (3.9%) Assam (6.8) and Karnataka (8%). This is
despite a large proportion of them having registered for work which points to persistent social
barriers and lack of awareness that prevent women from these groups in making demands on the
state.

Similarly, in households with young children, fewer share of women seek and find work on
MGNREGA sites, relative to other groups except in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan, states
that are known for better implementation. These mostly likely reflect the well-recognized difficulties
faced by young mothers in terms of child care, which prevent them from participating in MGNREGA
(Bhatty, 2008)44.

Mahapatra (2010)45 did a cross state analysis of women’s participation in MGNREGA and found
some unique and often contradicting aspects. His analysis was between the states sharing low
casual women workforce (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan) and States sharing high casual women
workforce (Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) and reached to a contradictory finding that the
states having low share of women workforce has higher participation in MGNREGA (varies 69%
to 82%) whereas the states where share of the women in workforce high has reportedly low
participation (22-23%) in the programme. This finding is contradictory to the assumption that
poverty forces women take up casual jobs. At the same time his findings show that participation
of women in MGNREGA has been growing since its inception.

Ashok Pankaj & Rukhmani Tankha (2010)46 in their study of four states (Bihar, Jharkhand,
Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh) about the effects of NREGS on women empowerment stated
that women has benefited more as workers than as a community; on an individual level they
have become economically self-reliant as compared to before and contribute financially to the
household whereas as a community member; the potential of the scheme is yet to be realised.
Nevertheless, there is progress in representation of women in panchayats and decision making.
Women have become susceptible to physical and emotional strain due to increased workload;
many girls are reported to have left studies to avail jobs under the scheme.

Districts with high SC and ST populations and states with high human and gender development
indices and greater levels of state and civil society mobilisation have benefited more. However,
other than SC, ST, and OBC women, others are not forthcoming in availing this paid job
opportunity. The major problem assessed in this paper was the social and cultural restraint on
women; the patriarchal system wanting to keep the reins in their hands and fearing change
which is causing setbacks in the process of development.

Rajasthan government had initiated to increase women’s participation in the NREGS by

rewarding the women labourers who had completed 100 days of work in a financial year. The
study was carried out under PRIA’s programme titled “Governance where people matter”. In

44 Bhatty, Kiran (2008): “Falling Through the Cracks”, The Hindu, Sunday Magazine, Mar 16.
45 Richard Mahapatra (June 7, 2015) “How women seized NREGA”. Down to Earth.
46 A. Pankaj, & R. Tanka. (2010). “Empowerment Effects of the NREGS on Women Workers: A Study in Four
States.” Economic and Political Weekly, 45 (30): 45–55.
addition to Rajasthan, the study was conducted in Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, MP, Orissa,
and Uttar Pradesh. Sample size and data collection was done at five levels – State, district, block,
village panchayats and household. The study found that although a large number of households
were getting employment under NREGS, they were “not getting it when they most needed it”.

A large number of households received their wage payment after a maximum period of 15 days.
The data suggested that more than one-third of the households received less than minimum
wages, although almost all registered households had been issued job cards. Village panchayats,
designated as principal authorities for planning and executing NREGS, were facing difficulties
because of non-availability of staff. (The Hindu, 2009)47.

Centre for Science and Environment (2008) 48, During a survey of states (Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa) found that women workers did not take part in social audits and Women’s role
in planning or conducting social audits was not visible. “An analysis of social audits reports
conducted by NGOs in districts including Hardoi (UP), Surguja (Chhattisgarh), Chitrakoot (UP)
clearly indicate that the auditing processes have been mostly focused on issues such as
registration of families, checking of muster rolls for preventing falsification, timely payment of
wages and payment of unemployment allowance. It did not say anything about gram
panchayat’s involvement in the implementation process.”

National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW) (2008)49 did a study on the socio-economic
empowerment of women under National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) in four
districts each from Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa. The study found that awareness
on how to apply for job card and demand driven work were reportedly poor. At the same time,
awareness about minimum wages has been found to be better. However, the study identified
three major problems in the study areas: Low awareness and accessibility, delayed payment of
wages (which was comparatively higher in the state of Odisha) and worksite’s lack of facilities.

The government’s flagship programme under the National Rural Employment Act is aimed at
countering some of the developmental woes of the Indian state in the backward regions.

Despite numerous problems in MGNREGA implementation, it has brought many positive impacts
on women’s life like capabilities to earn more, gaining respect in the society, figuring in the
public sphere. Women were also found concerned about their children's education. Above all,
many were made free from the clutches of local moneylenders and have started saving small
amount.

The major findings of the study were that with NREGS, women workers are getting empowered
as visible in the form of growing contributions to household expenditure, bearing cost of
children’s education and healthcare, women have also started to appear more actively in the
rural public sphere as they take up their work and responsibilities. Moreover, there is a general
trend of low migration in the areas where assessment was carried out. The workers have started
to repay their debts. The study reveals that despite numerous problems, NREGA is a programme
that has begun to make a difference in the lives of women. Furthermore, it is popular among the
workers, who routinely ask if more work could be made available to them under the NREGA.

47 The Hindu (2 January 2009).

48 CSE (Centre for Science and Environment) (2008). The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA),
Opportunities and Challenges, New Delhi, p. 53.
49 National Federation for Indian Women. (2008). Socio-economic Empowerment of Women under NREGA.
Conclusion.
There has been a severe feminization of poverty within India – women have lesser means,
education and skills, and fewer productive assets. The majority of the female workforce within in
India is concentrated in rural areas. These rural areas are historically much more poverty stricken
than urban centers and women in the poorer areas of India are more likely to seek paid
employment than those in wealthier, urban areas. This is due to societal norms and patriarchal
viewpoints that restrict women’s entry into the labor market.

When it comes to economic vulnerabilities, women are often paid less, have higher employment
insecurity and low education/literacy that keep them in low-skilled casual work, constraints
balancing household responsibilities and paid work, and encounter mobility constraints.

The active participation of SHGs in the implementation of MNREGS in Andhra Pradesh has
increased women’s awareness of the scheme and thus their participation (Galab and Revathi
2012). In states like Rajasthan, CSO’s have helped PRIs conduct social audits that facilitate
women’s participation. Despite the fact that MGNREGS wages were sometimes lower than
Rajasthan minimum wage, women participated, probably due to the relative convenience and
availability of work under the programme.

By enabling women to enter the workforce for the first time, MGNREGS appears to have realized
a latent demand for work by women. In a six –state study by Khera and Nayak (2009), half of the
sample women reported that, but for MGNREGS, they would have worked at home or remained
unemployed either because they lacked opportunities (in the area or at all) or were paid less
than their male counterparts.

The MGNREGS also performs a social security function for many, especially women deprived of
work due to old age, widowhood or separation. Participation of SC/ST women in MGNREGS has
generally been high. In certain states like Bihar and Jharkhand that have low female participation
overall, SC/ST women account for a large share of total participants because higher caste women
could not participate due to social restrictions. Some states have encouraged female
participation in various ways.

Integrating SHGs with MGNREGS in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh has been a factor in enabling
greater women’s participation. In Rajasthan, the government has instituted an award for women
who complete 100 days of MGNREGS work in a year. Women have also been trained as mates or
supervisors in Rajasthan, but nationwide, despite active female participation, women are not in
supervisory roles.

Increased female participation faced a number of impediments, the most prominent of which
was greater rationing of work for women than men. This is attributed to women’s lower
awareness of rights, less empowerment to demand work. The unavailability of crèches in many
states also made it more difficult for women to leave the house or they had to transfer childcare
responsibilities to their older children leading to disruption in academic prospects.

Some single women faced exclusion and discrimination and, in some states, the production
norms resulting from the SoRs are too harsh, especially for older and pregnant women, reducing
their effective wage rate and limiting their participation in certain types of works such as digging
wells or other type of labor which hold some cultural or social taboos.

In states such as Bihar and Chhattisgarh, delayed payment of wages, harassment of women by
(illegal) contractors and male workers at worksites also deterred participation.

Study shows differing impacts of MGNREGS on various sectors rural economy. In a panchayat in
the Palakkad district in Kerala, for example, the female farm wage rate was initially lower than
the prescribed minimum wage rate and many female labourers switched over to MGNREGS, but
they returned to farm work when women’s wages were raised to approach the men.

Majority of the people and particularly vulnerable groups such as the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes suffer from mass illiteracy resulting in a very low awareness regarding basic
guidelines and legal entitlements due to the beneficiaries under MGNREGS. It was found that
most beneficiaries were not properly aware of the provisions like the number of working days
that they were entitled to receive employment, the process of issuing job-cards, the minimum
wage rate that was due to be paid and other basic facilities promised under the scheme. This did
not allow them to claim their legitimate entitlement of the scheme which deprives them from
claiming their legitimate rights.

The NREGA has shown to have numerous impacts on rural India, from increased employment
and wages to environmental benefits. The program has helped to alleviate many of the daily
burdens faced by India’s rural poor. Not only has the scheme helped rural workers as a whole,
but it has also been successful in targeting certain disadvantaged groups, namely female
workers. Rural, female workers tend to face high discrimination in the Indian labor market.
Therefore, formulating NREGA policy that keeps in mind the barriers and burdens that women
face at the micro as well as macro level can help to decrease these discriminatory practices.

It could be concluded that, NREGA being an employment generating act—a fall back option does
not take into consideration the Socio-cultural barriers present at different states. The higher
participation rates at certain area compared to others can be studied on the basis of locational
differences and community perspective. The scheme has certainly provided economic
independence which could be analysed through the literature yet the disfunction at the
implementation and administrative level hinders the growth.

Nevertheless, NREGA has become a source of empowerment to many female and has
contributed into the lives of women immensely by integrating them into the national economy.

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