Ata 24. Electrical As-03-02 (Plan-05)

ATITA AIRFRAME STUDY PLAN: 05
MODULE AS-03-02 REVISION: 00
BOOKLET:01
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 2
Introduction 2
Activity 1 3
The Aircraft Battery 3
Battery Construction 6
Battery Installation 8
Battery Connection 10
Activity 2 11
Battery Charging and Discharging 12
Activity 3 17
Battery Condition 18
Self Assessment 20
Self Assessment Review 21
Summary 21
Essential Reading 21
Recommended Reading 22
Suggested Practical Activities 22
Page 1 of 117
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed this booklet you will be able to:-
 Explain the function of an aircraft battery.
 Describe the construction of an aircraft battery.
 List the provisions of an aircraft battery stowage compartment.
 Explain the battery vent system of an aircraft.
 Describe battery charging.
 Explain battery discharge rates.
 Explain a battery condition check.
I have assumed that you have the knowledge contained in the Basic
Electronics Module (Module No.2. Study Plan No. 9) this will give you
a good lead into this booklet.
Attempt the activities in the order given and carry out the essential
reading at the end.
This booklet will take you about one hour to complete.
INTRODUCTION
All aircraft will have an electrical power system that is used to

provide power for an assortment of radio communication and
navigation systems, engine and flight control system, instruments,
and lighting systems, together with miscellaneous system, such as
galley and cargo handling. Electrical power will be required during all
phases of aircraft operation, i.e., both in flight and on the ground.
On any aircraft there will be two sources of electrical power.
1. The engine driven generator, providing a.c. or d.c. power

whenever the engine is operating.
2. The battery, providing a source of d.c. power whenever the

engine generator is not operating.
Page 2 of 117
ACTIVITY 1 10 Minutes
1. Draw a diagram to show the alternating current (a.c.).
2. Draw a diagram to show a direct current (d.c.).
Show frequency and polarity on each diagram.
1. 2.
Reviewing these terms now will assist you in the understanding of

battery and generator operation. We will move on when you have
completed Activity 1. And look at how an aircraft battery is
constructed.
Page 3 of 117
COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY 1
Your diagrams should look something like this:-
1. ALTERNATING CURRENT 2. DIRECT CURRENT
Frequency = cycle per second

+
d.c.
Volts
Polarity
0 Positive or
Time
Negative
0
Time
- 1 Cycle
If you had difficulty remembering these terms, refer back to the

Basic Electrics Booklets.
THE AIRCRAFT BATTERY
The principal functions of an aircraft battery are:-
 To assist in maintaining the aircraft's d.c. voltage constant

under varying operating conditions, such as when turning on a
d.c. fuel pump.
 To supply power for internal starting of an engine, i.e., auxiliary

power unit (APU) on a jet transport or a piston engine on a
Cherokee.
 To maintain a limited amount of lighting, communication, and

instrument systems under emergency conditions, such as
during an engine failure.
Principle of Operation
The battery operates on the principle of conversion of chemical

energy into electrical energy. This is done by the exchange of
electrons (the atomic components that produce electricity), due to
the chemical reaction, between the electrodes and the electrolyte.
Page 4 of 117
There are two types of aircraft battery in use. It is important for you
to be aware of both types. They are different and not normally
interchangeable between aircraft.
They are the:-
 Lead acid battery.
 Nickel-cadmium battery (commonly known as the Ni-Cad

Battery).
The battery type is derived from the plate material (electrodes) and
liquid (electrolyte) that is used during construction.
Fig. I shows the construction of a typical battery cell.
TERMINAL POSTS
INTERLEAVED
PLATES (ELECTRODES)
ELECTROLYTE
CELL CONTAINER
SUPPORTING RIBS
Fig. 1 TYPICAL BATTERY CELL
Page 5 of 117
Table I shows the materials that are used to make a battery cell.
Cell Type Electrode Electrolyte
positive Plates Negative Plates

Lead Acid Sulphuric Acid
Lead Peroxide Lead
Nickel Nickel Cadmium Potassium

Cadmium Hydroxide Hydroxide Hydroxide
TABLE 1 BATTERY MATERIALS
CAUTION
It is important for you to note that the electrolyte is either

acid or alkali. They react violently when brought into contact
with one another.
Whenever handling a battery, never allow the electrolyte to

spill onto the airframe or your body, damage to both will occur.
Special cleaning and neutralizing procedures apply. Read a

Maintenance Manual to ensure you are aware of them.
BATTERY CONSTRUCTION
An aircraft battery consists of a number of individual cells

interconnected together; the terminal posts are connected by cell
straps and brought out to a main receptacle for connection into the
aircraft's main wiring.
Page 6 of 117
The cells are enclosed in an acid (alkali) – resistance metal container

with a removable lid.
This forms the battery box and it affords both electrical shielding and
mechanical protection.
Fig. 2 shows a typical Hi-Cad battery box.
REMOVABLE LID
CELL STRAPS
INDIVIDUAL CELL
MAIN RECEPTACLE
CELL OUTPUT = 1.2 V
20 CELL (TYPICAL)
BATTERY OUTPUT = 20
x 1.2 = 24 V
Fig. 2 TYPICAL NI-CAD BATTERY BOX
Fig. 3 shows a typical light aircraft lead acid battery with 6 cells
enclosed in a light weight polystyrene case.
Page 7 of 117
TERMINAL
AND CAP
Fig. 3 TYPICAL LIGHT AIRCRAFT LEAD ACID BATTERY
BATTERY INSTALLATION
Batteries are installed in either individual compartments specially

designed and located to provide adequate heat dissipation,
ventilation and protection or they will be located within the aircraft's
main electrical equipment bay beneath the passenger compartment.
Fig. 4 shows a typical lead acid battery installed in large jet transport
aircraft.
Page 8 of 117
TEFLON BATTERY
COVERED WIRES
BATTERY
ACID
DISCONNECT
JAR
INLET
VENT HOSE
OUTLET VENT
HOSE
Fig. 4 BATTERY INSTALLATION - JET TRANSPORT
Battery Venting
During normal operation, the battery cells give off gas and fumes
which are removed from the battery box by the vent hose system.
Before the fumes are deposited overboard, they are drawn through
an acid jar which contains an acid neutralizing agent, normally·
bicarbonate of soda (baking power), this will prevent airframe
corrosion.
It is important to remove, clean and inspect the acid jar at the

periods specified in the aircraft Maintenance Manual.
NOTE A Ni-Cad battery vent system will not include an acid jar.
Page 9 of 117
BATTERY CONNECTION
To facilitate removal and installation of an aircraft battery, a quick

disconnect assembly is normally used to connect the power leads to
the battery.
Fig. 5 shows a typical Ni-Cad battery and quick disconnects

assembly.
QUICK DISCONNECT
Fig. 5 QUICK DISCONNECT ASSEMBLY
The quick-disconnect plug consists of a socket and a coarse pitch

hand wheel; it is readily connected to the receptacle by rotating the
hand wheel. After installation it is important to lock the hand wheel
in place by use of an attached locking pin.
Page 10 of 117
From the list given below, complete the following statements:-
1. A lead-acid battery has ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

••••••••• as an electrolyte, and ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
and ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••• as
electrodes.
2. A Ni-Cad battery has •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• as an electrolyte, and
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
electrodes.
Hydrochloric Acid Lead Nickel Cadmium

Sulphuric Acid Lead Monoxide Nickel Hydroxide
Potassium Hydroxide Lead Peroxide Cadmium Sulphate
Potassium Sulphate Nickel Cadmium Hydroxide
Page 11 of 117
Your statements should read:-
1. A lead-acid battery has SULPHURIC ACID as an electrolyte, and

LEAD and LEAD PEROXIDE as electrodes.
2. A Ni-Cad battery has POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE as an

electrolyte, and NICKEL HYDROXIDE and CADMIUM
HYDROXIDE as electrodes.
If you experience difficulty here refer back to Table 1.
Let us now move on.
BATTERY CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
Whenever a battery is supplying power, it is said to be

DISCHARGING, i.e., the chemical reaction is taking place and
producing electrons. This action alters the nature of both electrode
and electrolyte material until such time that the chemical reaction
ceases, battery output will be zero and the battery is said to be flat!
It is important that the battery is not allowed to become completely

discharged under normal operating conditions. Therefore, whenever
the aircraft's engine driven generator is operating or external power
is applied from a ground power cart, the battery will be CHARGING,
i.e., the chemical reaction is reversed, re-establishing normal
electrode and electrolyte conditions.
Discharge Rates
An important term you must be aware of is BATTERY CAPACITY

which is measured in AMPERE-HOURS (AH) and is defined as:-
 The maximum current, in amperes, which the battery will

deliver for a known time period, in HOURS, until the output
voltage has fallen to minimum value.
For example, a battery which discharges 8 amperes for 5 hours is

rated at 40 ampere-hours (8 x 5 = 40 AH).
Fig. 6 shows typical discharge rates for lead acid and Ni-Cad
batteries.
Page 12 of 117
30
26
Lead acid
Terminal volts
Ni-Cad
22
20 A 5A 20 A 5A
18
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Ampere-hours
Fig. 6 TYPICAL DISCHARGE RATES - LEAD ACID AND NI-CAD BATTERIES
NOTE Ni-Cad battery capacity is greater than lead acid battery

capacity, this is one of the major advantages of Ni-Cad
batteries.
Now let's move on to consider battery charging.
Battery Charging
Battery charging is achieved by passing a direct current, of higher

voltage than battery output, through the battery in a direction
opposite to that of normal discharge current. The two methods of
battery charging are:-
 Constant voltage.
 Constant current.
We will consider an important aspect of constant current charging.

This is the preferred method for charging Ni-Cad batteries, as it is
more effective. However, it has one drawback in that it will increase
battery temperature to such an extent that it could destroy the
battery by thermal runaway.
Page 13 of 117
Fig. 7 explains the closed loop situation leading to thermal runaway

and battery destruction.
Fig. 7 TERMAL RUNAWAY
To protect against thermal runaway, constant current charging

systems use a battery temperature sensing element that will switch
off the charging current whenever the battery temperature rises
above a set limit.
Fig. 8 shows a typical Ni-Cad battery and battery charger unit fitted
to a large jet transport aircraft. Note the battery temperature sensor.
MAIN ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT BAY
24 V NI-CAD
BATTERY
RECEPTACLE
BATTERY CHARGER
BATTERY
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
VENT
D.C. OUTPUT
CONNECTION
Fig. 8 NI-CAD BATTERY AND CHARGER INSTALLED IN JET TRANSPORT
Page 14 of 117
Fig. 9 shows the simplified block diagram for the system shown in
Fig. 8.
BATTERY CHARGE
OUTPUT
TO D.C. LOADS
INPUT
ENGINE DRIVEN
A.C. GENERATOR JUNCTION BOX
+
--
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
BATTERY
Fig. 9 BLOCKS DIAGRAM OF IN SITU BATTERY AND CHARGER
The constant voltage charging method is normally found on light

aircraft, or those which have engine driven d.c. generators. Fig. 10 is
a simplified schematic of this type of system.
Page 15 of 117
GENERATOR
VOLTAGE REGULATION
--
JUNCTION BOX
REVERSE CURRENT
PROTECTION LIGHTS
RADIO
BATTERY SWITCH
OFF MISC
+
-- ON
BATTERY
Fig. 10 SCHEMATIC CHARGING SYSTEM FOR LIGHT AIRCRAFT
Consider Fig. 10, the:-
 Reverse current protection – ensure current flow in one

direction only.
 Voltage regulator - maintains generator output constant.
 Battery switch - connects the battery to the junction box, and

enables the charging circuit to be provided with power.
Page 16 of 117
Answer the following questions:-
1. A battery is rated at 40 ampere hours. At the 10 hour rate the

battery will deliver:-
(a) 40 amps for 10 hours.

(b) 10 amps for 40 hours.
(c) 4 amps for 10 hours.
2. The preferred method for charging Ni-Cad batteries is:-
(a) Constant current.

(b) Constant Voltage.
(c) Constant speed.
Page 17 of 117
The answers are:-
1. (c)
2. (a)
If your answers were wrong, refer back to the preceding section.
Finally, we must look at checks that can be carried out on an aircraft

battery to prove its serviceability.
BATTERY CONDITION
The easiest way to check battery condition is to measure its output.

Normally, this is achieved by an instrument mounted in the electrical
panel, visible to the pilot or engineer. You will recall that the unit of
potential electricity is the volt and the instrument that measures
volts, is the voltmeter. The voltmeter is wired into a circuit to
measure the output voltage of the battery. In addition some aircraft
may have an ammeter fitted, this measures battery current. Battery
discharge will be indicated by a large negative reading, battery
charging is indicated by the reverse, i.e., a large positive reading.
With the aircraft's generators operating the battery ammeter should
read nearly zero.
Fig. 11 shows a typical electrical instrument panel fitted to a jet

transport aircraft. Note the d.c. meters are on the left.
Page 18 of 117
AMMETER
(Measuring battery
current when
switch placed to
BAT)
VOLTMETER
SELECTOR SWITCH
(Position to BAT to
check battery
output)
BATTERY SWITCH
(Guarded)
Fig. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT PANEL
A typical reading for a good battery would be a nominal 24 volts, but

check the relevant maintenance manual for correct figures.
Page 19 of 117
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about 15 minutes on these questions. Write your answers in

the boxes given.
1. Describe the construction of a nickel-cadmium cell.
2. Describe a vent system for a lead acid battery.
3. How is battery thermal runaway protection achieved?
Page 20 of 117
SELF ASSESSMENT REVIEW
Your answers should be something like these:-
1. The cell consists of interleaved plates constructed from nickel

hydroxide and cadmium hydroxide placed in a sealed container
containing potassium hydroxide as an electrolyte. The plates
are connected to two terminal posts, positive and negative.
2. Battery box gas and fumes are extracted overboard by a vent

hose. They are drawn through an acid jar containing a
neutralizing agent to remove the acid, to prevent airframe
corrosion.
3. Battery temperature is monitored by a sensing element. When

the temperature rises above limits then the battery charging
current will be switched off.
All being well, I hope that your answers were similar to mine, if not,
refer back to the appropriate sections in the booklet.
SUMMARY
In outline, we have looked at the important construction and

operating principles of both lead acid and nickel-cadmium batteries,
installation and serviceability checks in operation.
You will now be able to appreciate the importance of handling

batteries correctly. Remember the CAUTION concerning the
electrolyte, and be aware of one final point, aircraft batteries are
HEAVY.
Well done if you have completed this booklet to your satisfaction.
The next thing you need to do is to move on to the next booklet in

this module, and look at aircraft generators.
ESSENTIAL READING
CAIPs EEL/I-I, EEL/1-3.
Page 21 of 117
RECOMMENDED READING
Aircraft electrical systems, E.H.J. Pallett.
Electricity and Electronics

for Aerospace vehicles, Northrop Institute of Technology
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Read an aircraft Maintenance Manual, Chapter 24 and obtain

information on battery installation and if possible examine an actual
aircraft battery installation. Be aware of CAUTIONS and WARNINGS
applicable to that aircraft.
Page 22 of 117
BOOKLET:02
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 24
Introduction 24
Power Generation Theory 25
D.C. Generators 25
Alternators 27
Activity 1 29
3 Phase A.C. Generators 30
Activity 2 34
Maintenance Actions 35
Self Assessment 36
Summary 38
Page 23 of 117
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed this booklet, you will be able to:-
 Describe the principle of a basic d.c. generator.
 Explain the construction and operation of a light aircraft

generator.
 Describe the construction and operation of an aircraft

alternator.
 Describe the principle of the integrated drive generator.
 List typical maintenance checks on an aircraft generator

system.
 I have assumed that you have satisfactorily completed Booklet

No. 1 of this Study Plan.
This booklet will take about one hour to complete.
INTRODUCTION
All aircraft have an electrical power system that is used to provide

power for all phases of aircraft operation.
On any aircraft there will be two sources of electrical power.
1. The aircraft battery providing a source of d.c. power whenever

the engine is not operating.
2. The engine driven generator, that will provide either d.c. or a.c.
power whenever the engine is operating.
In this booklet we will look at some of the basic principles of

electrical power generators. We’ll cover the components that are
used for the generation and control of electrical power systems.
Page 24 of 117
POWER GENERATION THEORY
The theory of operation of any electric generator is based upon

magnetic principles. Whenever a conductor, for example, a loop of
copper wire moves' through a strong magnetic field that exists
between the two poles of a magnet then an electric current will flow
in that conductor. This current will produce an output voltage, the
value of which is determined by:-
 The strength of the magnetic field.

 The speed of movement of the .conductor through the
magnetic field.
In the aircraft generator, the strength of the magnetic field is

controlled by the voltage regulator, whilst the conductor is driven
through the magnetic field by the rotation of the engine.
D.C. GENERATORS
Fig. 1 shows a basic d.c. generator whilst Fig. 2 shows a typical light
aircraft d.c. generator.
CONDICTOR ROTATION
OUTPUT COMMUTATOR
AND BRUSHES
MAGNETIC FIELD
Fig. 1 BASIC D.C. GENERATOR
Page 25 of 117
The typical output voltage of a d.c. generator is 24V, but this is

dependent upon engine speed, and electrical loading, i.e., the
number of electrical services that are switched on. Therefore, it is
normal to regulate the output voltage to maintain a constant output
regardless of engine speed or power loading. This is achieved by
measuring the output voltage and adjusting the strength of the
magnetic field by altering the FIELD CURRENT (Fig. 3).
OUTPUT TERMINALS
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
FIELD BATTERY
ARMATURE CONNECTION
CURRENT
CURRENT LIMITER
GENERATOR
BRUSHES
FIELD
WINDING
Fig. 3 SCHEMATIC GENERATOR SYSTEM
Voltage Regulator
The voltage regulator works in conjunction with the current limiter to

ensure generator output remains within specified limits. The
regulator unit is normally mounted on the engine bulkhead and
works on electro-magnetic principles.
Fig. 4 shows a three-unit regu1ator, normally used with the

generator shown in Fig. 2.
Page 26 of 117
CURRENT
LIMITER
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
TERMINALS
Fig. 4 THREE UNIT VOLTAGE REGULATOR
ALTERNATORS
In practice d.c. generators are inefficient, especially at higher

altitudes; therefore the a.c. generator or alternator is now in
common use.
In light aircraft applications, the light weight alternator operation is

very similar to a car alternator system in that the:-
 A.C. generator produces THREE PHASE a.c.
 A.c. is RECTIFIED (converted) to d.c. by built in DIODES. (One

way electronic devices).
 Output voltage is controlled by a voltage regulator adjusting

field strength by adjusting the FIELD CURRENT.
The alternator and voltage regulator and simplified operation

diagrams are all shown in Fig. 5.
Page 27 of 117
PHASE 1
OUTPUT OF 3-PHASE ALTERNATOR

PHASE 3 PHASE 2
MAGNET ROTATION
SIMPLE A.C. GENERATOR
A.C. OUTPUT
LIGHT AIRCRAFT ALTERNATOR VOLTAGE REGULATOR
OUTPUT TO VOLTAGE REGULATOR

LOADS
BATTERY SWITCH FIELD CURRENT
AMMETER
AIRCRAFT BATTERY
(ROTATING ELECTRO-MAGNET
KNOWN AS THE FIELD)
Fig. 5 ALTERNATOR OPERATION
Page 28 of 117
Operation
The aircraft battery provides an initial source of field current via the
regulator whenever the battery switch is ON. As the field rotates the
output voltage is supplied to power the aircraft loads, and to charge
the battery.
The ammeter monitors battery current.
The alternator (or d.c. generator) on a light aircraft is normally

driven by the engine through a pulley and belt system similar to a
car engine system. On larger turboprop aircraft, the d.c. generator
will be driven from an accessory gearbox on the engine.
Up till now we have considered mainly light aircraft generators, we

do have to consider large jet transport aircraft generators as well.
Before we do so, carry out Activity 1.
From the list below, complete the following sentences:-
1. Generators operate on •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

principles.
2. In a d.c. generator the ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

rotates, whilst the •••••••••••••••••••••••• is fixed.
3. The voltage ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• controls

generator output by adjusting the •••••••••••••
current.
4. In an alternator the ••••••••••••••••••••••••• is

stationary, whilst the ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
rotates.
Field Battery Controller Chemical

Armature Electric Ammeter Motor
Bearing Magnetic Rotor Stator
Limiter Field Field Regulator
Page 29 of 117
Hope you didn't find that too difficult, your sentences should be:
1. Generators operate on MAGNETIC principles.
2. In a d.c. generator the ARMATURE rotates, whilst the FIELD is

fixed.
3. The voltage REGULATOR controls generator output by adjusting

the FIELD current.
4. In an alternator, the STATOR is stationary, whilst the FIELD

rotates.
3 PHASE A. C. GENERATORS
With the advent of large transport aircraft, the requirement for

increased power generation arose. Throughout the 1950s and 60s
the 115 volts, 400 hertz, 3 phase generator was developed and put
into service. From the 3 phase output, three separate single phase
a.c. loads could be powered, whilst the high voltage output can be
readily converted to a lower value by TRANSFORMERS, and
distributed to supply such loads as lighting at 28 volts.
Let's take a look at a modern 3 phase a.c. generator that is found on

a modern jet transport. Fig. 6 is a typical generator.
Page 30 of 117
OUTPUT TERMINALS
INPUT DRIVE
Fig. 6 THREE PHASE A.C. GENERATOR
Before we consider generator operation, a word about the drive

mechanism. To achieve a steady output the generator rotor must be
driven at a constant speed. In operation the turbojet engine speed
can vary from 6,000 rpm to 10,000 rpm (typical figures). This does
not meet the generator requirements of constant speed, unless some
changes are made in the drive mechanism. This is achieved by using
a CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE UNIT (CSD), which will convert the
variable speed of the engine to a constant 6,000 rpm by a hydro-
mechanical system.
Page 31 of 117
3. The rotating field produces a 3 phase output voltage of 115

volts, at a frequency of 400 Hz. (Hertz = cycles per second)
which can be applied to the loads.
4. This output voltage is monitored by the voltage regulator,

which will maintain the generator output constant by adjusting
the exciter field.
Other functions of the GCU are to:-
 Provide current limiting.
 Control generator operation by carrying out automatic

shutdown, if monitored conditions are out of limits.
 Adjust generator frequency by trimming the CSD within

prescribed limits. (Multi-engine aircraft.)
Fig. 9 shows the internal details of an a.c. generator.
MAIN STATOR MAIN ROTOR

EXCITER STATOR
PERMENT MAGNET
GENERATOR STATOR EXCITER ROTOR
ROTATING DIODES
PERMANENET
MAGNET
GENERATOR
ROTOR DC
30, 400 Hz
120/208V AC
30, 1200 Hz
TERMINAL 88V AC
BLOCK
ROTATING
DIODES
EXCITER GEN
MAIN
PMG
GEN
Fig. 9 A.C. GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
Page 32 of 117
The Integrated Drive Generator
It is now current practice to combine the generator and constant

speed unit together in one unit known as the INTEGRATED DRIVE
GENERATOR or IDG.
It has a number of advantages in that it has:-
 Reduced weight.
 Greater efficiency from improved cooling.
 Reduced maintenance costs.
A typical IDG is shown in Fig. 10.

GENERATOR UNIT
ENGINE
DRIVER
CONSTANT
SPEED
DRIVER UNIT
Fig. 10 INTEGRATED DRIVE GENERATORS
We have now discussed the operation and mechanisms of aircraft

generators, and before this booklet is finished we will list some
important maintenance checks that have to be carried out.
Before we do so, carry out Activity 2.
Page 33 of 117
In the space below, draw a simple diagram to explain typical 3 phase

a.c. generator operation.
Page 34 of 117
Your answer should be similar to Fig. 8 in this booklet, if you

experienced difficulty, and then review the appropriate section.
MAINTENANCE ACTIONS
Chapter 24 of an aircraft's Maintenance Manual will specify the exact

checks and inspections that need to be carried out on the generator
system.
Typical of such checks are the need to:-
 Measure the generator output to ensure it .is within specified

limits by using the aircraft's voltmeter located on the electrical
services panel. (See Fig. 11 in Booklet No. 1 of this Study Plan
for a typical panel).
 Check the generator for any sign of mechanical damage, oil

leaks, blocked cooling air inlet and outlets, etc.
 Examine the wiring and terminal connections for security of

fitting, cleanliness and lack of damage.
 Check the drive mechanism, i.e. drive belt tension, or CSD oil
filters and oil level as specified.
Page 35 of 117
SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about 12 minutes answering these questions by writing your

answers in the boxes.
1. Describe how an electric current is produced in a generator.
2. Describe how a d.c. generator output is kept within operating

limits.
3. Describe how a d.c. output is produced in a light aircraft

alternator.
4. What is an IDG?
Page 36 of 117
1. A current will be produced in a generator whenever the

conductors are driven through the magnetic field.
2. The d.c. voltage is measured by a voltage regulator which then

adjusts the field strength by altering the field current.
3. The alternator produces a 3 phase a.c. which is rectified to d.c.

by rotating diodes which are of the alternator rotor.
4. An integrated drive generator is a combination of 3 phase a.c.

generator and constant speed drive unit contained within one
unit.
All being well you have completed the questions satisfactorily, if you
experienced any difficulties then refer back to the appropriate
sections in the booklet.
Page 37 of 117
SUMMARY
Page 38 of 117
BOOKLET:03
CONTENTS
Introduction 40
D.C. Voltage Regulators 41
Activity 1 41
The Vibrating Contact Regulators 42
Activity 2 45
The Carbon Pile Regulators 46
Multi-Generator Operation 47
Activity 3 49
The Transistorized Voltage Regulator 50
The generator Control Unit 52
Parallel A.C. Generator Operation 54
Maintenance Actions 55
Self Assessment 57
Summary 58
Page 39 of 117
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed your study of this booklet you will be able
to:-
 Describe the principles involved in generator voltage

regulation.
 Describe the vibrating contact regulator.
 Explain the operation of a carbon pile type regulator.
 Describe multi-generator operation.
 Explain parallel a.c. generator operation.
 State the relevant maintenance actions to be followed.
In order to get the most from this booklet, it is recommended that

you first complete the Aircraft Generator Module, Booklet No. 2 of
this Study Plan.
INTRODUCTION
The efficient operation of aircraft electrical equipment depends upon

the fundamental requirement that the generator voltage is
maintained constant under all conditions of electrical loading at
varying engine speeds.
It is therefore necessary to use a VOLTAGE REGULATOR that will

maintain the voltage output within specified limits, by adjusting the
strength of the generator magnetic field, through which the output
windings rotate. You will recall that this is called FIELD CURRENT.
In this booklet we will look at the common types of voltage regulator

in use with d.c. and a.c. generators.
Page 40 of 117
D. C. VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Automatic adjustment of the field current is achieved by using one of

three types of voltage regulator:-
 Vibrating contact.
 Carbon pile.
 Semi-conductor (transistor).
We will take a look at each of these types and then consider the
principle of LOAD SHARING.
To begin, let us review a basic electricity formula.
Ohm's Law
This describes a fixed relationship between circuit voltage (V),

current (I) and resistance (R).
i.e., I = V
R
Using Ohm's Law, what happens to circuit current if the circuit

resistance is doubled?
Page 41 of 117
Any type of regulator will use this principle to adjust the field current,
the principle is that in doubling circuit resistance, circuit current is
halved.
THE VIBRATING CONTACT REGULATOR
This type of regulator is commonly found on light aircraft employing

d.c. generators. The single unit will usually contain three separate
electro-magnetic coils, each one having a specific function.
 VOLTAGE REGULATION.
 CURRENT LIMITING.
 REVERSE CURRENT PROTECTION.
A typical unit and its circuit is shown in Fig. 1 on the next page.
Page 42 of 117
CURRENT
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CUTOUT
RELAY
FIELD
BATTERY GENERATOR
TERMINAL
TERMINAL TERMINAL
THREE UNIT REGULATORS
Voltage Current Reserve

Regulation Limiter Current Relay
THREE UNIT CONTROL PANEL CIRCUIT
Fig. 1 TYPICAL VIBRATING CONTACT REGULATOR AND CIRCUIT
Voltage Regulator and Current Limiter
Let us fist consider the operation of the voltage regulator and current
limiter coils. As either the generator voltage or the generator current
reaches its maximum value, the electro-magnetic force produced by
the coils will attract the moving contacts, opening the circuit and
placing the resistance in the circuit supplying the field winding. From
your previous work with Ohm's Law, the increase in resistance will
reduce the field current, and hence reduce the generator voltage or
current.
Page 43 of 117
Therefore as the generator voltage or current reduces, the electro-

magnetic force reduces, allowing the contact to relax and close the
circuit, bypassing the resistance and increasing the field current.
The operation will repeat itself, maintaining a steady voltage and

current, regardless of engine speed and electrical loading.
The vibrating contacts will open and close many times a second.
Reverse Current Cut Out
This coil is required to prevent the aircraft's battery from discharging

through the generator, and burning out the armature winding. This
situation would occur whenever the generator voltage is lower than
the battery voltage, i.e., whenever the engine is not operating.
It utilizes the combination of a voltage and a current coil wound on

the same core. If the generator voltage is higher than the battery,
the electro-magnetic field will close the contacts, making the output
circuit. However, if the generator voltage falls to a lower value than
the battery, the spring will overcome the electro-magnetic field and
open the contacts, removing the generator from the aircraft's battery
circuit.
In summary then, the important points to note with this type of

regulator are:-
 Voltage Coil - a large number of turns of fine wire, this

provides a high resistance to the generator current.
 Current Coil - a few turns of heavy gauge wire provides a low

resistance path to the generator current.
 Contacts - vibrate many times a second, gold or silver plated

for longer life.
With the application of d.c. generators in multi-engine aircraft,

supplying a larger number of electrical loads than normally found in a
light aircraft, the vibrating contact regulator was found to be
unsuitable. This was because of the high energy electrical discharge
which occurred with the opening of the contact points, commonly
known as 'arcing'. Arcing will rapidly wear out the contacts and cause
radio interference. To overcome this problem, a different type of
regulator was brought into common use, the carbon pile regulator.
Before we consider this type of regulator carry out Activity 2.
Page 44 of 117
Describe briefly vibrating contact voltage regulation.
Page 45 of 117
Your answer should be something like this:-
The regulator's contacts open and close due to electro-magnetic

attraction in the voltage coil. With the contacts open a resistance is
inserted into the field winding reducing the field current, and
generator output voltage.
If you experienced any difficulty here, refer back to the previous

page and review voltage regulator operation, before proceeding to
look at the Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator.
THE CARBON PILE REGULATOR
The carbon pile is a unique device in which a number of carbon

coated metal discs are placed together to form a cylinder. This is
placed in the field winding circuit, and will vary the field current by
varying its resistance as a function of applied pressure. Fig. 2 is a
typical carbon pile regulator.
Fig. 2 TYPICAL CARBON PILE REGULATOR
Page 46 of 117
Regulator Operation (Fig. 3)
Pressure on the pile depends upon two opposing forces, a spring and
an electro-magnet. The spring compresses the carbon pile, and the
electro-magnet exerts a pull which will decrease the pressure.
When the generator voltage varies, the pull of the electro-magnet

varies. If the generator voltage increases the pull of the electro-
magnet increases, decreasing the spring pressure on the carbon pile
and increasing its resistance. This will reduce the generator field
current and hence reduce the generator voltage. As the voltage
drops, the pull of the electro-magnet reduces allowing the spring to
compress the carbon pile, reducing its resistance, increasing the field
current and maintaining the generator voltage at its required value,
normally 24 volts.
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Fig. 3 CARBON PILE SCHEMATIC
MULTI-GENERATOR OPERATION
The carbon pile regulator design allows it to be utilized in multi-

generator systems, where two or more generators are used to power
the electrical systems together or as it is commonly known 'in
parallel'.
Fig. 4 on the next page is a typical two generator system.
Page 47 of 117
ELECTRIC LOADS
CONTROL SWITCHES
GENERATORS
Fig. 4 TYPICAL TWO GENERATOR SYSTEM
When two or more generators are connected in parallel to a power

system, the generators should share the electrical load. If the
voltage of one generator is higher than that of the other, then that
generator will take a greater part of the electrical load, which may
lead to premature failure of the generator. For this reason, an
'equalizing circuit' is built into the voltage regulator allowing the
electrical load to be distributed evenly between the parallel
generators.
Fig. 5 is a simplified circuit of an equalization system.
CARBON
PILE GENERATOR AND
REGULATORS FIELD WINDING
EQUALISING
CIRCUIT
Fig. 5 SIMPLIFIED EQUALISATION SYSTEM DIAGRAM
Page 48 of 117
Circuit Operation
The low resistance in the ground lead of each generator produces a

small voltage, typically less than 1 volt, whenever the generator
produces full load current.
If the generators are producing equal load currents, the voltage

produced across each resistance will be equal and no current will flow
through the equalizing line and coil of each regulator. However, if
there is a difference in generator output, then a small current will
flow through the equalizing line and produce a small electro-
magnetic force (emf). This emf acts on the carbon pile to reduce the
output from the generator which is taking too much of the load,
whilst increasing the output of the generator which is taking less of
the load.
These circuits can correct for only small differences in generator

voltage, therefore, the voltage regulators are adjusted to produce
nearly equal generator outputs. If the generator voltages are
adjusted so that there is a difference of less than half a volt between
them, the equalizing circuit will maintain a satisfactory load balance.
An operational check on the system is made by checking the load
meters (ammeters) on the aircraft's power panel, to ensure the
generator loads are properly balanced.
We have now looked at the regulators that have been used in

conjunction with d.c. generators. However, it is common practice to
use the alternator (3 phase a.c. generator with built in rectifier) with
present day light aircraft, the regulator used with this type of
generator is usually based on semi-conductor principles.
Before we look at this type of regulator, carry out Activity 3.
Describe briefly how the carbon pile pressure is varied to adjust

generator field current.
Page 49 of 117
Pressure is applied by a spring, and adjusted by an electro-magnetic

force produces by a voltage coil, as a function of generator output.
The higher the generator output, the greater is the electro-magnetic
force, increasing resistance and reducing field current, reducing
generator voltage.
If you had any difficulty in answering this question refer back to the
previous pages on carbon pile operation. If not let us move on to
consider further types of regulator.
THE TRANSISTORISED VOLTAGE REGULATOR
This type of regulator has no moving coils or contacts. It is lighter

and will have a longer life with greater reliability than the types
previously considered.
The circuit operation utilizes transistors. For the purposes of

understanding this booklet, a transistor is likened to a flow control
valve. The flow of electrons (current) through the valve (transistor)
is controlled by a small current applied to the centre contact (base).
Brief Description of Circuit Operation
The operation of a typical alternator and regulator (Cessna aircraft) is

given below. Refer to Fig. 6 on the next page.
 Component ZDI is a ZENER DIODE; it can be compared to a

relief valve which opens at a given pressure in a hydraulic
system. The generator output voltage is monitored by ZD1. As
the voltage fluctuates, ZD1 will 'open and close' to turn control
transistor T1 on and off.
 With T1 OFF, power transistor T2 will be ON, and current will

flow through the field winding of the alternator, increasing the
output.
 As the generator output increases above ZD1 relief value, T1

will be ON, T2 will be OFF and the field current will decrease,
reducing the output.
Page 50 of 117
The cycle repeats about 2,000 times per second, therefore producing
a steady voltage from the alternator.
TO
ELECTRICAL
LOADS
ALTERNATOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CURRENT FLOW BEFORE ZD1 RELIEF

(ALTERNATOR OUTPUT LOW)
CURRENT FLOW AFTER ZD1 RELIEF

(ALTERNATOR OUTPUT HIGH)
Fig. 6 ALTERNATOR AND VOLTAGE REGULATOR CIRCUIT DIAGRAM – LIGHT AIRCRAFT
We must now take a look at voltage regulation and generator control

in large transport aircraft. Although the a.c. power systems for large
aircraft are extremely complex when compared to those in light
aircraft, they still operate to the same basic rule.
GENERATOR VOLTAGE IS CONTROLLED BY VARYING THE

AMOUNT OF FIELD CURRENT.
You will recall that most generators fitted to current jet transport
aircraft produce 3 phase a.c. voltages. The voltage regulator is
typically contained within a 'black box' known as a generator control
unit (GCU).
Page 51 of 117
THE GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT (GCU)
A typical unit is shown in Fig. 7.

BACK-UP FROM
BATTERY
GENERATORS CONTROL
RELAY (GCR)
GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT (GCU) AC BRUSHLESS
GENERATOR 38
115V 400 ~
5000 RPM
INPUT FROM
GENERATORS CONSTANT SPEED RECTIFYING
BREAKER DRIVE DIODES
Fig. 7 GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT
 The voltage regulator will add together the three phase

voltages, and compare the result with a fixed reference value.
 Any deviation between generator output and fixed reference

will make the voltage regulator vary the field current by
adjusting the field power supply.
 The generator control relay (GCR) is closed by the generator

control switch located in the flight deck; this allows the field
current to flow in the generator, producing an output.
Page 52 of 117
 Protection circuits will trip the GCR to protect the power system
from generator faults such as:-
 Over voltage.
 Over current.
 Under voltage.
 Under frequency.
 Over frequency.
 GCU circuits were originally magnetic amplifiers; however, with

the advent of semi-conductors, they were replaced with
transistorized circuitry, which is beyond the scope of this
booklet.
The GCU, shown in Fig. 7 is typical of a 'non-parallel' a.c. system

such as fitted to a Boeing 737; where the generator loads are not
shared between generators. However, in large aircraft (Boeing
727/747, etc), it is usual to 'parallel' generators where two or more
generators share the electrical loads together as shown in Fig. 8.
ELECTRICAL LOADS
PARALLEL AC BUS
GENERATOR AC BUS
CONTROL SWITCHES
GENERATORS
Fig. 8 TYPICAL PARALLEL GENERATORS
Page 53 of 117
PARALLEL A.C. GENERATOR OPERATION
It is important to consider parallel generator operation and to

appreciate the problems and how they are overcome. Each generator
has its own GCU, (similar to that in Fig. 7), with additional circuit
functions, based upon magnetic amplifier or semi-conductor
principles. The circuit details are not important, but the principles
are.
Basically, the problem is similar to that for load sharing of d.c.

generators, if one generator is taking less than its fair share of the
load, then damaging currents will flow in the generators leading to
premature failure.
You will recall from your electrical theory work that in any a.c. circuit
there will be a certain phase relationship between the voltage and
current.
This relationship will lead to two different types of power produced by

the a.c. generator.
 Real Load - voltage and current in phase (WATTS).

 Reactive Load - voltage and current out of phase (VAR)
NOTE VAR is volt ampere reactive.
The GCUs will measure both real and reactive loads taken by all the
parallel generators. If one generator is taking more than its share of
the load, an equalizing circuit will share out the imbalance in one of
two ways.
Real Load Sharing
The GCUs will trim the speed of the generator CSDs, i.e., reducing
speed of the one generator taking more than its share of the load,
and increasing the speed of the other two (or three) generators
equally.
Reactive Load Sharing
The GCUs will adjust the generator field currents until a balanced
situation is reached between the three or four generators.
Normal operation of an a.c. parallel system is to ensure that the

generators share the load equally. If a fault develops in a generator,
additional GCU protection circuits will ensure that the failed system is
switched off the main power bus system automatically.
Page 54 of 117
During both flight and ground operations the generator load is

monitored by a special power meter, that will normally display real
load (WATTS) but can be switched to display reactive load (VAR).
Fig. 9 shows a typical power panel.
AC LOAD
METER 4
KW/kVAR
SWITCH
Fig. 9 TYPICAL POWER CONTROL PANEL
MAINTENANCE ACTIONS
Whenever maintenance is carried out on an electrical power system,

always ensure that the appropriate electrical safety procedures, as
specified in the aircraft’s Maintenance Manual, are carried out.
Typical checks on a voltage regulator will consist of:-
 Checking for physical damage, security of mountings and all

electrical connections.
Page 55 of 117
 Running each generator to measure both no load and full load

voltage outputs, and ensuring they are as specified.
 In multi-generator systems, paralleling the generators and

ensuring voltage outputs are within limits, and that the
electrical load is shared equally between generators.
Page 56 of 117
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Describe the general rule of generator voltage regulation.
2. Describe how a carbon pile regulator operates.
3. Why is a reverse current cut-out necessary?
4. In a parallel generator system, describe briefly why 'load

sharing' is necessary.
Page 57 of 117
Your answers should be something like this:-
1. Generator voltage is regulated by adjusting the generator field

current.
2. Spring pressure on the carbon pile is opposed by a voltage coil,
producing an electro-magnetic force, as a function of generator
voltage. The opposing forces will vary pile resistance, and
hence vary generator field current.
3. A reverse current cut-out is necessary to prevent the aircraft
battery from rapidly discharging through the engine driven
generator, whenever the generator voltage is lower than
battery voltage.
4. Load sharing between parallel generators is necessary to
prevent damaging unequal currents flowing through any
generator taking less than its share of the load. This would
result in premature failure of the generator.
If you answered these questions satisfactorily, then carryon to finish

the booklet, if you experienced any difficulty then refer back to the
appropriate sections in the booklet.
SUMMARY
We have now covered the basic principles involved in generator

voltage regulation, and load sharing.
The booklet has described two types of voltage regulator, the

vibrating contact type and the carbon pile type. Multi-generator
operation was then covered and paralleling was introduced.
We then considered a typical transistorized voltage regulator and a

generator control unit together with a paralleling sequence.
Finally the booklet dealt with the basic maintenance actions that
must be followed.
In conjunction with the Aircraft Generator Booklet recently

completed, you now have an understanding of the principle of
voltage regulation, as applied to varying types of aircraft systems.
The next step is to move on to the next booklet in this module and
complete the section covering Aircraft Inverter Supplies.
Page 58 of 117
ESSENTIAL READING
CAIPs Leaflet EEL/1-2.
RECOMMENDED READING
Aircraft Electrical Systems, E.H.J. Pallett.
Examine an aircraft voltage regulation system in detail, in

conjunction with reading ATA, Chapter 24. Note any cautions and
warnings applicable to the aircraft.
Page 59 of 117
BOOKLET:04
CONTENTS
Introduction 61
The Rotary Inverter 62
Activity 1 65
The Static Inverter 66
Standby Power Control 68
Activity 2 70
Additional Applications 71
Self Assessment 73
Summary 74
Page 60 of 117
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
Your objectives are to have a general appreciation of the principles

involved in d.c. and a.c. inverter operation, the two common types of
inverter in use, and the installation in different types of aircraft.
When you have completed this booklet you should be able to:-
 List four different types of equipment that require electrical

power.
 State the function and explain the operation of a rotary

inverter.
 Explain the operation of a static inverter.
 Give three advantages of a static inverter.
 Explain the purpose of standby power.
In order to get the most out of this booklet it is recommended that

you first complete Booklets Nos. 2 and 3 of this Study Plan.
INTRODUCTION
In aircraft electrical installations there are a number of different

types of equipment which require power supplies which differ from
that normally supplied by the aircraft's main generators, these
include:-
 Fluorescent lighting.
 Radio/radar/navigation equipment.
 Autopilot equipment.
 Engine instrumentation.
 Motors and actuators.
All the above items generally require a 115 volts a.c. power supply.
This means that aircraft operating with 28 volt d.c. generators,
require a method of converting d.c. to a.c. This is achieved by
utilizing inverters.
Page 61 of 117
There are two types of inverter, which will convert 28 volt d.c. to 115
volts a.c. they are the:-
 Rotary inverter.
 Static inverter.
In aircraft having 115 volts a.c. generators as a primary power

source, an inverter is used to ensure a limited supply of a.c. power is
available for use by essential equipment whenever the aircraft's main
generators are inoperative. This is normally known as a standby
power system and in this booklet we will look at some typical
standby inverter power systems.
THE ROTARY INVERTER
Fig. 1 is an example of a common type of rotary inverter.
FIELD COIL ARMATURE
FAN
Fig. 1 ROTARY INVERTER
The inverter consists of a d.c. motor and an a.c. generator mounted

on a common shaft. A fan attached to the shaft draws cooling air
through the unit. As the motor armature rapidly rotates under the
influence of motor action, the a.c. output windings rotate through an
electro magnetic field producing 115 volts3 phase a.c. at a standard
frequency of 400 Hz.
The generator output voltage and frequency are regulated by a

separate control unit which will adjust the speed of the motor, to
maintain the correct frequency, and the generator field to maintain
the correct voltage.
The regulator circuit will consist of either a carbon pile or

transistorized circuit to control the adjustment of the
motor/generator field currents. Fig. 2 on the next page is a simplified
carbon pile regulator circuit.
Page 62 of 117
28 V BUSBAR
D.C.
MOTOR 28 V D.C. Supply
FIELD 115 V OUTPUT
COIL RECTIFIED A.C.
(VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY
CONTROL)
TO 115 V
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
CARBON GENERATOR FIELD COIL

PILE
Fig. 2 SIMPLIFIED CARBON PILE REGULATORS
The inverter is controlled by an ON/OFF switch located on the

aircraft's control panel; the switch will be ON for all normal aircraft
operations.
Fig. 3 shows a typical inverter control panel for a twin inverter/twin

engine aircraft.
BUSBARS
No 1 No 2
OFF OFF
NORMAL
TRANSFER
INVERTERS
INVERTERS VOLTS
AND FREQUENCY
Fig. 3 TYPICAL INVERTER CONTROL PANEL

FLIGHT INST OFF
Page 63 of 117
Additional indications include:-
 Inverter ON/OFF annunciators.
 A voltage and frequency meter, used to check the inverter

output as selected by the inverter volts and frequency switch
(typical figures 115 volts, 400 Hz).
 An inverter normal/transfer switch. This switch allows all

essential a.c. equipment to be supplied from a single inverter,
should one inverter fail. A circuit diagram is included at Fig. 4.
OFF
Fig. 4 INVERTER NORMAL/TRANSFER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
INVERTER No 1 NORMAL
Before we look at the static inverter, review carbon pile regulator
theory, by carrying out Activity 1.
TRANSFER
OFF ESSENTIAL
LOADS
TRANSFER
INVERTER No 2 NORMAL
Page 64 of 117
Briefly describe how a carbon pile regulator operates.
Page 65 of 117
Carbon pile resistance is varied to adjust field current, e.g., increase

in resistance - reduction in current (Ohm's Law!) The resistance is a
function of carbon pile spring pressure, being opposed by an electro-
magnetic force produced from the voltage coil.
If you experienced any difficulty here then refer back to the

appropriate section in Booklet No.3.
We now look at the static inverter.
THE STATIC INVERTER
With the advent of solid state devices, a non-rotating inverter was

brought into common use, especially with aircraft that employ a.c.
generators. This device is the static inverter which utilizes
transistorized electronic circuitry to convert 28 volts d.c. to 115 volts
a.c.
Fig. 5 shows the installation of a typical unit.
CONNECTOR
MAIN E/E P34 APU/EXT

ACCESS POWER PANEL
E3 RACK
MAIN
BATTER
TERMINAL
BLOCK
INVERTER
MAIN BATTERY
CHARGER
REAR VIEW
Fig. 5 TYPICAL STATIC INVERTER INSTALLATION
Page 66 of 117
Circuit Operation
TURN ON SIGNAL
115 V A.C. OUTPUT
SQUARE WAVES PULSE POWER AMP AND

GENERATOR SHAPER FILTER
28 V D.C.
INPUT
FEEDBACK
CONTROL VOLTAGE
FREQUENCY
SENSOR
Fig. 6 STATIC INVERTER BLOCK DIAGRAM
Consider Fig. 6, the 28 volts d.c. supply from the aircraft's generator
is supplied to control a square wave generator circuit. The square
wave generator produces an accurate set of pulses which are then
applied to a pulse shaper circuit that 'rounds off the edges' to
produce sine waves, at a frequency of 400 Hz. The sine waves are
then amplified and filtered to produce a 115 volts a.c. voltage at 400
Hz.
This output is maintained constant by the use of a voltage/frequency

sensor and a regulator circuit, which uses feedback to control the
pulse shaper circuit by adjusting the frequency and the voltage of the
sine wave.
The advantages of a static inverter when compared to a rotary

inverter are that it:-
 Has a high efficiency.

 Has low maintenance and long life.
 Does not require warm up time.
 Is quiet in operation.
 Has a fast response to load changes.
Page 67 of 117
Static Inverter Installation
For aircraft whose primary power supply is from 115 volts a.c.
generators, the. static inverter is fitted to provide a source of a.c.
power whenever the main generators are inoperative.
Under normal conditions the standby bus receives power directly

from the main generator bus, if this bus is not powered then the
switch contacts can change over to allow the static inverter to supply
power to the standby bus. This ensures that essential equipment
such as fire indication circuits, standby instruments and radio
transmitters, remain powered under all conditions.
STANDBY POWER CONTROL
Fig. 7 shows the standby power control switch on the flight deck.
STATIC
INVERTER
STANDBY BUS
(ESSENTIAL LOADS)
MAIN GEN
BUS
(NON ESS. LOADS)
Fig. 7 STANDBY POWER CONTROL
Page 68 of 117
The control unit consists of a relay control circuit and a three position
switch. The three positions are:-
OFF: the standby bus will have no power.
AUTO: the loss of generator power will cause an automatic transfer

to the static inverter.
BAT: the standby bus is connected to the static inverter regardless of

the generator power application.
Note that the static inverter supply originates from the aircraft’s
battery; this means that standby power will be available until the
battery has discharged, typically 30 minutes.
Page 69 of 117
Draw a block diagram to illustrate static inverter circuit operation.
Page 70 of 117
Your block diagram should appear similar to that shown in Fig. 7.
We have now considered two common types of inverter and typical

applications, there are other uses which we will now cover.
ADDITIONAL APPLICATIONS
Cabin Lighting
In any passenger carrying aircraft there will be a certain amount of

cabin lighting. In a d.c. powered aircraft it is usual to utilize
fluorescent strip lights which require an a.c. power supply. This
supply is derived from individual lamp inverter units, as shown in Fig.
8.
Fig. 8 LAMP INVERTER UNIT - CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Page 71 of 117
Standby Attitude/ILS Indicator
A current jet transport aircraft has, as a standby instrument, a motor

driven gyroscopic artificial horizon. The gyro requires 115 volts,3
phase, a.c. power, which is supplied from its own individual inverter
unit, powered from the aircraft's standby d.c. power (the aircraft
battery), as shown in Fig. 9.
115 V A.C.
3 0 400 Hz
28V D.C.
GYRO
FLAG MOTOR
LOC AND G/S

DEVIATION STANDARD ATTITUDE/ILS
INDICATOR
OVERHEAD CIRCUIT
BREAKER PANEL (P-11) 28 V D.C.
LOC, G/S
FLAG MOTOR
MODE
ILS CONTROL PANEL CENTRE ILS STATIC INVERTER

RESERVER ILS PROCESSOR
Fig. 9 STANDBY INSTRUMENT POWER SUPPLY
Page 72 of 117
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is the primary purpose of a static inverter?
2. Describe how the following are controlled:-
(a) Rotary inverter voltage.
(b) Frequency.
(a)
(b)
3. List six advantages of a static inverter when compared with a

rotary inverter.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Page 73 of 117
Your answers should be something like this:-
1. To ensure that essential equipment is powered under all

conditions, especially when the main generators are
inoperative.
2. (a) Inverter voltage is controlled by varying the generator

excitation field current.
(b) Inverter frequency is controlled by varying the speed of

rotation of the d.c. motor armature.
3. The advantages of using a static inverter are:-
(a) Lightweight.
(b) Less noisy.
(c) Low maintenance.
(d) High efficiency.
(e) Fast response.
(f) No warm up time.
If your answers were similar to those above, well done. Now carry on
to finish the booklet. If you found any of the questions difficult, then
refer back to the appropriate section.
SUMMARY
We have now looked at the two common types of inverter, the rotary
and the static inverter and discussed the method employed in using
them and their function in aircraft systems. The booklet also dealt
with their control and indication.
In conjunction with your previous work on aircraft batteries and

generators, we have now covered the principle sources of electrical
power in any aircraft.
In the next booklet, we shall deal with the methods which are
employed to connect, control and distribute aircraft electrical power.
Page 74 of 117
RECOMMENDED READING
Airframe and Powerp1ant Mechanics General Handbook – EA-AC 65-

9A.
If possible read about the inverters used on an aircraft known to you

in ATA, Chapter 24, and then examine the system components on
the aircraft. Note all the precautions and warnings applicable to that
aircraft.
Page 75 of 117
BOOKLET:05
CONTENTS
Introduction 77
Switches 78
Mechanically Actuated Switches 81
Activity 1 85
Relays 86
Activity 2 88
Meters 89
Meter Shunts 90
Other Meter Indicators 91
Lights and Indicators 92
Self Assessment 94
Summary 95
Page 76 of 117
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
On completion of this booklet you will have a general appreciation of

the principles involved in aircraft system control and indication, and
in particular you will be able to:-
 Describe the types of switch used in electrical circuits.
 Identify, from a wiring diagram or Maintenance Manual,

electrical switches.
 Describe the construction and operation of a relay.
 Explain the principle of operation of a moving coil meter.
 Describe the types of meter used on aircraft.
 List the three categories of indicator light.
This booklet will take about one hour of study time.
INTRODUCTION
The control and operation of aircraft electrical circuits are principally

performed by devices known as switches.
In order to monitor the control and operation of aircraft electrical

circuits, it is necessary to use measuring instruments and warning
devices in the form of lights and mechanical annunciates. In this
booklet we will look at the common types of switch, instrument and
indicator used on the majority of modern aircraft.
Page 77 of 117
SWITCHES
A switch is a device for closing (making) or opening (breaking) an

electrical circuit. It will consist of one or more pairs of contacts
through which an electric current can flow when the contacts are
together (closed).
Switches of many types have been designed for a whole variety of

applications. They can be operated:-
 Manually.
 Electrically (commonly known as relays).
 Mechanically.
Fig. 1 is an example of an aircraft's electrical control panel,

illustrating the use of instruments, switches and indicators.
Fig. 1 ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANEL
Page 78 of 117
Manually Operated Switches
These switches are constructed in a number of different forms, but in

their simplest form will consist of a number of contacts making or
breaking a circuit.
Fig. 2 shows some typical aircraft switches.

OFF
TOGGLE SWITCH
MOVEABLE CONTACTS
FIXED CONTACTS
ROTARY SELECTOR SWITCH
MOVEABLE CONTACT
FIXED CONTACTS (12)
Fig. 2 TYPICAL AIRCRAFT SWITCHES
Refer back to Fig. 1, and identify the use of these switches on the
panel. In some applications, a locking device or guard will be
provided to prevent the inadvertent operation of the switch. To lift
the guard, a positive action is required on behalf of the operator. An
example of a guarded switch is shown in Fig. 1; the NOR (normal)
position covers the switch; the guard must be lifted before the switch
can be placed in the ISOL (isolated) position.
Switch Symbols
As an Aircraft Engineer you must be able to identify the electrical

switches shown in the aircraft Maintenance Manual and wiring
diagrams.
Page 79 of 117
Fig. 3 below shows the switch symbols in common use.
 (i) Is a switch that controls a single circuit ON/OFF and is

known as a single pole, single throw switch.
 (ii) Is a switch that controls two circuits ON/OFF and is

known as a double pole, single throw switch.
 (iii) Is a switch that will supply current to one of two circuits,

and is known as a double pole, double throw switch.
 (iv) Is a rotary selector switch; in this example it supplies

current to one of five circuits.
Fig. 3 SWITCH SYMBOLS
'Pole' = number of contacts contained in the switch.
'Throw' = number of circuits that can be completed by a pole.
There are additional types of switch in use with aircraft which are
different from those previously covered. These are the push type
switch and rocker switch as shown in Fig. 4 on the next page.
Page 80 of 117
Even though the operator action is different, the end result is the
same.
PLASTIC BUTTON
PUSH BUTTON
CONTACTS
CONTACTS
ROCKER BUTTON
PUSH SWITCH
SWITCH HOUSING
CAP ASSEMBLY
INCLUDES
INDICATING BULBS
LIGHTED CAP PUSH SWITCH
Fig. 4 VARIOUS MANUALLY OPERATED SWITCHES
MECHANICALLY ACTUATED SWITCHES
So far we have considered manually operated switches, but on any

aircraft there will be a large number of mechanically actuated
switches.
These include:-
 Thermal switches.
 Pressure switches.
 Micro switches.
 Proximity switches.
Lets us consider each one in turn.
Page 81 of 117
Thermal Switch
The thermal switch operates as a result of the rates of expansion of

two dissimilar switches is shown in Fig. 5. When the subjected to a
temperature change it will contacts and make the circuit.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
STATIONARY
CONTACT
MOVEABLE
CONTACT
BIMETALLIC STRIP
Fig. 5 THERMAL SWITCH
Pressure Switch
In this switch, the gas or liquid pressure is applied to the spring

capsule. When the pressures overcome the spring force, the plunger
will operate the moveable contact, making the circuit.
Page 82 of 117
A typical pressure switch is shown in Fig. 6.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
CONTACTS
SPRING CAPSULE
PRESSURE ‘IN’ (GAS OR LIQUID)
Fig. 6 PRESSURE SWTCH
Proximity Switch
There are two types of proximity switch, a magnetic type and an

electronic type. Fig. 7 on the next page is an example of the latter.
The target is mounted on a moveable unit, such as an undercarriage

leg, whilst the sensor is fixed. As the target moves to and from the
sensor, the value of current measured by the circuit card changes,
and an appropriate FAR or CLOSE voltage is generated.
Page 83 of 117
SENSOR TARGET
TARGET MOVES TO AND AWAY FROM SENSOR
Fig. 6 ELECTRONIC PROXIMITY SWITCH
Micro switches
A micro switch will open or close with a very small movement of the
operating device. Fig. 8 shows how micro switches are used to limit
the operation of an electric actuator.
OPERATING ROD AND LEVER

OPERATING PLNGER
ELECTRIC MOVING
ACTUATOR CONTACTS
FIXED
CONTACTS
SPRING
MICRO SWITCHES
Fig. 8 TYPICAL MICROSWITCH
Page 84 of 117
As the motor runs, the operating rod rotates, and contacts the
operating lever of the micro switch. This movement opens the
contacts, removing electrical power from the motor, which now
stops. The actuator remains in position.
Having taken a look at both manually and mechanically operated

switches, we must now look at electrically operated switches, or as
they are more commonly known, relays.
But first carry out Activity 1.
1. Give the definition of a switch.
2. Draw the circuit symbol for a double pole, single throw

switch.
1.
2.
Page 85 of 117
1. Your answer to this question should be similar to that given in

the first paragraph under the heading 'Switches'.
2. The drawing is that shown in Fig. 3 (ii).
If you experienced any difficulty here, review the appropriate

sections to your own satisfaction.
RELAYS
A relay is an electrically actuated switch and is used for the remote

control of circuits carrying heavy currents. They do vary in their
constructional details according to their intended use, but we will
consider the two basic types.
Relay Construction
A relay consists of a coil, an iron core and both fixed and moveable
contacts. The coil is connected by a low current capacity circuit to a
voltage supply, usually via a control switch located in the control
panel. With the switch closed, the current flowing through the coil
produces an electro-magnetic field that will attract the moving
contact (armature) and make the high power circuit. With the control
switch open, the electro-magnetic field collapses and the spring will
pull open the contacts.
Fig. 9 on the next page illustrates the two basic types of relay:-
 The fixed core relay, with moving armature,
 The moveable core relay, with half of the core moving (usually
known as a solenoid or contactor).
Page 86 of 117
AMRATURE
MAIN CONTACTS
MOVEABLE TERMINALS
CONTACT COIL
SPRING
FIXED
CONTACT
RETURN SPRING
STATIONARY
CONTACT PLATE
SOLENOID COIL
COIL
TO HIGH POWER CIRCUIT TO HIGH POWER CIRCUIT
MOVEABLE
STATIONARY CONTACT
MOVEABLE CONTACT
CONTACTOR
STATIONARY CONTACT RETURN SPRING

FIXED CORE
MOVEABLE CORE SOLENOID COIL
LOW CURRENT CONTROL CIRCUIT HIGH CURRENT CONTROL CIRCUIT
Fig. 9 TWO BASIC TYPES OF RELAY
Fig. 10 is a typical circuit diagram utilizing the switches that we have

already covered.
ACTUATOR LIMIT SWITCHES
HIGH CURRENT SUPPLY

FULLY CLOSED
OFF
LOW CURRENT
SUPPLY
ON
SWITCH FULLY CLOSED
RELAY
Fig. 10 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Page 87 of 117
With the control switch ON, the relay will be energized ON and
current will be supplied to the motor actuator via the closed micro
switch. When the actuator is fully open, the limit switch will open,
removing the power supply to the motor, and at this time the 'fully
closed' limit switch will also have changed over, so that when the
control switch is now placed to OFF, the relay de-energizes, and
power is supplied to close the motor actuator.
We have now covered the common types of switches used on

aircraft. Before we move on to look at aircraft indicators, have a go
at Activity 2.
Describe how a relay or solenoid operates.
Page 88 of 117
Your answer should be something like this.
Current flowing through the coil produces an electro-magnetic field

that attracts a moveable armature allowing the contacts to make. On
removing the coil supply, spring pressure forces the contacts apart.
METERS
Although there are a large number of different types of instrument

on an aircraft, by far the most common principle applied to the
majority of these instruments is the moving coil principle.
The meter consists of a coil, wound on a cylindrical iron core, which

is free to rotate in a magnetic field.
The coil is connected to measure current taken by a circuit. The flow

of current through the coil produces a magnetic field. This reacts with
the main magnetic field to such an extent that a turning force is
applied to rotate the coil and cylinder, and thus indicate a value of
circuit current by pointer position.
Fig. 11 illustrates the meter movement, and a indicating how the

turning force is generated interaction of the two magnetic fields.
POINTER
TURNING FORCE
MAGNET STRENGTHENED
COIL WOUND MAGNETIC FIELD
ON IRON CORE
WEAKENED
UPPER AND LOWER MAGNETIC FIELD
CONTROL SPRINGD
AND PIVOT POINTS
Fig. 11 MOVING COIL - PRINCIPLE
Page 89 of 117
METER SHUNTS
To enable the basic meter to measure a wide range of electric

currents, devices known as shunts are used. Most of the circuit
current flows through the shunt, and only a small percentage flows
through the meter coil. The meter face shows a number of scales,
each one calibrated to match a different shunt. The correct scale
must be used for each shunt. The current reading on the scale is that
flowing in the circuit under test, not that which flows through the
meter itself.
Shunts usually consist of a very low resistance (less than 1 ohm) and
are chosen to ensure the meters read correctly. Fig. 12 shows typical
meter shunts used to ensure the d.c. and a.c. load meters, shown on
the panel in Fig. 1, read correctly.
Fig. 12 TYPICAL METER SHUNTS
We have now seen how the basic meter movement is used to

measure circuit load, or current whose value is amperes (amps). The
same basic meter movement can be employed to measure circuit
voltage measured in volts.
Fig. 13 shows how a meter is used in conjunction with a shunt to

measure an electrical load. This meter is called an ammeter. When
the meter is used in conjunction with a high value of series
resistance, the meter measures circuit voltage and are a voltmeter.
SERIES RESISTANCE
AMMETER
SHUNT
Fig. 13 TYPICAL CIRCUIT WITH A SHUNT VOLTMETER
Note that an ammeter is always in series with the load, and a

voltmeter is always in parallel with the load.
Page 90 of 117
OTHER METER INDICATORS
These include meters for measuring:-
 Frequency.
 Power.
Frequency
A special type of moving coil meter is used for frequency monitoring

of a generator. This meter measures current as a function of voltage
frequency.
Power
Electrical power is measured in watts (W) or volt amps reactive

(VAR). Power is measured with a special moving coil meter, where
two electro-magnetic fields produced from circuit current and voltage
react together and indicate generator power (wattmeter).
Fig. 14 is part of an electrical control panel, showing the use of

kilowatt/kilovolt amp (kW/kVAR) power meters, a frequency meter,
and a voltmeter.
VOLTMETER
KW/KVAR METERS (3)

FREQUENCY METER
SELECTOR SWITCH FOR VOLMETER AND

FREQUENCY METER
Fig 14 PART OF AN ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANEL
Page 91 of 117
Fig. 15 is a wattmeter circuit diagram; note how the two coils are
placed.
CURRENT
WINDING
VOLTAGE LOAD
WINDING
CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR
Fig. 15 WATTMETER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

LIGHTS AND INDICATORS
On any aircraft's control panel (i.e., Figs. 1 and 14) there will be
additional system indicators in the form of lights and magnetic
indicators. To begin with, let's take a look at lights.
Lights
These can be divided into three categories.
 WARNING - colored red, they alert the crew of an

unsafe condition, e.g. engine fire.
 CAUTION - colored amber, they indicate an unsafe

condition which is not necessarily dangerous,
e.g. low fuel pressure.
 ADVISORY - colored blue or green, they are system

position indicators, e.g. landing gear down
and locked.
The bulbs are contained in a holder assembly beneath a colored lens

cap; in some cases engraving on the cap will allow a positive
indication.
Testing of the bulb is accomplished by a 'press to test' on the cap

itself, or via a master test switch.
Bulb dimming is accomplished either mechanically by rotating a

shutter assembly, or electronically by adjusting the supply voltage.
In some aircraft, it is now common practice to combine indicator

lights with a push control switch (refer back to Fig. 4 for an example
of this type).
Page 92 of 117
Magnetic Indicators
Some types of aircraft systems utilize magnetic indicators, commonly

known as 'dolls' eyes'. They use an -electro-magnetic field, produced
by a coil, to rotate a ball, which will indicate a system ON/OFF
position, or a system flow line, such as fuel valve open, or generator
on line. Fig. 16 is a typical panel, using 'flow line' magnetic
annunciates and warning lights. Note also the use of switches and
meters.
LIGHTS
BATT O/HEAT
WARNING
CONTROL PANAL
INDICATOR WITH
GENERATOR ‘ON’
WARNING LAMPS ON EMERGENCY PANEL
Fig. 16 TYPICAL CONTROL PANEL
Page 93 of 117
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. (a) Explain the terms 'pole' and 'throw' in relation to toggle

switches.
(b) Draw the circuit symbol for a single throw, double pole
switch.
(a)
(b)
2. Describe the operation of a typical thermal switch.
3. Describe a basic moving coil meter movement.
Page 94 of 117
Your answers should be something like these.
1. (a) 'Pole' refers to the number of contacts, or connecting

links controlled by the switch. 'Throw' is the number of
circuits that can be completed by each pole.
(b)
SYMBOL FOR SINGLE

THROW, DOUBLE POLE
2. A thermal switch uses a bi-metallic strip; temperature changes,

the different expansion the strip will cause it to distort, and
thus break the switch contacts.
3. Current measured by the meter flows through a coil wound on

an iron core; this produces an electro-magnetic field, which
reacts with a permanent magnetic field to produce a turning
force on the moving coil.
If you experienced any difficulty with these questions, then refer

back to the appropriate sections and repeat the work to your own
satisfaction.
SUMMARY
We have now covered the basic principles of aircraft switches, those

that are manually, electrically or mechanically operated, and have
looked at typical examples.
In addition we have looked at the basic moving coil meter

movement, and methods employed in measuring electrical voltage,
current and power. We then dealt with system indicator lights and
magnetic indicators.
The next step is to complete this Study Plan by moving on to the

final booklet, on Electrical Connections.
Page 95 of 117
RECOMMENDED READING
Airframe and Power plant Mechanics General Handbook EA-AC 65-9A.
Aircraft Electrical Systems by E. H. J. Pallett.
Examine an aircraft's electrical systems control panel, and identify

the different types of switch, relay and indicator used. If possible,
view as many different aircraft panels as are available to you.
Note all precautions and warnings applicable to those aircraft.
Page 96 of 117
BOOKLET:06
CONTENTS
Introduction 98
Electric Cables 99
Wire Size 100
Conductor Insulation 102
Activity 1 104
Cable Installation 105
Cable Connections 107
Activity 2 110
Inline Splices 112
Plug and Socket Connections 112
Plug and Socket Assembly 113
Self Assessment 114
Summary 116
Page 97 of 117
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed this booklet you will be able to:-
 Describe the construction of an aircraft conductor.
 List the factors involved in installing a cable in an aircraft.
 Describe how to crimp a terminal onto a conductor.
 Appreciate the number of different types of electrical connector

in use on any aircraft.
This booklet is the last in a series of six, and I assume you have
completed the previous five booklets.
The booklet will take you about one hour to complete, after which
you are strongly recommended to read the CAIP Leaflet EEL/3-1
which complements this booklet.
INTRODUCTION
The satisfactory performance and continued airworthiness of modern

aircraft (large and small) depends largely upon the reliability of their
electrical systems.
Improperly or carelessly installed or maintained wiring will be a

source of failure and in some cases a source of personal danger.
The continued performance of electrical systems will depend upon

your knowledge of the methods of inspection, installation and
maintenance of electrical system wires, cables and connections.
Therefore, in this booklet we will look at the common types of cable

and connector, and methods of repair.
Page 98 of 117
ELECTRIC CABLES
For an electric current to flow in a material, that material must be a

conductor. The most conductive elements are metallic in nature, e.g.,
gold, silver, copper, aluminum, iron and lead etc.
The best conductor is silver, but its cost limits its use to special
circuits, the two most generally used conductors are copper and
aluminum. Each has characteristics that make its use advantageous
under certain circumstances.
Before we look at these characteristics let us first discuss some

terminology.
Wire
A wire is described as a single, solid conductor or as a stranded

conductor covered with insulating material.
Cable
A cable is described as:-
 Two or more separate wires in the same jacket.
 Two or more separate wires twisted together.
 One or more separate wires covered with a metallic braid

(shield).
 A single insulated conductor with a metallic outer conductor.

This is known as a co-axial cable, and is used in radio and
radar aerial systems.
These different types of wire and cable are illustrated in Fig. 1 on the
next page.
Page 99 of 117
SOLID CONDUCTOR INSULATION
STRANDED
CONDUCTOR INSULATION AND COVERING
MUTI-WIRE
CABLE
METAL
SHIELD
Fig. 1 WIRE AND CABLE
The wire with the solid conductor is usually found within electrical
components fitted to the aircraft. For aircraft wiring purposes, the
wire with the stranded conductor is commonly used; this is because
of its increased flexibility over a solid conductor.
WIRE SIZE
Wire is manufactured in sizes according to a standard known as

AWG, which stands for American wire Gauge.
For a given number (AWG) the wire will have a specific diameter, and
a specific conductivity.
The largest aircraft wire is 0000 AWG, whilst the smallest aircraft
wire is 40 AWG.
The size of wire chosen for a specific function is determined by

considering a number of different factors.
Page 100 of 117

The two major factors are:-
 The wire must be able to carry the required current without

overheating and burning.
 The wire must be able to carry the required current without

producing an appreciable voltage drop.
These factors will be dependent upon the length of cable, the

conductor material, and the positioning of the wire, i.e., part of a
loom, or an open wire.
The task of choosing a wire is simplified by the use of pre-prepared

charts, available for use by the engineers. Fig. 2 is an example of a
wire chart.
Fig. 2 WIRE CHART
One important -factor to consider in choosing a wire is the type of

conductor. You will recall that the two most common types of
conductor used in aircraft wiring are copper and aluminum.
Copper is used because it has a higher conductivity; it is more

ductile, has relatively high tensile strength and can be easily
soldered. However, it is more expensive and heavier than aluminum.
Page 101 of 117

Although aluminum has only about two thirds the conductivity of

copper, it is used extensively in aircraft because its lightness makes
it possible to produce long spans, especially from the engine driven
generators out on the wing and up to the distribution panels located
in the forward area of the aircraft.
CONDUCTOR INSULATION
For the safe operation of electrical circuits the conductors must be

insulated, from each other and from the aircraft structure.
An insulating material has a very high resistance to electric current,

and is manufactured from such materials as polyvinyl chloride,
cotton, Nylon, Teflon and Rockbestos, dependent upon the wire
application.
Fig. 3 on the next page illustrates two cable types and their
respective insulating material.
Note that the name given to the wire type identifies the nature of the
insulator.
i.e., Nyvin = Nylon and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Efglas = glass braid and polytetraflouroethylene PTFE)
Cable types are designed for specific uses and are subject to
maximum environmental temperatures.
Nyvin is for general purpose use, such as found within the aircraft's
cabin, and is the most common type of cable.
Efglas is designed for use within a higher temperature environment,

such as is found within the confines of a turbojet engine.
Page 102 of 117

1. NYVIN CABLE FOR USE UP TO 1050C
NYLON SHEATH
COPPER PVC GLASS NYLON

CONDUCTOR BRAID BRAID
2. EFGLAS CABLE FOR USE UP TO 2400 C
COPPER CONDUCTOR PIPE AND GLASS BRAID WIRE BRAID
Fig. 3 CABLE TYPES
You have now completed the first part of the booklet which has given
you a basic understanding of aircraft electrical cables; we will now
look at methods of installation. However, before we do so, carry out
Activity 1.
Page 103 of 117

In your own words, describe the difference between a wire and a

cable?
Page 104 of 117

A wire consists of a single conductor either solid or stranded,

covered with an insulating material, whereas a cable consists of
a number of individual wires, twisted together and contained
within a jacket.
I hope you didn't find that too difficu1t, if you did, then review the
appropriate section to your own satisfaction, before moving on.
CABLE INSTALLATION
Aircraft electrical cables must be instal1ed and maintained in

accordance with the instructions contained in the aircraft's
Maintenance Manua1 and the particular wiring diagram.
The factors that require special attention are described in detail in

CAIP, Leaflet EEL/3-1, and Paragraph 7. They are highlighted here
for you.
Moisture Contamination
Cable runs are routed downwards, away from electrical equipment,

or 'drip loops' are formed adjacent to the equipment connection.
Cables that are protected by tubing or plastic sheathing must have
drain holes formed at the cable 'low point'.
Electro-Magnetic Interference
Cables are installed to reduce this interference to a minimum. This is

achieved by a number of different methods.
The main ones are:-

 Use of metallic shielded cables, connected to the airframe
earth.
 Twisting wires together.
 Grouping specific wires together in bundles.
Cable Protection
Cables are protected against chafing and abrasion through contact

with sharp surfaces, pipes and other cables, by the use of cable
clamps, rubber grommets and plastic sheathing. Protection must also
be provided against excessive heat, and liquid contamination.
Page 105 of 117

Cable Support
Cables are installed so as to be mechanically and electrically sound.

The wiring must be supported adequately, by the use of correctly
installed cable clamps and blocks.
Fig. 4 illustrates a number of these points.
CABLES RUN DOWNWARDS

FROM EQUIPMENT
CABLES RUN ABOVE

A FLUID CARRYING
PIPE CROSSING AT
RIGHT
DRIP HOLE
CABLES CLAMP
SECURED TO
BRACKET WITH
LOCKWASHERS
CABLES RUN THROUGH A

BULKHEAD. RUBBER
GROMMET FOR
PROTECTION
TRAPPED CABLE
(NOT ALLOWED)
CABLES ADEQUATELY SUPPORTED

ALONG ITS LENGTH BY ‘D’ CLIPS CABLE
TIE
½ Inch
(MAXIMUM DEFLECTION)
Fig. 4 CABLE INSTALLATION
Page 106 of 117

CABLE CONNECTIONS
To ensure the correct operation of aircraft electrical equipment, the

appropriate wires must be adequately connected to their appropriate
terminals. There are a number of different methods of making an
electrical connection; we shall now look at some common methods.
The mechanical connection is usually made by utilizing spade

terminals, plugs and sockets, some typical units are shown in Fig. 5.
TYPIACL PLUGS
AND SOCKETS
SPADE TERMINAL CONNECTING TO
A TERMINAL BLOCK
Fig. 5 MECHANICAL CABLE CONNECTION
These terminals, plugs and sockets must be adequately connected to

the electrical wires. Two methods are used:-
 Soldering.
 Crimping.
Information is contained in CAIP Leaflet EEL/3-l, which you are

recommended to read fully, however, we will now look at the basic
principles involved. (This topic was introduced in Module No.2, Study
Plan No.9, Booklet No.8).
Soldered Connections
It is more common to find soldered connections within aircraft

electrical components than as part of the system wiring. There are
two main reasons for this, first, it requires a skilled engineer to
repeatedly make good connections, and secondly, the application of
heat and solder reduces the flexibility of the conductor, making the -
connection liable to early failure.
Page 107 of 117

However, if soldering is required, as in some special applications such

as the connection of special engine temperature indication system
cables (i.e., EGT, JPT, TGT) the procedures laid out in the relevant
Maintenance Manual should be strictly followed.
Crimped Connections
This is the most common method of making an electrical connection;

it is a method in which a solder less terminal is connected to the
conductor by mechanical compression. It has a number of
advantages over soldering, primarily:-
 The connection is quicker and easier to make, and it is possible

to repeatedly make good connections.
 The connections are stronger, retaining the flexibility of the

original conductor.
 With proper sealing a corrosion proof joint is formed, this is a

very important point when connecting aluminum cables, as will
be explained later.
A typical crimped terminal is shown in Fig. 6.
Note, it has three distinct sections:-
 Insulation grip.
 Barrel.
 Tongue.
TONGUE
BARRELL
WIRE
INSULATION GRIP
Fig. 6 CRIMPED TERMINALS
Page 108 of 117

Both the insulation grip and barrel are directly affected by the action
of the hand or hydraulically operated crimping tool.
There are a number of different types of crimping tool in general use,

but they all have some common points. Fig. 7 is a typical example.
INSULATION ADJUSTMENT
PINS AND BOLES
RATCHET
MECHANISM
COLOR CODED
HANDLES
SPADE TERMINAL CORRECTLY INSERTED INTO HEAD,
READY FOR CRIMPING
Fig. 7 CRIMPING TOOL
Points to note are:-
 The color coded handles, used to identify the type of die head
and termination to be used with that tool.
 The holes and adjustment pins that are used to accommodate

different sizes of cable insulation.
 The ratchet operated handle ensures a positive crimping action

on the terminal.
You have now covered the basic methods of making an electrical

connection to an aircraft electrical cable.
Carry out Activity 2 before you complete the final section of this
booklet.
Page 109 of 117

From this list of statements about identify those that are true and
those that are false.
1. Cable runs should slope downwards away from electrical

equipment. (True/False)
2. Wires are twisted together to increase the strength of the

loom. (True/False)
3. When cables run adjacent to a fuel pipe, the cables must be

located above the pipe. (True/False)
4. Soldered connections are easy to produce. (True/False)
5. The ratchet handle on a crimping tool, ensures a pre-set force

is applied to the crimp. (True/False)
Page 110 of 117

1. True.
2. False.
3. True.
4. False.
5. False.
If you experienced any difficulty refer back to the appropriate

sections.
Now let's move on to the method of forming a crimp connection.
Forming A Crimp Connection
The actual method of forming a crimp connection is laid down in the

relevant Maintenance Manual however, for your information the
appropriate steps for crimping a connector to a copper wire are
outlined here.
1. Strip the wire insulation to the correct length, ensure there are
no missing or 'nicked' strands of conductor.
2. Correctly insert the terminal into the jaws of the crimping tool
(refer to Fig. 7.)
3. Insert the stripped conductor into the terminal until the

insulation butts against the end of the barrel (refer to Fig. 6.)
4. Squeeze the tool handles until the ratchet mechanism releases.
5. Remove the completed connection from the tool, and examine

for a correct crimp formation.
Crimping Aluminum Cables
You will recall that aluminium cables are used in aircraft, primarily to
save weight. However, bending aluminium will cause it to 'work
harden' making it brittle and subject to early breakage when
compared to a similar copper wire. Additionally auminium forms a
high-resistant oxide film, on exposure to air. Therefore it is important
to use correct installation procedures, and terminals identified as for
use with aluminium cables. These will be formed from aluminium or
aluminium/copper alloy, and mayor may not include a quantity of
inhibiting compound to prevent the formation of aluminium oxide.
Those that do not include the inhibiting compound, require it to be
added after crimping.
Page 111 of 117

INLINE SPLICES
Inline splices are another type of connector; they are used to join
two pieces of wire together, either permanently or as a temporary
repair. They are usually pre-insulated and color coded, as for the
terminal connector, and they use the same crimping tool that has
already been described. Fig. 8 shows how inline splices should be
staggered within a wire bundle.
Fig. 8 INLINE SPLICE
PLUG AND SOCKET CONNECTIONS
To facilitate the maintenance of aircraft systems when frequent

disconnection is required, plugs and sockets are used.
There are many different types of plug and socket. Fig 9 identifies
just a few in common use.
SOCKETS
KEYWAY
COUPLING RING
PLUGS
Fig. 9 PLUGS AND SOCKETS
Page 112 of 117

A connector is removed from a component by rotating the coupling

ring to unlock, and pulling away from the component.
Disconnected plugs and sockets must be protected from damage or

the entry of debris by the use of plastic caps or bags.
Installation is straightforward, the reversal of the removal procedure,

however it is important to align the keyways on both plug and
component before pushing on and locking.
PLOG AND SOCKET ASSEMBLY
Because of the vast number of different plugs and sockets in use,

each with their own specific maintenance and assembly instructions,
we will only cover a few general points.
Detailed information is contained in CAIP, Leaflet EEL/3-1 which you

are recommended to read.
 Cable clamps must be removed prior to removal of the pins or

sockets.
 Pins and sockets are released from retaining locks, by the use
of special tools inserted into the contact hole.
 Pins and sockets are crimped onto the conductor, although

some older connectors required soldering.
Page 113 of 117

SELF ASSESSMENT
Spend about 15 minutes answering these questions by writing your

answers in the boxes.
1. What are the two principle factors that determine which size of
wire is chosen for a specific function?
(a)
(b)
2. List:-
(a) Four advantages and

(b) Two disadvantages of using copper as a conductor.
(a)
(b)
Page 114 of 117

3. Draw and describe a crimped connection terminal lug.
(a)
(b)
Page 115 of 117

1. (a) It must be able to carry the required current without

overheating or burning.
(b) It must be able to carry the required current without any

appreciable voltage drop.
2. (a) High conductivity.
Ductile.
High tensile strength.
Easily soldered.
(b) Expensive.
Heavy.
3. Your drawing should be something like that in Fig. 6.
A crimped connection terminal lug is a solder less terminal that

is connected to the conductor by mechanical compression.
I hope you completed these questions without difficulty, if however

you had problems, then refer back to the appropriate sections and
complete to your own satisfaction.
SUMMARY
You have now covered the basic principles of aircraft electrical

cables, their installation, their connection and repair.
This is the final booklet in a set of 6, and in conjunction with your

previous work, you now have a general appreciation of aircraft
electrical power supplies, control, indication and distribution.
ESSENTIAL READING
CAIPs, Leaflet EEL/3-1
Leaflet BL/6-1
Page 116 of 117

Ref: AS-03-02 AIRFRAME (Study Plan-05)
RECOMMENDED READING
Aircraft Electrical Systems by E.H.J. Pallet.
A & P Mechanics Airframe Handbook: AC6S-ISA.
If possible examine an aircraft's wiring, take note of the clamps used,

and the cable types. Examine as many different types of connector
as possible, and under the guidance of an experienced engineer
practice crimping and soldering on redundant cables and connectors
not fitted to an aircraft.
117 of 117

Ata 24. Electrical As-03-02 (Plan-05)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Ata 24. Electrical As-03-02 (Plan-05)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ATITA AIRFRAME STUDY PLAN: 05

MODULE AS-03-02 REVISION: 00

The Aircraft Battery 3

Battery Charging and Discharging 12

Self Assessment Review 21

Suggested Practical Activities 22

 Explain the function of an aircraft battery.

 Describe the construction of an aircraft battery.

 List the provisions of an aircraft battery stowage compartment.

 Explain the battery vent system of an aircraft.

 Describe battery charging.

 Explain battery discharge rates.

 Explain a battery condition check.

This booklet will take you about one hour to complete.

All aircraft will have an electrical power system that is used to

On any aircraft there will be two sources of electrical power.

1. The engine driven generator, providing a.c. or d.c. power

2. The battery, providing a source of d.c. power whenever the

1. Draw a diagram to show the alternating current (a.c.).

2. Draw a diagram to show a direct current (d.c.).

Show frequency and polarity on each diagram.

Reviewing these terms now will assist you in the understanding of

Your diagrams should look something like this:-

1. ALTERNATING CURRENT 2. DIRECT CURRENT

Frequency = cycle per second

If you had difficulty remembering these terms, refer back to the

THE AIRCRAFT BATTERY

The principal functions of an aircraft battery are:-

 To assist in maintaining the aircraft's d.c. voltage constant

 To supply power for internal starting of an engine, i.e., auxiliary

 To maintain a limited amount of lighting, communication, and

The battery operates on the principle of conversion of chemical

 Lead acid battery.

 Nickel-cadmium battery (commonly known as the Ni-Cad

Fig. I shows the construction of a typical battery cell.

Fig. 1 TYPICAL BATTERY CELL

Cell Type Electrode Electrolyte

positive Plates Negative Plates

Nickel Nickel Cadmium Potassium

TABLE 1 BATTERY MATERIALS

It is important for you to note that the electrolyte is either

Whenever handling a battery, never allow the electrolyte to

Special cleaning and neutralizing procedures apply. Read a

An aircraft battery consists of a number of individual cells

The cells are enclosed in an acid (alkali) – resistance metal container

Fig. 2 shows a typical Hi-Cad battery box.

Fig. 2 TYPICAL NI-CAD BATTERY BOX

Fig. 3 TYPICAL LIGHT AIRCRAFT LEAD ACID BATTERY

Batteries are installed in either individual compartments specially

Fig. 4 BATTERY INSTALLATION - JET TRANSPORT

It is important to remove, clean and inspect the acid jar at the

To facilitate removal and installation of an aircraft battery, a quick

Fig. 5 shows a typical Ni-Cad battery and quick disconnects

Fig. 5 QUICK DISCONNECT ASSEMBLY

The quick-disconnect plug consists of a socket and a coarse pitch

From the list given below, complete the following statements:-

1. A lead-acid battery has ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

2. A Ni-Cad battery has •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Hydrochloric Acid Lead Nickel Cadmium

Your statements should read:-

1. A lead-acid battery has SULPHURIC ACID as an electrolyte, and

2. A Ni-Cad battery has POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE as an

If you experience difficulty here refer back to Table 1.