Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Jonathan Barnett
Red Fire Engineers, Australia
ABSTRACT: Building façades are considered as one of the critical elements of a buildings especially in case
of fire where poor performance façades lead to severe fire spread and building damage including human loss.
There has been a significant improvement in façade design to ensure excellent building performance in terms
of energy efficiency and requirements on aesthetic appeal. These changes fundamentally alter the behaviour of
modern façades in fire and pose a risk to building safety and economic loss in the event of a fire. The latest
incident at Grenfell tower demonstrated how vulnerable modern facades may be to fires, and emphasised how
this vulnerability directly affects the safety of building occupants. The paper provides the first comprehensive
review of current international design guidelines and test methods involving fire resistive design of facades.
The influence of cladding material, geometry of the façade, cavities, wind and space between buildings are also
discussed. Test methods that can be used to predict the flame and smoke spread are introduced and compared
comprehensively. Critical aspects as the combustibility of the materials, and further studies on façade
performance in fire are also highlighted.
1 INTRODUCTION
Façade is the skin of the building which keeps it vulnerability directly affects the safety of building
separated from the external environment. With the occupants. The installation of a new façade system
current trend for green building concept and on the Grenfell Tower was completed in 2016. An
sustainable construction, much focus is given on the unprecedented opportunity exists to learn from the
energy efficiency of the façade. New energy efficient Grenfell Tower fire to avoid similar occurrences
lightweight materials with good thermal insulation around the world.
properties are being used to reduce the heat gain and At the moment, there is a lack of a critical review
loss through the façade. However, the important on how modern façades would perform in case of fire
aspect that has been given less attention is the and if current safety construction codes have
behaviour of such facades in case of a fire. Since the addressed these changes adequately. Therefore, the
façade design, and thus its behaviour in fire changed paper aims at reviewing the current design guidelines
significantly, it can be the most critical element of applicable to fire resistive design of facades and
building fire spread, if it is not designed with provide a direction where improvements are needed.
adequate fire resistance. It also discusses the various façade properties that
Buildings with non-compliant facades pose a risk influence the fire behaviour while describing some of
to occupant safety and may cause considerable the prediction techniques used to model the facade
economic loss in the event of a fire. The Grenfell fire behaviour.
Tower fire being the latest major incident, which
occurred on the 14th of June, 2017 and resulted in at
least 80 fatalities, has demonstrated how vulnerable
modern facades may be to fires and how this
69
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
2 MAJOR FAÇADE FIRES time for occupants. The cases of apartment buildings
where the occupancy is relatively high throughout the
Table 2.1 gives a summary of the recent major façade day turned out to be catastrophic events, which
fire incidents that took place around the world. In all ultimately resulted to loss of human lives.
cases, it was evident that there has been a rapid fire There are examples where authorities have stepped
spread along the exterior cladding due to the up to strengthen their guidelines in order to prevent
combustibility of the materials used. Although such incidents from happening again in the future.
sprinklers were installed, external fire spread was not
prevented that considerably reduced the evacuation Table 2.1 A summary of recent major facade fire incident
70
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
Following the incidents in the UAE after 2012, coupled with potential issues of improper building
revisions were included for the fire code regarding maintenance.
exterior cladding. More strict guidelines were
introduced and separate annexes were added with the
intention to exclude the insulation and cladding 3 COMPARISON OF BUILDING CODE
materials most prone to external fire spread. It REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE RESISTIVE
specifies mandatory requirements rather than giving DESIGN OF FACADES
informative advice (Miers 2016).
Similar events unveiled after the Lacrosse tower fire
(2014) in Melbourne. A post incident analysis 3.1 National Construction Code Australia
undertaken by the Melbourne Metropolitan Fire National Construction Code (NCC) Australia expects
Brigade has identified the external wall was not non- a certain performance requirement from the external
combustible contrary to the perspective requirements cladding of a building (The Australian Building
of the Building Code of Australia (BCA). Later an Codes Board 2016). There are two paths to meet the
audit conducted by the Victorian Building Authority specified performance criteria; deemed-to-satisfy
(VBA) has found that the BCA requirements for solution and performance solution. Where a deemed-
external walls, including the suitability of materials, to-satisfy solution is proposed, performance
are inconsistently applied and poorly understood requirements which are categorised in the order from
(Victorian Building Authority 2016). This has CP1 to CP9, should be satisfied depending on the type
triggered a review of BCA and the Codemark of constructions. Where a performance solution is
building product certification scheme which is used proposed, it requires a report from a qualified fire
to assess the compliance of building products. After engineer. The report should be based on full-scale
the incident, Standards Australia has developed a new façade tests carried out in accordance with BS 8414
Australian Standard (AS 5113-2016 (Standards (British Standard Institute 2015), ISO 13785
Australia 2016) on “Fire propagation testing and (International Organization for Standarization 2002),
classification of external walls of buildings”, that NFPA 285 (Natinal fire protection association 2012),
provides procedures for the fire propagation testing or any equivalent international standard. Standards
and classification of external walls of buildings Australia has recently released AS 5113(Standards
according to their tendency to limit the spread of fire Australia 2016), a full-scale façade test based on BS
via the external wall and between adjacent buildings. 8414 and ISO 13785. However, it is not yet
This standard has been developed based on referenced in the NCC as part of the performance
international practice and is consistent with the solution.
testing criteria prescribed in ISO 13785.2 Among the performance criteria specified by the
(International Organization for Standarization 2002) NCC, CP2 is important regarding fire safety of
and BS 8414 (British Standard Institute 2015) Parts 1 facades as it emphasises that external walls (including
and 2. A detailed review of different international cladding products) must not contribute to the spread
building codes regarding façade fire design is of fire in a building and between buildings (The
presented in Section 3. Australian Building Codes Board 2016). To
Investigations carried out after these fire incidents determine whether the facade complies with
have raised a common issue. The findings show that performance requirement CP2, cladding can be
the combustible material present in the cladding is the considered as a part of the external wall or as an
main contributor for rapid spread of fire. More often attachment.
it was the Polyethylene (PE) core, which is When cladding is part of the external wall, it
sandwiched between Aluminium panels used as the should be non-combustible for buildings which have
exterior cladding. more than 3 storeys (The Australian Building Codes
Another common issue was observed that some of Board 2016). The combustibility of the material
these buildings were renovated before the fire disaster should be determined by testing in accordance with
and the cladding which was installed during the AS 1530.1 (Standards Australia 1994). For laminated
renovation is the main cause of fire spread. Although products, the test should be carried out with
new rules and regulations are put forward after a individual layers and a stack of laminates similar to
catastrophic event, those will only be applied to the the end-use condition. NCC prescribes the non-
new constructions which take place after the rules are combustible requirements for bonded laminated
announced. The vulnerability of existing buildings elements as follows (Australian Building Codes
are not thoroughly evaluated. Such buildings could be Board 2016; The Australian Building Codes Board
in a much worse condition as they were constructed 2016):
long before fire design guidelines were introduced
71
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
• Each laminate is non-combustible in accordance
with AS 1530.1 (Standards Australia 1994) When cladding is considered to be an attachment
• Each adhesive layer does not exceed 1 mm in to the external wall, combustible material can be
thickness; and used, given that it satisfies certain conditions of not
• The total thickness of the adhesive layers does not impairing with the external wall fire-resistance (The
exceed 2 mm; and Australian Building Codes Board 2016). The material
• The Spread-of-Flame Index and the Smoke- should meet the fire hazard properties prescribed in
Developed Index of the laminated material as a specification C1.10 where it specifies a group
whole does not exceed 0 and 3 respectively in number, smoke growth rate index or average specific
accordance with AS 1530.1 (Standards Australia extinction area determined in accordance with AS
1994) 5637.1. Furthermore, the combustible cladding
However if one or more laminates are combustible should not be located near or directly above an exit
(as determined accordance with AS 1530.1), it and it should not constitute an undue risk of fire
violates non-combustibility requirements and spread via the façade of the building. The attachment
therefore cannot be used as part of a deemed-to- should also meet the required FRL for that
satisfy solution where a non-combustible material is construction type (refer to Table 3.1).
required in façade (Australian Building Codes Board However, NCC also specifies exception for
2016). combustible materials or containing combustible
In addition to external claddings, other elements component such as fibres (Australian Building Codes
such as framing, spandrels, insulation and internal Board 2016; The Australian Building Codes Board
lining (e.g. plasterboard) are often considered as part 2016). These exclusions can be plasterboard,
of an external wall. The external wall can be load perforated gypsum lath with a normal paper finish,
bearing or non-load bearing. Depending on load fibrous-plaster sheet, fibre-reinforced cement
bearing condition and the distance from the fire sheeting and pre-finished metal sheeting having a
source, NCC also specifies fire resistance level (FRL) combustible surface finish not exceeding 1 mm
in minutes for buildings of more than three levels for thickness and where the Spread-of-Flame Index of the
the three main performance criteria; structural product is not greater than 0.
adequacy, integrity and insulation (The Australian
Building Codes Board 2016) (see Table 3.1).
3.2 Approved Document B - UK
Table 3.1 Type A Construction: FRL of building elements (The Approved Document B (ADB) (Department of
Australian Building Codes Board 2016) Communities and Local Government 2010) is used as
the guideline under building regulations to determine
Building Class of building – FRL: (in minutes) the fire safety. Similar to NCC Australia, the building
element Structural adequacy/Integrity/Insulation is required to be designed to limit the fire spread
2,3 or 4 5,7a or 9 6 7b or 8 within the building, over the external surface of the
part building and from one building to another. While
EXTERNAL WALL (including any column and other ADB specifies certain conditions to be satisfied for
building element incorporated therein) or other external the cladding to be fire resistive, it also gives provision
building element, where the distance from any fire-source to alternate means of compliance by testing according
feature to which it is exposed is— to BS 8414 (British Standard Institute 2015) and
For loadbearing parts- assessment in accordance with BR 135 (Centre for
Less than 90/ 90/ 120/120/ 180/180/ 240/240/ Window and Cladding Technology 2017). When the
1.5m 90 120 180 240 wall itself is required to resist the fire, it should be
1.5m to 90/ 60/ 120/ 90/ 180/180/ 240/240/ dealt with EN 1364-4 (European Committee for
less than 60 90 120 180 Standarization 2014). As this paper is focused on the
3m façade fire, the guidelines that applies primarily to
3m or 90/60/30 120/60/3 180/120/ 240/180/ facades will be discussed in detail.
more 0 90 90 There are set of perspective rules that should be
For non-loadbearing parts- followed when constructing façade. If the building
Less than -/ 90/ 90 - - - contains a floor more than 18m above ground level,
1.5m /120/120 /180/180 /240/240 following set of conditions apply (Department of
1.5m to -/ 60/ 60 -/ 90/ 90 - - Communities and Local Government 2010).
less than /180/120 /240/180 • Any insulation product, filler material (not
3m including gaskets, sealants and similar) etc. used
3m or -/-/- -/-/- -/-/- -/-/- in the external wall construction should be of
more 72
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
limited combustibility and meet the requirement also take into account several façade characteristics
of Euroclass A2 materials; such as geometry and factors restricting fire spread
• External surface above 18m should be Class B; which are not found in NCC requirements.
• External surface below 18m can be Class C
provided distance from boundary exceeds 1m.
Combustibility of materials are classified in 3.3 International Building Code - US
accordance with EN 13501-1 (European Committee US adopts International Building Code (IBC)
for Standarization 2009) as A1, A2, B, C, D, E and F (International Code Council 2012) as the model
with A1 being the highest performance and F being document to form building regulations governing
the lowest. Table 3.2 shows the respective classes and different states. Although there could be some
their combustibility. variations across the states, it is reasonable to
investigate the provisions provided in IBC for fire
Table 3.1 Combustibility class of materials used in ADB (Centre resistance of external cladding to study the measures
for Window and Cladding Technology 2017; Department of
Communities and Local Government 2010)
taken to enhance the fire safety of façade in US.
Similar to NCC in Australia and ADB in UK, IBC
Class Definition also has two avenues where it can be shown that
A1 Non – combustible. (As defined in ADB Table façade is adequately fire resistive. Either façade
A6) should comply with the material and fire resistance
A2 Limited combustibility. (As defined in ADB rating specified by the code depending on the
Table A7) construction type or the assembly of façade should
B FIGRA ≤ 120 W/s and pass the test titled NFPA 285 (Natinal fire protection
LFS < edge of specimen and association 2012) – Standard fire test method for
THR600s ≤ 7,5 MJ evaluation of fire propagation characteristics of
C FIGRA ≤ 250 W/s and exterior non-load bearing wall assemblies containing
LFS < edge of specimen and combustible components.
THR600s ≤ 15 MJ Following construction types are defined in IBC
FIGRA - fire growth rate index, LFS - lateral flame spread (m),
depending on the combustibility of the material used
THR600s - total heat release within 600 s
in building components (International Code Council
2012). Fire-resistance rating requirement varies for
According to guidelines (Centre for Window and different construction types as shown in Table 3.3.
Cladding Technology 2017; Department of • Type I and II – Building elements listed in Table
Communities and Local Government 2010), if the 601 (Primary structural frame; exterior and interior
building does not contain a floor more than 18m bearing walls, non-bearing walls and partitions;
above ground and façade is within 1m of boundary, floor and roof) are of non-combustible material,
external surface should be of Class B. When the except as permitted in section 603 and elsewhere
façade is more than 1m away from the boundary for in code
buildings more than one storey and shorter than 18m, • Type III – Exterior walls are of non-combustible
Class C material can be used for the external surface. material and the interior are of any material
In any of the above cases, if the façade contains permitted by the code
cavities, cavity barriers should be provided in • Type IV (Heavy Timber, HT) – Exterior walls are
accordance with section 9. Thin membranes for water of non-combustible material and the interior
proofing, air tightness and vapour control are building elements are of solid or laminated wood
excluded from the requirements provided that they do without concealed spaces
not increase the risk of fire spread by causing other • Type V - Structural elements, exterior walls and
materials to ignite. Paint finishes can also be excluded interior walls are of any materials permitted by this
but they need to comply with the requirements for code
surface spread of fire (i.e. class B and class C Depending on the fire separation distance and
depending on the height). occupancy level, following fire-resisting rating is
As alternative methods, three other options are specified for non-load bearing cladding on different
allowed which are further discussed in the technical construction types mentioned earlier. (International
guide note 18 by Centre for window and cladding Code Council 2012) (See Table 3). When fire
technology (Building Control Alliance 2015). These separation distance is more than 30 feet (9.2m) there
clarifications should be prepared by the building is no requirement on the façade’s fire rating.
control body, a qualified fire engineer to ensure the Occupancy level is determined depending the use of
performance of building will be equivalent to the building such as assembly (A), business (B),
requirements from ADB. The alternative solutions
73
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
educational (E), factory and industrial (F & I), insulation and fibre-reinforced polymer are specified
mercantile (M), storage (S), High-hazard (H) and so in detail. The requirement for MCM a flame spread
on. index not more than 25 and a smoke-developed index
The combustible materials that are permitted not more than 250 is specified when tested in
should have the following limitations (International accordance with ASTM 84. For HPL those indexes
Code Council 2012); are 75 and 450. Fire spread characteristics of foam
• Combustible wall covering should not exceed 10% plastic insulation should be determined after doing a
of exterior wall surface area where the fire full-scale façade test in accordance with NFPA 285.
separation distance is 5 feet or less As an alternative method, combustible material
• Combustible exterior wall coverings shall be can be used in façade provided that the complete
limited to 40 feet in height above grade plane assembly of façade tested in accordance with NFPA
• The coverage area of combustible wall is 285 pass the test. It can be used to determine if a given
limited in order to reduce the spread of severe wall assembly could support a self-accelerating and
external fire spread. The threshold of 40 feet self-spreading fire up the wall, either via outside
(12.19 m) from the the grade plane for surface, through concealed spaces within the wall, or
combustible exterior wall should be in by spreading fire into interior floor arears on stories
accordance with fire bridgate accessibility in above. If the following are observed, the wall
the incident of fire. In terms of material assembly is considered to be failed the test (Valiulis
combustibility, the classification by IBC is 2015).
similar to NCC in Australia where there is no • A temperature > 1000oF at 10 feet or higher above
category for materials with limited the top of the window opening
combustibility, but combustible and non- • Flames visually observed on the exterior face of
combustible groups. the specimen at 10 feet or higher above the top of
the window opening
Table 3.2 Fire-resistance rating requirement for exterior walls • Flames visually observed on the exterior face of
based on fire separation distance (International Code Council
2012)
the specimen at 5 feet or further from the
Fire Type of FRR in hours
centreline of the window opening
separatio constructi Occupanc Occupanc Occupanc
• Temperature rise > 750oF within any combustible
n on y group y group y group
wall components more than ¼ inch thick
distance H F-1, M, A, B, E,
• Temperature > 1000oF within any wall cavity air
=X S-1 F-2, I, R,
space
(feet)
• Temperature rise > 500oF in the second story
S-2, U
room, measured 1 in. from the interior surface of
X<5 All 3 2 1
the wall assembly
5≤X< IA 3 2 1
• Flames visually observed within the second-story
10 Others 2 1 1
test room
IA, IB 2 1 1
10 ≤ X <
IIB, VB 1 0 0
30
Others 1 1 1 4 COMPARISON OF STANDARD FIRE TESTS
X ≥ 30 All 0 0 0 FOR FACADES
5.1.2 Glass
The use of glass for external cladding is becoming
popular, owing to its transparency, aesthetic
appearance and durability (Shao et al. 2016). With
emerging concepts of green buildings aiming to
Figure 5.1 A prefabricated timber facade used in building reduce the energy consumption of buildings, glass
renovation (Malacarne et al. 2016) facades seems to be a viable solution as it enables the
effective use of sun light. Tempered glass, insulated
glass, laminated glass and double-skin façades are
some common types of glass facades being used in
buildings.
However, glazed exterior is considered the
weakest part of a building when subjected to a fire.
Glass is more prone to cracking and breakage under
fire with minimum warning as a result of its brittle
nature (Wang et al. 2017). This results in loss of
façade integrity creating a channel for fresh air to
enter forming a path to spread the fire outside the
Figure 5.2 A solar timber facade system for building compartment which accelerates the fire development
refurbishment (Callegari et al. 2015) (Wang et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2014). It highlights the
fact that although glass is not a combustible material,
Conventional timber sheets may not perform well the risk of fire spread cannot be completely
under fire but recent studies show that CLT performs disregarded.
equally well, having the same behaviour as non- Experimental investigations has revealed that the
combustible material (see Figure 5.3). Furthermore, cracking of glass depends on the location of fire and
following passive fire protection methods can be used fixing position (Wang et al. 2014). They conclude
to limit the risk of fire spread (Giraldo et al. 2012). that the frame supported glass (Figure 5.4) façades are
• Flame retardant treatments to improve the reaction more prone to breakage when fire located in the
of the cladding material to fire centre of a pane while point supported glass (Figure
• Design the façade geometry; 5.4) façades are more prone to breakage when fire is
o To avoid the contact between the fire plume and positioned close to the fixing points (Wang et al.
the combustible cladding 2016). Semi-exposed framing glass curtain walls and
the panes where four edges are constrained are
78
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
recommended to be used considering the fire safety together. The primary components of ACPs is
of glass façade system (Wang et al. 2014) comprised of two outer aluminium sheets, coated
with non-combustible PVDF paint or similar
Another study done on different types of glass coatings, and then bonded together to a combustible
facades show that insulated and laminated glass can polyethylene (PE) or fully non-combustible core.
survive longer than the single glass (Wang et al. Aluminium is renowned as a flexible and durable
2017). Furthermore, it states that the laminated glass material which can withstand extreme weathers and
performed better owing the presence of a gel layer resist the effects of harmful UV light(Stacey and
holding the cracked glass together to effectively Bayliss 2015). Hence, ACPs can last for a long period
avoiding the formation of a new vent. Therefore, from of time. Available ACP products in the market come
fire safety point of view, laminated glass is in different colours and sizes but are typically 3 to
recommended for high-rise buildings over insulated 6mm thick. The usual application of ACPs are widely
and single glass owing to its capability to prevent used for facades of buildings, design for exterior or
glass fallout and limit rapid fire spread to other floors. interior walls, columns, noise and thermal insulation,
and signage. Some of the advantages of ACPs include
easy installation, low maintenance due to its water
resistant properties, architecturally attractive,
lightweight, and boasts excellent façade skin
properties.
Current issues of ACP panels lies on the question
of their combustibility. Recent catastrophic events
have led to the understanding of how rapidly and
easily fire propagates from floor to floor, with the fire
originating from the façade system or internal fire
spreading to the façade system. This can be due to
various factors, such as the combustible material or
improper installation. Although this can be regarded
Figure 5.4 Framed glass façade (Wang et al. 2014) and point-
supported glass façade (Wang et al. 2014) as a low frequent event, the impacts on life and
properties can be significantly high. The type of core
Double-skin façade system compromises of two material used in ACPs can generally influence to the
glass skins separated by a significant amount of air material’s resistance to fire. For a product to be
space, the thickness of the cavity ranging from 800 considered compliant, Deemed-to-Satisfy conditions
mm to 2 m (Chow et al. 2007). The inner glass skin is must be satisfied as given in the Australian NCC. One
more likely to break in case of a room fire and smoke of the alternative solutions is for the ACPs to be
can spread to upper floors through the cavity (Ni et al. evaluated and verified by a third party certification
2012). Studies done on the spread of smoke through body. CertMark International (CMI) accredits and
this cavity urges to design the cavity depth more certifies ACP products to show compliance against
carefully and to use different glass for two skins to specific standards. CMI categorized the different
improve the fire resistance (Chow et al. 2007). types of ACPs according to its type, fire rating, use,
and restrictions. There are different types of core
5.1.3 Composites depending on its fire resistance, namely: 1)
Polyethylene 2) Fire Resistant (FR) 3) A2, and 4) A1
Composite materials are being used in facades to
Aluminium-core ACP. ACPs with PE core are
replace conventional materials such as steel, timber
restricted to Type C construction as it is considered
and concrete due to the high strength and stiffness
flammable or combustible. Also, it should only be
with their low density and highly flexible shaping
used for signage, low rise development, factories and
(Nguyen et al. 2014). The use of Aluminium
warehouses. FR panels on the other hand, consists of
Composite Panels (ACP), Fibre Reinforced Polymers
a mixture of PE and minerals, which gives low fire
(FRP), Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymers (GFRP) and
indices that do not contribute to the propagation of
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is discussed in this
fire and development of smoke. One condition for use
paper.
of fire rated panels is that it should be attached to a
fire rated wall. Hence, fire rated panels are applicable
5.1.3.1 Aluminium Composite Panels (ACP)
for use on high rise structures. A2 panels, which
Aluminium composite panels (ACP) are flat panels derived its designation name from a fire test, consists
made from aluminium composite material (ACM), of minerals to stop fire and smoke propagation. Both
which consists of two or more laminates bonded A1 and A2 type panels are classified as non-
79
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
combustible panels, which are both acceptable for use building is enhanced with such a system, high
on high rise structures (according to ABD), and also combustibility of EPS poses a high fire risk on
have the same condition that panels must be attached buildings with such facades (Hajduković et al. 2017).
to a fire rated wall (CertMark International 2017). An experimental investigation carried out to find the
influence of incident heat flux on façade and damage
5.1.3.2 Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) of the rendering show a heat flux of 30 kW/m2 was
Architects increasingly use FRPs in modern buildings enough to crack the rendering. This was followed by
due to its ability to produce cost effective shapes, internal burning of EPS which turned out to be
flexibility in aesthetics, durability and weathering dangerous. Damaged render (finishing) has caused
resistance(Berardi and Dembsey 2015). However, the rapid fire spread along with release of smoke. EPS
challenge lies on their fire resistance. FRPs possess a with low melting point also increase the risk of a
thermal conductivity (0.57 W/mK) as low as wood traveling fire source if improper capsulation of EPS
and concrete. Experimental results show that FRPs occurs. Therefore, good workmanship and proper
have a low thermal transmissibility and a fire maintenance is necessary to ensure the safety of
pyrolysis behaviour (Berardi and Dembsey 2015) but façade systems using EPS.
not enough conclusive evidence to evaluate the total
behaviour under fire. However the use of FRPs in 5.2 Geometry
façade should be recommended after doing full-scale
façade tests subjected to fire. Apart from cladding material, façade geometry also
plays a key role in the risk fire propagation.
5.1.3.3 Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Experimental and analytical studies have been carried
GFRPs are a special form of FRPs which has a very out to find out the effect of façade geometry in fire.
high strength to weight ratio, durable and highly
resistive to weathering which makes it popular choice
for external cladding of buildings. A study on a
façade type containing GFRP composite facets and
polyethylene foam core with the addition of fire
retardant unsaturated polyester resins and gel coats
show that it meets the safety requirements related to
heat release (Nguyen et al. 2014). However, smoke-
related safety requirements were not satisfied.
Numerical analysis suggested the use of resin mixed
with flame retardant aluminium hydroxide hydrate
and gel coat to mitigate the smoke emitted. The
applicability of GFRP façade panels in prefabricated
modular building units were investigated in another
study and it concludes that the fire performance of the
unit with composite panels significantly exceeds the
conventional façade system in terms of heat release
(Ngo et al. 2016). It further states that the wall
temperatures recorded were well below the standard
fire curve in the composite façade without glazing
surfaces. In a similar study it has been proved that
addition of 5% Organoclay in GFRP prevents flash-
over from happening and also flame from spreading
in the horizontal direction(Nguyen et al. 2016). In
organoclay mixed GFRP, fire growth index (FIGRA)
and total heat release (THR) were well below the
Figure 5.5 CFD model illustrating the difference of spread
threshold level requirement for building materials of fire for different facade geometry (Giraldo et al. 2012)
according to standard EN 13501-1:2007.
Figure 5.5 shows results of a computational fluid
5.1.3.4 Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) dynamics (CFD) model to study the influence of
External thermal insulation composite facades different geometries of a wood cladding. Findings
incorporate EPS insulation with a thin rendering. indicate that horizontal projections act as a flame
Although the overall energy performance of the deflector (Chow et al.). Projections more than 60 cm
80
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
were required to deflect the trajectory of the fire Double-skinned façade (DSF) is a glass
plume whereas projections greater than 80cm are architectural feature where a cavity is present within
recommended to reduce the heat flow on the façade the cladding element (between inner skin and outer
surface. Effect of the window size was also skin). The depth of the cavity may range from 800
considered and as expected larger deflectors were mm to 2 m to improve the environment performance
required when the window size is increased. by inducing air flow to take away the heat trapped in
the gap (Chow et al. 2007). Several studies were
Another large scale experimental study conducted conducted on the smoke and heat transfer through this
was aimed at finding the influence of U-shaped gap (Chow 2014; Chow et al. 2007; Ji et al. 2016) and
façade geometry (as shown in Figure 5.6) on the fire the critical scenario is predicted to happen when inner
behaviour. It has been found that such a geometry pane cracks while outer pane is still intact. That will
would increase the fire hazard as flame spread rate cause smoke to spread inside the building and worsen
and flame height is being increased as a result of U- the indoor conditions affecting the egress of
shape’s geometrical factor (Chen et al.). The well- occupants. It was found that a cavity depth of 1m to
known 2010 façade fire in Shanghai, China provided be the most risky arrangement while an increased
concrete evidence on how U-shaped façade geometry depth will drive smoke towards the outer pane and a
could fuel a rapid fire spread. reduced depth would cause the outer pane to crack
without damaging the inner pane (Chow et al. 2007).
Furthermore, outward tilted outer pane would reduce
the risk as inward tilted or vertical outer pane would
speed up the smoke movement adhered to the inner
pane of the cavity (Ji et al. 2016).
Cavities between the cladding and the external
wall are a common feature in multi-storey buildings.
In case of a façade fire, fire and smoke spread through
such cavities may be more rapid than on the outside
Figure 5.6. U-shaped facade wall geometry and a fire occurred of the face of the cladding (Centre for Window and
in a building with U-shaped facade, Shanghai, China, 2010 (Yan Cladding Technology 2017). To prevent such
et al. 2017) damage, fire stops and cavity barriers can be provided
within the façade assembly (Buchanan 2001). There
An experimental study carried out to find the effect are various methods of detailing the fire stop and
of a sloping wall (similar to a hill side slope adjacent Figure 5.7 shows typical arrangements of a fire stop
to a building) has concluded that the façade flame for a curtain wall system.
height increases with the increase in sloping wall
angle, especially as it is over 60o (Tang et al. 2015).
The heat flux upon the façade has increased sharply
at larger sloping face wall angles.
Research findings on the influence of façade
geometry on fire propagation highlights that although
non-combustible cladding may limit the fire spread to
a certain extent, careful attention is essential in design
stage not to choose a geometry that increase the fire
hazard.
Figure 5.7 Fire-stop detailing for a curtain wall(Centre for
Window and Cladding Technology 2017)
5.3 Cavities
Cavities in façade are mainly two folds; cavities Cavity barriers are also similar to fire stops,
within the cladding element and cavities between installed in between the cladding panel and the
cladding and the external wall. Depending on the type external wall both in horizontal and vertical directions
of cladding used and façade configuration either one (see Figure 5.8) to block the pathway of flames and
type or both types of cavities can be present in a smoke. Intumescent materials are used in horizontal
building. The risk of such cavities is that it provides a cavity barriers to allow a cavity to be maintained
passage way for both heat and smoke to spread under normal circumstances but seal the cavity in the
rapidly. event of a fire (Centre for Window and Cladding
Technology 2017). Large scale tests done at BRE has
found that cavity barriers with a continuous strip of
81
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
intumescent material are more effective than those the potential of fire swirling when designing
with perforated plates (Centre for Window and maximum height of tall buildings is highlighted.
Cladding Technology 2017).
83
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
8 REFERENCES Buchanan, A. H. (2001). Structural design for fire safety, John
American society of testing and materials (2009). "ASTM E136 Wiley & Sons.
Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Building Control Alliance (2015). "Technical Guidance Note
Vertical Tube Furnace at 750°C." 18: Use of Combustible Cladding Materials on
American society of testing and materials (2016). "ASTM E119 Buildings Exceeding 18m in Height."
Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Callegari, G., Spinelli, A., Bianco, L., Serra, V., and Fantucci,
Construction and Materials." S. (2015). "NATURWALL©-A solar timber façade
American society of testing and materials (2016). "ASTM system for building refurbishment: optimization
E2652 Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials process through in field measurements." Energy
in a Tube Furnace with a Cone-shaped Airflow Procedia, 78, 291-296.
Stabilizer, at 750°C." Centre for Window and Cladding Technology (2017).
Asimakopoulou, E. K., Kolaitis, D. I., and Founti, M. A. (2016). "Technical Note 98 : Fire performance of facades -
"Geometrical characteristics of externally venting Guide to the requirements of UK Building
flames: Assessment of fire engineering design Regulations."
correlations using medium-scale compartment-façade CertMark International (2017). "CMI Advisory Note:
fire tests." Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Aluminium Composite Panels (ACP) – Fire Risk –
Industries, 44, 780-790. Australia & New Zealand."
Asimakopoulou, E. K., Kolaitis, D. I., and Founti, M. A. (2017). <https://certmark.org/articles/2017/06/cmi-advisory-
"Assessment of fire engineering design correlations note-aluminium-composite-panels-acp-fire-risk-
used to describe the geometry and thermal australia-new-zealand/>.
characteristics of Externally Venting Flames." Fire Chen, Z., Satoh, K., Wen, J., Huo, R., and Hu, L. (2009).
Technology, 53(2), 709-739. "Burning behavior of two adjacent pool fires behind a
Asimakopoulou, E. K., Kolaitis, D. I., and Founti, M. A. (2017). building in a cross-wind." Fire Safety Journal, 44(7),
"Thermal characteristics of externally venting flames 989-996.
and their effect on the exposed façade surface." Fire Cheng, H., and Hadjisophocleous, G. V. (2012). "Experimental
Safety Journal. study and modeling of radiation from compartment
Associated Press (2017). "Fire engulfs 72-storey skyscraper in fires to adjacent buildings." Fire Safety Journal, 53, 43-
downtown Dubai ", 62.
<http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/04/02/dramat Chow, L. C. (2014). "Spread of smoke and heat along narrow air
ic-scenes-fire-engulfs-skyscraper-downtown-dubai/>. cavity in double-skin façade fires." Thermal Science,
(2017.07.18). 18(suppl. 2), 405-416.
Austin, H., and Williams, R. (2015). "Dubai skyscraper fire: Chow, W., Hung, W., Gao, Y., Zou, G., and Dong, H. (2007).
Blaze rips through Torch residential tower block in "Experimental study on smoke movement leading to
city's marina district." glass damages in double-skinned façade." Construction
<http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle- and Building Materials, 21(3), 556-566.
east/dubai-skyscraper-fire-blaze-rips-through-torch- Department of Communities and Local Government (2010).
residential-building-in-marina-district- "Fire Safety: Approved Document B - Volume 2."UK.
10061013.html>. (2017.07.18). Ding, W., and Hasemi, Y. (2006). "Smoke Control Through a
Australian Building Codes Board (2016). "Advisory Note: Fire Double-Skin Façade Used for Natural Ventilation."
Performance of External Walls and Cladding." ASHRAE transactions, 112(1).
Barber, D. (2015). "Tall Timber Buildings: What’s Next in Fire Duval, B. (2008). "Monte Carlo Hotel Casino Fire."
Safety?" Fire Technology, 51(6), 1279-1284. <http://www.nfpa.org/news-and-
Barboza, D. (2010). "Workers Detained as Toll Hits 53 in research/publications/nfpa-journal/2008/may-june-
Shanghai Fire." 2008/features/monte-carlo-hotel-fire>. (2017.07.18).
<http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/world/asia/16s European Committee for Standarization (2009). "EN 13501-
hanghai.html?mcubz=2>. (2017.07.18). 1:2009 Fire Classification Of Construction Products
Berardi, U., and Dembsey, N. (2015). "Thermal and Fire And Building Elements - Part 1: Classification Using
Characteristics of FRP Composites for Architectural Data From Reaction To Fire Tests."
Applications." Polymers, 7(11), 2276-2289. European Committee for Standarization (2014). "EN 1364-
BRE Global Ltd (2017). "BRE Global client report on full-scale 4:2014 Fire resistance tests for non-loadbearing
fire testing of facade ", Building Research elements. Curtain walling. Part configuration."
Establishment, UK. Farrer, M., and Barney, L. (2017). "Honolulu fire: three dead
British Standard Institute (2010). "BS EN 13823:2010+A1:2014 after blaze breaks out in high-rise building."
Reaction to fire tests for building products. Building <https://www.theguardian.com/us-
products excluding floorings exposed to the thermal news/2017/jul/15/honolulu-fire-more-than-60-
attack by a single burning item." firefighters-tackle-blaze-at-high-rise-building>.
British Standard Institute (2010). "BS EN ISO 1182:2010 (2017.09.20).
Reaction to fire tests for products. Non-combustibility FPA (2012). "High-rise blaze in 18-storey block in Roubaix,
test." France."
British Standard Institute (2015). "BS 8414-1:2015 Fire <http://www.blog.plumis.co.uk/2012/05/high-rise-
performance of external cladding systems. Test method blaze-in-18-storey-block-in.html>. (2017.07.18).
for non-loadbearing external cladding systems."
84
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
Frangi, A., Fontana, M., and Knobloch, M. (2008). "Fire Design Characteristics of Exterior Non-Load-Bearing Wall
Concepts for Tall Timber Buildings." Structural Assemblies Containing Combustible Components."
Engineering International, 18(2), 148-155. Ngo, T. D., Nguyen, Q. T., and Tran, P. "Heat release and flame
Gao, R., Fang, Z., Li, A., Shi, C., and Che, L. (2017). propagation in prefabricated modular unit with GFRP
"Estimation of building ventilation on the heat release composite facades." Proc., Building Simulation,
rate of fire in a room." Applied Thermal Engineering, Springer, 607-616.
121, 1111-1116. Nguyen, Q., Ngo, T., Tran, P., Mendis, P., Zobec, M., and Aye,
Gao, W., Liu, N., Delichatsios, M., Yuan, X., Bai, Y., Chen, H., L. (2016). "Fire performance of prefabricated modular
and Zhang, L. (2016). "Fire spill plume from a units using organoclay/glass fibre reinforced polymer
compartment with dual symmetric openings under composite." Construction and Building Materials, 129,
cross wind." Combustion and Flame, 167, 409-421. 204-215.
Giraldo, M. P., Avellaneda Diaz-Grande, J., Lacasta Palacio, A. Nguyen, Q. T., Tran, P., Ngo, T. D., Tran, P. A., and Mendis, P.
M., and Rodríguez, V. "Computer-simulation research (2014). "Experimental and computational
on building-facade geometry for fire spread control in investigations on fire resistance of GFRP composite for
buildings with wood claddings." Proc., Proccedings of building façade." Composites Part B: Engineering, 62,
the World Conference on Timber Engineering 2012, 1- 218-229.
8. Ni, Z., Lu, S., and Peng, L. (2012). "Experimental study on fire
Hajduković, M., Knez, N., Knez, F., and Kolšek, J. (2017). "Fire performance of double-skin glass facades." Journal of
performance of external thermal insulation composite fire sciences, 30(5), 457-472.
system (ETICS) facades with expanded polystyrene Poh, W. (2017). "Dissecting BCA verification methods."Fire
(EPS) insulation and thin rendering." Fire Technology, Australia Conference
53(1), 173-209. Reuters (2015). "17 dead in Azerbaijan as high-rise combusts in
Hu, L., Hu, K., Ren, F., and Sun, X. (2017). "Facade flame seconds." <https://www.rt.com/news/260125-
height ejected from an opening of fire compartment azerbaijan-building-fire-fatal/>. (2017.07.18).
under external wind." Fire Safety Journal, 92, 151-158. Schreck, A., and Gambrell, J. (2016). "How a common building
Hu, L., Qiu, Z., Lu, K., and Tang, F. (2015). "Window ejected material turned a Dubai hotel fire into an inferno."
flame width and depth evolution along facade from <https://www.thestar.com/business/2016/01/19/how-
under-ventilated enclosure fires." Fire Safety Journal, a-common-building-material-turned-a-dubai-hotel-
76, 44-53. fire-into-an-inferno.html>. (2017.07.18).
International Code Council (2012). "International Building Shao, G., Wang, Q., Zhao, H., Wang, Y., Sun, J., and He, L.
Code."US. (2016). "Thermal breakage of tempered glass façade
International Organization for Standarization (2002). "ISO with down-flowing water film under different heating
13785-2:2002 Reaction to fire tests for facades - Part 2: rates." Fire Technology, 52(2), 563-580.
Large-scale test." Stacey, M., and Bayliss, C. (2015). "Aluminium and Durability:
Ji, J., Li, Y. F., Shi, W. X., and Sun, J. H. (2016). "Numerical Reviewed by Inspection and Testing." Materials
studies on smoke spread in the cavity of a double-skin Today: Proceedings, 2(10, Part A), 5088-5095.
façade." Journal of Civil Engineering and Standards Australia (1994). "AS 1530.1-1994(R2016) Methods
Management, 22(4), 470-479. for fire tests on building materials, components and
Kirkpatrick, D. D., Hakim, D., and Glanz, J. (2017). "Why structures Combustibility test for materials."
Grenfell Tower Burned: Regulators Put Cost Before Standards Australia (2005). "AS 1530.4-2005 Methods for fire
Safety." tests on building materials, components and structures
<https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/24/world/europe/ Fire-resistance test of elements of construction."
grenfell-tower-london-fire.html?mcubz=2>. Standards Australia (2016). "AS 5113:2016 Fire propagation
(2017.07.18). testing and classification of external walls of
Lu, K., Hu, L., Tang, F., He, L., Zhang, X., and Qiu, Z. (2014). buildings."
"Heat flux profile upon building facade with side walls Tang, F., Hu, L., Delichatsios, M., Lu, K., and Zhu, W. (2012).
due to window ejected fire plume: An experimental "Experimental study on flame height and temperature
investigation and global correlation." Fire Safety profile of buoyant window spill plume from an under-
Journal, 70, 14-22. ventilated compartment fire." International journal of
Lu, K., Wang, J., and Hu, L. (2017). "Vertical temperature Heat and Mass transfer, 55(1), 93-101.
profile of fire-induced facade thermal plume ejected Tang, F., Hu, L., Qiu, Z., Zhang, X., and Lu, K. (2015).
from a fire compartment window with two adjacent "Window ejected flame height and heat flux along
side walls." Applied Thermal Engineering, 113, 70-78. facade with air entrainment constraint by a sloping
Malacarne, G., Monizza, G. P., Ratajczak, J., Krause, D., facing wall." Fire Safety Journal, 71, 248-256.
Benedetti, C., and Matt, D. T. (2016). "Prefabricated The Australian Building Codes Board (2016). "National
Timber Façade for the Energy Refurbishment of the construction code - 2016 Building code of Australia."
Italian Building Stock: The Ri. Fa. Re. Project." Energy Toscano, N., and Spooner, R. (2015). "Docklands apartment
Procedia, 96, 788-799. tower fire fuelled by material in building's walls, says
Miers, P. (2016). "Fire Risks From External Cladding Panels – MFB."
A Perspective From The UK ". <http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/docklands-
Natinal fire protection association (2012). "NFPA 285: Standard apartment-tower-fire-fuelled-by-material-in-buildings-
Fire Test Method for Evaluation of Fire Propagation walls-says-mfb-20150427-1mukhx.html>.
(2017.07.18).
85
Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering 16(1) 2016
Valiulis, J. (2015). "Building Exterior Wall Assembly
Flammability: Have we forgotten what we have learned
over the past 40 years?", Fire Safety North America.
Victorian Building Authority (2016). "VBA External Wall
Cladding Audit Report."
Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Su, Y., Sun, J., He, L., and Liew, K.
(2017). "Experimental study on fire response of double
glazed panels in curtain walls." Fire Safety Journal, 92,
53-63.
Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Sun, J., He, L., and Liew, K. (2014).
"Effects of fixing point positions on thermal response
of four point-supported glass façades." Construction
and Building Materials, 73, 235-246.
Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Sun, J., He, L., and Liew, K. (2016).
"Influence of fire location on the thermal performance
of glass façades." Applied Thermal Engineering, 106,
438-442.
Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Wen, J. X., Sun, J., and Liew, K. (2017).
"Investigation of thermal breakage and heat transfer in
single, insulated and laminated glazing under fire
conditions." Applied Thermal Engineering, 125, 662-
672.
Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Wang, Q., Liew, K., Chen, H., Sun, J., and
He, L. (2014). "Numerical study on fire response of
glass facades in different installation forms."
Construction and Building Materials, 61, 172-180.
Yan, W., Jiang, L., An, W., Zhou, Y., and Sun, J. (2017). "Large
scale experimental study on the fire hazard of
buildings’ U-shape façade wall geometry." Journal of
Civil Engineering and Management, 23(4), 455-463.
Zhao, G., Beji, T., and Merci, B. (2016). "Application of FDS to
under-ventilated enclosure fires with external flaming."
Fire Technology, 52(6), 2117-2142.
86