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1
Improved
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toughness
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High temp
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properties
Sintered at 1700 °C
Superplasticity – YES
Creep resistance – NO
Fracture toughness – NO
n Analysis of stress
F d F F s F
F 4F
s= = 2
Acs pd
Assumptions:
Concept of State of stress at a point • Body is continuous -
Continuum mechanics
Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
F1 DT
1 P
P
P(x,y,z) D
p R1
plane p R1
Free body diagram of the body which
X has been cut into two parts C & D
F1
P’
1 n Small area surrounding P in part D, DA
1
n' DT '
and surrounding p’ is DA'
1
n DA
1
DT n Infinitesimally small areas are
P 1
distinguished by their outward normals, n
D 1
p R1 & n'
1
Free body diagram of the body which n Action of part C on DA at point P is D T
has been cut into two parts C & D
represented by the force vector
1
and of D on DA '
at P’ is DT '
Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
F2
n As DA tends to zero in the limit, the limiting
F3 vector can be written as
C DA' 1 1
P’ DT d T 1
F1 1 lim
DA®0 DA
=
dA
=T
1
n' DT '
1
n DA
1 n Similarly, in the limit for part C as DA' tends
DT to zero, one can define T1 '
P
D
p R1
1 1
n Vectors T & T ' are called stress
vectors acting
1
on 1planes with outward
normals n & n' at points P and P’
respectively.
1 1
Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath n And, T = - T'
n Totality of all stress vectors acting on every possible plane passing through
the same point is defined as the State of Stress at a Point.
n Stress at a point depends not only on the location of the point (identified by
its coordinates) but also on the plane passing through the point identified by
its outward normal n (identified by its direction cosines, nx, ny and nz )
[Direction cosines nx, ny and nz are nothing but the cosine of the angles made
by the outward normal n with x, y and z directions]
txy =sxy
MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
Stress components on an arbitrary plane
q It is possible to obtain the stress components acting
on any arbitrary plane of area A and identified by its
outward normal n provided you know the stress
Z-plane components acting on three mutually perpendicular
n
planes APC, APB, BPC .
T (XY-plane)
Y y qRemember, the normal and shear stress components
n on the 3 mutually perpendicular planes APC, APB,
X-plane A
s zz BPC are negative.
q Only the resolved stress components of the resultant
n
(YZ-plane) n stress vector in the x, y and z directions on the inclined
T T plane, ABC, are in the positive directions of the co-
z
ordinate axes.
s xx P
x
n 2 n 2 n 2 n 2
T = T +T +T
x y z
n 2 n 2 n 2
T = s +t
n n n
s n = nx T + n y T + nz T
x y z
n You can calculate the normal stress on the arbitrary plane completely in terms of the rectangular
stress components & subsequently you can calculate the shear stress on this arbitrary plane.
énù
êTx ú é
ê n ú ês xx t yx t zx ù én x ù
úê ú
êT ú = êt xy s yy t zy ú ên y ú
êyú ê
ê n ú ët xz t yz s zz úû êën z úû
êTz ú
ë û
X
(a) Ans. sn = 5 MPa, tn = 5 MPa
(b) Ans. sn = 5 MPa, tn = 5 MPa
Z
F (c) Ans. sn = 3.3 MPa, tn = 4.3 MPa
Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
q At some orientation of that arbitrary plane at the same point, no shear stresses and only
normal stresses exists.
q Stress vector is completely normal - Principal planes/Shearless planes and the stresses
Principal stresses.
Now let us assume a plane whose outward normal is n and the direction cosines to be
nx, ny and nz and s to be the normal stress (assuming no shear stresses on this
plane),
components of the resultant stress vector along the x, y and z directions will be
n
T = sn x
x
n Subtracting these equations from the Cauchy’s stress
T = sn y equations, you get a set of 3 homogeneous, simultaneous
y n
n T =s •n equations with nx ny nz being the unknowns.
T = sn z
z
I1 = s xx + s yy + s zz
s xx t xy s yy t yz s xx t xz
I2 = + +
t xy s yy t yz s zz t xz s zz
s xx t xy t xz
I 3 = t yx s yy t yz
t zx t zy s zz
Stress invariants can be calculated from the rectangular stress matrix (stress
components acting on 3 mutually perpendicular planes at a point)
q Solve the cubic equation for obtaining the principal stresses (s1, s2, s3). Substituting any
of these 3 solutions in the 3 simultaneous equations along with the identity n x 2 + n y 2 + n z 2 = 1
you can solve for the corresponding nx, ny and nz. (principal directions)
q I1, I2, I3 are called the first, second and third invariants of stresses and the values do not
change when the frame of reference is changed.
q The principal stresses (s1, s2, s3) at a point depend only the state of stress at a point and
not on the frame of reference describing the rectangular stress components.
n The cubic equation which yields the three principal stresses are always
real. The following equation has always three real roots (s1, s2, s3).
s 3 - I 1s 2 + I 2s - I 3 = 0
n Instead of expressing the state of stress at a point P (x, y, z) in a body within the
frame of a Cartesian co-ordinate axes, we may chose the principal axes as the
reference co-ordinate axes.
s2
és 1 0 0ù
[s ]ij = êê 0 s 2 0 úú
êë 0 0 s 3 úû
s3
n Now if you consider any arbitrary plane (whose outward normal is n), then we can
define the resultant stress vector on that plane and its corresponding components in
the X, Y, Z directions.
n From the Cauchy’s stress equations, we can write the individual stress components
acting on this arbitrary plane:
n
T = s 1n x
x
n Remember the shear components don’t
T = s 2ny exist on the volume element in the frame
y
of reference of the principal axes!
n
T = s 3nz
z
You may then write the normal & calculate the shear stress
stress acting on this plane as: from:
n 2 n 2 n 2
s = s 1 n x2 + s 2 n y2 + s 3 n z2 T = s +t
I1 = 𝝈1 + 𝝈2 + 𝝈3
I2 = 𝝈1 𝝈2 + 𝝈2 𝝈3 + 𝝈3 𝝈1
I3 = 𝝈1 𝝈2 𝝈3
MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
Octahedral stresses
s2
s3
Octahedral plane 8
equally inclined to all octahedral
the 3 axes planes
nx = ny = nz
s1 s1
Frame of reference –
along principal
stresses, s1, s2 & s3
s3
s2
n Normal and shear stresses acting on each of these octahedral planes are called
octahedral normal and octahedral shear stresses:
s = s 1 n x2 + s 2 n y2 + s 3 n z2 (normal stress)
2 2 2
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö æ 1 ö 1
s oct = s 1 çç ÷÷ + s 2 çç ÷÷ + s 3 çç ÷÷ since, n x = n y = n z =
è 3ø è 3ø è 3ø 3
1 1
s oct = (s 1 + s 2 + s 3 ) = I1 (octahedral normal stress)
3 3
MME
Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
Octahedral normal & shear stresses
n 2 n 2 n 2
T = s +t
n 2
(substituting the values of resultant
t = T -s 2
2
stress vector & normal stress)
t 2 = n x2 n y2 (s 1 - s 2 ) 2 + n y2 n z2 (s 2 - s 3 ) 2 + n z2 n x2 (s 3 - s 1 ) 2
t oct
2
=
1
9
[
(s 1 - s 2 ) 2 + (s 2 - s 3 ) 2 + (s 3 - s 1 ) 2 ]
( )
1
2 2
t oct = I1 - 3 I 2 2 (octahedral shear stress)
3
n A given state of stress (with in the framework of the Cartesian co-ordinate system),
can be decomposed in to purely hydrostatic state and purely shear state of stress.
és xx t xy t xz ù
[s ]
ij
ê
= êt yx s yy t yz ú
ú
ê t zx t zy s zz úû
ë
First stress
invariant (I1) is
p=
1
(s xx + s yy + s zz ) = 1 (I1 ) zero
3 3
(necessary &
sufficient condition)
és xx t xy t xz ù é p 0 0 ù és xx - p t xy t xz ù
ê ú ê ú
êt yx s yy t yz ú = êê 0 p 0 úú + ê t yx s yy - p t yz ú
ê t zx t zy s zz úû êë 0 0 p úû êë t zx t zy s zz - p úû
ë
MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
Problem – To be done in the class room
n Determine the principal stresses and principal directions for the state of stress given
below:
é0 1 1 ù I1 = 0, I2 = -3, I3 = 2
[s ]
ij = êê1 0 1úú
s 3 - I 1s 2 + I 2s - I 3 = 0
êë1 1 0úû
- s 3 + 3s + 2 = 0
(-s 3 - 1) + (3s + 3) = 0
Since, there exists only one principal stress which is unique (𝝈1 = 3P),
principal directions must be calculated only for 𝝈1.
Note: Every direction perpendicular to 𝝈1 is a principal direction and no
need to calculate principal directions for 𝝈2 & 𝝈3
1
Principal directions for 𝝈1: nx = ny = nz =
3
sy
sz = 0, txz = 0, tyz = 0
txy
Consider a plane whose normal (n) lies on the
XY plane (making an angle q): the direction
txy cosines are now given by,
n
sx q sx nx = cosq
txy ny = sinq
nz = 0
txy
You can now write the resultant stress vectors (from Cauchy’s
sy stress equations) acting on this plane (whose outward normal
is n ).
Similarly, the normal and shear components acting on this
plane can be written.
MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
Displacement and strain fields
Displacement: Vector by which a material particle
moves relative to its position in the reference
configuration.
r’ = r + u
Displacement vector = u = r’ - r
MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V Adv. mechanics of solids, L. S. Srinath
Displacement and strain fields
Duy Dux
q2
Dy
q1 Duy
Dux
Dx
State of strain at a point, P can be written in a 3 x 3 matrix of normal and shear components:
ée xx g xy g xz ù
[ ] ê
e ij = êg yx e yy g yz ú
ú
êg zx g zy e zz úû
ë
DV
Volumetric strain at a given point, P, = e xx + e yy + e zz
V
If an element within a body is subjected to only a strain deviator, then the volumetric
strain will be equal to ?
678
1
In
ceiiinosssttuv Ut tensio sic vis As the tension goes, so does the stretch
s = Ee s i = å cije j 36 constants
j Since cij =cji, 21 independent constants
éσ xx ù = éc11 c12 c13 c14 c15 c16 ù éε xx ù éε xx ù = é s11 s12 s13 s14 s15 s16 ù éσ xx ù
ê ú ê úê ú ê ú ê úê ú
êσ yy ú êc21 c22 c23 c24 c25 c26 ú êε yy ú êε yy ú ê s21 s22 s23 s24 s25 s26 ú êσ yy ú
ê ú ê úê ú ê ú ê úê ú
êσ zz ú êc31 c32 c33 c34 c35 c36 ú êεzz ú êεzz ú ê s31 s32 s33 s34 s35 s36 ú êσ zz ú
ê ú ê úê ú ê ú ê úê ú
êt xy ú êc41 c42 c43 c44 c45 c46 ú êg xy ú êg xy ú ê s41 s42 s43 s44 s45 s46 ú êt xy ú
ê ú ê úê ú ê ú ê úê ú
êt ú êc51 c52 c53 c54 c55 c56 ú êg yz ú êg ú ê s51 s52 s53 s54 s55 s56 ú êt yz ú
ê yz ú ê úê ú ê yz ú ê úê ú
êt ú êëc61 c62 c63 c64 c65 c66 úû êg ú êg ú êë s61 s62 s63 s64 s65 s66 úû êt ú
ë zx û ë zx û ë zx û ë zx û
E.g., single crystals, each stress component is a function of all six strain components.
Consequently, 21 constants are needed to specify the elasticity of a completely linear
anisotropic elastic solid (extent of anisotropy determined by symmetry).
,
Eg: For a crystal of cubic symmetry, such as silicon and germanium, when the
coordinates are along the cube edges, the stress-strain relations are given below:
None (no
centre of
symmetry)
Orientation convention of unit cells relative to orthogonal stress and strain axes for
description of single-crystal elastic constants
s1
c12 = c13 = c23
s2 s2
x2
s1
a
a s3
x1
Rest of the components are zero !!
zero
éc11 c12 c13 c14 c15 c16 ù éc11 c12 c12 0 0 0 ù
ê ú ê ú
ê c22 c23 c24 c25 c26 ú ê c11 c12 0 0 0 ú
ê ú ê ú
ê c33 c34 c35 c36 ú ê c11 0 0 0 ú
ê ú ê ú
ê c44 c45 c46 ú ê c44 0 0 ú
ê ú ê ú
ê c56 ú ê
ê
c55
ú c44 0 ú
ê ú
ê ú ê ú
êë c66 úû êë c44 úû
11 ® 1 23 ® 4
22 ® 2 13 ® 5
33 ® 3 12 ® 6
Dux
" σ1 1 σ 1 2 σ 1 3% " σ 1 σ 6 σ 5%
$ σ 2 1 σ 2 2 σ 2 3' ←*→$ σ 6 σ 2 σ 4 ' q2
$ ' $ ' Dy
# σ 3 1 σ 3 2 σ 3 3& #σ 5 σ 4 σ 3&
q1 Duy
←*→(σ 1 ,σ 2 , σ 3 , σ 4 ,σ 5 ,σ 6 ) Dx
γxy = exy + eyx = εxy + εyx
= 2εxy (Pure shear)
1 1
" ε1 1 ε1 2 ε1 3% " ε1 2
ε6 2
ε5 %
$ ε 2 1 ε 2 2 ε 2 3' ←*→$ 1 ε 6 ε2 1
ε4 '
$ ' $ 21 1
2
'
# ε 3 1 ε 3 2 ε 3 3& # 2 ε5 ε
2 4
ε3 &
←*→(ε 1 ,ε 2 , ε 3 , ε 4 , ε 5 , ε 6 )
MME Dr. rer. nat. Ravi Kumar, N. V
Notations
µ0 µ1
s c + 2c12 DV
Bulk mod ulus = = 11 sin ce, = e 1 + e 2 + e 3 = 3e
DV 3 V
V
{100}<100> shear
The elastic constants of Niobium are given as, C11 = 242 GPa, C12
= 129 GPa and C44 = 286 GPa. Find the elastic compliances.
e4 = e5 = e6 = 0
for an isotropic, linearly elastic solid there are only 2 constants, called Lame constants
E nE
µ= , l=
2(1 + n ) (1 + n )(1 - 2n )
Ionic solids
Covalents
solids
Poisson’s ratio (ν)
Y
𝝈xx 𝝈xx
Z
𝝈xx 𝜀
𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − ν𝜀xx = − ν ν = - 𝜀yy
6 xx Lateral contraction ratio
( -ve sign because most materials
contract in directions perpendicular
𝝈xx
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = − ν𝜀xx = − ν to the tensile stress)
6
Eg: If a polycrystalline Al2O3 of randomly oriented grains with E = 403 GPa and ν = 0.21 and
subjected to tensile stress of 500 MPa, what would be the resulting strains (𝜀xx, 𝜀yy & 𝜀zz) ?
Note: Max elastic strain achievable in a
𝜀xx = 0.12%, 𝜀yy = 𝜀zz = - 0.026% polycrystalline ceramic prior to failure is ~0.1%
Extreme cases:
i) Volume constant
ii) No lateral contraction
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
ν = - yy = - zz = - zz =
𝜀xx 𝜀xx −2𝜀zz
0.5
No lateral contraction: ν = 0
Upper & lower bounds for ν
E G 1 0.5 ≥ 𝜈 ≥ −1
G= ≥ ≥ 0 (for G, E ≥ 0) 𝜈 ≥ −1
2(1+ ν) E 2(1+ ν)
Why is it that such a bottles (read as wine bottles) close using a cork ?
Poisson’s ratio of cork (or cellular materials) is about 0.2 (or even close to
zero) making it easier to push cork into a glass bottle without glass bottle
having to expand.
When temperature changes by thermal expansion causes a strain aDT in all the 3
directions. The combination of multi-axial stresses and a temperature change causes
strains.
ex =
1
E
[ ]
s x - n (s y + s z ) + aDT
2(1 + n ) 2(1 + n ) 2(1 + n )
1
[ ]
e y = s y - n (s z + s x ) + aDT
E
g xy =
E
s xy , g yz =
E
s yz , g zx =
E
s zx
1
E
[ ]
e z = s z - n (s x + s y ) + aDT Shear strains
Normal strains
q Viscoelasticity is a more general term and the effect is exhibited in different forms and
for a variety of structural reasons. For eg: anelasticity (delayed strain or delayed
elasticity). Anelasticity is reversible, time-temperature-load dependent and is a
manifestation of internal friction in the materials.
0.018 0.006
200 MPa 5 MPa
0.016
0.005 Viscous flow
Instantaneous elastic recovery
on removal of load from
200 MPa to 5 MPa
0.004
0.014 Anelastic strain
Strain
Strain
0.003
0.012 Time dependent
anelastic recovery
0.002
Instantaneous elastic strain
0.010 as a result of application of load
0.001
0.008
225 250 275 300 325 350 375 0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h)
Time (h)
Anelastic behavior
Strain response
Constant Constant
stress applied strain applied
for a time, t for a time, t
Stress relaxation
elastic + viscous
Components of the
viscoelastic models:
mechanical analogues
Mathematical models
Spring-dashpot models
s
s
h
k
Hookean spring Newtonian dashpot
where, σ and e are analogous to the spring force and displacement, and the spring
constant k is analogous to the Young’s modulus E; & h is the uniaxial viscosity;
h
Let us also define the ratio, t =k ,
where t is time, and is a useful measure of the response time of the material’s
viscoelasticity.
s s
k h
stress on each element is the same and equal to the imposed stress; σ = σs = σd
•
differentiate the strain equation and then write the • • s • s
spring and dashpot strain rates in terms of the e = e+e = +
stress;
s d k h
• 1 •
Multiplying by k and using τt = η/k: ke =s+ s
t
This is the constitutive equation for the fictitious Maxwell material, an equation that relates
the stress to the strain rate.
• 1•
Constitutive equation for the material which follows
ke =s+ s Maxwell model,
t
eo
strain
Time
æ tö
s = s o expç - ÷ where, so = stress at t = 0, = k eo
è tø
n What happens to the Maxwell model if constant stress is applied instead of constant
strain. Write the constitutive equation and understand how the Maxwell material
behaves.
s s = ke s
k
s s s = ss +sd
h
•
sd =he
d
• Strains on both the components (Hookean spring & viscous dashpot) are the
same.
• Overall stress on the model is the sum of the stresses acting on the individual
components.
•
The constitutive equation now becomes, s = ke s + h e
d
n If you apply constant stress, then the strain is given by (after integration of the
constitutive equation) -
sé æ t öù
e= ê1 - expç ' ÷ú
kë è t øû
Stress removed
strain
t’ time
Zener model or the standard linear solid will have an additional spring in series with
the Kelvin-Voigt model
k k
s s
Friedrich
Kohlrausch