International Conference on Innovations in Power and Advanced Computing Technologies [i-PACT2017]
A Review on Regenerative Braking in Electric
Vehicle
Gaurav A. Chandak
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Government College of Engineering,
Aurangabad, India
grvchandak1@gmail.com
Abstract—Conventional vehicles running on fossil fuels is one
of the cause for global pollution and as a result creating adverse
effects on the environment. The electric vehicle is becoming a
reality and seen as the promising solution, as it offers great
advantage of regenerative braking by which driving range of the
vehicle is increased by harvesting braking energy. Braking
control systems such as Hybrid braking system and fully
Electrified Regenerative braking system are normally replacing
conventional frictional braking system to stop the electric
vehicles. In such systems stability, precision control and soft
transition from one state to another depends on control
strategies. Classical controllers have limitations which are
overcome by robust and intelligent controller. In this paper
implementation methodology of Electrical motors, analysis and
advancements of various controllers like Sliding mode controller,
H2/H’ controller, an Adaptive controller, Fuzzy logic controller
in combination with various algorithm and control techniques,
Artificial neural network control and Neuro-fuzzy with PID
Controllers are discussed.
Keywords— Brushless DC Motor (BLDCM), Electric Vehicles,
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM), Regenerative
Braking System (RBS)
I. INTRODUCTION
Today due to global warming and rise of pollution index
world is finding alternatives and solutions to reduce its harmful
effect, where the electric vehicles offer a great opportunity of
an emission-less vehicle over internal combustion engine
vehicle. Conventionally, Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)
Vehicles were solely using the mechanical brake in which
kinetic energy is dissipated in heat due to friction. Sometimes
50 % of an average of all energy used for traction is wasted in
heat using mechanical brakes. 30.77% and 17.44% losses occur
in the conventional vehicle during stopping and deceleration
respectively [1]. In most of the mechanical braking system
vehicle decelerates due to friction imparted on wheels.
Addition to it Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) driven by
hydraulic actuators are used in the vehicle whose energy
efficiency is low [2].
In electric vehicle braking operation is carried out with a
conjunction of regenerative and mechanical braking system,
termed as Hybrid Braking System, as shown in Fig 1 [23].
978-1-5090-5682-8 /17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE
A. A. Bhole
Department of Electrical Engineering,
Government College of Engineering,
Aurangabad, India
Fig. 1 Hybrid Braking System
In Hybrid Braking System (HBS), distribution of braking
force between regenerative and mechanical braking is
significantly important. Recent research in HBS focuses on
advanced braking control methodology for distribution of
braking forces considering various limits about safety and
comfort. The challenge in HBS is its complexity increases with
Electronic braking and anti-lock braking system (ABS) control
[3]. Nowadays both braking is controlled by the single pedal in
which initial part is for regenerative braking and the last
portion is for mechanical braking which is decided on the basis
of the angle of a brake pedal of the vehicle [4].
Among various categories of Electrical motors, normally
Permanent magnet synchronous motor, Brushless DC motor,
Induction Motor and Switch Reluctance motor are widely
opted for the electric vehicle depending on the requirement of
torque-speed characteristics, slow or high speed application.
Placement of motors is also an important part of regenerative
braking and controller design depends on it. On the basis of
placement of motors, the design of drive train and torque
requirements of EVs, various control methods are, the front
wheel drive control, Independently Driven front and rear wheel
control, and in wheel control [5]. Although regenerative
braking is possible, still mechanical braking is required in any
Electric Vehicle. It is mainly because of two reasons, first for
fast braking, when regenerative braking gets fail or in an
emergency when there are chances of the collision or
regenerative brake is not sufficient to stop the vehicle, second
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if a battery is fully charged that time to prevent battery from
damage mechanical brakes can be used [6].
The electric vehicle has various control techniques and
controller. It consists of Vehicle control unit (VCU), Machine
control unit (MCU), Battery management system (BMS). The
VCU give control signals to other units. While controlling a
braking operation, the braking force distribution between
mechanical and regenerative braking force is imperative and
calculated by controllers. With the help of inverters and
controller speed, a braking operation is performed so that
smooth transition and controlling of a motor is possible. Many
proposed control techniques are available. Fuzzy logic control,
robust sliding mode control, an adaptive controller, H2/H’
robust optimal controller, iterative learning method etc.
This paper first depicts various regenerative braking
controllers used in the electric vehicle, then results and
discussion try to compare controllers. At last, the conclusion is
presented.
II. METHODS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING CONTROL
At the time of braking, there are different parameters which
are analyzed according to which control methods decide proper
output. Parameters like slip ratio, coefficient of adhesion,
rolling resistance, aerodynamic resistance, road gradient force,
motor torque reference, state of charge etc. Various controllers
assist calculation of these parameters properly, enhancing the
electric vehicle stability, braking performance and energy
recovery [7]-[8].
A. Sliding Mode Controller
Robust Sliding Mode Controller is also called as Variable
structure control (VaSC). A nonlinear sliding mode surface
called as TSM is applied. A current controller controls the
torque and flux parameters of BLDC motor for which two
current sensors are used. Furthermore, control is achieved by
giving switching inputs to inverters and comparing feedback of
DC link voltage and inductance current to reference values [4].
B. H2/H’ Robust optimal Controller
On the basis of Parameter perturbation and bounded
dynamics mathematical model of a system is developed.
Battery provided for DC motor drive with a DC-DC converter
is used. The time required to process all task is 160
microsecond hence for such fast computation Digital signal
processor TMS320LF2407 is used. Clock frequency set as 40
MHz. Energy recovery efficiency can be improved by the good
control method. Regenerative brake help to lessen maintenance
cost and deterioration and tear of brake pad [11].
C. Adaptive Controller
The adaptive control technique is developed for PMSM
based on input-output feedback linearization for speed torque
control. The recursive least square technique is implemented
which is stable with parameter uncertainty and change of
operating condition. The adaptive controller works as an
observer, operates on the basis of estimation of back emf
making sensorless control of PMSM possible [10].
D. Iterative Learning Control
An optimal torque controller is designed to reduce torque
ripple in Switch reluctance motor used in the electric vehicle
with the principle of torque sharing function (TSF). DSP
TMS320F2407 digital signal processor is used as a torque
controller. With iterative learning method continuous checking
is done with reference torque and according to that current is
controlled with optimal torque controller. Iterative learning
control learns from previous errors and control effects, stored
in memory [19].
E. Fuzzy Logic Controller with Particle Swarm Optimization
The fuzzy logic controller has a slow response so the
response is improved by optimizing scaling factor of the fuzzy
controller. The particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique is
used which makes the response fast and dynamic. This
technique has a very simple algorithm, out of several variables,
best performing variables are selected and used for next
iteration in an optimization process. Three steps were
considered while designing controller. First, generation of
fuzzy rules, second selecting and adjusting membership
function and third selecting scaling factor [9].
F. Fuzzy Controller with Genetic Algorithm
The genetic algorithm (GA) gives derivative-free
optimization. PID controller with Zigler Nichols technique
does not give satisfactory operation [13]. In fuzzy controller
with GA, integrator is connected in parallel to fuzzy controller.
Due to various advantageous over binary coding system
Decimal coded system is used to code the genetic algorithm.
Gradual changing probability is adopted while designing
genetic algorithm. Total fuzzy rules are 49, with GA they are
reduced to 15 and further opted selectively [14]. There are
three ways in which GA optimize. Firstly either fix the rules
and optimize the membership function. Secondly, optimize
rules and fix optimize parameter of membership function and
third change the both simultaneously
G. Hybrid Fuzzy PI Controller
A good controller should give quick step response, fast
settling time and without any overshoot. Fuzzy logic gives a
high dynamic response but poor steady state response and PI
controller give a good steady state response but a poor dynamic
response. In the hybrid fuzzy PI controller, when the speed
error is more than 10% that time fuzzy logic control is used and
when error becomes less than 10 percent, PI controllers comes
to picture giving better steady state [17].
H. Artificial Neural Network Control
Multilayer perceptron artificial neural network (MLP-
ANN) is used in the electric vehicle. According to braking
force distribution curve front axle, rear axle regenerative and
mechanical braking force distribution is calculated by a four
layer feed-forward artificial neural network. The Sigmoid
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function is used for activation of neurons. Training data sheet is
provided having knowledge of regenerative and mechanical
braking forces for the various state of charge. Driving cycle
used is INRETS route one. Artificial neural network is trained
by back propagation technique. Normalized root mean square
error is used to find out a difference between calculated and
simulated error [18].
I. Neuro-Fuzzy and PID Controller
Neuro-fuzzy system is a combination of Fuzzy system and
neural network theory, a three layer feed-forward neural
network in which the first layer is of input variables the second
layer is of Fuzzy rules and the third layer is of output variable.
In this method, fuzzy system analyzed knowledge and neural
network tries to be self-learning. An artificial neural fuzzy
interface system (ANFIS) gets the front braking force, speed
and state of charge as input. Then ANFIS meet the
requirements to calculate braking force relation which is fed to
PID controller, according to that PWM switching is done. In
the artificial neural Fuzzy interface system, Sugeno model is
used as interference system, various parameters can be trained
by ANFIS editor in the MATLAB Simulink. The proportional
integral derivative controller is attuned using Zeigler Nichols
algorithm. The braking process is rooted in ATMEGA64
microcontroller with which regenerative braking system is
implemented. PID response is fast while ANFIS fuzzy
controller is sluggish. PID is used for negative torque [15]-[16].
J. Sevcon Controller
Permanent Magnet axial machine with two air gaps i.e
stator rotor-stator configuration with Sevcon types Gen4
controller is employed. DC-DC converter with hybrid storage
system is set. The current control method is used, as torque
depends on direct and quadrature axis stator current. SVPWM
vector control technique is used to generate pulses for inverter
its program is implanted in dSPACE DS1104 controller board.
Control signals are transmitted to a various part of the system
through CANopen. Design Verification Test System is
operated for programming and monitoring [12].
III. RESULTS
Permanent magnet synchronous motor give sinusoidal back
emf, therefore torque ripple in an ideal case should be null.
Shotang Chen, C. Namuduri and S. Mir [20] studied that torque
ripples are induced because of the short word length of a
controller and the low resolution of position sensors. Current
produced by PWM switching also produces high frequency
PWM ripples which interact with back emf and produce torque
ripple. Harmonic contents in Permanent magnet synchronous
motor were reduced by fuzzy logic control optimized by partial
swarm optimization (PSO) method proposed by A. S. Elwer, S.
A. Wahsh. [9]. PSO for the electric vehicle with permanent
magnet synchronous motor is tested by applying, a step
increase in load torque. In simulation, two cases are studied, in
first PSO with 5000 iterations give a step change in reference
speed, when step change in load torque is applied. In second
case PSO is optimized by applying 50000 iterations due to this
harmonic contents were reduced [9]. Sensorless control of
motor is dependent on estimation of back emf. An adaptive
controller is simulated by V. Oghafy, H. Nikkhajoei and J. S.
Zamani [10] for Sensorless control of permanent magnet
synchronous motor. In performance assessment rotor real speed
and expected speed match each other. Rotor speed and its
position are determined by an adaptive controller operating on
the basis calculation of electromotive force. The error of speed
estimation becomes negligible as error of electromotive force
approaches to zero with the increase in q-axis magnetizing
current electromagnetic torque also increases. In starting stator
resistance is less for 2 sec then it increases and becomes stable
after 4 sec simulated iron loss is slightly greater than estimated
iron loss.
J. W. K. K. Jayasundara and D. A. I. Munindradasa [21]
designed controller for Brushless DC motor to reduce
harmonics and was able to reject up to 9th harmonic.
Furthermore, torque ripple was reduced to 0.056% for the
deviation of 0.50 with rotor alignment and for obtaining the
proper resolution of 10, position sensors are replaced by a
variable resistor with high-resolution analog to digital encoder.
Regenerative braking increases the driving range of the electric
vehicle. The combination of PID and Neuro-fuzzy controller
design for Brushless DC motor is proposed by V. Sindhuja et.
al. [15]. Braking energy is recovered up to 2 to 3% of battery
charge if a vehicle having 300 volt battery and single charge
range of 280 kilometers, driving Range is increased by 30 km.
Buck-boost circuit is employed in for BLDC motor in Electric
vehicle with sliding mode controller designed by Bo. Long [4]
simultaneously operation and mechanical structure of brake
pedal are studied.
The H2/H’ controller for Permanent Magnet DC motor
analyzed by M. Ye. Z. Bai and B. Cao [11]. To examine the
reaction of a controller with, outside and parameter disturbance
a step response is employed in raising and soft brake style. In a
simulation, various disturbances were given but variation in
braking torque was same. Formalize value for rising brake was
0.85 and 0.15 for soft brake. The proposed H2/H’ controller
remains stable over indistinctness and therefore give the good
performance. The Driving range is enhanced by at the
minimum 18%.
Z. Yi, X. Li, S. Hexu and D. Yan [19] proposed iterative
learning control (ILC) method for Switch reluctance motor.
Without ILC switch reluctance motor produces torque ripples
in the shape of ‘M’, because of inverter switching to the
windings and changing inductances of motor. Torque sharing
function makes actual current follow based on iterative
learning control due to which ripple at edge points are softened,
ultimately reducing torque ripples.
Simulation results of hybrid fuzzy PI controller are
compared by B. N. Commula and V. R. Kota [17] with results
of fuzzy controller and PI controller. The hybrid fuzzy
controller gives high dynamic response. When the load of 10
Nm is suddenly applied at 0.2 seconds then hybrid fuzzy take
0.008 seconds for settling time and steady state error of 5 rpm.
While fuzzy controller takes 0.009 seconds for settling time
and has steady state error of 20 rpm which is huge compared to
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hybrid fuzzy controller. Furthermore, torque ripple components
in hybrid fuzzy controller are lesser than PI controller and FLC.
An electric vehicle consists of many control units cooperation
between vehicle control unit, motor control unit and battery
management system by time triggered Control area network
was proposed by Y. Ma et. al. [22]. PI and sliding mode
controller are compared at 200 rpm speed. Both give nearly
same results, however, torque ripple in sliding mode controller
are less. In PI controller torque varies 1 Nm while in sliding
mode controller it varies only 0.5 Nm, Rise time for both
controllers is 100ms. Driving range increases by 7% compared
to PI controller, one charge driving distance range of vehicle
was 50 km but with regenerative braking, by sliding mode
controller it increases by 12% [4]. Sliding mode control and
iterative learning method are robust to parameter variation.
However, in reality, there are various disturbances. Such as
according to road, weather, tire adhesion with wheel, changes
hence slip ratio also changes. Fully electrified regenerative
braking system (FE-RBS) by Guoqing Xu et. al. [23] provides
a solution of optimal braking effect by calculating maximum
friction force required. Deceleration of vehicle by FE-RBS is
totally based on electric braking. The vast use of Energy
Storage system (ESS) and Hybrid Energy Storage system
(HESS) makes FE-RBS system applicable. HESS includes
batteries and Super-Capacitor, while the network for it is
complex. The bandwidth of electric motor is much higher than
conventional mechanical brake system. Dynamics of vehicle
becomes fast with FE-RBS. The only use of electric motors as
braking actuators help to recover maximum kinetic energy
during braking operation [23]. Fully electrical braking has
limitations of braking torque, as motors are unable to generate
same fast torque as compared to hydraulic brake [24]. To
overcome this challenge C. D. Xu and K. W. E. Cheng [25]
proposes All-electric intelligent antilock braking controller, as
hybrid antilock braking system consisting of hydraulics and
electric braking, reduces the performance.
IV. DISCUSSION
Various control techniques and controller stated above are
used for various motors like DC motor, BLDC motor, PMSM
motor and switch reluctance motor. However, due to low-cost
application requirement, most application use microcontroller
or digital signal processor having minimum word length. This
leads to computational error, as each result need to be truncated
to fit in word length. The error can propagate and accumulate
in control algorithms which lead to deviation from desired
current and voltage waveforms. Moreover, position sensors
used have low resolution and current sensors have offset and
gain mismatch. Amplitude Modulation ratio, frequency
modulation ratio and dead time are the parameters which affect
power output efficiency of a controller and bring harmonics in
the system. By selective harmonic elimination method
harmonics can be reduced even time shifting of the controller
can be done according to the motor position. If Amplitude
Modulation ratio is greater than 1 that means more harmonics
in the system but it gives more power for same input voltage
and needs lesser switching [21].
Controller selection for particular motor depends on the
requirements and challenges like torque ripple, efficiency
improvement, quick dynamic and steady state response and
robustness from parameter perturbation. Among various
controller, Fuzzy logic controller (FLC) does not take
mathematics accurately, it includes human brilliance and is also
less sensitive but give poor steady state response while PI
controller is able to give good steady state response. Whereas
PI controller cannot give quick step response so fuzzy logic
controller is used for quick response [17]. Designing of fuzzy
logic controller requires prior knowledge or one need to be an
expert. Hence new research for optimizing dynamic fuzzy
control with genetic algorithm has started. The coefficient of
error, error changing rate, an output of control, and integral
these parameters of fuzzy controller and PID controller are
optimized by the genetic algorithm, it works step by step and
improves the performance of the controller. Iterative learning
control depends on past history. In iterative learning control
controller learns from previously done mistakes while it
ensures not repeating the same mistakes to reach the desired
target. Artificial neural network control is difficult to design
and has a complex structure. Artificial neural fuzzy interface
system (ANFIS) combination of ANN and fuzzy, helps to
improve stability. It has state of charge, speed and braking
force as input parameters [15].
Regenerative braking harvest maximum amount of energy
when the motor is at high speed because back emf is high at
high speed and as motor decelerates that time back emf is less,
which is insufficient to charge the battery. Therefore buck-
boost converter is required or hybrid energy storage system
consisting of battery and super-capacitor is employed. Hybrid
energy storage system includes capacitor and battery,
controlled by battery management unit. To achieve maximum
regeneration super capacitors are used to store harvested
energy from braking operation this charge capacitors are used
at the time of acceleration when motors demand high input
current. Regenerative braking recharges capacitor whereas
battery voltage remains constant. However, care should be
taken for designing inverter switches because if capacitor
voltage drops to half or one-third then current absorbed will be
twice or thrice [12]. Nowadays to reduce cost and complex
structure of hybrid braking system regenerative braking
controller which eliminate the need for buck-boost converter
and capacitor are developed.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, various braking techniques are studied. Single
use of conventional mechanical braking system is avoided and
fully electrified regenerative braking system is quite effective
and possesses vast future scope. However, Hybrid Braking
System is much more evolved and ensure safety and comfort.
Regenerative braking increases driving range of the vehicle,
reduce risk and benefits optimum use of a battery. Braking
action is controlled by various controllers listed in this paper.
Fuzzy logic control is used in combination with various control
methods and optimization algorithm to improve response time
and ultimately making controller independent of parameter
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variation. Advance braking control algorithm, Hybrid Fuzzy
logic, Neuro-fuzzy, Artificial neural network ensures high
efficiency and maximum energy recovery, supported by
advanced electronics methods, Energy storage system and
hybrid energy storage system. Cost effective and less torque
ripple inducing controllers are more important and are realized
by using fast computing digital processors.
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