A.

Remote sensing in geologic surveys

Applications
Introduction: Aerial photographs and satellite image provide a wealth of details of large areas of the
Earth surface(synoptic view) as a permanent one time record. This permits the evaluation
operational geological structures and their trends to adventage. Possibility of repeat or sequential
coverages is an added advantage since it provides score for geological interpretation via temporally
wearing land features/ land patterns. There is also a possibility of i'm studying any area in the lab
repeatedly as and when required. Inaccessible Terrain can be surveyed fairly. Important travis' can
be planned after Terrain analysis using Visual interpretation of remotely sensed data, reducing
groundwork invariably. Visual interpretation used in conjunction with field checks permits the
combining of the data derived both from the" image interpretation" and the ground truth onto a
map, thus providing for better, updated maps. Does Remote Sensing methods permits natural
resource surveys to be carried out with better results, in a certain time, and more economically than
is possible with conventional ground service only.

Different reflectance properties of terrain objects produce wearing Donald expressions on remotely
recorded photograph and images. This, together with other interpretative elements such as shape,
size, drainage patterns, texture, landforms etc. Enables an experienced photo geologist and Remote
Sensing specialist to distinguish different lithological units and structural features from the remotely
sensed data. Investigations range in score from reconnaissance surveys to details studies
incorporating field investigation added by visual interpretation, using suitable skills of air
photos(A.P.Us) add image in different multispectral bands are required.

Stereoscopic pairs of vertical aerial photographs(colour, black and white and infrared, oblique air
photos, aerial mosaics single and stereoscopic Terrestrial photographs, multiband photographs, and
satellite(MMS) imagery etc. Or all of value in different aspects of geologic studies. Visual
interpretation of thermal infrared and Radar imagery provide additional information. Does the
dynamic range for interpretation is now much extended. Here reference is being made to visual
mode of interpretation of remotely sensed data. For some special purposes of study another mode
of data analysis refer to the Computer aided digital analysis techniques.

A. Visual interpretation

General considerationS: Interpretation may be broadly termed as the indirect prediction of terrain
features buy a,nd process deductive and inductive reasoning(inferencing) involving observation,
identification and daily nation of features on photographs and satellite image added by ground
truth, and extending the clues to interpreted possibilities in contiguous areas.

The geological interpretation of image and photographs is primarily based on the qualitative use of
the" recognition elements" for visual interpretation, namely:
a) photographic elements- like tone, texture, shape , pattern etc. And

b) Terrain parameters - such as landforms, drainage patterns, soil , land use and land cover as well
as vegetational conditions, erosion etc. - to arrive at proper identification of Rock types and
structures.

The types of data interpretation from the space images, and ur photos pertain to:

a) spectral data- grey tone, colour, false colour, infrared etc.

b) spatial data- search landforms, shape , size, drainage layout.

c) temporal data- tata Power given area at different times and seasons.

Interpreter is developed as a rational extension of" photo reading " of obvious features, followed by
judicious photo analysis using 'analogic keys' best on correlation between photo elements and their
and parameters for a given geology condition in a given to environmental setting. Analogic is must
be carefully developed and used for a particular terrain type. It may be mentioned here there's a lot
of nature is complex and nonuniform; hence analysis of terrain and features should be carried out
logically and continuously. Rational processing of observational data will yield more meaningful
results of interpretation. For example, an interpreter may recognise vegetation zoning and interpret
.it as marking a geological contact or a fault zone without a knowledge of plant ecology. However,
knowledge of plant Ecology permitting a rational interpretation by it allows other inference that the
Rock of soil below it is likely to be permeable- does revealing the physical and hydrologic characters
of the rock or soil. Following "Photo reading" and' interpretation' which also involves a knowledge
of the' association of features' for a given terrain type and the convergence of evidence principle.

The combined use of vegetation, soils, geologic features and Association of the terrain features to
interpret geology is an example of what has been termed as the 'convergence of evidence principle'
by ColWell. For proper interpretation, basic knowledge of geology and field conditions is necessary
skeleton cut line on geology concepts will be dealt with during lecture. It may be mentioned here
that photo geologic interpretation is only a valuable adding tool for adequate ground surveys and
not a substitute for Field Serveys .

In photo interpretation, a system approach(what must be done) and proper methodology(how to do

it) have to be employed

A biased (rigid) view should be avoided.

Type of decisions to be made in interpret

1. Decide about the categories to be detected

2. Decide about the identity of each category.

Two main types of errors are possible in interpretation:-

Type 1 error: To reject 'A' when in fact it is an 'A'.(wrong rejection)

Type 2 error: To accept 'A' when in fact it is false.(wrong assignment)

Photo geology deals with the study and interpretation of aerial photographs and image for
preparing geologic maps. Zoological map can usually provided the following information:-

i) distribution of the rock types and mythological groups in the area. As cannot be determined from
photographs alone, unless prior preference is available about them.

ii) an indication of the dips of the streta, which are classified as gentle, moderate and Steep. After
some practice for geologist can estimate the actual amount of the fairly accurately.

iii) continuity of beds, layers complexes, truncations turns, plunges and interpretations of features
followed on the photographs.

iv) faults and unconformities can also be picked on aerial photographs with fair certainity. Faults are
much more easily picked up on image and photographs then from ground serveys , sometimes not
always, it is also possible to give there throw and character.

v) Continuity of land surfaces, such as terraces, alluvial deposits; marriage at Sector and their
boundaries, and the material (course send or gravel Loess , silt or clay etc.) composition.

vi) outline of the drainage system, which throws much light on the lithology and structure of the
area .

vii) location of areas of Shallow or variable overeburden.

viii) delineation of well drained, imperfectly drained and waterlogged areas.

ix) location of side Hill cybage, Springs, old and active landslide areas, areas of high salinity.

x) nature of vegetation, , and land use.

xi) a photo geologic map should also show culture features, such as roads towns cultivated fields,
trig-points etc.

These are of great use for orientation purposes.

It is worthwhile to mention here 2 points of importance in photo zoological studies:-

i) photo geology is no alternative to field geology but the two are complementary.

ii) it is not necessary that every interpretation on photographs has to be checked before uploading
them on the map full stop filled cheque is done over selected critical sections, which help in
understanding the the expression of lithology on photographs, d stratigraphy, dip measurements
and Critical structural sections.

Techniques of visual interpretation in Geology

The geological interpretation of photographs and satellite images is best primarily on the qualitative
use of fundamental recognition elements. These are:

1. Photographic or pictorial elements, example :tonal contrast in photos and images.

2. Geotechnical elements or terrain parameters, example: landforms.

3. Associated features and convergence of evidence combined uses of above elements the end
feature recognition, and an understanding of the terrain type being studied as well as the features
associated with such a terrain.

Scale and vertical execration in a photo stereo-pairs are also significant factors, add in dip
estimation, execrate minor topic sage which may reflect underlying geology structure. The
exaggeration of relief in stereoscopic model of 1 in 20000 taken with at 10 cm. Focal length lens is
such that a geologist is able to differentiate elevation differences of 30cm. For Regional lineament
trace analysis for tectonics the very small scale satellite images are very useful.

The amount of geological information that can be gathered from photographs and images also
depends on the type of train(sedimentary rocks give maximum information and Metamorphic
Terrain the least) and climatic environment. In dry climates exposes are much more plentiful than in
tropical conditions, it is easy to identify Rock types and carry out mapping in such areas.

1. Photo graphics/ image elements:

These are:- a) tone b) texture c) shape and orientation

d) size e) pattern f) relationship or Association

Tone: The term designates the amount of light reflected by the objects and consist of recognition of
the different grade terms as recorded in photographs/ images, such as:

a) dark tone: Subsurface, impervious soil or high groundwater table, dense vegetation, moist Shales,
water body, basic rocks.

b) light tone: Smooth surface, and conditions, snow or ice, acid igneous rocks.

c) mottled tone: Lithological or porosity changes.

d) banded tone : Interbedded rocks of different couration.

Stone will also depend on slope orientation with respect to Sun angle at a time recording of
reflected energy. Slopes which are in Shadow appeared around where the sunlight slopes appear in
brighter tones.

Texture: The texture of a photographic image is the frequency of tone change within the image,
produced by an aggregate of unit features too small to be clearly discrenible individually on the
photographs. It is a function of photographic scale.

The textures are described as fine, course, mottled, blocky, rough, smooth etc.

Pattern: The pattern is an important recognition element. It represents orderly, arrangement of

geological, pic and vegetation features on the photographs and images which may lead to their
identification. Patterns may be Man made or natural. Patterns can be linear, curvilinear, regular,
banded vegetation pattern, blocky vegetation patches etc.

Shape: The shape of an object such as building, volcano, a dike etc. May readily identify the object.
Man-made shapes are easily identified, natural forms are at times difficult to recognise. Sand dunes,
river terraces Alluvial fans coma strike ridges are readily recognisable on synoptic views.

Size: The size of an object can sometimes be identified by relating it to non objects on the
photograph or by studying the Shadows cast by the object. Shape and size at times are very useful in
identifying train features, example sinkhole, trees, lakes etc.

The relationship of the object to other objects on the photograph main assist in identification
example dams, other cultural or natural objects, ridges man made or natural etc. kattle holes
represent glacial terrain, linear features- faults, dykes etc.
2. Geotechnical elements or train parameters

After the preliminary examination of the images and photographs they are analysed from
geotechnical point of view which needs the study of the following features:-

a) landforms b) drainage patterns and density c) land use, vegetation

d) vegetation cover e) erosion patterns f) structural grain.

A) landforms:

Permit the identification of soils and their parent material, send karst topography suggest presence
of limestone, with Ridge and Valley scarp land forms indicate hard and soft dipping sedimentary
rocks, presence of terraces beaches,Moraines etc. All help in obtaining information about train
conditions from the photographs and images. Especially useful in covered or forested areas.

The slope gradient in the vicinity of streams, slopes tend to be higher or eroded by accelerated
runoff may..............