Groundwater Quality Mapping in Afar Region

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
GROUDNWATER QUALITY MAPPING USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEM (GIS)
A Case of Awash Fentale and Amibara Districts of Afar Region Ethiopia
A PROJECT WORK PROPOSAL IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
MAJOR IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
By
Frehiwot Derbe (ID No: GSE/0137/07)
March, 2019
GROUDNWATER QUALITY MAPPING USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM GIS)
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
GROUDNWATER QUALITY MAPPING USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEM (GIS)
A Case of Awash Fentale and Amibara Districts of Afar Region Ethiopia
A PROJECT WORK IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING
MAJOR IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
By
Frehiwot Derbe
March, 2019
Page 2
Approval Page
Submitted by:
Frehiwot Derbe ___________ _________________
(Student name) (Signature) (Date)
Dr. Yenesew Mengstie ___________ _________________
(Advisor) (Signature) (Date)
_________________________ ___________ _________________
Examiner (Signature) (Date)
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ABSTRACT
Groundwater is one of the most important natural resources. Mapping of spatial variability of
groundwater quality is vital importance and it is particularly significant where groundwater is
primary source of potable water. The aim of this research will be to provide an overview of the
groundwater quality spatial distribution over the districts of Afar Region in Awash Fentale, and
Amibara. GIS, a tool which is used for storing, analyzing and displaying spatial data is also used
for investigating ground water quality information. For this study, water samples will be collected
from existing bore wells and open wells representing the entire study area. The water samples will
analyze for physico-chemical parameters like Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Chloride and Nitrate
using standard techniques in the laboratory and compared with the standards. The ground water
quality information maps of the entire study area will be prepared using GIS spatial interpolation
technique for all the above parameters. The results obtained in this study and the spatial database
established in GIS will be helpful for monitoring and managing ground water pollution in the study
area. Mapping was coded for potable zones, in the absence of better alternate source and non-
potable zones in the study area, in terms of water quality.
Key words: Physico-chemical parameters, spatial interpolation, groundwater quality
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ACKNOWLEGMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Yenesew Mengstie for her guidance and
endless support throughout this study, for her encouraging, valuable feedback and insight that have
greatly influenced and accelerated this study. I would like to extend my great appreciations to all
Geography and environmental studies program lecturer and supporting staff in the Addis Ababa
University.
My special thanks also goes to my families for their valuable moral and financial support,
encouragement, discussions and helping me to accomplish this thesis work. Additionally
My deep thank to Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority (AAWSA) project office and for
the Ministry of Water and energy, Afar region and Awash Femtale and Amibara woredas of water
office that providing me valuable data used for myy.
Finally, I appreciate all my family and friends, whom I did not mention their name here, for their
Support, encouragement and care.
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LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1: Map of the study area 26
Figure 2: Data collection frame work 28
Figure 3: Histogram and QQ plot of Nitrate and TDS respectively 29
Figure 4: Histogram and QQ plot of Chloride and Hardness 29
Figure 5: Prediction map of Nitrate on the study area 38
Figure 6: Prediction map of TDS distribution on the study area 40
Figure 7: Prediction map of hardness on the study area 42
Figure 8: Prediction map of chloride on the study area 44
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1: Sources of Chemical Contamination 17
Table 2: Drinking Water Quality Standards of Ethiopia and WHO 24
Table 3: Cross validation results for ordinary kriging 31
Table 4: Ethiopian standards weight (WI) and Calculated relative weight (Wi) e 35
Table 5: Statistical evaluation of groundwater quality parameters 42
Table 6: Rating value for nitrate concentration 49
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
a.m.s.l above mean sea level
ASR Average standard error
BGS British Geological Survey
CAWST Center for Affordable water and sanitation Technology
CGWB Central Ground Water Board
ESRI Environmental system and research institute
GIS Geographical information system
GVM Groundwater Vulnerability Mapping
i.e That is
ME Mean error
MSE Mean square error
QQ plots the quintile quintile plot

RMSE Root mean error
RMSSE Root mean square standardized error
TDS Total dissolved solids
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme’s
UNESCO United Nation Educational Science and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WHO World health organization
WQI Water quality index
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Contents
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................. 4
ACKNOWLEGMENT ................................................................................................................................. 5
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................ 6
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 10
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.1. Background ................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2. Statement of the problem ............................................................................................................ 12
1.3. Objective of the study ................................................................................................................ 13
1.3.1. General Objective of the study............................................................................................ 13
1.3.2. Specific objective of the study ............................................................................................ 14
1.4. Significance of the study ............................................................................................................. 14
1.5. Scope of the study ....................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 15
2. LITRATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................... 15
2.1. Groundwater Quality .................................................................................................................. 15
2.2. Surface Water quality.................................................................................................................. 16
2.3. Groundwater quality and source of pollution.............................................................................. 16
2.4. Groundwater Quality of Ethiopia ................................................................................................ 18
2.5. Groundwater Vulnerability mapping .......................................................................................... 19
2.6. Statistical Methods of Modeling for ground water mapping ...................................................... 19
2.6.2. Spline Method ..................................................................................................................... 21
2.6.3. Inverse Distance Weighted ................................................................................................. 21
2.7. Geo statistical Methods in water quality analysis ....................................................................... 21
2.8. Spatial Distribution of Groundwater quality ............................................................................... 21
2.8.1. Chloride(Cl) ........................................................................................................................ 22
2.8.2. Nitrate(No3)......................................................................................................................... 22
2.8.3. Total Dissolved solid(TDS) ................................................................................................ 23
2.8.4. Total Hardness(TH) ............................................................................................................ 23
2.9. Guide line for water quality parameters ...................................................................................... 24
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CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 24

3. RESEARCH METHEDOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 27
3.1. Geographic Location of the study area ....................................................................................... 27
3.2. Data Collection Methods ............................................................................................................ 29
3.3. Preparation of well Location Point Feature ................................................................................ 29
3.4. Kriging interpolation Techniques ............................................................................................... 29
3.5. Examining the distribution of the data ........................................................................................ 30
3.6. Log transformation...................................................................................................................... 32
3.7. Semivariogram models ............................................................................................................... 32
3.8. Procedures to generate water quality index (WQI) ..................................................................... 32
3.9. Inverse distance weighting(IDW) ............................................................................................... 34
3.10. Research Procedure ................................................................................................................. 34
3.11. Data Analysis Methods ........................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 37
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 37
4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 37
4.2. Spatial Distribution of Groundwater quality ............................................................................... 37
4.3. Nitrate ......................................................................................................................................... 37
4.4. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ..................................................................................................... 39
4.5. Total Hardness ............................................................................................................................ 40
4.6. Chloride....................................................................................................................................... 43
4.7. Water quality index (WQI) ......................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 46
5. CONCLUSION AND RECCOMONDATION .................................................................................. 46
5.1. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 46
5.2. Recommendation ........................................................................................................................ 46
REFRENCE ................................................................................................................................................ 48
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CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.Background
Water is needed in all aspects of life. Water obtained from rivers, lakes, springs and wells has been
used for drinking, washing, agriculture, and manufacturing. Most of the Earth’s liquid freshwater
is found, not in lakes and rivers, but is stored underground in aquifers (UNEP, 2003). So
groundwater is one of earth’s most vital renewable and widely distributed resources as well as an
important source of water supply throughout the world (Khadri et al, 2013). At least two billion
people around the world rely on ground water as their only source of drinking water (UNEP, 2003).
Where surface water is absent, the supply of good quality ground water is essential for the health
and development of nations. The quality of water is a vital concern for mankind since it is directly
linked with human welfare. The issues of groundwater use and quality have until recently received
far less consideration than surface water, and data on groundwater stocks and flows are even less
reliable. The world health organization has repeatedly insisted that the single major factor
adversely influencing the general health and life expectancy of a population in many countries of
the developing world is the access of clean drinking water. Water quality problems can often be
as severe as those of water availability but less attention has been paid to them, particularly in
developing regions (UNEP, 2003). Ground water pollution is a global issue. It is vulnerable to a
variety of threats, including overuse and contamination. Ethiopia is also facing the problem of
water quality degradation (Tamiru, 2006). However, the extent and degree of severity of water
pollution is more prominent in major cities of Ethiopia. Natural surface water bodies often have
impurities from various sources. The impurities may be suspended particles, colloidal materials
and may also be dissolved cationic and anionic substances. Various natural and human activities,
like industrial, domestic, agricultural activities and others create water pollution particularly in
surface and ground water system (Gardiner and Mance, 1984). The rapid growth of urban areas
has further affected groundwater quality due to overexploitation of resources and improper waste
disposal practices. Landfills and other solid wastes disposal sites are major targets of pollution
because rainfall and ground water leach these highly contaminated substances into rivers and
streams which are in advertently used by people residing in such areas (Asnoye et al., 2007). Water
is vital to our existence in life and its importance in our daily life makes it imperative that thorough
microbiological and physicochemical examinations be conducted on water.
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Increasing population density, scarcity and pollution of water pose a serious problem for drinking
water supplies in Ethiopia, especially in the Afar region. It is often assumed that natural,
uncontaminated water sources from deep (bedrock) wells are clean and healthy. This is usually
true with regards to bacteriological composition. Due to variations in the regional geology and
watery rock interactions, high concentrations of many chemical elements can occur in such water
bodies. Few data exist on the general state of groundwater quality across Ethiopia. After many
years of use of drinking water from drilled wells in the Rift Valley, Ethiopia, dental and skeletal
fluorosis has become a serious medical problem (Tamiru Alemayehu. 2004; Kloos and Tekle-
Haimanot, 1999). High values of fluoride and/or total dissolved salts in groundwater from the Rift
Valley were reported as early as 2003 (Elsevier Science B.V., 2003). The Rift Valley is one of few
active rifts on the Earth’s land area. Rocks in the Rift Valley are mostly young volcanic rocks. An
abundance of thermal springs indicates the ongoing volcanic activity in the area. Thus, it appeared
to be advisable to have Rift Valley drinking water quality in addition to fluoride characterized for
as many chemical elements as possible.
The Afar region, especially in the areas where Awash river is crossing through; dental and bone
fluorisis, salinity and other water born diseases are the main problems of the people.(from
interview). (Gebreyesus, January 2013). The main sources of water for rural communities are
boreholes, covered/protected and open/unprotected shallow wells, gravity-fed piped systems,
springs, lakes and rivers. The pastoralists use Awash river for drinking, washing and swimming
purposes. No water treatment is used throughout the region except Awash-Fentalle town. The
largest commercial farms in the country are present downstream of the Koka dam irrigated by the
regulated flow of the Awash river which drains through the rift starting from the central highlands
through the northern part of the MER (the Main Ethiopian Rift) and finally crossing Tendaho sugar
project ending in lake Abhe at the border with Djibouti (Afambo Woreda). Application of
agrochemicals, fertilizers and over-irrigation has also slightly changed the water and soil
chemistry. Many industries, agro industries and irrigational activities are located along the Upper,
Middle and Lower Valley of this river. In Lower Awash, the quality of the Awash river and the
ground water around it is not yet known.
In groundwater studies, GIS is commonly used for site suitability analyses, managing site
inventory data, estimation of groundwater vulnerability to contamination, groundwater flow
modeling, modeling solute transport and leaching, and integrating groundwater quality assessment
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models with spatial data to create spatial decision support systems (Balakrishnan P. S., 2011).
Therefore it is suggested that the use of GIS techniques is vital in testing and improving the
groundwater contamination risk assessment methods. For any city, a ground water quality map is
important to evaluate the water safeness for drinking and irrigation purposes and also as a
preventive indication of potential environmental health problems.
The groundwater quality is equally important as that of quantity. Mapping of spatial variability of
groundwater quality is of vital importance and it is particularly significant where groundwater is
primary source of potable water. Considering the above aspects of groundwater contamination and
use of GIS in groundwater quality mapping, this study demonstrates to map the groundwater
quality in Awash Fentale and Amibara districts of Afar region of Ethiopia.
1.2.Statement of the problem
Safe water is a precondition for health and development and a basic human right, yet it is still
denied to hundreds of millions of people throughout the developing world (UNICEF, 2008).Water
quality degradation is one of the major environmental problems of these days. Contamination of
surface and groundwater is the most serious problems affecting the health of the population. Many
major cities in Africa use groundwater for different purpose (UNEP, 2005). Rapid urbanization in
most of these cities has led to unprecedented population growth, resulting in the development of
large areas of unplanned and sub-standard housing. The lack of services in such informal
settlements poses serious threats to groundwater through sewerage and effluent leakages, the
dumping of domestic waste, and uncontrolled industrial and commercial activities. As many of
these settlements rely on groundwater as their main source of potable water, such pollution poses
major health risks to a large proportion of their population (UNEP, 2005). Water related diseases
caused by insufficient safe water supplies coupled with poor sanitation and hygiene cause 3.4
million deaths a year, mostly among children (UNICEF, 2008).Despite continuing efforts by
governments, civil society and the international community, over a
billion people still do not have access to improved water sources (UNICEF, 2008).In developing
countries sources of pollution from domestic, agricultural, industrial activities are unregulated
(UNEP, 2005). Likewise in Addis Ababa, where there is no as such environmental protection
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practice there are a number of pollutant sources that continuously deteriorate the quality of surface
and ground water (Tamru, 2004).
The issue of ground water pollution has not been considered as a major problem in Ethiopia until
recent times (Ketema, 2009). However, currently there is an ever increasing demand for
application of fertilizers and pesticides to enhance food production. At the same time there is
expansion of settlements and industries in most cases happens without the proper installation of
sewer and drainage systems and poor practices of waste disposal management. So these practices
polluted the ground water of Addis Ababa (Ketema, 2009). Shallow groundwater of some urban
areas contains high nitrates content, up to 300 to 950 mg/L. In Addis Ababa and its surrounding
areas, groundwater resources have been investigated in terms of potential, flow models, water
quality assessment and vulnerability by different researchers. For instance Girma Hailu (2011)
studies assessment of the status of nitrate pollution in selected water sources in Addis Ababa,
ShilimaAbebe (2011) conduct on Ground water quality problems in summit-Bole and Kotebe area.
However, the scopes of these studies have been limited, because, Girma studied only the nitrate
spatial distribution of Addis Ababa city. Shilma also studied ground water quality problems, but
his boundary is focused only the summit bole and yekakotebe part of Addis Ababa Gebreyesus
Abadi also studied Chemical and microbiological analysis in Dupti, Amibara and Awash Fentale
but not mapped by GIS. In terms of ground water quality mapping using GIS there is no full
documented work that incorporates all parameters (such as the distribution of chloride, TDS and
NO3,) set by WHO for the whole part of the study area. According to Negash (2011) in Ethiopia
there is capacity problem for water resource management to deploy modern technology such as
analytical capacity, remote sensing and GIS, contract management, negotiation skills,
standardization etc. Cannata (2006) recommended that GIS is a very powerful and promising tool
in water resource assessment and management, because of its advantages of data collection,
storage, management, analysis, format conversion, and display.
1.3.Objective of the study
1.3.1. General Objective of the study
The main objective of the research work is to develop a groundwater quality assessment mapping
approach using GIS, based on the available physico-chemical data from wells location in Awash
Fentale and Amibara districts of Afar Region, Ethiopia.
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1.3.2. Specific objective of the study

1.3.2.1.To provide an overview of present groundwater quality
1.3.2.2.To determine spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters such as TDS,
NO3-, and Cl-,
1.3.2.3.To generate groundwater quality zone map for the Awash Fentale and Amibara
districts of Afar region.
1.4.Significance of the study
Ethiopia in general uses groundwater for domestic purposes at large. The output of the intrinsic
vulnerability and hazard maps are simplified forms of maps, which can be easily understood even
by non-professionals. The degree of spatial distribution different Physico- Chemicals in the ground
water of the study area will be presented with different color legends. This will helps to understand
and implement by the local authorities and land planners easily. They represent an important
preliminary tool in decision making pertaining to the management of groundwater quality.
Generally, the maps are practical tools which can help as a road map towards the sustainable use
and management of the groundwater quality in the study area.
1.5.Scope & limitation of the study
Describing the overall water quality condition is difficult due to the spatial variability of multiple
contaminants and the wide range of indicators that can be measured. So this study will show four
parameters (Nitrate, TDS, TH and Chloride) distribution. Because of the data is not available, the
spatial temporal variation of water quality map is not addressed in this research.
There were limitations or challenges faced to the researcher to accomplish this research finding.
Some of the challenges were:
1. There was no enough water quality data on Addis Ababa bore holes (both during dry and rainy
seasons). In general, there is no Sufficient and reliable data which enable to make necessary
analysis.
2. Lack of completeness: some water and waste water sampling and testing programmes have been
done by AAWSA only on very limited parameters leaving the rest known.
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CHAPTER TWO
2. LITRATURE REVIEW
2.1.Groundwater Quality
Ground water is resource found under the land surface in the saturated zone. It constitutes about95
percent of the freshwater on our planet (discounting that locked in the polar ice caps) (UNEP,
2003). Most of the Earth’s liquid freshwater is found, not in lakes and rivers, but stored
underground in aquifers. These aquifers provide a valuable base flow supplying water to rivers
during periods of no rainfall. Therefore it is an essential resource that requires protection. Even
though there is few data exist for the general state of groundwater quality across Ethiopia, but from
those available, the quality is shown to be highly variable, ranging from fresh waters in many of
the springs to more saline waters in parts of the Rift valleys (BGS, 2001). The groundwater quality
of Ethiopia is both anthropogenically and naturally affected (Tamru, 2006). The main quality
controls (Tamru, 2006) are: Geomorphologic and geographical conditions, Climate, Geology
(geological structures, rock composition, weathering, magmatic, geothermal activities,),
physicochemical factors (temperature, pressure, chemical properties of elements, solubility of
chemical compounds, pH, etc.), Biological factors (effects of micro-organisms, plants and
animals) and anthropogenic influences. Most of the accessible published information is for water
quality within the Rift valley regions. Abnormally high concentrations of fluoride and total
dissolved salts. Fluoride is a recognized major problem, especially for the communities living
within the Rift. In the south, southeast and northeastern parts of the country, there is high salinity
content in ground water (BGS, 2001). From this, it is evident that groundwater in the Rift zone is
influenced by geothermal waters with abnormally high concentrations of fluoride and total
content in ground water (BGS, 2001). Several contaminants have been known for years to be
harmful to human, animal health and plant life (Emeric, 1974). The very common source of
contamination to wells is surface water runoff into shallow, poorly ceased wells, direct disposal of
industrial wastes and agricultural drain water to rivers. Nitrates and nitrites are soluble and if added
to the soil may move to the ground. In most cases higher level of toxicity effect of nitrite is more
pronounced than nitrate (FAO, 1988).
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2.2.Surface Water quality
Direct contamination of surface water with metals in discharges from mining, smelting and
industrial manufacturing, is a long-standing phenomenon. Today there is trace contamination not
only of surface water but also of groundwater bodies, which are susceptible to leaching from waste
dumps, mine tailings and industrial production sites (Daniel et al., 1998). Several human activities
in Ethiopia that may result to water pollution include agriculture, irrigation, urbanization, mining
and industrialization. Some of these activities have been documented to have impacted negatively
some specific Ethiopian surface waters especially in the middle Awash River basin (Girma
Tadesse, 2010). Also, some of these activities have affected rivers and streams in the upper part of
the basin. Several similar studies were conducted in Addis Ababa (Tamiru Alemayehu, 2004;
Fiseha Itanna, 2002). One of the most developed River Basins in Ethiopia is the Awash River
Basin. Disposal of industrial wastes and agricultural drain waters from salty agricultural lands to
Awash River is great environmental concern. Availability of good quality water in Middle Awash
Valley due to rapid population growth, irrigations and agro-industries has created great concern
on water quality (Girma Tadesse, 2010). Good quality water is very important for general
farmstead use, drinking, cooling, cleaning agricultural products, washing and processing
equipment (EPA, 2002; FAO, 1975; FAO, 1979a). Typically, in Middle Awash evapo-
transpiration greatly exceeds mean annual rainfall that leads to the accumulation of salts on surface
soil from the ground water. Drainage in Middle Awash has been a continuing problem ever since
irrigation became widely practiced (Abegaz et al., 1992; Taddese and Eticha, 1992). The rising
concentration of salt and toxic elements in the drainage waters from irrigated lands is a common
awareness in middle Awash (Girma and Misganaw, 1991). The Awash River, which flows from
central highlands through Ethiopia's major industrial and agro-industrial belt, taking in a whole
burden of all types of raw effluent stands as one of Ethiopia's river streams in urban areas of
developed rivers (Tesfamariam 1989).
2.3.Groundwater quality and source of pollution
Groundwater quality is a hidden issue inside a hidden resource, and as a result far too little attention
is given to it. Once groundwater has become polluted, it is usually a very long, complex and
expensive task to restore the water quality. For these reasons that monitoring, prevention and
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remediation of groundwater pollution is a vital management issue (UNEP, 2003).The quality of

water either it is surface water or ground water affected by both natural influences and human
activities (Chilton, 1996). Similarly (CAWST, 2013) stated that while water contains natural
contaminants, it is becoming more and more polluted by human activities such as, inadequate
wastewater management, dumping of garbage, poor agricultural practices, and chemical spills at
industrial sites. Even though water may be clear, it does not necessarily mean that it is safe for us
to drink. It is important to judge the safety of water by taking the following three types of
parameters into consideration (CAWST, 2013).
 Microbiological_ bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminthes (worms)
 Chemical _ minerals, metals, chemicals and pH
 Physical _ temperature, color, smell, taste and turbidity
The World Health Organization WHO (2011) divides the sources of chemicals into the following
five groups.
1. Naturally occurring
2. Agricultural activities
3. Industrial sources and human dwellings
4. Water treatment
5. Pesticides used in water for public Health
Table 1: Sources of Chemical Contamination (source WHO, 2011)
Source of Chemicals Examples Common Chemicals

Examples Common
Chemicals
Naturally occurring Rocks and soils Arsenic, chromium, fluoride, iron,
manganese, sodium, sulfate,
uranium
Agricultural activities Manure, fertilizer, intensive Ammonia, nitrate, nitrite
animal
practices, pesticides
Industrial sources and Mining, manufacturing and Nitrate, ammonia, cadmium,
human processing industries, sewage cyanide, copper, lead,
dwellings solid nickel,mercury
waste, urban runoff, fuel
leakages
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Water treatment Water treatment chemicals, Aluminium, chlorine, iodine, silver

piping
materials
Pesticides used in Larvicides used to control Organophosphorus compounds
water for insect (e.g., chlorpyrifos, diazinon,
public vectors of disease malathion) and carbamates (e.g.,
Health aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran,
oxamyl)
Water Pollution is a global problem. It occurred when humans began to farm the land and settle in
villages and towns many thousands of years ago (UNEP, 2003). There are numerous sources of
pollutants that could deteriorate the quality of water resources. In developing countries sources of
pollution from domestic, agricultural, industrial activities are unregulated (Tamru etal, 2003).
Nowadays the modern concept of agriculture is being utilized everywhere. This includes the usage
of the many chemical pesticides and fertilizers. The crop yield is surely increased by it, but when
these pesticides and fertilizers get incorporated in the water bodies through irrigation, rainfall, and
drainage can cause water pollution. Primarily they destroy the aquatic life (Andrew and Julie,
1996). Many causes of pollution including sewage and fertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrates
and phosphates. In excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae.
Excessive growth of these types of organisms consequently clogs our waterways, use up dissolved
oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper water (Drever, 1997). This, in turn, proves
very harmful to aquatic organisms as it affects the respiration ability of fish and other invertebrates
that reside in water. No fishes are able to survive in this polluted water. The consumption of this
polluted water may cause nerve disorders, leukemia, and cancer. Power plants use water to cool
their machineries, and due to heat exchange, the temperature of water can increase to the level it
kills the aquatic animals (Goel, 2006).
2.4.Groundwater Quality of Ethiopia
Even though there is few data exist for the general state of groundwater quality across Ethiopia,
but from those available, the quality is shown to be highly variable, ranging from fresh waters in
many of the springs to more saline waters in parts of the Rift valleys (BGS, 2001). The
groundwater quality of Ethiopia is both anthro-pogenically and naturally affected (Tamru, 2006).
The main quality controls (Tamru, 2006) are: Geomorphological and geographical conditions,
climate, Geology (geological structures, rock composition, weathering, magmatism, geothermal
Page 18
activities,), Physico_chemical factors (temperature, pressure, chemical properties of elements,

solubility of chemical compounds, pH, Eh, etc.), Biological factors (effects of micro-organisms,
plants and animals) and anthropogenic influences.Most of the accessible published information is
for water quality within the Rift valley regions. From this, it is evident that groundwater in the Rift
zone is influenced by geothermal waters with abnormally high concentrations of fluoride and total
content in ground water (BGS, 2001).
2.5. Groundwater Vulnerability mapping
Groundwater is vulnerable to contamination by anthropological activities and it is very difficult to

remediate once contaminated. To properly manage and protect the resource, it is important to
determine areas with more aspects of vulnerable to contamination (Jamil et al, 2011). Different
models found in the literature can be applied to mapping of groundwater vulnerability. Those
models are:
1. Overlay and index methods (Example, DRASTIC)
2. Process-based simulation models (Example, Numerical model)
3. Statistical methods (Example, Kriging, Logistic Regression)
Development of the vulnerability maps is useful for many aspects of water management, including
prioritizing areas for monitoring, protection, and further investigation and the development of risk
assessments, resource characterization, and education (Ohio EPA, 2009).
2.6. Statistical Methods of Modeling for ground water mapping
In the case of statistical models, the model parameters are commonly estimated in an objective
way, following the probability theory (Hengl, 2007). The predictions are accompanied with the
estimate of the prediction error. In statistical method the drawback is the input dataset usually need
to satisfy strict statistical assumptions. There are at least four groups of statistical models (Hengl,
2007).
 kriging (plain geostatistics).
 Environmental correlation (e.g. regression-based).
 Bayesian-based models (e.g. Bayesian Maximum Entropy).
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 Mixed models (regression-kriging).

2.6.1. Basic Kriging (ordinary, Universal)
kriging is based on statistical models that include the statistical relationship among the measured
points. It is the best unbiased predictor whether or not the data is normally distributed. However if
the data is normally distributed, kriging is the best predictor among all unbiased predictors (ESRI,
2001). Kriging method involves three steps (Kumar et al, 2013).
1. Exploratory data analysis: Exploratory data analysis has been performed to explore data
consistency, removing outliers and identifying statistical distribution where data came
from Kriging methods work best for normal distribution data (ESRI, 2003). Using
measured sample points from a study area, Geostatistical analyst can create accurate
predictions for other unmeasured locations within the same area. Exploratory spatial data
analysis tools included with Geo statistical analyst are used to assess the statistical
properties of data such as spatial data variability, spatial data dependence, and global trends
( ESRI, 2003).
2. Structural analysis of data: Spatial correlation or dependence can be quantified with
semivariograms (or variograms). Kriging relates the semivariogram, half the expected
squared difference between paired data values z(x) and z(x + h) to the distance lag h, by
which locations are separated.
3. Prediction: Semivariogram models (Circular, Spherical, Exponential, and Gaussian,) used
to test for each water quality parameters. Predictive performances of the fitted models were
Checked on the basis of cross validation tests. The values of mean error (ME), mean square error
(MSE), root mean error (RMSE), average standard error (ASR) and root mean square standardized
error (RMSSE) were estimated to ascertain the performance of the developed models (Kumar et
al, 2013).
Advantages of kriging
Though, there are many interpolation techniques available but Kriging is most suitable and having
many advantages over others (Kumar, 2013). Because of:-Helps to compensate for the effects of
data clustering, assigning individual points within a cluster less weight than isolated data points
(or, treating clusters more like single points). Gives estimate of estimation error (kriging variance),
along with estimate of the variable, Z, itself (but error map is basically a scaled version of a map
of distance to nearest data point, so not that unique).
Page 20
- Availability of estimation error provides basis for stochastic simulation of possible realizations
of Z(u) (Bohling, 2005).
Disadvantage of kriging
In kriging method, searching for semivariograms and determining the best fitted semivariogram
model and preparing the required statistical assumptions is a time consuming and trial and error
Procedure (Mashagbah et al, 2012).
2.6.2. Spline Method
Spline estimates values using a mathematical function that minimizes overall surface curvatures,
resulting in a smooth surface that passes exactly through the input points (ESRI, 2001).
2.6.3. Inverse Distance Weighted
IDW estimates cell values by averaging the values of sample data points in the vicinity of each
cell. The closer a point is to the center of the cell being estimated, the more influenced, or eight, it
has in the averaging process. This method assumes that the variable being mapped decreases in
influence with distance from its sample location (ESRI, 2001). The disadvantage of IDW is that
the quality of interpolation result can decrease, if the distribution of each sample data points is
uneven, and also maximum and minimum values in the interpolated surface can occur at sample
data points (Ishaku et al, 2011).
2.7. Geo statistical Methods in water quality analysis
There are a number of strengths that GIS technologies bring to water resources research. GIS
allows for improved database organization and storage (John, 2003). Spatial Analyst is an optional
extension (separately purchased add-on program) for ESRI’s ArcView and ArcGIS software
packages. The Spatial Analyst Extension adds raster GIS capability to the ArcView and ArcGIS
vector GIS software. Spatial Analyst allows for use of raster and vector data in an integrated
environment and enables desktop GIS users to create, query, and analyze cell based raster maps,
derive new information from existing data, query information across multiple data layers, and
integrate cell-based raster data with vector data sources (Shamsi, 2005).
2.8. Spatial Distribution of Groundwater quality
Page 21
Unlike microbiological contamination, most chemicals in drinking water pose a health concern
only after years of exposure. Often chemical contamination goes unnoticed until disease occurs
due to chronic exposure (CAWST, 2013). The severity of health effects depends upon the chemical
and its concentration, as well as the length of exposure. There are only a few chemicals that can
lead to health problems after short term exposure, such as nitrate, unless there is a massive
contamination of a drinking water supply (WHO, 2011). It is not possible to test water for all of
the chemicals that could cause health problems. Most chemicals occur rarely, and many result from
human contamination of a small area, affecting only a few water sources. However, three
chemicals have the potential to cause serious health problems and occur over wide spread areas.
These are arsenic and fluoride, which can occur naturally, and nitrate, which is commonly used in
fertilizer for agriculture. These three contaminants are more often found in groundwater, though
surface water can also be impacted (CAWST, 2013).
2.8.1. Chloride(Cl)
Chloride is minor constituent of the earth’s crust. Rain water contains less than 1 ppm Chloride.
Chloride in drinking water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial effluents, urban
runoff containing de-icing salt, and saline intrusion (WHO, 1993). Its concentration in natural
water is commonly less than 100mg/L unless the water is brackish or saline (Fetter, 1999). High
concentration of chloride gives a salty taste to water and beverages and may cause physiological
damages.
Water with high chloride content usually has an unpleasant taste and may be objectionable for
some agricultural purposes. The level of chloride taste perception is variable from person to
person, but is generally of the order of 250 mg/L. Animals usually can drink water with much more
concentration than humans can tolerate (300 to 400 mg/L). Chloride is also relatively free from
effects of exchange adsorption and biological activity. Once taken into solution it is difficult to
remove it through natural process. Shanthi et al. (2002) reported _
2.8.2. Nitrate(No3)
The main source of nitrate in water is from atmosphere, legumes, plant debris and animal excreta
(WHO, 1993). During recent years, the problem of groundwater contamination by nitrates has
been studied thoroughly all over the world (Hudak, 1999, 2000; Vinten and Dunn, 2001; Levallois
et al., 1998; Nas and Berktay, 2006; Fytianos and Christophoridis, 2004). The concentration in
natural water is less than 10 mg/L. The nitrate in the guideline or standard value of 50 mg/L set by
Page 22
WHO and Ethiopian standard for drinking water specifications. Water containing more than 100
mg/L is bitter to taste and causes physiological distress. Water in shallow wells containing more
than 45 mg/L causes methemoglobinemia the so-called blue baby syndrome in humans (Durfer
and Baker, 1964). Several studies document adverse effects of higher nitrate levels, most notably
methemoglobinemia (Hudak, 1999, 2000; Levallois et al., 1998; WHO, 1985, 1993). Nitrogen is
an essential constituent of protein in all living organisms. Nitrate compounds are highly soluble
and nitrate is taken out of natural water only by the activity of organisms or through evaporation
and eventually reaches the groundwater. Nitrate in groundwater generally originates from sewage
effluents, septic tanks and natural drains carrying municipal wastes. NH4+ from organic sources
is converted to NO3- by oxidation. Concentrations of NO3- commonly reported for groundwater
are not limited by solubility constraints. Because of this and because of its anionic form NO3- is
very mobile in groundwater.
2.8.3. Total Dissolved solid(TDS)
The mineral constituents dissolved in water constitute dissolved solids. The concentration of
dissolved solids in natural water is usually less than 500 mg/L, while water with more than 500
mg/L is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses. Water with TDS less than 300 mg/L is
desirable for dyeing of cloths and the manufacture of plastics, pulp paper, etc. (Durfer and Baker,
1964). The total concentration of dissolved minerals in water is a general indication of the over-
all suitability of water for many types of uses. Water with high dissolved solid content would
therefore be expected to pose problems like taste, laxative and other associated problems with the
individual minerals. Such waters are usually corrosive to well screens and other parts of the well
structure. If the water contains less than 500 mg/L of dissolved solids, it is generally satisfactory
for domestic use and for many industrial purposes. Water with more than 1000mg/L of dissolved
solids usually gives disagreeable taste or makes the water unsuitable in other respects. Subba Rao
et al. (1998) and Deepali et al. (2001) reported that TDS concentration was high due to the pre-
sence of bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates, chlorides and calcium. TDS can be removed by
reverse osmosis, electro dialysis, exchange and solar distillation process. It was reported that TDS
value of 500 mg/L is the desirable.
2.8.4. Total Hardness(TH)
Calcium and magnesium mostly cause the hardness of water. The total hardness of water may be
divided in to 2 types, carbonate or temporary and bi-carbonate or permanent hardness. The
Page 23
hardness produced by the bi-carbonates of calcium and magnesium can be virtually removed by
boiling the water and is called temporary hardness. The hardness caused mainly by the sulphates
and chlorates of calcium and magnesium cannot be removed by boiling and is called permanent
hardness. Total hardness is the sum of the temporary and permanent hardness. Water that has a
hardness of less than 75 mg/L is considered soft. A hardness of 75 to 150 mg/L is not objectionable
for most purposes. Water having more than 150 mg/L hardness, is unsafe. The removal of
temporary hardness by heat causes the deposition of calcium and magnesium carbonates as a hard
scale in kettles, cooking utensils, heating coils, and boiler tubes resulting in a waste of fuel. The
maximum allowable limit of TH for drinking purpose is 500 mg/L and the most desirable limit is
100 mg/L as per the WHO international standard. For total hardness, the most desirable limit is 80
to 100 mg/L (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
2.9. Guide line for water quality parameters
Safe drinking water is required for all usual domestic purposes, including drinking, food
preparation and personal hygiene. Every effort should be made to achieve drinking water that is as
safe as practicable (WHO, 2011). The nature and form of drinking water standards may vary
among countries and regions. There is no single approach that is universally applicable. It is
essential in the development and implementation of standards that the current or planned
legislation relating to water, health and local government is taken into account and that the capacity
of regulators in the country is assessed. Approaches that may work in one country or region will
not necessarily transfer to other countries or regions. It is essential that each country review its
needs and capacities in developing a regulatory framework (WHO, 2011). Based on the water
quality standards stipulated by the WHO ranks were assigned for each parameter depending on the
respective tested values.
Table 2: Drinking Water Quality Standards of Ethiopia and WHO (sources: from Ethiopian
standard guidelines ES 261:2001 and WHO, 2011)
Drinking Water Quality parameter WHO Standard (mg/L) Ethiopian standard(mg/L)
Page 24
Nitrate 50 50
Chloride 250 250
TDS 1000 1000
Total hardness 50 50
Page 25
Page 26
CHAPTER THREE
3. RESEARCH METHEDOLOGY
3.1.Geographic Location of the study area
The study area Awash Fentale and Amibara districts are located in Zone three of Afar Region.
These areas are industrial and agricultural area which is one of the most rapidly developing and
heavily polluted areas of the rift valley. Amibara is one of the woredas in the Afar Region of
Ethiopia. Part of the Administrative Zone 3, Amibara is bordered on the south by Awash Fentale,
on the west by the Awash River which separates it from Dulecha, on the northwest by the
Administrative Zone 5, on the north by Gewane, on the east by the Somali Region, and on the
southeast by Oromia Region. Towns in Amibara include Awash Arba, Awash Sheleko, Melka
Sedi and Melka Were. The notable landmarks in this woreda include the fissure vent Hertali (900
meters). Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA),
this woreda has a total population of 63,378, of whom 35,374 are men and 28,004 women; with
an area of 2,007.05 square kilometers. Commercial agricultural activity in Amibara began before
the Italian invasion, when a German-Ethiopian named David Hall operated a farm at Melka Were.
(Pankhtist, 1968). Awash Fentale is one of the woredas in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. Part of the
Administrative Zone 3, Awash Fentale is bordered on the south by the Oromia Region, on the west
by the Amhara Region, on the north by Dulecha, and on the east by Amibara. Towns in Awash
Fentale include Awash Sebat Kilo and Sabure. Rivers in this woreda include the Awash and its
tributary the Germama. A large portion of this woreda is occupied by the Awash National Park.
Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), this
woreda has a total population of 29,780, of whom 15,475 are men and 14,305 women; with an
area of 1,046.41 square kilometers.
Page 27
Figure 1: Map of the study area
3.2.Data Collection Methods
The samples will be collect in plastic cans of three liter capacity without any air bubbles by using
standard procedure. The temperatures of the samples measured in the field itself at the time of
sample collection. The samples will keep in refrigerator maintained at 40C. Water samples from
all wells situated at different places of the study area will be collected during a post monsoon
period of 1 month (February 2012).
The water quality parameters analysis will be carried out by Water Work Design and Supervision
Enterprise Laboratory Service Addis Ababa to obtain different analysis data.
3.3.Preparation of well Location Point Feature
Based on the location data obtained by GPS, point feature showing the position of wells will be
prepared. The water quality data thus obtained forms the non-spatial database. Water quality data
stored in excel format and linked with the spatial data by join option in Arc Map and then changed
in to shape file. The spatial and the non-spatial database formed are integrated for the generation
of spatial distribution maps of the water quality parameters.
3.4.Kriging interpolation Techniques
The dataset of water quality parameters were imported into Arc Map software. The ESRI
Geographic information system (GIS) was used for the construction of the interpolation surfaces
through applying the ‘Geostatistical Analyst’ extensions of ArcGIS 10 .3software package. Arc
Map is very powerful for visualization and processing with user intervention. In this study Kriging
method was applied because, it is recognized that the statistical approach (geo statistical methods),
has several advantages over the deterministic techniques. The fact of giving unbiased predictions
with minimum variance and taking into account the spatial correlation between the data recorded
at different locations is an important advantage of Kriging. Moreover, besides interpolation,
Kriging provides information on interpolation errors. Such values can be mapped to generate error
surfaces which inform about the reliability of estimates. Out of different Kriging techniques, the
ordinary Kriging (OK) method was used because of according to Kumar (2013) states that using
ordinary kriging is better than other kriging methods because of its prediction accuracy. Kriging
is an advanced interpolation procedure that generates an estimated surface from an x-y scattered
set of points with z values.
3.5.Examining the distribution of the data

In the Arc GIS Geostatistical analyst, the histogram and normal QQ Plots were used to see the
distribution of data. The quantile-quantile (QQ) plot is used to compare the distribution of the data
to a standard normal distribution, providing another measure of the normality of the data. Normal
QQ Plots provide an indication of univariate normality. If the data is asymmetric (i.e. far from
normal), the points were deviate from the line. The histogram tool provides a univariate (one
variable) description of the data. The tool displays the frequency distribution for the data set and
calculates summary statistics. If the data is not normally distributed, it should be transformed by
using log transform application. The histograms and normal QQ plots were plotted as shown in
Figure belows to check the normality of the observed data. Histogram and QQ Plot analyses were
carried out for each water quality parameter and it was found that all the analyzed parameters
Nitrate, TDS, Chloride and Hardness showed skewed distribution.
Figure 2: Histogram and QQ plot of NO3 after log transformation
Page 30
Figure 3: Histogram and QQ plot of TDS data after transformation.
Figure 4: Histogram and QQ plot of Cl data after transformation
Page 31
Figure 5: Histogram and QQ plot of Hardness after transformation.
3.6.Log transformation
Log transformation is one of the widely used methods for data normalization. Kriging methods
work best if the data are approximately normally distributed. The application of any interpolation
method for the spatial interpolation of data assumes a normal distribution. It is a pre-requisite to
transform skewed data into a normal distribution before applying to any geostatistical analysis. So
in this study the water quality parameters such as Hardness, TDS, Ca, Mg, NO3, Cl and Sulphate
are highly skewed in their distribution. So in order to minimize the error for those parameters, a
log transformation has been applied to make the distribution closer to normal.
3.7.Semivariogram models
In this study, the semivariogram models (Spherical, Stable, Exponential and Gaussian) were tested
for each parameter data set. Prediction performances were assessed by cross validation Cross
validation allows determination of which model provides the best predictions. According to
Berktay and Nas (2008), for a model that provides accurate predictions, the standardized mean
error should be close to 0, the root mean square error and average standard error should be as small
as possible (this is useful when comparing models), and the root mean square standardized error
should be close to 1.
3.8.Procedures to generate water quality index (WQI)

To generate the ground water quality index (WQI) map, nine parameters such as TDS, hardness,
nitrate, Chloride, were selected from the data et. Standards for drinking water were chosen since
human health is taken as priority besides the high quality of water makes it suitable for drinking
Page 32
purposes. Those nine parameters fall under the category of chemically derived contaminants that
could alter the water taste, odor or appearance and affect its acceptability by consumers (WHO,
2011). Ethiopian standards and WHO (2011) standards for drinking purposes have been considered
for the calculation of WQI.
To compute WQI four steps were followed.
First step:
Each of nine parameters has been assigned a weight (Wi) according to its relative importance in
the overall quality of water for drinking purposes (Table 4). The maximum weight of 5 has been
assigned to parameters such as nitrate due to their major importance in water quality assessment
(Srinivasamoorthy et al, 2008). Other parameters like calcium, magnesium and sodium were
assigned a weight between 1 and 5 depending on their importance in the overall quality of water
for drinking purposes.
Table 3: Ethiopian standards weight (wi) and calculated relative weight (Wi) for each parameter
(source, Srinivasamoorthy et al, 2008)
Drinking Water Ethiopian Weight (Wi) Relative Relative

Quality Standard Weight Weight (%)
Parameter (mg/L) (WI) Relative
Nitrate 50 5 0.17 17
Chloride 250 3 2.1 10
Hardness 300 2 0.07 7
TDS 1000 4 0.13 13
Second step
The relative weight (WI) is computed using a weighted arithmetic index method given below
(Panwar et al, 2012) in the following steps.
𝑊𝐼 = Wi/(∑𝑛𝑖=1 = 1𝑊𝑖 ),
Where, WI is the relative weight, wi is the weight of each parameter and n is the number of
parameter.
Page 33
Third step:
A quality rating scale (Qi) for each parameter is assigned by dividing its concentration in each
water sample by its respective standard according to the guidelines of WHO (2011) and then
multiplied by 100. Qi = (Ci / Si) × 100
Where Qi is the quality rating, Ci is the concentration of each chemical parameter in each water
sample in mg/L, and Si is the WHO drinking water standard for each chemical parameter in mg/L
according to the guidelines of WHO (2011)
Fourth step:
The SIi is first determined for each chemical parameter, which is then used to determine the WQI
as per the following equation: SIi = Wi × Qi
Where SIi is the sub index of ith parameter and Qi is the rating based on concentration of ith
parameter. The overall water quality index (WQI) was calculated by adding together each sub
index values of each groundwater samples as follows:
WQI = ∑SIi
3.9.Inverse distance weighting(IDW)

In interpolation with IDW method, a weight is attributed to the point to be measured. The amount
of this weight is dependent on the distance of the point to another unknown point. These weights
are controlled on the bases of power of ten. With increase of power of ten, the effect of the points
that are farther diminishes. Lesser power distributes the weights more uniformly between
neighboring points. In this method the distance between the points count, so the points of equal
distance have equal weights (Burrough and McDonnell, 1998).
3.10. Research Procedure
The dataset of water quality parameters will be imported into Arc Map software. The ESRI
Geographic information system (GIS) was used for the construction of the interpolation surfaces
through applying the ‘Geostatistical Analyst’ extensions of ArcGIS 10 software package. Arc Map
is very powerful for visualization and processing with user intervention. In this study Kriging
Page 34
method will be applied because, it is recognized that the statistical approach (geo statistical
methods), has several advantages over the deterministic techniques. The fact of giving unbiased
predictions with minimum variance and taking into account the spatial correlation between the
data recorded at different locations is an important advantage of Kriging. Moreover, besides
interpolation, Kriging provides information on interpolation errors. Such values can be mapped to
generate error surfaces which inform about the reliability of estimates. Out of different Kriging
techniques, the ordinary Kriging (OK) method will be used because of according to Kumar(2013)
states that using ordinary kriging is better than other kriging methods because of its prediction
accuracy. Kriging is an advanced interpolation procedure that generates an estimated surface from
an x-y scattered set of points with z values.
3.11. Data Analysis Methods
In the Arc GIS Geo-statistical analyst, the histogram and normal QQ Plots will used to see the
distribution of data. The quantile-quantile (QQ) plot will be used to compare the distribution of
the data to a standard normal distribution, providing another measure of the normality of the data.
Normal QQ Plots will provide an indication of univariate normality. If the data is asymmetric, (i.e.
far from normal), the points will be deviated from the line. The histogram tool provides a univariate
(one variable) description of the data. The tool displays the frequency distribution for the data set
and calculates summary statistics. If the data is not normally distributed, it should be transformed
by using log transform application. The histograms and normal QQ plots will plot to check the
normality of the observed data. Histogram and QQ Plot analyses will carry out for each water
quality parameter.
Page 35
Figure 6 Data Collection Frame Work Data Collection
Spatial Data Non-Spatial Data
Collecting Ground water sample from

Digitizing the study area map each well location
Obtain Well location
using Arc GIS software
Import to Arc GIS using UTM Physico chemical analysis of Ground

Generating Final study water sample
Projection & zone 37& convert to
area map point feature &assign ID for each
well & convert to point feature
Generating of water quality data for

Spatial and non - spatial data Join each well & entering in to excel sheet
and assign ID for each cell
Generating of thematic maps for individual quality

parameters using spatial interpolation technique
Thematic map Interpretation
(kriging)
No3 TDS Cl TH
location
Spatial distribution of Ground water quality for drinking purpose:

Overlay Potable and Non Potable
CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1.Introduction
The primary objective of the study is to map and evaluate the groundwater quality in Awash
Fentale and Amibara woreda of Afar Region. Spatial distribution of groundwater quality
parameters will carry out through GIS and geo statistical techniques. These techniques can
successfully demonstrate its capability in groundwater quality mapping of study area.
4.2.Spatial Distribution of Groundwater quality
Groundwater quality maps are useful in assessing the usability of the water for different purposes.
The spatial and attribute data are integrated for the generation of spatial variation maps of major
water quality parameters like, Nitrate, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total hardness, and TH.
Based on these spatial variation maps of major water quality parameters, an Integrated
Groundwater quality map of the study area was prepared using GIS. This integrated groundwater
quality map helps us to know the existing groundwater condition of the study area.
4.3. Nitrate
Nitrate is very mobile in water, and groundwater typically contains higher levels than surface
water. Nitrate concentrations in the well samples of study area showed high spatial variations and
ranged from 2-48 mg/L. The nitrate concentrations of the study area is below the standard value
of 50 mg/L set by WHO and Ethiopian standard for drinking water specifications.
Table 4. Rating value for nitrate concentration. Sources (Girma, 2011) as cited from
(Tamiru Alemayehu et al, 2005).
NO3 (mg/L) Rating value

<25 Low
25-50 Moderate
50-100 High
>100 Very High

The nitrate pollution from water sources that are given low, moderate, high and very high priority
rating values are characterized to assess the risk of potential contamination load of nitrate to
groundwater spatially distribution in the study area .
Figure 7 Prediction map of Nitrate distribution on the study area
Page 38
4.4.Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

TDS is a measure of the amount of material dissolved in water. This material can include
carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, Sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
organic ions, and other ions (UNICEF, 2008). The total concentration of dissolved minerals in
water is a general indication of the overall suitability of water for many types of uses (Karthikeyan
et al, 2013). Different researchers (such as, Karthikeyan et al, 2013 and Subramani et al, 2012)
Classified the TDS value in to different ranges. For instance according to Karthikeyan et al (2013)
the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) was classified in to three ranges (0-500 mg/L, 500-1000 mg/L
and >1000 mg/L). Water contains less than 500 mg/L of dissolved Solids; it is generally
satisfactory for domestic use and for many industrial purposes. If the Water with more than
1000mg/L of dissolved solids usually gives disagreeable taste or makes the water unsuitable.
Water with high TDS often has a bad taste and high water hardness, and could result in a laxative
effect. High concentrations of TDS may also reduce water clarity.
TDS concentration in the ground water of study area is ranged from 169 to 1008 mg/L with mean
and standard deviation as 761 and 256 respectively. The spatial variation map for TDS for this
study was prepared in to five class ranges and presented in figure 4.1. From the spatial variation
map it was observed that, the larger portion of the study area has under the good range (0-500
mg/L). But the small portion of the area there is slightly high concentration of TDS (>1000) mg/L).
Page 39
Figure 8 Prediction map of TDS distribution on the study area
4.5.Total Hardness
Hardness in water is caused primarily by the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium
and magnesium, Sulphates, chlorides and nitrates. The total hardness of water classified in to three
ranges (0-300 mg/l, 300-600 mg/l and >600 mg/l) low, medium and high respectively (Karthikeyan
et al, 2013). To evaluate hardness distribution based on these ranges the spatial variation map for
Page 40
total hardness of the study area has been presented in figure 4.2 below. Hardness concentration in
the ground water of study area is ranged from 12 to 452 mg/L with mean and standard deviation
as 119 and 122 respectively. From the map it was observed that for most part of the areas, the total
hardness value is less than 300 mg/L was observed, except small parts in Amibara district.
The most common problem associated with groundwater may be hardness, caused by an
abundance of calcium or magnesium. Calcium and magnesium are found in groundwater because
of the dissolving of limestone. Calcium and magnesium ions also can be released when water
reacts with gypsum. Hard water causes no health problems, but can be a nuisance as it may cause
soap curds to form on pipes and other plumbing fixtures (UNICEF, 2008). The total hardness of
water may be divided in to two types, carbonate or temporary and bi-carbonate or permanent
hardness. The hardness produced by the bi-carbonates of calcium and magnesium can be virtually
removed by boiling the water and is called temporary hardness. The hardness caused mainly by
Sulphates and chlorates of calcium and magnesium cannot be removed by boiling and is called
permanent hardness (Karthikeyan et al, 2013).
Page 41
Figure 9 Prediction map of TH distribution on the study area
Page 42
4.6.Chloride
Chloride is present in all natural waters, mostly at low concentrations. It is highly soluble in ater
and moves freely with water through soil and rock (CGWB, 2010). High concentrations of
Chloride can make water unpalatable and, therefore, unfit for drinking or livestock watering
(UNICEF, 2008). According to CGWB (2010) in ground water the chloride content is mostly
below 250 mg/L except in cases where inland salinity is prevalent and in coastal areas. The same
is true in study area the ground water chloride ion concentration is below 250 mg/L. Even though
the amount of chloride distribution in the whole study area is less than WHO and Ethiopian
standard, but relatively higher concentration of chloride is observed in some part of the area.
Figure 6 Prediction map of chloride distribution on the study area
Page 43
Figure 10 Prediction map of Chloride distribution on the study area
4.7.Water quality index (WQI)

Water quality assessment of the study area was done by calculated Water Quality Index (WQI).The
WQI was calculated by using water quality parameters, drinking water standard of WHO (2011)
and Ethiopian standards. Nine parameters such as: pH, TDS, Total Hardness, Calcium,
Magnesium, Sulphates, Chlorides, Fluorides and Nitrates have been used to produce water quality
index. The final result shows that the water quality index value is ranged from 17.32 to 233.09.
According to Vasanthavigar et al (2009) water quality index value have been classified in to five
classes. WQI is less than 50, 50 to 100, 101 to 200, 201 to 300 and greater than 300 have the value
Excellent, good, poor, very poor and unsuitable for drinking respectively.
Page 44
Table 5. The WQI range and type of water (source Vasanthavigar et al, 2009)
Range Type of water Range Type of water

<50 Excellent water
50_100 Good water
101_200 Poor water
201_300 Very poor water
Based on this range shown by above table water quality of study area is categorized excellent to
poor.
Page 45
CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSION AND RECCOMONDATION
5.1.Conclusion
The primary objective of this study was to map and evaluate the groundwater quality in Awash
Fentale and Amibara districts of Afar Region. Spatial distribution of groundwater quality
parameters were carried out through GIS and geo-statistical techniques. These techniques have
successfully demonstrated its capability in groundwater quality mapping of Awash and Amibara
districts of Afar Region.
 The present study has been undertaken to analyze the spatial variation of major
groundwater quality parameters such as Total Dissolved Solids, total hardness, nitrate, and
chloride using GIS approach. The spatial variation maps of these groundwater quality
parameters shows that there is uneven water quality distribution.
 Nitrate concentration in the study area groundwater shows not much polluted as I thought
in the beginning of the study which may the farming land may not use above the
permissible value. However still high concentration is measured around the farming area.
 TDS is highly concentrated in some part of the study area which has over the maximum
recommended value.
 Chloride distribution in the whole study area is less than WHO and Ethiopian standard.
5.2.Recommendation
Effective management of water resources is a core issue for the provision of reliable and safe water
supply. By recognizing the reality of ground water quality distribution from the study, the
following recommendations should be considered.
5.2.1. It is highly recommended to use GIS tools and its application to produce maps to
communicate Ground water situation in the study area.
5.2.2. It requires further investigation of other highly polluted chemicals with high precision
instruments must be carried out in order to study the degree of pollution and
anthropogenic effect on surface and groundwater of the study area.
Page 46
5.2.3. Continuous monitoring of groundwater table level along with quality study will
minimize the chances of further deterioration.
5.2.4. Both woreda and region water office the storage and management of data is poor, so it
would be good to build up better data base management, because the quality of a study
is dependent on the availability of data.
Page 47
REFRENCE
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Gebreyesus, A. (January 2013). Physico chemical and microbiological Analysis of potable

surface and ground water sample in Dupti, Amibara and awash Fentale woreda of Afar
region. Ethiopia: Haremaya University.
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Luxembourg germany: JRC scientific and technical .
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Pankhtist, R. (1968). History of Ethiopia. Addis Abeba: Hailesilase University.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Log transformed Histogram & QQ plot of Water Quality Parameters.
Histogram and QQ plot of NO3 after log transformation
Histogram and QQ plot of TDS data after transformation.
Page 50
Histogram and QQ plot of Cl data after transformation
Histogram and QQ plot of Hardness after transformation.
Page 51
Table 6: VALUES OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETRES PER EACH WELL
WELL NO WOREDA WELL LOCATION EASTING NORTHING

1 Awash Fentale Awash Kebena 1 614793 1021361
2 Awash Fentale Awash Kebena 2 611837 1020779
3 Awash Fentale Boloyta 610511 1018252
4 Awash Fentale Boloyta2 610266 1018512
5 Amibara Teoejersa 639918 1038721
6 Amibara Andana 651578 1048669
7 Amibara Andanda 651677 1049214
9 Amibara andido 651609 1048995
10 Amibara Kurkura 632047 999422
11 Awash Fentala dudub 622047 999671
12 Amibara Awash Arba 628683 1008918
13 Amibara Kurkura 629018 1008158
14 Amibara Arba 628900 1008000
15 Amibara Gonita birka 637070 1017019
16 Amibara Odelesa 639503 1028950
17 Amibara Andedo 646560 1039522
18 Amibara Blen 644235 1046853
19 Amibara Hassoba 638824 1043036
20 Amibara Angele 643808 1050476

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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

GROUDNWATER QUALITY MAPPING USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

A Case of Awash Fentale and Amibara Districts of Afar Region Ethiopia

A PROJECT WORK PROPOSAL IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

MAJOR IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

Frehiwot Derbe (ID No: GSE/0137/07)

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

GROUDNWATER QUALITY MAPPING USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

A Case of Awash Fentale and Amibara Districts of Afar Region Ethiopia

A PROJECT WORK IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

MAJOR IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

Frehiwot Derbe ___________ _________________

(Student name) (Signature) (Date)

Dr. Yenesew Mengstie ___________ _________________

(Advisor) (Signature) (Date)

_________________________ ___________ _________________

Examiner (Signature) (Date)

Key words: Physico-chemical parameters, spatial interpolation, groundwater quality

Support, encouragement and care.

Figure 1: Map of the study area 26

Figure 2: Data collection frame work 28

Figure 3: Histogram and QQ plot of Nitrate and TDS respectively 29

Figure 4: Histogram and QQ plot of Chloride and Hardness 29

Figure 5: Prediction map of Nitrate on the study area 38

Figure 6: Prediction map of TDS distribution on the study area 40

Figure 7: Prediction map of hardness on the study area 42

Figure 8: Prediction map of chloride on the study area 44

Table 1: Sources of Chemical Contamination 17

Table 2: Drinking Water Quality Standards of Ethiopia and WHO 24

Table 3: Cross validation results for ordinary kriging 31

Table 5: Statistical evaluation of groundwater quality parameters 42

Table 6: Rating value for nitrate concentration 49

ASR Average standard error

BGS British Geological Survey

CAWST Center for Affordable water and sanitation Technology

CGWB Central Ground Water Board

ESRI Environmental system and research institute

GIS Geographical information system

GVM Groundwater Vulnerability Mapping

MSE Mean square error

QQ plots the quintile quintile plot

RMSSE Root mean square standardized error

TDS Total dissolved solids

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme’s

UNESCO United Nation Educational Science and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

WHO World health organization

WQI Water quality index

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 24

1.2.Statement of the problem

1.3.2. Specific objective of the study

1.5.Scope & limitation of the study

2.2.Surface Water quality

2.3.Groundwater quality and source of pollution

remediation of groundwater pollution is a vital management issue (UNEP, 2003).The quality of

Table 1: Sources of Chemical Contamination (source WHO, 2011)

Source of Chemicals Examples Common Chemicals

Water treatment Water treatment chemicals, Aluminium, chlorine, iodine, silver

activities,), Physico_chemical factors (temperature, pressure, chemical properties of elements,

Frehiwot Derbe _ _______

Dr. Yenesew Mengstie _ _______

___________________ _ _____________