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UNIT I
PART A
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An estimate is a calculation of the quantities of various items of work, and the expenses likely to be
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incurred there on. The total of these probable expenses to be incurred on the work is known as
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estimated cost of the work. The estimated cost of a work is a close approximation of its actual cost.
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Estimating is the most important of the practical aspects of construction management.
each item and rate of every item according to the sanctioned schedule of rates shall
be attached. In case of non-schedule rates i.e. rates which are not given in the
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the work proposed to be constructed is located in a remote place, the provision for
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the carriage of the material shall be added in the estimate to avoid any excess over
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the administratively approved estimate later on. Detailed specifications & report
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should also be attached with the estimate. Technical sanction is given on detailed
estimate.
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4. Describe centre line method. (M/J 16)
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This method is suitable only if the offsets are symmetrical and the building is more or less
rectangular in shape. The centre line of the building is determined carefully after doing
deductions for repeated measurements (as explained in the next problem). This centre line
acts as length for the complete calculations of the estimate. If the deduction is not cared for
the results of estimates may be wrong. All the walls should have the same section.
• Preparing bills for part payments at intervals during the execution of work.
• Preparing bill of adjustment in the case of variations ordered during the execution of work
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A qualified or experienced person who does the above mentioned works (taking off, squaring,
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abstracting and billing) is called a quality surveyor.
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7. Write the essential qualities of a good surveyor..
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• The quality surveyor must be well versed with the drawings of work.
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• He should be able to read the drawing correctly and bill the quantities accurately
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• He should have a through knowledge of the construction procedure to be adopted, the
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various items of works involved in the execution: and the different materials to be used in the
work.
The estimate which prepared using any rough method to get the approximatecost construction
anticipated in a project is called an approximate or rough estimate. Since this estimate is normally
• From cross-section
• From contours
Determination of rates of works from the qualities and cost of materials and labours required is
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11.what are the methods of estimate?
1.Detailed estimate
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2. Abstract estimate
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12. Define Abstract estimate
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This is the third and final stage in a detailed estimate. The quantities and rates of
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each item of work, arrived in the first two stages, are now entered in an abstract form.
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The total cost of each item of work is now calculated by multiplying the quantities and
respective rates.
The estimate, which is prepared • When any major change or alteration is made in the plan /
structural arrangement, with or without affecting the estimate cost, and When the estimated cost
is likely to exceed by more than 5% during execution, due to increase in the cost of materials and
labour or due to increase in the cost of materials and labour or due to alterations in the items of
works to get the revised quantities /rates/ amount is called a revised estimate
• Crossing method
• Bay method
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15. Briefly explain about Out to Out and in to in method.
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This method is most practicable under all circumstances and is generally followed in the P.W.D
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16. Briefly explain about bay method.
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This method is useful and is generally followed in case of buildings having several bays. The
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cost of the typical bay is worked out and is then multiplied by the number of bays in that building.
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The extra cost for the end walls and difference in framing, if there is any, should be made, so as
PART B
catagories:-
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(4) Detailed estimate.
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(6) Special repair estimate.
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(7) Revised estimate
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cost of the proposal to the competent sanctioning authority. It should clearly show the
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necessity of the proposal and how the cost has been arrived at The calculations for
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approximate estimate can be done with the following data. The data can be had from a
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similar construction already complete in the nearby area, excuted by the department.
For example: To calculate approximate estimate for a Hospital, per bed cost is
calculated from the recent campleted hospital and is multiplied with the number of
beds required. Similarly for a house, per square metre plinth area is calculated and is
multiplied with the proposed covered area. The specifications should also be same.
For a road, expenditure of per kilometer length is taken, width also plays the role. The
following documents should be attached with it. (a) Detailed report (b) Site plan of
the proposal (c) It should also clearly mention about the acquisition of land, Provision
excluding plinth offsets. The estimates are prepared on the basis of plinth areas of the
various buildings proposed to be constructed. The rates are being arrived at the
dividing the total cost of construction with its plinth area. For example if total cost of
a building is Rs. 2 lac and its plinth area is 50 sq. m. then plinth area rate =2,00,000
= Rs.4000/- per 50 sq.m. Using this rate as basis of the next construction,
approximate or rough cost of the proposal can be arrived at by multiplying the plinth
area of the proposed building with this plinth area rate. The following documents are
attached with the estimate. (a) Line plan with brief specifications. (b) Cost of various
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services added i.e. electric and water supply etc. (c) North line should be shown
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3. Cubic Contents Estimate (Based on Rough Cost)
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The cubic contents of a building means plinth area x height of the building. The
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height is taken from top of floor level to top of roof. The cubic contents of the
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proposed building are multiplied with cubic rates arrived at for the similar
construction i.e. total cost of construction divided by cubic contents = cost per cubic
are prepared. In this, the estimate is divided in to sub-heads and quantities of various
items are calculated individually. In the end of the detailed quantities, an abstract of
cost giving quantities of each item and rate of every item according to the sanctioned
schedule of rates shall be attached. In case of non-schedule rates i.e. rates which are
not given in the sanctioned schedule of rates, proper analysis of rates shall be
the provision for the carriage of the material shall be added in the estimate to avoid
any excess over the administratively approved estimate later on. Detailed
specifications & report should also be attached with the estimate. Technical sanction
is given on detailed estimate. The detailed estimate shall also provide for the cost of
approach road, water supply, electric installations and acquisition of land etc, so as to
In order to keep building and roads in perfect condition, annual repairs should be
(i) In case of a building-white washing, oiling and painting of doors and windows,
cement plaster repairs (inside & outside), repairs of floors etc. In no case this annual
repair amount should increase more that 11/2% to 2% of the capital cost of the
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building.
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6. Special repair estimate
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If the work cannot be carried out of the annual repair funds due to certain reasons
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resulting in the genuine increase in cost, then special repairs estimate is to be
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prepared.
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(i) In case of a building-opening of new doors, change of floors, replastering walls etc.
(ii) In case of roads-if the whole surface is full of corrugation & patches, then the total
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surface is to be scarified. The old metal is taken out, consolidation by adding more
7. Revised estimate
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When the sanctioned estimate exceeds by 5% either due to the rate being found
insufficient or due to some other reasons, a fresh estimate is prepared which is called a
Revised Estimate. A comparative statement on the last page of the estimate is attached
giving there in the reasons of the increase of cost in case of each item.
8. Supplementary Estimate
prepared when additional works are deemed necessary during the progress of a work
to supplement the original works. The abstract of cost should show the amount of the
required.
estimates. The application of an individual method depends upon the design and
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2. Crossing method.
4. Bay method.
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5. Service unit method. syE
1. Centre line method
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This method is suitable only if the offsets are symmetrical and the building is more or
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less rectangular in shape. The centre line of the building is determined carefully after
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doing deductions for repeated measurements (as explained in the next problem). This
centre line acts as length for the complete calculations of the estimate. If the
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deduction is not cared for the results of estimates may be wrong. All the walls should
2. Crossing Method
In this method, lengths and breadths of the masonry walls at plinth level are taken
(internal dimension of the room + thickness of the walls) for calculating quantities.
This method is most practicable under all circumstances and is generally followed
in the P.W.D. for computing the quantities of various items. The estimation in this
4. Bay Method
several bays. The cost of the one class room is worked out and then multiplied by the
number of bays in that building. The extra cost of the end walls and difference in
This method is followed in cases such as school building where there are so many
class rooms. The cost of one class room us worked out and then multiplied by the
bed, in case of Water Tank, it is a litre and in case of Cinema Hall, the service unit is
a seat.
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3. Differentiate abstract and detailed estimate. (M/J 16)
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The preparations of detailed estimate consist of working out quantities of various items of work and
then determine the cost of each item. This is prepared in two stages.
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i) Details of measurements and calculation of quantities:
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The complete work is divided into various items of work such as earth work concreting, brick work,
R.C.C. Plastering etc., The details of measurements are taken from drawings and entered in
respective columns of prescribed proforma. The quantities are calculated by multiplying the values
that are in numbers column to Depth column as shown below:
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ii) Abstract of Estimated Cost:
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The cost of each item of work is worked out from the quantities that already computed in the detals
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measurement form at workable rate. But the total cost is worked out in the prescribed form is known
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as abstract of estimated form. 4%of estimated Cost is allowed for Petty Supervision, contingencies
and unforeseen items.
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Abstract of Estimate Form ne
i) Report
ii) Specification
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i) Quantity and transportation of materials: For bigger project, the requirement of materials is more.
Such bulk volume of materials will be purchased and transported definitely at cheaper rate.
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ii) Location of site: The site of work is selected, such that it should reduce damage or in transit during
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loading, unloading, stocking of materials.
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iii) Local labour charges: The skill, suitability and wages of local laboures are considered while
preparing the detailed estimate.
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Data for detailed estimate:
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The process of working out the cost or rate per unit of each item is called as Data. In preparation of
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Data, the rates of materials and labour are obtained from current standard scheduled of rates and
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while the quantities of materials and labour required for one unit of item are taken from Standard
Data Book (S.D.B).
1) Quantity of materials & cost: The requirement of materials is taken strictly in accordance with
standard data book (S.D.B). The cost of these includes first cost, freight, insurance and transportation
charges.
ii) Cost of labour: The exact number of labourers required for unit of work and the multiplied by the
wages/ day to get of labour for unit item work.
iii) Cost of equipment (T&P): Some works need special type of equipment, tools and plant. In such
case, an amount of 1 to 2% of estimated cost is provided.
iv) Overhead charges: To meet expenses of office rent, depreciation of equipment salaries of staff
postage, lighting an amount of 4% of estimate cost is allocated.
Approximate estimates
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already stated in Lecture 2 of this module. As already mentioned in Lecture 2 of this module, the
approximate estimates (also known as order-of-magnitude estimates) are prepared during initial
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stages of the project life cycle. The different methods used in the preparation of approximate
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estimates are described below. In addition to use in the preparation of estimates during early stages of
project development, these methods may also be sometimes used for cost estimating in the detailed
design phase.
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Unit estimate
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This technique is used for preparing preliminary estimates (i.e. order-of- magnitude type
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estimate). This estimate is generally prepared during the conceptual planning phase of a project, with
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less information available with the estimator. In this method, the total estimate of cost is limited to a
single factor. The examples of some of the ‘per unit factor' used in construction projects are
construction cost per square meter, housing cost per boarder of a hostel, construction cost per bed for
a hospital, maintenance cost per hour, fuel cost per kilometer, construction cost per kilometer for a
highway etc. The total cost is calculated by multiplying the cost per unit factor with the number of
units of the corresponding factor. For example, a preliminary estimate is required to estimate the cost
of constructing a new house with floor area of 170 square meter. If the cost per square meter is
Rs.26,900 (assumed), then the cost of constructing the house will be Rs.45,73,000 (Rs. 26,900x170).
Similarly the preliminary cost estimate of constructing a given length of highway can be calculated
by multiplying the unit cost i.e. construction cost per kilometer by the length of highway (in km).
Factor estimate
In this method, the estimate is divided into individual segments and then the cost of each
segment is calculated followed by adding all the individual costs to estimate the total cost. Unlike
unit technique, the factor technique includes separate factors for different cost items. Thus compared
to unit technique, factor technique is a more detailed method of preparing the cost estimate and
shows improved accuracy. The factor method is useful when several components are involved in the
preparation of cost estimate.
Considering a simple example, a preliminary estimate is required to find out the cost of
constructing a new multi-storey hostel of an educational institute. By unit method, the preliminary
cost will be simply the cost per square meter multiplied with the total floor area (square meter) of the
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hostel. However a comparatively improved estimate can be prepared by using factor method wherein
the total cost estimate is divided into different components. The hostel will consist of individual
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living rooms for students, hostel office, a kitchen cum dining room, a reading room, a common room,
an indoor sports room, lavatories on each floor and other common amenities. The estimate of the total
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cost of the hostel will comprise of cost of these components. The cost of residing rooms for the
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students can be calculated by multiplying the cost of constructing one room (the information can be
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obtained from past similar projects with adjustment for different parameters as mentioned in unit
estimate technique) by the required number of rooms.
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numerical values which represent the price change of individual or multiple cost items over time with
respect to a reference year. Cost indexes are used to update the historical cost figures and to obtain
the current cost estimates. The relationship used for updating the historical cost figures to the cost at
another point of time using cost index is presented below.
Where
Cr = cost of the item in year ‘r' (at earlier point of time and n > r )
Here ‘r' is the reference year (i.e. at earlier of point of time) at which the cost of the item known and
‘n' is the year for which cost of the item is to be estimated. Cost indexes are periodically published by
various public and private agencies.
5. Calculate Detailed Estimate for the Proposed Residential building given below.
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6. Calculate the detailed estimate of the proposed building given below by using 1)
Long wall short wall method 2) Centre wall method
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UNIT II
PART A
Freeways
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Highways
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Arterials
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Local streets
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Collector street
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2. Calculate the size of septic tank for 25 users.
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Liquid capacity of Tank @ 0.1 Cu.m per user = 0.1 X 25 = 2.50 Cu.m
Taking Liquid depth as 1.40m the floor area of tank = 2.50/1.40 = 1.80 sq.m
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Taking length as 2¼ times the breadth, LXB = 1.80 sq.m, or 2¼ BXB = 1.80m
The built up covered area measured at the floor level of the basement is called
Plinth area. To prepare an estimate, the plinth area of a building shall be determined first. It
can be calculated including the following such as area of the floor level, porch, stair cover,
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In antiquity, aqueducts were a means to transport water from one place to another,
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achieving a regular and controlled water supply to a place which would not otherwise
have received sufficient water to meet basic needs such as irrigation of food crops and
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drinking fountains. They may take the form of underground tunnels, networks of surface
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channels and canals, covered clay pipes or monumental bridges.
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5. What are the main components of culvert?
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1.Abutments
2.Wing walls
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3.Arch
The following factors should be taken into consideration: • Material should be water
limited to one at the inlet and one at the outlet. • The escape of gas and sludge to effluent
7.Define lead.
Lead is the crow flying horizontal distance from the centre of borrow pit to the centre of
the earthwork at site, i.e centre of the area of excavation to the centre of placed earth.
8.Define lift.
Lift is the distance through which the excavated soil is lifted beyond a certain
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specified depth.
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9 .Write the formula for Mid ordinate rule and Prismoidal formula Rule.
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Mid sectional area method: Q = (Bdm+sdm2 ) x L
Where
B – Formation width
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S – Side slopes n eer
dm – Mean depth
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L – Length of the section downloaded from
rejinpaul.com
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Prismoidal formula rule:
Bd2+Sd22 Am = Bdm+sdm2
dm = (d1+d2)/2
It defined as covered area i.e plinth area excluding area of walls (generally 10% 15 %)
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sills of the doors are not included in floor area. The floor area of very storey shall be
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measured separately.
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12.Define Carpet area
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This means area in a building which is useful one i.e area of drawing room, dining room
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bedroom etc. Areas of kitchens, staircase, stores, verandahs, entrance hall, bathroom,
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basement etc. are excluded. It is generally 50% to 60% of the plinth area.
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13.Workout the quality of stone metal required for 2Km.Length for wearing coat of a 4m
wide road. The thickness of the metal road required is 12cm loose.
14.An approach road 2Km.long is to be constructed. Work out the quantity of materials
Length = 2 Km
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15.A cement concrete road (1:2:3) is to be constructed over the existing water bound
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macadam road .The thickness of slab =10cm.The length of the road is one km and the
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width 3.60m.Calculate the quality of cement concrete and the material required,
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Quality of cement concrete = 1 x 1000 x 3.60 x 0.10 = 360 cu.m
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Length = 1Km
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Width of formation = 10 m i ng.
Height of embankment = 60 cm
B=10cm ; d =0.60m ;S = 2
Quantity of earth work = 1000 x (10 x 0.60) +2 x 0.60 x 0.60 = 6720 cu.m
PART B
i) National highways
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b) minor district roads
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NECESSARY OF CLASSIFYING ROADS:- To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic
operation , and for knowing the clear information of a particular root in a country, the
classification of roads is necessary.
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a. NATIONAL HIGHWAYS:- These are the important roads of the country. They connect
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state capitals, ports and foreign highways. They also include roads of military
importance. They are financed by the central government.
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b. STATE HIGHWAYS :- these are the important roads of a state. They connect important
cities and district head quarters in the state , national highways & state highways of
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neighbouring states. They are financed by state government roads and buildings
department of the state government constructs & maintain these roads.
c. DISTRICT ROADS :- these are the roads within a district . they are financed by
zillaparishads with the help of grants given by state government.
d. THE MAJOR DISTRICT ROADS:- They are roads connecting district head
e. quarters, taluk head quarters and other important town in the district production and
market centers with each other and with state & national highways & railways.
g. VILLAGE ROADS:- they connect villages with each other and to the nearest district
road. They are financed by panchayats with the help of zillaparishads and state
government.
Asphalt – One of the most popular types of construction ever since its inception in the early
1920s is asphalt paving. In this construction technique, a layer of asphalt is laid on top of an
equally thick gravel base. Advantages of this form of road construction are that the pavement
produces relatively little noise, its relative low cost compared to other materials, and that it is
relatively easy to repair and maintain as well. However, asphalt is known to be significantly
less durable and strong than most other choices, and isn’t the best for the environment either.
Concrete – Concrete is another popular choice for roadways, though it is typically only used
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road surfaces, JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP; the distinguishing feature between the three being the
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joint system that is used to help prevent cracks from forming. Concrete is more long-lasting
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than asphalt and significantly stronger as well, but is quite expensive to lay and maintain.
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Composite – Composite materials are often used in types of construction that are more related
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to maintenance, recycling, and rehabilitation. Composite materials are combinations of both
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asphalt and concrete, and are typically employed in one of two methods. Asphalt overlays
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literally are placed over a damaged surface, or alternatively pavement may be cracked and
Full-depth Reclamation. Rubblizing involves reducing the road to gravel and then applying a
new surface, both hot and cold in-place recycling relies on using bituminous pavement to
reinforce the road (at different temperatures and admixtures, of course), and Full-depth
reclamation involves both total pulverization and the addition of binding agents or other
additives.
Bituminous Solutions – Bituminous and other temporary solutions are types of construction
that are only suitable for use on very low-traffic thoroughfares. Chipsealing techniques, thin
membrane surfacing, and Otta sealing are all examples of bituminous surface options. These
are all more commonly employed as sealing coats or finishes than as full road surfaces
The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a conveyance
system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system (see Fig. 69).
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The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply, such
as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.
The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main pumping
station up to the field ditches.
The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.
The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.
The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the fields.
The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system (see Fig. 70). Its purpose is to direct
water from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.
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In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a pump
must be used to supply water to the irrigation system (see Fig. 71).
There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the centrifugal pump.
The centrifugal pump (see Fig. 72a) consists of a case in which an element, called an impeller, rotates
driven by a motor (see Fig. 72b). Water enters the case at the center, through the suction pipe. The
water is immediately caught by the rapidly rotating impeller and expelled through the discharge pipe.
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Fig. 72b. Centrifugal pump and motor
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The centrifugal pump will only operate when the case is completely filled with water.
The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the whole
irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the water flow.
An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one place
to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more farms. Field
ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the irrigated fields.
i. Canal characteristics
According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal (c),
circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73).
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Fig. 73. Some examples of canal cross-sections
The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal cross-
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section. For the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered.
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Fig. 74. A trapezoidal canal cross-section
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The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is
required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.
The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the
horizontal distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to two),
this means that the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig. 75).
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The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the
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longitudinal section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.
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Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal
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An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):
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Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth, as illustrated in
Figure 77a.
The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to
seepage. They also require continuous maintenance (Fig. 77b) in order to control weed growth and to
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repair damage done by livestock and rodents.
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Fig. 77b. Maintenance of an earthen canal
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Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of weeds
(Fig. 78).
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used for canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry and
asphaltic concrete (a mixture of sand, gravel and asphalt).
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The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined canals,
but skilled labour is requi
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Open Well:
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even during a dry year there will be sufficient depth 3 to 4 metres) of water to cope up with the
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requirements then. The water surface in the well and free surface of water in the soil are at
atmospheric pressure.
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Types of Open Wells:
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Depending upon the type of protection provided to the sides of the wells, first
classification of open wells may be:
As a result hollow space is formed behind the wall lining. To check development of
such hollow formation, brick ballast of about 20 mm size is packed behind the lining at least
up to the ground water-table from the bottom. Figure 17.1 shows the typical cross-section of a
well with pervious lining.
To make the construction stable following procedure can be adopted. Construct 1.25 m
of lining just above the curb in mortar and give about 1 m thick concrete plug in the bottom.
Lining up to the ground water-table is laid dry but with 0.3 m strip of lining in mortar after
every 1.25 m of dry lining. Above the ground water-table construct the lining in mortar upto
the top. When the rate of water withdrawal is not more, this type is very economical and
lasting.
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2. Wells with Impervious or Pucca (Permanent) Lining:
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In regions with alluvial soil formation this type is mostly adopted. Once constructed, it
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forms a permanent source of water as long as ground water conditions remain favourable. This
type is very suitable for irrigation purposes. The wells with impervious lining are deeper than the
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well with previous lining. In this type the depth should not exceed 30 m for efficient working.
(Fig. 17.2).
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If the well is dug deeper than 30 m then lifting of water becomes uneconomical. The
well lining is set in lime mortar or cement mortar. Sometimes the well may meet some clay
layer of small thickness. Then the well may be founded on it and a bore may be drilled to tap
underlying water bearing stratum. Such an arrangement helps in keeping the depth of wells
within specified limits. The thickness of steening wall varies from 0.3 to 0.7 m. Table 17.1
shows suitable thickness for various depths.
What is a Culvert?
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totally enclosed by soil or ground.
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Steel
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Aluminum
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In most cases concrete culverts are preferred. Concrete culverts may be reinforced or
non-reinforced. In some cases culverts are constructed in site called cast in situ culverts.
Precast culverts are also available. By the combination above materials we can also get
composite culvert types.
Location of Culverts
Types of Culverts
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single in number or multiple. If single pipe culvert is used then larger diameter culvert is
installed. If the width of channel is greater than we will go for multiple pipe culverts. They are
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suitable for larger flows very well. The diameter of pipe culverts ranges from 1 meter to 6m.
These are made of concrete or steel etc..
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Pipe arch culverts means nothing but they looks like half circle shaped culverts. Pipe arch
culverts are suitable for larger water flows but the flow should be stable. Because of arch shape
fishes or sewage in the drainage easily carried to the outlet without stocking at the inlet or bottom
of channel. This type of culverts can also be provided in multiple numbers based on the
requirement. They also enhance beautiful appearance.
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Box Culvert (Single or Multiple)
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Box culverts are in rectangular shape and generally constructed by concrete.
Reinforcement is also provided in the construction of box culvert. These are used to dispose rain
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water. So, these are not useful in the dry period. They can also be used as passages to cross the
rail or roadway during dry periods for animals etc. Because of sharp corners these are not suitable
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for larger velocity. Box culverts can also be provided in multiple numbers.
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Arch Culvert
Arch culvert is similar to pipe arch culvert but in this case an artificial floor is provided
below the arch. For narrow passages it is widely used. The artificial floor is made of concrete
and arch also made of concrete. Steel arch culverts are also available but very expensive.
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Bridge Culvert
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Bridge culverts are provided on canals or rivers and also used as road bridges for vehicles. For
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this culverts a foundation is laid under the ground surface. A series of culverts are laid and pavement
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surface is laid on top this series of culverts. Generally these are rectangular shaped culverts these can
replace the box culverts if artificial floor is not necessary.
5. Prepare a detailed estimate of a Septic tank with dispersion trench and calculate the quantities
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6. Prepare a detailed estimate of a septic tank with soak pit and calculate the quantities for.
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7. Explain in detail about sanitary fittings and its types and usages.
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9. Prepare a detail estimate for the construction of a highway for 1 km length for the given fig. below.
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UNIT III
PART A
In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors affecting the rate of that item are
wwstudied carefully and then finally a rate is decided for that item. This process of determining the rates of an
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item is termed as analysis of rates or rate analysis.
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2. Briefly illustrate the schedule of rates. (N/D 16)
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In its most simple form, a schedule of rates can be a list in a contract setting out the staff, labour
and plant hire rates the contractor will use for pricing cost reimbursable instructed daywork.
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However, on a much larger scale, a 'schedule of rates term contract', 'term contract' or 'measured
term contract' may be used when the nature of work required is known but it cannot be quantified, or if
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continuity of programme cannot be determined. In the absence of an estimate, tenderers quote unit rates
against a document that is intended to cover all likely activities that might form part of the works. As the
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extent of the work is unknown the unit rates include overheads and profit. General preliminaries such as
scaffolding, temporary power, supervision and temporary accommodation will also have rates. On projects
longer than say 18 months there might be escalation provisions based on annual percentage increases.
Types of Specifications
1. General Specifications
2. Detailed Specifications
General Specifications
In general specifications, nature and class of works and names of materials that should be used are described.
Only a brief description of each and every item is given. It is useful for estimating the project. The general
specifications do not form a part of contract document.
Detailed Specifications
The detailed specifications form a part of a contract document. They specify the qualities, quantities and
proportions of materials and the method of preparation and execution for a particular item of works in a project.
The detailed specifications of the different items of the work are prepared separately and they describe what the
work should be and how they shall be executed. While writing the detailed specifications, the same order
sequence as the work is to be carried out is to be maintained.
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Lump sum and scheduled contract.
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Cost plus fixed fee contract.
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Special contracts.
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5.write the essentials requirements of contract.
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• There must be an offer of one party, and its acceptance by the other party to make an agreement.
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• There must be an intention of both the parties to create legal relation.
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• The object of the contract must be legal, and it must not be opposed to any policy of the government or
company.
• The agreement to make a contract should be supported by consideration, or recongnised by law.
6.what are the types of contract?
1.Lump-sum contract
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2.Cost plus percentage of cost contract
3.Item rate contract
4.Labour contract
5.Integrated contracting system
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7.what are the important legal implications of a contract?
• Agreement should not violate the provisions of law.
• It should not have any adverse effect on the morals of the society
• The form of contract should be in writing and each page of the documents of the contract should of the
contract should be signed by both the parties.
• A contractor who refuse to carry out the work before completion can be sued in a court of law for breach of
contract.
8.What is specification?
Specification is an important document attached with a tender form/contract agreement, which in most cases
controls the quality of materials and works.
9.State the different types of specification.
1. General or brief specification
2. Detailed specification
3. Standard specification
General specification gives the nature and class of work and materials in general to be
used in the various parts of the works, from the foundation to the superstructure.
General specifications give idea of the whole work or structure and are useful for
preparing the estimate.
The detailed specifications form a part of the contract document. The detailed
specification of an item of the work specifies the qualities and quantities of materials
proportion of mortar workmanship, the method of preparation and execution and
method measurement.
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description what the work should be and how they should executed and constructed.
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12. What are the types of penalties that are imposed on a contract and why are they
imposed?
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Penalties may be imposed for non-fulfillment of conditions of contract such as not
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maintaining progress, deley in completion and unsatisfactory work etc. The penalty
may be fixed sum per day or a percentage of the estimated cost upto 10%
PART B
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1. Mention and describe the general specifications of a bituminous road.? (N/D 16)
1. INTRODUCTION:
The Indian Roads Congress published the first specifications for Bituminous Macadam in the year 1967. The
Flexible Pavement committee (EPC) in its meeting held on 10thFebruary, 2001 decided to revise the
specification to keep pace with the changes in the technology and improvements in the construction
SCOPE:
2.1 This specification deals with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed while laying
2.2 Bituminous macadam (BM) shall consist of mineral aggregate and appropriate binder, mixed in a hot mix
plant and laidwith a mechanizedpaver. It is an open graded mixture suitable for base course. It is laid in a single
course or in a multiple layers on a previously prepared base. Thickness of the single layer shall be 50 mm to
100 mm.
2.3 Since the bituminous macadam is an open-graded mixture there is a potential that it may trap water or
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moisture vapour within the pavement system. MATERIALS:
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3.1.1 The bitumen shall be viscosity graded paving bitumen complying with Indian Standard Specification for
paving bitumen,IS:73. The grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic conditions and the
traffic.
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SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM syE
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(a)All materials used in the work shall conform to the requirements of Section 401 or 306 as stated above.
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The aggregate requirements shall conform to Section 401 titled “Materials for Bituminous Mixtures and Surface
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Treatments” in these specifications. When a Special Wear Course is specified, the aggregates used in the
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Special Wear Course shall be 100 percent crushed mine trap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100
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(b)The bituminous material to be used in the work shall be asphalt type AC in the penetration grades 60-70, 85-
100, 120-150, 200-300. The penetration grade shall be designated by the Engineer in the Special Specifications.
(a) General: The paving mixtures shall be composed of homogenous mixture of coarse aggregate, fine
(b) Base Course: Aggregates to be used shall conform to the gradation requirements for gradation No. 1 of
“Aggregates for Bituminous Road Mix and Plant Mix Surfaces and Pavements” or Gradation No. 1 or
Gradation No. 2 of “Aggregates for Bituminous Base Course.” Bituminous material in the approximate
range of 4% to 7% of the composite mix, and as specifically determined by the Engineer on the basis of
(c) Surface Course: The aggregates, including mineral filler, shall conform to the gradation requirements
for Gradation No. 3 of “AggregateSpecifications”; except that Gradation No. 4 shall be used when
specifically required by the contract; or when the nominal thickness of a given layer or course to be
built as a separate operation is less than 1 ¼ inches; or when the characteristics of the material in the
deposit are of such a nature as to require crushing to a smaller size in order to obtain 45% or more of
particles retained on a No. 4 sieve having at least one surface or face producedby the fracture of a larger
particle. Special Wear Course: The Special Wear Course when specified in the Special Provisions;
and/or called for in the bid proposal; and/or as shown on the plans, shall be a ¾ inch thick (or a
ww thickness as specified) wearing course of hot plant mixed asphaltic concrete. The aggregate shall be 100
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percent crushed minetrap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100 percent crushed natural
gravel and shall be produced from material retained on a square mesh sleeve having an opening at least
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twice as large as the specification permit for the maximum size of the aggregate.
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(d) Uniformity: The aggregate constituents shall conform to the job-mix formula within the following
percentage tolerances:
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Aggregates passing on the No. 4 and Larger Sieves.............................+-7%
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Aggregates passing the No. 8 to No. 100 sieves.................................+-4%
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Aggregates passing the No. 200 sieve.............................................+-2%
10.1 Excavation shall be carried out in any material met on the site to the lines, levels and contours shown on
the detailed drawings and the Contractor shall remove all excavated materials to spoil heaps on site or transport
for use in filling on the site or stack them for reuse as directed:
10.2 Excavated material shall not be deposited with in 1.5m from the top edge of the excavation.
10.3 The sides of the excavation may be cut sloping, orshored and strutted to hold the face of earth
10.4 Foundation pits/trenches shall not be excavated to the full depth unless construction is imminent. The last
fifteen (15) cm depth of the excavation shall not be done until concreting work is imminent. The full depth may
at the discretion of the MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge be excavated and the bed covered with a fifty (50)mm
(minimum) thick (or as indicated on drawing) layer of lean concrete 1:4:8 mix (1 cement: 4 coarse sand: 8
crushed stone aggregate) or as specified in schedule of rates/shown on drawing, after watering if required, and
10.5 If the bottom of any excavation has been left exposed by the Contractor and in the opinion of the
MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge, that has become badly affected by the atmosphere or by water, then the
Contractor shall remove such portions of the deteriorated material as the MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge
may direct and shall make good with lean concrete 1:4:8 mix (1 Cement: 4 Coarse Sand: 8 Crushed Stone
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Aggregate). All expenses for such additional concrete and excavation shall be borne by the Contractor.
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10.6 Where excavation is made in excess of the depth required, the Contractor shall, at his own expense, fill
upto required level with lean concrete 1:4:8 mix (1 Cement : 4 Coarse Sand : 8 Crushed Stone aggregates ) or as
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decided by MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge.
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10.7 The Contractor shall provide suitable drainage arrangement to prevent surface water from any source
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accumulated water from any source (including subsoil water) in the excavated pits/trenches and keeping the
d) Forming (or leaving) ‘dead men’ or ‘tell-tales’ in borrow pits and their removal after measurements;
e) Forming (or leaving) steps in sides of deep excavation and their removal after measurements;
10.16.3 Special pumping other than what is included in 10.16.2 (h and i) and well point dewatering where
resorted to, shall each be measured separately, unless otherwise stated, in kilolitres of water against separate
10.16.4 The Contractor shall intimate to the MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge as soon as different
a) Joint levels shall be taken as to the levels of different soil classifications and volume worked out on the basis
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of levels only.
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b) Where levels of different strata cannot beclearly marked and defined the Contractor shall stack different soils
of various classifications separately for measurement purpose and then dispose it off.
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c) If the quantum of work involved in (b) above is extensively large & time consuming, then the total area may
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be divided into various zones and reasonable representative samples as in (b) above may be taken and quantities
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of soils of various classifications finalized for the entire zone based on the representative. If soil of any
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classification other than that specified in the Schedule of Rates is met with during excavation, the decision ofthe
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MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge as to the classification of soil, levels of the strata of different classifications
The bricks shall be of first class, regular in shape, size and colour.
The bricks should be free from flaws, cracks and lumps of any kind.
The bricks shall not absorb the water more than one sixth of the weight of the brick.
The sand used shall be medium coarse, clean, sharp, free from clay, mica and other organic matter.
The cement used shall satisfy the requirement of Bureau of Indian Standard.
The mortar is designated in specified proportion of cement and sand. The materials are weighed or
measured and mixed on watertight platform after allowing bulkage of sand.
The brickwork shall be raised 1m in height at a strength all round the building.
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Only fresh mortar within ½ hour for cement mortar, the time of adding water shall be used.
During rains, no brickwork is carried out when special arrangements are made.
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The brickwork shall be kept wet for atleast 10 days.
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Specification of 'Bricks Walls'
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Brick walls are probably the most common building elements in construction of a house in India. These
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walls form basic units for creating rooms that make up a house. The walls besides being space dividers are also
structural elements that transfer the load of the roof to the ground. Brick walls are constructed on strip spread or
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raft foundations that support the walls. The walls are constructed using bricks and mortar. These can also be
constructed with various structural qualities and thicknesses.
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Brickwork
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Brick walls are constructed by joining bricks with cement mortar in arrangements called English Bond,
Flemish Bond or Rat Trap Bond. These bonds give different external appearances to the wall. All construction
systems of brick walls are such devised that vertical cross joints in any layers are staggered. The bricks thus
bonded form a solid mass that does not split when the wall is loaded with live loads and dead loads.
First class brick work is made by using first class bricks and cement mortar. This brick work is used for
load bearing walls. It is made in rich mortar in which the cement and sand ratio is from 1:3 to 1: 6.
First class bricks are identified by their uniform color and a ringing sound when struck. The bricks are
equal in size and have even edges and surfaces. These bricks do not chip and don’t have any cracks. First class
bricks do not absorb water more than 1/6 of their weight. There is no salty residue when the bricks are dry. First
class bricks have a minimum crushing strength of 105.kg. Per sq. cm
Second class bricks work is made by using second class bricks and cement mortar. These bricks also
have the property of first class bricks but are not very regular or even in shape. These bricks should not be used
for load bearing walls for more than two storey buildings. Second class bricks have minimum crushing strength
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70.kg per sq. meter.
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Third Class Brick Work
Second class quality of bricks
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This type of brick work is made by using third class bricks and cement mortar or mud mortar. Third
class brick work is not made in any Govt. work. Generally this type of brick work is made for temporary work
in private sector.
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4. Illustrate the specifications for a septic tank? (M/J 16)
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Septic tank design specifications:
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These model septic design regulations discusses the design specifications for septic tanks, including septic tank
size requirements, septic tank cover access, septic tank characteristics, steel septic tanks, tanks for aerobic septic
systems, and related details.
We discuss septic tank materials, sizes, compartments, strengths, installation details, and special requirements
for fiberglass, polyethylene septic tanks, concrete septic tanks, and for aerobic treatment unit construction.
(1) Septic tank capacities shall be based upon the number of household bedrooms. An expansion attic
shall be considered as an additional bedroom.
Table 3 given below specifies the minimum septic tank capacities and minimum liquid surface areas
Table 3: Minimum Septic Tank Capacities & Properties Based on Number of Bedrooms
Minimum Liquid Surface Area
Number of Bedrooms Septic Tank Size (Gallons)
(Sq.Ft.)
1, 2, or 3 1000 27
4 1,250 34
5 1,500 40
6 1,750 47
(2) Septic tank covers shall always be accessible. Where manholes are more than 12 inches below final grade,
an extension collar shall be provided over each opening. Extension collars shall not be brought flush with the
ground surface unless the cover can be locked to prevent tampering. Driveways or other facilities shall not be
constructed above septic tanks unless specially designed and reinforced to safely carry the load imposed.
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(b) Design and Installation of Septic Tanks
(1) General Requirements for Septic Tanks.
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The following applies to all septic tanks regardless of material.
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(i) A minimum liquid depth of 30 inches. The maximum depth for determining the allowable design volume of
a tank shall be 60 inches. Deeper tanks provide extra sludge storage, but no credit shall be given toward design
volume.
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(ii) The minimum distance between the inlet and outlet shall be six feet. All tanks shall meet the minimum
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surface area requirement for the specific design volume specified in Table 3. The effective length of rectangular
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tanks should not be less than two nor greater than four times the effective width.
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(iii) Tanks must be watertight, constructed of durable material not subject to corrosion, decay, frost damage, or
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cracking. After installation, all septic tanks shall be able to support at least 300 pounds per square foot (psf).
(iv) Tanks with a liquid depth of 48 inches or more shall have a top opening with a minimum of 20 inches in the
shortest dimension to allow entry into the tank. Tanks with a liquid depth less than 48 inches shall have a top
opening that is at least 12 inches in the shortest dimension.
(v) Tanks shall have inlet and outlet baffles, sanitary tees or other devices to prevent the passage of floating
solids and to minimize disturbance of settled sludge and floating scum by sewage entering and leaving the tank.
Outlet designs such as gas deflection baffles are strongly recommended in all tanks. Inlet and outlet baffles shall
extend a minimum of 12 inches and 14 inches respectively, below the liquid level in tanks with a liquid depth of
less than 40 inches, and 16 and 18 inches respectively, in tanks with a liquid depth of 40 inches or greater. The
distance between the outlet baffle and the outlet shall not exceed six inches. Baffles shall be constructed of a
durable material not subject to corrosion, decay or cracking.
(vi) There shall be a minimum of one inch clearance between the underside of the top of the tank and the top of
all baffles, partition and/or tees to permit venting of tank gases. Multi-chamber and multi-tank systems shall
also be designed to permit the venting of tank gases.
(vii) Tanks shall be placed on at least a three inch bed of sand or pea gravel. This will provide for proper
leveling and bearing. Additional instructions provided by the manufacturer shall also be followed.
(viii) There shall be a minimum drop in elevation of two inches between the inverts of the inlet and outlet pipes.
(ix) Garbage grinders. An additional 250 gallons of capacity and seven square feet of surface area is required
when a garbage grinder can reasonably be expected at the time of construction or in the future. A gas deflection
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baffle or other acceptable outlet modification, and a dual compartment tank or two tanks in series must also be
provided.
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(2) Design Specifications for Concrete septic tanks
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(i) Concrete used for septic tank construction shall have a minimum compressive strength of 2,500 pounds per
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square inch (psi) at 28 days set; 3,000 psi concrete is recommended as a minimum.
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(ii) Wall thickness for concrete septic tanks shall be a minimum of three inches unless the design has been
certified by a New York licensed professional engineer as complying with all appropriate requirements for thin-
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wall construction. All walls, bottom and top shall contain reinforcing to assure support for 300 psi.
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(iv) The walls and floor of cast-in-place septic tanks shall be poured at the same time (monolithic pour).
Fiberglass or polyethylene (plastic) septic tanks must meet the following additional requirements:
(i) Fiberglass or polyethylene septic tanks shall not be installed in areas where the groundwater level can rise to
the level of the bottom of the septic tank.
(ii) Particular care must be taken during installation, bedding, and backfilling of Fiberglass or polyethylene
septic tanks so as to prevent damage to tank walls. The manufacturer's installation instructions shall be
followed.
(iii) All Fiberglass or polyethylene septic tanks should be sold by the manufacturer completely assembled. If,
because of size, the tank is delivered to the site in sections, all joints shall be sealed with watertight gaskets and
shall be tested for water tightness after installation, and prior to backfilling.
(3) Design specifications for Aerobic Septic Septic Tanks or Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs)
A homeowner may choose to install an aerobic unit instead of a septic tank under the following conditions:
(i) The aerobic treatment unit shall have a label indicating compliance with the standards for a Class I unit as
described in the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) Standard 40 or equivalent.
(ii) The rated capacity of the aerobic treatment unit shall be equal to or greater than the design flow as
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determined from Table 1.
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(iii) The absorption system that follows the aerobic treatment unit shall be sized in the exact same manner as it
would for a septic tank.
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(iv) aerobic treatment unit which do not include as a standard feature a service contract which provides for, as a
minimum, semiannual inspections and annual pumping for three years or more are prohibited.
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stamped with a seal. The seal represented that the parties intended the agreement to entail legal
consequences. No legal benefit or detriment to any party was required, as the seal was a symbol of the
solemn acceptance of the legal effect and consequences of the agreement. In the past, all contracts
were required to be under seal in order to be valid, but the seal has lost some or all of its effect by
statute in many jurisdictions. Recognition by the courts of informal contracts, such as implied
contracts, has also diminished the importance and employment of formal contracts under seal.
Express Contracts In an express contract, the parties state the terms, either orally or in writing, at the
time of its formation. There is a definite written or oral offer that is accepted by the offeree (i.e., the
person to whom the offer is made) in a manner that explicitly demonstrates consent to its terms.
Implied Contracts Although contracts that are implied in fact and contracts implied in law are both
called implied contracts, a true implied contract consists of obligations arising from a mutual
agreement and intent to promise, which have not been expressed in words. It is misleading to label as
an implied contract one that is implied in law because a contract implied in law lacks the requisites of
a true contract. The term quasi-contract is a more accurate designation of contracts implied in law.
Implied contracts are as binding as express contracts. An implied contract depends on substance for its
existence; therefore, for an implied contract to arise, there must be some act or conduct of a party, in
order for them to be bound.
A contract implied in fact is not expressed by the parties but, rather, suggested from facts and
circumstances that indicate a mutual intention to contract. Circumstances exist that, according to the
ordinary course of dealing and common understanding, demonstrate such an intent that is sufficient to
support a finding of an implied contract. Contracts implied in fact do not arise contrary to either the
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law or the express declaration of the parties. Contracts implied in law (quasi-contracts) are
distinguishable in that they are not predicated on the assent of the parties, but, rather, exist regardless
of assent.
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The implication of a mutual agreement must be a reasonable deduction from all of the circumstances
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and relations that contemplate parties when they enter into the contract or which are necessary to
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effectuate their intention. No implied promise will exist where the relations between the parties
prevent the inference of a contract.
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A contract will not be implied where it would result in inequity or harm. Where doubt and divergence
exist in the minds of the parties, the court may not infer a contractual relation-ship. If, after an
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agreement expires, the parties continue to perform according to its terms, an implication arises that
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they have mutually assented to a new contract that contains the same provisions as the old agreement.
A contract implied in fact, which is inferred from the circumstances, is a true contract, whereas a
contract implied in law is actually an obligation imposed by law and treated as a contract only for the
purposes of a remedy. With respect to contracts implied in fact, the contract defines the duty; in the
case of quasi-contracts, the duty defines and imposes the agreement upon the parties.
Executed and Executory Contracts An executed contract is one in which nothing remains to be done
by either party. The phrase is, to a certain extent, a misnomer because the completion of performances
by the parties signifies that a contract no longer exists. An executory contract is one in which some
future act or obligation remains to be performed according to its terms.
Bilateral and Unilateral Contracts The exchange of mutual, reciprocal promises between entities
that entails the performance of an act, or forbearance from the performance of an act, with respect to
each party, is a Bilateral Contract. A bilateral contract is sometimes called a two-sided contract
because of the two promises that constitute it. The promise that one party makes constitutes sufficient
consideration (see discussion below) for the promise made by the other.
A unilateral contract involves a promise that is made by only one party. The offeror (i.e., a person who
makes a proposal) promises to do a certain thing if the offeree performs a requested act that he or she
knows is the basis of a legally enforceable contract. The performance constitutes an acceptance of the
offer, and the contract then becomes executed. Acceptance of the offer may be revoked, however, until
the performance has been completed. This is a one-sided type of contract because only the offeror,
who makes the promise, will be legally bound. The offeree may act as requested, or may refrain from
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acting, but may not be sued for failing to perform, or even for abandoning performance once it has
begun, because he or she did not make any promises.
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Unconscionable Contracts An Unconscionable contract is one that is unjust or unduly one-sided in
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favor of the party who has the superior bargaining power. The adjective unconscionable implies an
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affront to fairness and decency. An unconscionable contract is one that no mentally competent person
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would accept and that no fair and honest person would enter into. Courts find that unconscionable
contracts usually result from the exploitation of consumers who are poorly educated, impoverished,
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and unable to shop around for the best price available in the competitive marketplace.
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The majority of unconscionable contracts occur in consumer transactions. Contractual provisions that
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indicate gross one-sidedness in favor of the seller include limiting damages or the rights of the
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purchaser to seek court relief against the seller, or disclaiming a Warranty (i.e., a statement of fact
concerning the nature or caliber of goods sold the seller, given in order to induce the sale, and relied
upon by the purchaser).
Unconscionability is ascertained by examining the circumstances of the parties when the contract was
made. This doctrine is applied only where it would be an affront to the integrity of the judicial system
to enforce such a contract.
Adhesion Contracts Adhesion contracts are those that are drafted by the party who has the greater
bargaining advantage, providing the weaker party with only the opportunity to adhere to (i.e., to
accept) the contract or to reject it. (These types of contract are often described by the saying "Take it
or leave it.") They are frequently employed because most businesses could not transact business if it
were necessary to negotiate all of the terms of every contract. Not all adhesion contracts are
unconscionable, as the terms of such contracts do not necessarily exploit the party who assents to the
contract. Courts, however, often refuse to enforce contracts of adhesion on the grounds that a true
meeting of the minds never existed, or that there was no acceptance of the offer because the purchaser
actually had no choice in the bargain.
Aleatory Contracts An aleatory contract is a mutual agreement the effects of which are triggered by
the occurrence of an uncertain event. In this type of contract, one or both parties assume risk. A fire
insurance policy is a form of aleatory contract, as an insured will not receive the proceeds of the policy
unless a fire occurs, an event that is uncertain to occur.
Void and Voidable Contracts Contracts can be either void or Voidable. A void contract imposes no
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legal rights or obligations upon the parties and is not enforceable by a court. It is, in effect, no contract
at all.
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A voidable contract is a legally enforceable agreement, but it may be treated as never having been
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binding on a party who was suffering from some legal disability or who was a victim of fraud at the
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time of its execution. The contract is not void unless or until the party chooses to treat it as such by
opposing its enforcement. A voidable contract may be ratified either expressly or impliedly by the
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party who has the right to avoid it. An express ratification occurs when that party who has become
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legally competent to act declares that he or she accepts the terms and obligations of the contract. An
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implied ratification occurs when the party, by his or her conduct, manifests an intent to ratify a
contract, such as by performing according to its terms. Ratification of a contract entails the same
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elements as formation of a new contract. There must be intent and complete knowledge of all material
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facts and circumstances. Oral Acknowledgment of a contract and a promise to perform constitute
sufficient ratification. The party who was legally competent at the time that a voidable contract was
signed may not, however, assert its voidable nature to escape the enforcement of its terms.
Elements of a Contract
The requisites for formation of a legal contract are an offer, an acceptance, competent parties who
have the legal capacity to contract, lawful subject matter, mutuality of agreement, consideration,
mutuality of obligation, and, if required under the Statute of Frauds, a writing.
Offer An offer is a promise that is, by its terms, conditional upon an act, forbearance, or return
promise being given in exchange for the promise or its performance. It is a demonstration of
willingness to enter into a bargain, made so that another party is justified in understanding that his or
her assent to the bargain is invited and will conclude it. Any offer must consist of a statement of
present intent to enter a contract; a definite proposal that is certain in its terms; and communication of
the offer to the identified, prospective offeree. If any of these elements are missing, there is no offer to
form the basis of a contract.
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relations. No contract is formed when prospective purchasers respond to such terms, as they are
merely invitations or requests for an offer. Unless this interpretation is employed, any person in a
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position similar to a seller who advertises goods in any medium would be liable for numerous
contracts when there is usually a limited quantity of merchandise for sale.An advertisement, price
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quotation, or catalogue is customarily viewed as only an invitation to a customer to make an offer and
not as an offer itself. The courts reason that an establishment might not have sufficient stock to satisfy
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potential demand and that it would not be reasonable for a customer to expect to form a binding
contract by responding to advertisements that are intended to make consumers aware of a product for
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sale. In addition, the courts have held that an advertisement is an offer for a unilateral contract that can
be revoked at the will of the offeror, the business enterprise, prior to performance of its terms.
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An exception exists, however, to the general rule on advertisements. When the quantity offered for
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sale is specified and contains words of promise, such as "first come, first served," courts enforce the
contract where the store refuses to sell the product when the price is tendered. Where the offer is clear,
definite, and explicit, and no matters remain open for negotiation, acceptance of it completes the
contract. New conditions may not be imposed on the offer after it has been accepted by the
performance of its terms.
An advertisement or request for bids for the sale of particular property or the erection or construction
of a particular structure is merely an invitation for offers that cannot be accepted by any particular bid.
A submitted bid is, however, an offer, which upon acceptance by the offeree becomes a valid contract.
Mistake in sending offer If an intermediary, such as a telegraph company, errs in the transmission of
an offer, most courts hold that the party who selected that method of communication is bound by the
terms of the erroneous message. The same rule applies to acceptances. In reaching this result, courts
regard the telegraph company as the agent of the party who selected it. Other courts justify the rule on
business convenience. A few courts rule that if there is an error in transmission, there is no contract,
on the grounds that either the telegraph company is an Independent Contractor and not the sender's
agent, or there has been no meeting of the minds of the parties. However, an offeree who knows, or
should know, of the mistake in the transmission of an offer may not take advantage of the known
mistake by accepting the offer; he or she will be bound by the original terms of the offer.
Termination of an offer An offer remains open until the expiration of its specified time period or, if
there is no time limit, until a reasonable time has elapsed. A reasonable time is determined according
to what a reasonable person would consider sufficient time to accept the offer.
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The death or insanity of either party, before an acceptance is communicated, causes an offer to expire.
If the offer has been accepted, the contract is binding, even if one of the parties dies thereafter. The
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destruction of the subject matter of the contract; conditions that render the contract impossible to
perform; or the supervening illegality of the proposed contract results in the termination of the offer.
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When the offeror, either verbally or by conduct, clearly demonstrates that the offer is no longer open,
the offer is considered revoked when learned by the offeree. Where an offer is made to the general
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public, it can be revoked by furnishing public notice of its termination in the same way in which the
offer was publicized.
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Irrevocable offers An option is a right that is purchased by a person in order to have an offer remain
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open at agreed-upon price and terms, for a specified time, during which it is irrevocable. It constitutes
an exception to the general rule that an offer may be withdrawn prior to acceptance. The offeror may
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not withdraw this offer because that party is bound by the consideration given by the offeree. The
offeree is free, however, to decide whether or not to accept the offer.
Most courts hold that an offer for a unilateral contract becomes irrevocable as soon as the offeree
starts to perform the requested act, because that action serves as consideration to prevent revocation of
the offer. Where it is doubtful whether the offer invites an act (as in the case of a unilateral contract) or
a promise (as in the case of a bilateral contract), the presumption is in favor of a promise, and
therefore a bilateral contract arises. If an offer to form a unilateral contract requires several acts, it is
interpreted as inviting acceptance by completion of the initial act. Performance of the balance
constitutes a condition to the offeror's duty of performance. Where such an offer invites only a single
act, it includes by implication a subsidiary promise to keep the offer open if the offeree will
commence performance. Some courts hold that an offer for a unilateral contract may be revoked at any
time prior to completion of the act bargained for, even after the offeree has partially performed
it.Rejection of an offer An offer is rejected when the offeror is justified in understanding from the
words or conduct of the offeree that he or she intends not to accept the offer, or to take it under further
advisement. Rejection might come in the form of an express refusal to accept an offer by a
counteroffer, which is a new proposal that rejects the offer by implication; or by a conditional
acceptance that operates as a counteroffer. The offer may continue, however, if the offeree expressly
states that the counteroffer shall not constitute a rejection of the offer.
If an offer is rejected, the party who made the original offer no longer has any liability for that offer.
The party who rejected the offer may not subsequently, at his or her own option, convert the same
offer into a contract by a subsequent acceptance. In such a case, the consent of the offeror must be
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obtained for a contract to be formed.
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Acceptance Acceptance of an offer is an expression of assent to its terms. It must be made by the
offeree in a manner requested or authorized by the offeror. An acceptance is valid only if the offeree
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knows of the offer; the offeree manifests an intention to accept; the acceptance is unequivocal and
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unconditional; and the acceptance is manifested according to the terms of the offer.
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The determination of a valid acceptance is governed by whether a promise or an act by the offeree was
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the bargained-for response. Since the acceptance of a unilateral contract requires an act rather than a
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promise, it is unnecessary to furnish notice of intended performance unless the offeror requested it. If,
however, the offeree has reason to believe that the offeror will not learn of the acceptance with
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reasonable promptness, the duty of the offeror is discharged unless the offeree makes a reasonable
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attempt to give notice; the offeror learns of the performance; or the offer indicates that no notice is
required.
In bilateral contracts, the offer is effective when the offeree receives it. The offeree may accept it until
the offeree receives notice of revocation from the offeror. Thereafter, an offer is revoked. Under the
majority rule, which is known as the "mailbox rule," an acceptance is effective upon dispatch if the
offeror explicitly authorizes that method of acceptance to be employed by the offeree, even if the
acceptance is lost or destroyed in transit.
The majority rule is inapplicable, however, unless the acceptance is properly addressed and postage
prepaid. It has no application to most option contracts, as acceptance of an option contract is effective
only when received by the offeror.
If the acceptance mode used by the offeree is implicitly authorized by the offeror, such as the selection
by the offeree of the same method used by the offeror, who neglected to designate a method of
communication, an acceptance is effective upon dispatch if it is correctly addressed and the expense of
its conveyance is prepaid. As with expressly authorized methods, the acceptance need not ever reach
the offeror in order to form the contract.
In some jurisdictions, the use of a method not expressly or impliedly authorized by the offeror, even if
more rapid in nature, results in a contract only upon receipt of the acceptance. In most jurisdictions,
however, if the acceptance mode is inherently faster, it is deemed to be an impliedly authorized means,
and acceptance is effective upon dispatch.
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If the acceptance is transmitted by an expressly or impliedly authorized method to the wrong address,
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it is effective only upon receipt by the offeror. A wrong address is any address other than that
implicitly authorized, even if the offeror were in a position to receive the acceptance at the substituted
address.
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An offeror who specifically states that there is no contract until the acceptance is received is entitled to
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insist upon the condition of receipt or upon any other provision concerning the manner and time of
acceptance specified.
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Rejection of the offer or revocation of conditional acceptance is effective upon receipt. A late or
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defective acceptance is treated as a counteroffer, which will not result in a contract unless the offeror
accepts it. If offers cross in the mail, there will be no binding contract, as an offer may not be accepted
if there is no knowledge of it.
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As a general rule, an offer may be accepted only by the offeree or an authorized agent. If, however, the
offer is contained in an option contract, it may be the subject of an assignment or transfer without the
consent of the offeror, unless the option involves a purchase on credit or expressly prohibits an
assignment.
In contracts that do not involve the sale of goods, acceptance must comply exactly with the
requirements of the offer (this is known as the "mirror-image rule"), and must omit nothing from the
promise or performance requested. An offer of a prize in a contest, for example, becomes a binding
contract when a contestant successfully complies with the terms of the offer. If a response to an offer
purports to accept it, but adds qualifications or conditions, then it is a counteroffer and not an
acceptance.
Acceptance may be inferred from the offeree's acts, conduct, or silence; but as a general rule, silence,
without more, can never constitute acceptance. The effect of silence accompanied by Ambiguity must
be ascertained from all the circumstances in the case.
Prior dealings between the parties may create a duty to act. Silence or the failure to take some action
under such circumstances might constitute acceptance. For example, if the parties have engaged in a
series of business transactions involving the mailing of goods and payment by the recipient, the
recipient will not be permitted to retain an article without paying for it within a reasonable time, due to
their prior dealings. A recipient who does not intend to accept the goods is under a duty to inform the
sender. Silence, where there is a duty to speak, prevents the offeree from rejecting an offer and the
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offeror from claiming that there is no acceptance. If ownership rights are exercised over an item, this
might be deemed an acceptance.
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Unsolicited goods At Common Law, the recipient of unsolicited goods in the mail was not required to
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accept or to return them, but if the goods were used, a contract and a concomitant obligation to pay for
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them were created. Today, in order to offer protection against unwanted solicitations, some state
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statutes have modified the common-law rule by providing that where unsolicited merchandise is
received as part of an offer to sell, the goods are an out-right gift. The recipient may use the goods and
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is under no duty to return or pay for them unless he or she knows that they were sent by mistake.
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7. Analysis of Rates in construction – Explain.
i ng.
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In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors affecting the rate of that item are studied
carefully and then finally a rate is decided for that item. This process of determining the rates of an
item is termed as analysis of rates or rate analysis.
1. Specifications of works and material about their quality, proportion and constructional operation
method.
4. Location of site of work and the distances from source and conveyance charges.
6. Profit
The costs of materials are taken as delivered at site inclusive of the transport local taxes and other
charges.
2. To work out the economical use of materials and processes in completing the particulars item.
3. To work out the cost of extra items which are not provided in the contract bond, but are to be done
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as per the directions of the department.
4. To revise the schedule of rates due to increase in the cost of material and labour or due to change in
technique.
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Cost of labour -types of labour, standard schedule of rates:
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The labour can be classified in to
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the Board of Chief Engineers. These rates are incorporated in the standard schedule of rates.
Lead statement: The distance between the source of availability of material and construction site is
known as “Lead ” and is expected in Km. The cost of conveyance of material depends on lead.
This statement will give the total cost of materials per unit item. It includes first cost, conveyance
loading, unloading stacking, charges etc.
The rate shown in the lead statement are for metalled road and include loading and staking charges.
The environment lead on the metalled roads are arrived by multiplying by a factor.
UNIT IV
PART A
Methods of Depreciation. Some of the most common methods used to calculate depreciation are
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depreciation method.
Straight-Line method.
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Units of Production method.
Sum-of-years-digits method,
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Double-declining Balance method. ngi
MACRS method.
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2. Define valuation? (N/D 16) i ng.
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Valuation is the process of determining the current worth of an asset or a company; there are many
techniques used to determine value. An analyst placing a value on a company looks at the company's
management, the composition of its capital structure, the prospect of future earnings and market value of
assets.
Gross income is an individual's income and receipts from nearly all sources. It is the starting point for
determining the taxes that individual will pay. Sources of gross income include salary, wages, tips, capital gains,
In financial accounting, scrap value is associated with the depreciation of assets used in a business. In
this situation, scrap value is defined as the expected or estimated value of the asset at the end of its useful life.
Tender notice is the publicity of offer to the contractor to quote their rates for construction for
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construction work or supplied. Sealed tenders are invited in the most open and public manner. It is
made public by advisement in leading newspaper, in the government gazette or by notice in English
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and in the regional languages in public places.
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6.What informations should a contract document contain?
1.Title page
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2.Index page
3.Tender notice and tender forms
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4.Schedule of quantities
5.Drawings
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6.General specifications
7.Detailed specification
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8.Schedule of issue of materials
9.Conditions of contract.
7. Define valuation
Valuation is the process of estimating the cost of a property based on its present condition. The
properties may be immovable properties like land, buildings, mines trees quarries etc., and movable
properties such as coal, oil, steel, cement, sand etc.
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9. What is the purpose of valuations?
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1. For assessment of wealth tax, property tax etc
2. For fixation of rent
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3. For security of loans or mortgage
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4. For insurance, betterment charges etc
5. For compulsory acquisition
6. For reinstatement. ngi
10. Define Floor rate.
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i ng.
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It is the ratio between the total built up area (Plinth area) of all floors and the area of the plot.
Floor Area Ratio = Total Plinth area of all floors / Plot area
Original cost of construction. It is used to find out the loss of value of property due to various
reasons.
The value of property decreases if its style and design are outdated i.e rooms not properly set, thick
walls, poor ventilation etc. The reason of this is fast changing techniques of construction, design, ideas
Total amount of the in come received from the property during the year, without deducting outgoings
PART B
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Depreciation Calculation Methods
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Various depreciation calculation methods are mentioned below:
i. Base Method
ii. Declining Balance Method
iii. Maximum Amount Method ngi
iv. Multi Level Method
v. Period Control Method n eer
Base Method- Base method primarily specifies:
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The Type of depreciation (Ordinary/ Special Depreciation)
Depreciation Method used (Straight Line/ Written Down value Method) ne
Treatment of the depreciation at the end of Planned useful life of asset or when the Net Book value of
asset is zero (Explained in detail later in other related transactions ).
This method involves applying the depreciation rate on the Net Book Value (NBV) of asset. In this method,
depreciation of the asset is done at a constant rate.
In this method depreciation charges reduces each successive period.
This method should be used in those assets, where high depreciation should be charged in initial years.
Assume the price of a depreciable asset i.e. computer is Rs.40,000 and its salvage value after 10 years is 0.
In this method NBV will never be zero.
Depreciation Per year = (1/N) Previous year’s value, Where N= No. of years
ww So in our example, the depreciation amount during the first year is [Rs. 40,000*1/10] =Rs. 4,000
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NBV of computer after 1st year= Rs 40,000- 4,000 = Rs. 36,000
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A multiplication factor for determining the depreciation percentage rate. The system multiplies the
depreciation percentage rate resulting from the total useful life by this factor.
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A lower limit for the rate of depreciation. If a lower depreciation percentage rate is produced from the
useful life, multiplication factor or number of units to be depreciated, then the system uses the minimum
percentage rate specified here.
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An upper limit for the rate of depreciation.If a higher depreciation percentage rate is produced from the
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useful life, multiplication factor or number of units to be depreciated, then the system uses the maximum
percentage rate specified here.
So for maintaining better control on the amount of depreciation, SAP has provided this method where
we can specify the maximum amount that can be charged as expense in a particular year. If this is
specified, user will not be able to post depreciation exceeding the amount specified here.
As the name itself suggests, this method provides the flexibility to specify different rate of depreciation for
different years/periods. E.g. in some cases depreciation rate required is different in initial years and after
that the rate should be changed. This can be achieved in SAP by using Multi level Method.
In this method, SAP provides us the possibility to specify different levels during the useful life of an asset.
Each level represents the period of validity of a certain percentage rate of depreciation. This percentage
rate is then replaced by the next percentage rate when its period of validity has expired. We can specify the
validity period for the individual levels of a asset in years and months.
It also provides the flexibility to us to choose the defined validity period, which can begins with
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The changeover year.
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2. Define the following : ngi
a. Type of lease
b. Mortgage
c. Escalation
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2. Operating Lease
In an operating lease, the lessee uses the asset for a specific period. The lessor bears the risk of obsolescence
and incidental risks. There is an option to either party to terminate the lease after giving notice. In this type of
leasing
This kind of lease is preferred where the equipment is likely to suffer obsolescence.
In leveraged and non-leveraged leases, the value of the asset leased may be of a huge amount which may not
be possible for the lessor to finance. So, the lessor involves one more financier who will have charge over the
leased asset.
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In Conveyance type lease, the lease will be for a long-period with a clear intention of conveying the ownership of
title on the lessee.
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asset but leases the asset to the seller. Thus, the seller of the asset becomes the lessee. The asset remains
with the seller who is a lessee but the ownership is with the lessor who is the buyer. This arrangement is done
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i ng.
A full pay-out lease is one in which the lessor recovers the full value of the leased asset by way of leasing. In
case of a non pay-out lease, the lessor leases out the same asset over and over again.
In non-net lease, the lessor is in charge of maintenance insurance and other incidental expenses. In a net lease,
the lessor is not concerned with the above maintenance expenditure. The lessor confines only to financial
service.
In case, the lessor enters into any tie up arrangement with manufacturer for the marketing, it is called sales aid
lease.
Lease across national frontiers are called cross border lease, Shipping, air service, etc., will come under this
category.
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Where the lease is not a loan on security but qualifies as a lease, it will be considered a tax oriented lease.
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lessor and the lessee may belong to the same country. The equipment is more or less imported.
A Mortgage: i ng.
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The terms “mortgage” and "home loan" are often used interchangeably. Technically, a mortgage is
the agreement that makes your home loan possible — not the loan itself. For real estate transactions,
agreements need to be in writing, and a mortgage is a document that (among other things) gives your lender the
Escalation.
Business accounting and planning should take into consideration the effect of inflation on costs.
Inflation is an essential consideration when a company manages multiple contracts that specify costs and
revenues based on a level of inflation determined at the time of the contract signing. Escalation comes into
play when the actual rate of inflation differs from the rate specified in the contract.
Scrap Value:
In financial accounting, scrap value is associated with the depreciation of assets used in a
business. In this situation, scrap value is defined as the expected or estimated value of the asset at
wwthe end of its useful life. Scrap value is also referred to as an asset's salvage value or residual value.
The following example illustrates how the scrap value is used.
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A business acquires equipment at a cost of Rs.150,000 and estimates that its scrap value will be
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Rs.10,000 at the end of its useful life of 7 years. The annual straight-line depreciation expense will be
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Rs.20,000 [(Rs.150,000 cost minus Rs.10,000 scrap value) divided by 7 years]. Accountants and
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U.S. income tax regulations often assume that for the depreciation calculation the asset will have no
scrap value. (If cash is received when the asset is scrapped, any amount that is in excess of the
asset's carrying value will be
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as a gain.)
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In cost accounting, scrap value often refers to the amount that a manufacturer will receive from
materials or products that will be scrapped.
Salvage value:
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Salvage value is the estimated resale value of an asset at the end of its useful life. Salvage value
is subtracted from the cost of a fixed asset to determine the amount of the asset cost that will be
depreciated. Thus, salvage value is used as a component of the depreciation calculation.
For example, ABC Company buys an asset for Rs.100,000, and estimates that its salvage value
will be Rs.10,000 in five years, when it plans to dispose of the asset. This means that ABC will depreciate
Rs.90,000 of the asset cost over five years, leaving Rs.10,000 of the cost remaining at the end of that time.
ABC expects to then sell the asset for Rs.10,000, which will eliminate the asset from ABC's accounting
records.
If it is too difficult to determine a salvage value, or if the salvage value is expected to be minimal,
then it is not necessary to include a salvage value in depreciation calculations. Instead, simply depreciate
the entire cost of the fixed asset over its useful life. Any proceeds from the eventual disposition of the asset
would then be recorded as a gain.
The salvage value concept can be used in a fraudulent manner to estimate a high salvage value
for certain assets, which results in the under-reporting of depreciation and therefore of higher profits than
would normally be the case.
ww Market Value
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Market value refers to the current or most recently-quoted price for a market-traded security. It can
also refer to the most probable price an asset, like a house, would fetch on the open market.
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How it works (Example):
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The market value of an asset is determined by fluctuations in supply and demand. It should be
noted that market value represents what someone is willing to pay for an asset -- not the value it is offered
for or intrinsically worth.
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For example, say a person is selling their house for $300,000. However, no one is willing to buy
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the home for more than $250,000. In this case, even though the house is being offered at a higher price, its
market value is $250,000.
Why it Matters:
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One of the most important factors when purchasing a security is its market value. Many investors
(especially value investors) pick securities or assets based on disconnects between market value and what
they perceive the security is worth, hoping they might have uncovered a future star for a discount price.
Land valuation could be described as the process by which the valuation of the land is ascertained. It is
done according to the market value of that place and according to the norms of property tax of that area.
Methods for valuation of land are enormous and none of them comes without disadvantages. These
methods are solely dependent on the fact that is behind your motto of valuation. Whether you are buying, selling
or building, you need to do valuation in each case and the process differs for each of them. Whatever the
regular misconception prevails but it is also true that the type of method will alter the value of your land.
Generally before applying any method people check the Open Market Value of that property which
doesn’t give the real value of that land but provide a rough estimation of land if to be sold at that span of time. It
is not a mathematical valuation but surely gives you a rough valuation which is near to the real one.There are
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many methods of calculation but the popular ones are:
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a) Comparable Method – It is a process in which the valuation of a land is done by comparing it with
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the valuation of same type of land or property in the same area. Though it is the most common one but as it is
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completely based on the assumption and ignore the other factors such as condition of the land/property, if any
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other asset is provided with the land and so on. It reflects the open market value and the real price may go high
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based on their income. Taxes, repair cost, vacancy period and other factors are also taken into consideration.
After the tenure is finished the ownership shifts to the buyer and then he/she could sell it.
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c) Investment Method – This method takes into consideration the yield generated from the selected
property and the market value of same. More yields means the possibility of ROI is more. It is useful if you are
comparing it to decide in which pocket you should invest- property, equity, bonds, fixed deposits etc.
d) Residual Method – It is used to decide whether investment on this land will be fruitful or not. The
formula that is used here is, value of finished project= value of same project in present condition. Open market
value is also necessary here in order to get residual value. Calculation of cost that is involved in developing a
e) Cost Method – The calculation of certain land is done via base value that takes into consideration all
the cost that is involved in building. Base cost often provides a good stand for measuring all calculation.
It is noticed that the estimation of open market value is necessary in all the above cases and if the buyer
is not a local resident than he/she my face many problems. A good Liaison Consultant is the answer to all your
problems that do all the research work regarding the prevailing market price or the estimated increase/ decrease
in price or the returns that could be earned from it. Land Valuation is a very crucial stage before you decide to
buy or sell any property and it should be done with proper care.
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5. Explain about Valuation of Properties.?
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The Sales Comparison Approach
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The sales comparison approach (SCA) is one of the most recognizable forms of valuing residential real estate.
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This approach is simply a comparison of similar homes that have sold or rented over a given time period. Most
investors will want to see an SCA over a significant time frame to glean any potentially emerging trends.
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The SCA relies on attributes to assign a relative price value. Price per square foot is a common and easy to
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understand metric that all investors can use to determine where there property should be valued.
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If a 2,000 square foot townhome is renting for $1/square foot, investors can reasonably expect a similar rental
income based upon similar rentals in the area. Keep in mind that SCA is somewhat generic; that is, every home
has a uniqueness that isn't always quantifiable. Buyers and sellers have unique tastes and differences. The SCA
is meant to be a baseline or reasonable opinion and not a perfect predictor or valuation tool for real estate.
It is also important for investors to use a certified appraiser or real estate agent when requesting a comparative
market analysis. This mitigates risk of fraudulent appraisals, which became widespread during the 2007 real
estate crisis. (For related reading, see Valuing A Real Estate Property.)
The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is a more comprehensive valuation tool for real estate. The CAPM
introduces the concepts of risk and opportunity cost as it applies to real estate investing. This model looks at
potential return on investment (ROI) derived from rental income and compares it to other investments that have
no risk, such as United States Treasury bonds or alternative forms of real estate investments such as real estate
investment trusts (REITs).
In a nutshell, if the expected return on a risk-free or guaranteed investment exceeds potential ROI from rental
income, it simply doesn't make financial sense to take the risk of rental property. With respect to risk, the CAPM
considers the inherent risks to rent real property.
For example, all rental properties are not the same. Location and age of property are key considerations.
Renting older property will mean landlords will likely incur higher maintenance expenses. A property for rent in a
high crime area will likely require more safety precautions than a rental in a gated community.
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This model suggests factoring in these "risks" before considering your investment or when establishing a rental
pricing structure. (CAPM helps you determine what return you deserve for putting your money at risk. For more,
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see The Capital Asset Pricing Model: An Overview.)
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investment. The income approach is used frequently for commercial real estate investing.
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The income approach relies on determining the annual capitalization rate for an investment. This rate is the
projected annual income from the gross rent multiplier divided by the current value of the property. So if an office
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building costs $120,000 to purchase and the expected monthly income from rentals is $1,200, the expected
annual capitalization rate is:
Many investors are familiar with the net present value of money. This concept applied to real estate is also
known as a discounted cash flow. Dollars received in the future will be subject to inflationary as well as
deflationary risk and are presented in discounted terms to account for this. (For related reading, see How
Interest Rates Affect Property Values.)
The cost approach to valuing real estate states that property is only worth what it can reasonably be used for. It
is estimated by summing the land value and the depreciated value of any improvements.
Appraisers from this school often espouse the "highest and best" use to summarize the cost approach to real
property. It is frequently used as a basis to value vacant land.
For example, if you are an apartment developer looking to purchase three acres of land in a barren area to
convert into condominiums, the value of that land will be based upon the best use of that land. If the land is
surrounded by oil fields and the nearest person lives 20 miles away, the best use and therefore the highest
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value of that property is not converting to apartments, but possibly expanding drilling rights to find more oil.
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Another best use argument has to do with property zoning. If the prospective property is not zoned "residential,"
its value is reduced since the developer will incur significant costs to get rezoned.
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UNIT V
PART A
Job analysis (also known as work analysis) is a family of procedures to identify the content of a job in
terms of activities involved and attributes or job requirements needed to perform the activities.
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Labour, materials, machinery, transport, overheads and profit) of work and pricing them.
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2. What are the principles of report preparation? (N/D 16)
A good reporting system helps the management in proper planning and controlling. If the reports are
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available to every level of management at the proper time, current activities may be regulated and controlled
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and necessary corrective actions may also be taken in time. Hence, some principles have been followed for
2. Friendly Neighborhood
3. Available Facilities
4. Government Laws
6. Terrain Condition
Worksheet commonly refers to a sheet of paper with questions for students and places to record
answers. The term may also refer to a single array of data in spreadsheet software or an informal piece of
Informal document in which an accountant or auditor records the information for (1) adjusting trial balances
prior to preparing financial statements, or to (2) substantiate his or her opinion regarding an account
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balance or a transaction.
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4.What are the types of Arbitration?
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1.Arbitration with out intervention of court.
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2.Arbitration with intervention of court and thre is no suit pending
3.Arbitration is suits.
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5. Define Engineer:
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He is the person appointed by the owner. He is technically very sound in work an
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his job is to see that the work is being done by contractor entirely according to drawings
and specification
6. Define Owner:
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The person of behalf of which work is to be done . He may be an individual or
firm or organization .
7.Define Site:
8.Define Drawings:
The section, map, plans etc… which completely define the construction work
9. Define work:
Arbitration is the settlement of a dispute by the decision not of a court or law but
of one or more persons chosen by the parties themselves involved in the dispute.
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Annuity : The return of capital investment in the shape of annual installments
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12. Define the Obsolescence:
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The value of property decreases if its style and design are outdated i.e rooms not
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properly set, thick walls, poor ventilation etc. The reason of this is fast changing
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techniques of construction, design, ideas leading to more comfort etc.
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some amount can be fetched from the sale of old materials. The amount is known as
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scrap value of a building. If various from 7% to 10% of the cost of construction
If a property after being discarded at the end of the utility period is sold without
being into pieces, the amount thus realized by sale is known as its salvage value.
prevailing rate will be equal to the net income received from the property. To calculate
the capitalized value, it is necessary to know highest prevailing on such properties and
A fund which is gradually accumulated and set aside to reconstruct the property
after the expiry of the period of utility is known as sinking fund. The sinking funds may
be found out by taking a sinking fund policy with any insurance company or deposition
some amount in the bank. Generally while calculating the sinking fund, life of the
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left out as scrap value.
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Market value: The market value of a property is the amount, which can be
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obtained at any particular time from the open market if the property is put for sale. The
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market value will differ from time to time according to demand and supply.
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necessary depreciations. The book value of a property at a particularly year is the original
income from a property gives capitalized value of the property.It can also be defined as
“a certain amount of capital whose annuity of Rs.1/- at a certain rate of interest can be
received”
PART B
1. Explain the report on estimation for construction of bituminous roads? (N/D 16)
1. INTRODUCTION:
The Indian Roads Congress published the first specifications for Bituminous Macadam in the year 1967. The
Flexible Pavement committee (EPC) in its meeting held on 10thFebruary, 2001 decided to revise the
specification to keep pace with the changes in the technology and improvements in the construction
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procedures as well as quality control expectations.
SCOPE:
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2.1 This specification deals with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed while laying
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plant and laidwith a mechanizedpaver. It is an open graded mixture suitable for base course. It is laid in a single
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course or in a multiple layers on a previously prepared base. Thickness of the single layer shall be 50 mm to
100 mm.
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2.3 Since the bituminous macadam is an open-graded mixture there is a potential that it may trap water or
3.1.1 The bitumen shall be viscosity graded paving bitumen complying with Indian Standard Specification for
paving bitumen,IS:73. The grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic conditions and the
traffic.
(a)All materials used in the work shall conform to the requirements of Section 401 or 306 as stated above.
The aggregate requirements shall conform to Section 401 titled “Materials for Bituminous Mixtures and Surface
Treatments” in these specifications. When a Special Wear Course is specified, the aggregates used in the
Special Wear Course shall be 100 percent crushed mine trap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100
(b)The bituminous material to be used in the work shall be asphalt type AC in the penetration grades 60-70, 85-
100, 120-150, 200-300. The penetration grade shall be designated by the Engineer in the Special Specifications.
(a) General: The paving mixtures shall be composed of homogenous mixture of coarse aggregate, fine
(b) Base Course: Aggregates to be used shall conform to the gradation requirements for gradation No. 1 of
ww “Aggregates for Bituminous Road Mix and Plant Mix Surfaces and Pavements” or Gradation No. 1 or
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Gradation No. 2 of “Aggregates for Bituminous Base Course.” Bituminous material in the approximate
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range of 4% to 7% of the composite mix, and as specifically determined by the Engineer on the basis of
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laboratory tests, shall be incorporated into the mixture.
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(c) Surface Course: The aggregates, including mineral filler, shall conform to the gradation requirements for
Gradation No. 3 of “AggregateSpecifications”; except that Gradation No. 4 shall be used when
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specifically required by the contract; or when the nominal thickness of a given layer or course to be built
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as a separate operation is less than 1 ¼ inches; or when the characteristics of the material in the
deposit are of such a nature as to require crushing to a smaller size in order to obtain 45% or more of
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particles retained on a No. 4 sieve having at least one surface or face producedby the fracture of a
larger particle. Special Wear Course: The Special Wear Course when specified in the Special
Provisions; and/or called for in the bid proposal; and/or as shown on the plans, shall be a ¾ inch thick
(or a thickness as specified) wearing course of hot plant mixed asphaltic concrete. The aggregate shall
be 100 percent crushed minetrap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100 percent crushed
natural gravel and shall be produced from material retained on a square mesh sleeve having an
opening at least twice as large as the specification permit for the maximum size of the aggregate.
(d) Uniformity: The aggregate constituents shall conform to the job-mix formula within the following
percentage tolerances:
2. Write a report on estimate for construction of cement concrete roads? (N/D 16)
Cement concrete road construction is one of the types of low volume road construction. We know that the
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construction of the road is mostly dependent upon the factor like amount traffic that is to be handled by the
road after its completion. On most of the village roads connecting small villages in the rural areas of the
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country, the type of vehicular traffic is quite different from the traffic on other highways. The traffic passing on
a road can be categorized into three categories as light commercial traffics, medium commercial traffics and
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heavy commercial traffics, but the frequency of each class of traffic varies with the road.
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The sub-grade of low volume roads like cement concrete roads may be constructed using local soil
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available along road alignment, provided the specified minimum requirements are fulfilled. The total thickness
of the prepared sub-grade is limited to 300 mm.
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General Feature of Cement Concrete Road Construction for Low Volume Roads eer
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As we have already discussed earlier that cement concrete roads are a type low volume roads, but
the design life a road is expected to be between 1,00,000 & 10,00,000 then an appropriate design and
construction of a cement concrete road may be considered. The thickness requirement of cement concrete
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among all the types it does have consideration for its implementation. For example, when the ESAL during
road construction of low volume road is much lesser in comparison with those for the national and state
highways, as the expected magnitude of wheel loads and their repetition are much smaller. In general, the
thickness of cement concrete roads lies between 160 mm – 190 mm but the thickness of state highways and
national highways varies between 250 mm – 330 mm, this may be because the design of cement concrete
roads is done for a minimum life of 20 years, after carefully deciding the designing wheel load.
The main components of cement concrete road construction are subgrade, granular sub base
course, cement concrete slab, and joints. The sub-grade of total thickness 300 mm is constructed using well
graded coarse-grained soil or soil- aggregate mix or stabilized soil. Fixed form method of construction of
cement concrete road is adopted. M40 mix may be preferred even for the construction of cement concrete
road for low volume roads, as the flexural strength of concrete will be higher resulting in lesser slab thickness
and consequent reduction in warping stresses. After the cement concrete pavement, it is joint that follows the
list of components.
There are three types of joints namely construction joints, expansion joints and contraction joint. The
transverse contraction joints are to be provided in the form of dummy groove joints up to a depth of one-
fourth to one-third of slab thickness. The spacing between the contraction joints may preferably be equal to
the width of the single lane pavement, i.e. 3.75 m.
The contraction joints may be formed by cutting grooves 6 to 8 hours after laying; the grooves may
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also be formed by pressing a mild steel T-section into the fresh concrete. At expansion joints and
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construction joints in cement concrete roads, load transfer dowel bars of 25 mm diameter, 500 m length and
250 mm spacing may be installed. There is no need to provide longitudinal joints, as these roads have single
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lane pavement; however at a location of cross drainage structure, if the paved width exceeds 4.5 m width, a
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longitudinal joint has to be provided, similar to the contraction joint. The joints are sealed using rubberized
bitumen compound. At expansion joints, joint sealing is done after compressibility synthetic filter board.
The basic component materials for the cement concrete road construction are consists of Portland
cement, coarse aggregate, water, admixture and also steel is used at the joints, in the form of dowel bars and
tie bars.
Portland Cement
The type of cement that may be used for the preparation of PQC and construction of cement
concrete road construction pavement are:-
The coarse aggregate that is used for PQC of cement concrete road construction should fulfill the
following requirements apart from this the maximum size being limited to 31.5 mm.
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Water absorption Less than 3.0 percent
sodium sulphate a
Soundness test after five cycles: loss with
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fine aggregate shall be from clay, coal and lignite. The fine aggregate shall be well graded, with 100 percent
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passing 10 mm sieve. The IRC has suggested four gradations of fine aggregate for the preparation of the
PQC mix.
Water
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Water used for mixing of the cement concrete, and also that used for curing of the cement concrete
road construction shall be clean and portable. The water should be free from salt, acid, oil and other organic
matter.
Commonly used chemical admixture in the cement concrete road construction are:
(i) To improve the workability of the concrete; a suitable air entraining agent may be used.
(ii) To provide an adequate extension of setting time of the concrete mix without adversely affecting the other
desirable properties of the concrete; super-plasticizers which retard the setting time may be used. The total
quality of chemical admixture used is limited to a maximum of 2.0 %by weight of the cement or used.
Steel
Steel dowel bars with yield strength 2400 kg/sq. cm or 240 Mpa is used for the load transfer across
in the expansion joints and construction joints of cement concrete roads. Plan or twisted steel bars are used
as tie bars at longitudinal joints. All steel rods shall be coated with epoxy paint for protection against
corrosion.
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3. Explain the report on estimation for construction of Water bound macadam roads? (M/J 16)
1. INTRODUCTION: w.E
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The Indian Roads Congress published the first specifications for Bituminous Macadam in the year 1967. The
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Flexible Pavement committee (EPC) in its meeting held on 10thFebruary, 2001 decided to revise the
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specification to keep pace with the changes in the technology and improvements in the construction
SCOPE:
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2.1 This specification deals with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed while laying
plant and laidwith a mechanizedpaver. It is an open graded mixture suitable for base course. It is laid in a single
course or in a multiple layers on a previously prepared base. Thickness of the single layer shall be 50 mm to
100 mm.
2.3 Since the bituminous macadam is an open-graded mixture there is a potential that it may trap water or
3.1.1 The bitumen shall be viscosity graded paving bitumen complying with Indian Standard Specification for
paving bitumen,IS:73. The grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic conditions and the
traffic.
(a)All materials used in the work shall conform to the requirements of Section 401 or 306 as stated above.
The aggregate requirements shall conform to Section 401 titled “Materials for Bituminous Mixtures and Surface
Treatments” in these specifications. When a Special Wear Course is specified, the aggregates used in the
Special Wear Course shall be 100 percent crushed mine trap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100
(b)The bituminous material to be used in the work shall be asphalt type AC in the penetration grades 60-70, 85-
100, 120-150, 200-300. The penetration grade shall be designated by the Engineer in the Special Specifications.
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COMPOSITION OF PAVING MIXUTRES:
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(a) General: The paving mixtures shall be composed of homogenous mixture of coarse aggregate, fine
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aggregate, mineral filler, and bituminous material.
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(b) Base Course: Aggregates to be used shall conform to the gradation requirements for gradation No. 1 of
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“Aggregates for Bituminous Road Mix and Plant Mix Surfaces and Pavements” or Gradation No. 1 or
Gradation No. 2 of “Aggregates for Bituminous Base Course.” Bituminous material in the approximate
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range of 4% to 7% of the composite mix, and as specifically determined by the Engineer on the basis of
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Gradation No. 3 of “AggregateSpecifications”; except that Gradation No. 4 shall be used when
specifically required by the contract; or when the nominal thickness of a given layer or course to be built
as a separate operation is less than 1 ¼ inches; or when the characteristics of the material in the
deposit are of such a nature as to require crushing to a smaller size in order to obtain 45% or more of
particles retained on a No. 4 sieve having at least one surface or face producedby the fracture of a
larger particle. Special Wear Course: The Special Wear Course when specified in the Special
Provisions; and/or called for in the bid proposal; and/or as shown on the plans, shall be a ¾ inch thick
(or a thickness as specified) wearing course of hot plant mixed asphaltic concrete. The aggregate shall
be 100 percent crushed minetrap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100 percent crushed
natural gravel and shall be produced from material retained on a square mesh sleeve having an
opening at least twice as large as the specification permit for the maximum size of the aggregate.
(d) Uniformity: The aggregate constituents shall conform to the job-mix formula within the following
percentage tolerances:
4. Examine the report on estimation for construction of Small bridge? (M/J 16)
ww The procedure adopted to lay out any given bridge is site specific. The site shall be carefully studied
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and the method adopted shall give the greatest accuracy of measurement, and the best chance to check
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important measurements by alternative methods. All principle marks shall be located away from the construction
operations and well referenced to avoid being disturbed during construction. Preference shall be given to the
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intersection angles obtained. In spite of the relatively large allowable error in the location of piers, great care
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taken to locate them as accurately as possible since there is always the possibility that lack of accuracy
in the formwork, or movement of the formwork will throw the pier further out of position. The important
dimensions, such as centre to centre of anchor bolts, and face to face of ballast walls shall be checked on the
formwork immediately before and during the placement of concrete. Regardless of the method used previously
to lay out the structure, these important dimensions shall be checked by direct measurement whenever possible.
For this purpose, it is advisable to run two lines coinciding with the centre lines of each outer stringer or truss,
and to measure anchor bolts centres, etc. on each line. This not only measures the important dimensions
directly, but also provides a check on the orientation of the piers and abutments.
It is a good idea to scribe a line on the surface of the concrete into which a tack can be driven to mark
the centres of anchor bolt groups, centres of piers, abutments, etc. The points are useful in checking the work,
after it is built, and are useful in setting the superstructure when erection commences. The main substructure
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dimensions shall always be carefully checked after construction and any discrepancies from the dimensions
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called for on the plans shall be reported immediately to the Project Manager and Manager of Bridge
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Construction. If discrepancies are reported promptly, it is usually possible to make the necessary alternations in
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the superstructure before it is shipped to the site. Site modifications are difficult and expensive.
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All distanc es shall be measured several times and the true distance is then taken as the average of all
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measurements taken. Every opportunity shall be taken to check the work, and an entirely independent check by