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CE 6407 ESTIMATION AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

UNIT I
PART A

1. Define estimate. (N/D 16)

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An estimate is a calculation of the quantities of various items of work, and the expenses likely to be

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incurred there on. The total of these probable expenses to be incurred on the work is known as

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estimated cost of the work. The estimated cost of a work is a close approximation of its actual cost.

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Estimating is the most important of the practical aspects of construction management.

2. Name the types of estimate. (N/D 16)


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The estimates may be divided in to the following catagories:- i ng.
(1) Preliminary or Approximate estimate.

(2) Rough cost estimate based on plinth area.


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(3) Rough cost estimate based on cubic contents.

(4) Detailed estimate.

(5) Annual repair estimate.

(6) Special repair estimate.

(7) Revised estimate

(8) Supplementary estimate.

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3. Show the contents of abstract estimate (M/J 16)

In the end of the detailed quantities, an abstract of cost giving quantities of

each item and rate of every item according to the sanctioned schedule of rates shall

be attached. In case of non-schedule rates i.e. rates which are not given in the

wwsanctioned schedule of rates, proper analysis of rates shall be attached. If however

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the work proposed to be constructed is located in a remote place, the provision for

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the carriage of the material shall be added in the estimate to avoid any excess over

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the administratively approved estimate later on. Detailed specifications & report

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should also be attached with the estimate. Technical sanction is given on detailed

estimate.
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4. Describe centre line method. (M/J 16)
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This method is suitable only if the offsets are symmetrical and the building is more or less

rectangular in shape. The centre line of the building is determined carefully after doing

deductions for repeated measurements (as explained in the next problem). This centre line

acts as length for the complete calculations of the estimate. If the deduction is not cared for

the results of estimates may be wrong. All the walls should have the same section.

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5. Write the duties of quantity surveyor.

• Preparing bill of quantities (Taking off, squaring,Abstractingand billing)

• Preparing bills for part payments at intervals during the execution of work.

• Preparing bill of adjustment in the case of variations ordered during the execution of work

• Giving legal advice in case of court proceedings

6. Define quantity surveyor

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A qualified or experienced person who does the above mentioned works (taking off, squaring,

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abstracting and billing) is called a quality surveyor.

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7. Write the essential qualities of a good surveyor..

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• The quality surveyor must be well versed with the drawings of work.

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• He should be able to read the drawing correctly and bill the quantities accurately

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• He should have a through knowledge of the construction procedure to be adopted, the

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various items of works involved in the execution: and the different materials to be used in the

work.

• He should be able to prepare schedule to be priced by tenderor.


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8. Briefly explain about preliminary Estimate.

The estimate which prepared using any rough method to get the approximatecost construction

anticipated in a project is called an approximate or rough estimate. Since this estimate is normally

prepared in the preliminary estimate.

9..What are methods to be adopted for volume calculating?

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• From cross-section

• From spot level

• From contours

10.Define analysis of rates.

Determination of rates of works from the qualities and cost of materials and labours required is

termed as analysis of rates

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11.what are the methods of estimate?

1.Detailed estimate

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2. Abstract estimate
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12. Define Abstract estimate
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This is the third and final stage in a detailed estimate. The quantities and rates of

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each item of work, arrived in the first two stages, are now entered in an abstract form.

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The total cost of each item of work is now calculated by multiplying the quantities and

respective rates.

13.Briefly explain about revised estimate

The estimate, which is prepared • When any major change or alteration is made in the plan /

structural arrangement, with or without affecting the estimate cost, and When the estimated cost

is likely to exceed by more than 5% during execution, due to increase in the cost of materials and

labour or due to increase in the cost of materials and labour or due to alterations in the items of

works to get the revised quantities /rates/ amount is called a revised estimate

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14.What are the methods of taking out estimates?

• Centre line method

• Crossing method

• Out to Out and in to in method

• Bay method

• Service unit method

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15. Briefly explain about Out to Out and in to in method.

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This method is most practicable under all circumstances and is generally followed in the P.W.D

for computing the quantities of various items.

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16. Briefly explain about bay method.
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This method is useful and is generally followed in case of buildings having several bays. The

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cost of the typical bay is worked out and is then multiplied by the number of bays in that building.

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The extra cost for the end walls and difference in framing, if there is any, should be made, so as

to arrive at the correct cost


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17.What are the methods of measurements of earthwork?

The work shall be measured as given below

• Each dimension shall measured nearest to 0.01

• Area shall be worked out nearest to 0.01 m2

• Volume shall be worked out nearest to 0.01 m3

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PART B

1. Briefly explain various types of estimates in detail. (N/D 16)

TYPES OF ESTIMATES The estimates may be divided in to the following

catagories:-

(1) Preliminary or Approximate estimate.

(2) Rough cost estimate based on plinth area.

(3) Rough cost estimate based on cubic contents.

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(4) Detailed estimate.

(5) Annual repair estimate.

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(6) Special repair estimate.

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(7) Revised estimate

(8) Supplementary estimate.


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1. Preliminary or Approximate estimate
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This estimate is prepared to decide financial aspect, policy and to give idea of the

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cost of the proposal to the competent sanctioning authority. It should clearly show the

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necessity of the proposal and how the cost has been arrived at The calculations for

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approximate estimate can be done with the following data. The data can be had from a

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similar construction already complete in the nearby area, excuted by the department.

For example: To calculate approximate estimate for a Hospital, per bed cost is

calculated from the recent campleted hospital and is multiplied with the number of

beds required. Similarly for a house, per square metre plinth area is calculated and is

multiplied with the proposed covered area. The specifications should also be same.

For a road, expenditure of per kilometer length is taken, width also plays the role. The

following documents should be attached with it. (a) Detailed report (b) Site plan of

the proposal (c) It should also clearly mention about the acquisition of land, Provision

of electric and water supply etc.

2. Plinth area Estimate (Based on Rough Cost)

Plinth area of a building means Length x Breadth ( roofed portion only )

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excluding plinth offsets. The estimates are prepared on the basis of plinth areas of the

various buildings proposed to be constructed. The rates are being arrived at the

dividing the total cost of construction with its plinth area. For example if total cost of

a building is Rs. 2 lac and its plinth area is 50 sq. m. then plinth area rate =2,00,000

= Rs.4000/- per 50 sq.m. Using this rate as basis of the next construction,

approximate or rough cost of the proposal can be arrived at by multiplying the plinth

area of the proposed building with this plinth area rate. The following documents are

attached with the estimate. (a) Line plan with brief specifications. (b) Cost of various

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services added i.e. electric and water supply etc. (c) North line should be shown

clearly on line plan.

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3. Cubic Contents Estimate (Based on Rough Cost)

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The cubic contents of a building means plinth area x height of the building. The

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height is taken from top of floor level to top of roof. The cubic contents of the

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proposed building are multiplied with cubic rates arrived at for the similar

construction i.e. total cost of construction divided by cubic contents = cost per cubic

metre. Documents attached are as in No. 2

rough cost estimate)


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(Administrative approval is granted on

4. Detailed Estimate i ng.


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After getting Administrative approval on rough cost estimate, detailed estimates

are prepared. In this, the estimate is divided in to sub-heads and quantities of various

items are calculated individually. In the end of the detailed quantities, an abstract of

cost giving quantities of each item and rate of every item according to the sanctioned

schedule of rates shall be attached. In case of non-schedule rates i.e. rates which are

not given in the sanctioned schedule of rates, proper analysis of rates shall be

attached. If however the work proposed to be constructed is located in a remote place,

the provision for the carriage of the material shall be added in the estimate to avoid

any excess over the administratively approved estimate later on. Detailed

specifications & report should also be attached with the estimate. Technical sanction

is given on detailed estimate. The detailed estimate shall also provide for the cost of

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approach road, water supply, electric installations and acquisition of land etc, so as to

call it a comprehensive estimate.

5. Annual repair estimate

In order to keep building and roads in perfect condition, annual repairs should be

carried out as follow:-

(i) In case of a building-white washing, oiling and painting of doors and windows,

cement plaster repairs (inside & outside), repairs of floors etc. In no case this annual

repair amount should increase more that 11/2% to 2% of the capital cost of the

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building.

(ii) In case of a road-filling patches, maintenance of berms etc.

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6. Special repair estimate

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If the work cannot be carried out of the annual repair funds due to certain reasons

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resulting in the genuine increase in cost, then special repairs estimate is to be

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prepared.

The reason of increase may be: -

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(i) In case of a building-opening of new doors, change of floors, replastering walls etc.

(ii) In case of roads-if the whole surface is full of corrugation & patches, then the total

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surface is to be scarified. The old metal is taken out, consolidation by adding more

metal is done and top surface is repainted.

7. Revised estimate
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When the sanctioned estimate exceeds by 5% either due to the rate being found

insufficient or due to some other reasons, a fresh estimate is prepared which is called a

Revised Estimate. A comparative statement on the last page of the estimate is attached

giving there in the reasons of the increase of cost in case of each item.

8. Supplementary Estimate

This is fresh detailed estimate in addition to the original sanctioned estimate

prepared when additional works are deemed necessary during the progress of a work

to supplement the original works. The abstract of cost should show the amount of the

original sanctioned estimate as well as the supplementary amount of the original

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sanctioned estimate as well as the supplementary amount for which sanction is

required.

2. What are methods to be adopted for volume calculating. (N/D 16)

The calculations of quantities of materials can be done using various methods of

estimates. The application of an individual method depends upon the design and

shape of the building. The different methods are as under:

ww1. Centre line method.

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2. Crossing method.

3. Out to out and in to in method.

4. Bay method.
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5. Service unit method. syE
1. Centre line method
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This method is suitable only if the offsets are symmetrical and the building is more or

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less rectangular in shape. The centre line of the building is determined carefully after

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doing deductions for repeated measurements (as explained in the next problem). This

centre line acts as length for the complete calculations of the estimate. If the

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deduction is not cared for the results of estimates may be wrong. All the walls should

have the same section.

2. Crossing Method

In this method, lengths and breadths of the masonry walls at plinth level are taken

(internal dimension of the room + thickness of the walls) for calculating quantities.

The symmetrical offsets are a must as in the case of centerline method.

3. Out to out & in to in Method

This method is most practicable under all circumstances and is generally followed

in the P.W.D. for computing the quantities of various items. The estimation in this

book has been done using this method.

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4. Bay Method

This method is useful and is generally followed in case of building having

several bays. The cost of the one class room is worked out and then multiplied by the

number of bays in that building. The extra cost of the end walls and difference in

framing. If there is any, should be made, so as to arrive at the correct cost.

5. Service Unit Method.

This method is followed in cases such as school building where there are so many

class rooms. The cost of one class room us worked out and then multiplied by the

wwnumber of class rooms to be constrused. In case of Hospitals, the service unit is a

bed, in case of Water Tank, it is a litre and in case of Cinema Hall, the service unit is

a seat.
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3. Differentiate abstract and detailed estimate. (M/J 16)

n eer
The preparations of detailed estimate consist of working out quantities of various items of work and
then determine the cost of each item. This is prepared in two stages.
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i) Details of measurements and calculation of quantities:
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The complete work is divided into various items of work such as earth work concreting, brick work,
R.C.C. Plastering etc., The details of measurements are taken from drawings and entered in
respective columns of prescribed proforma. The quantities are calculated by multiplying the values
that are in numbers column to Depth column as shown below:

Details of measurements form

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ii) Abstract of Estimated Cost:

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The cost of each item of work is worked out from the quantities that already computed in the detals

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measurement form at workable rate. But the total cost is worked out in the prescribed form is known

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as abstract of estimated form. 4%of estimated Cost is allowed for Petty Supervision, contingencies
and unforeseen items.

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Abstract of Estimate Form ne

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The detailed estimate should be accompanied with:

i) Report

ii) Specification

iii) Drawings (plans, elevation, sections)

iv) Design charts and calculations

v) Standard schedule of rates.

Factors to be considered while Preparing Detailed Estimate:

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i) Quantity and transportation of materials: For bigger project, the requirement of materials is more.
Such bulk volume of materials will be purchased and transported definitely at cheaper rate.

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ii) Location of site: The site of work is selected, such that it should reduce damage or in transit during

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loading, unloading, stocking of materials.

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iii) Local labour charges: The skill, suitability and wages of local laboures are considered while
preparing the detailed estimate.
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Data for detailed estimate:
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The process of working out the cost or rate per unit of each item is called as Data. In preparation of

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Data, the rates of materials and labour are obtained from current standard scheduled of rates and

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while the quantities of materials and labour required for one unit of item are taken from Standard
Data Book (S.D.B).

Fixing of Rate per Unit of an Item:

The rate per unit of an item includes the following:

1) Quantity of materials & cost: The requirement of materials is taken strictly in accordance with
standard data book (S.D.B). The cost of these includes first cost, freight, insurance and transportation
charges.

ii) Cost of labour: The exact number of labourers required for unit of work and the multiplied by the
wages/ day to get of labour for unit item work.

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iii) Cost of equipment (T&P): Some works need special type of equipment, tools and plant. In such
case, an amount of 1 to 2% of estimated cost is provided.

iv) Overhead charges: To meet expenses of office rent, depreciation of equipment salaries of staff
postage, lighting an amount of 4% of estimate cost is allocated.

4. Explain any four types of approximate estimate. (M/J 16)

Approximate estimates

ww The different types of cost estimates, those are prepared during various phases of a project are

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already stated in Lecture 2 of this module. As already mentioned in Lecture 2 of this module, the
approximate estimates (also known as order-of-magnitude estimates) are prepared during initial

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stages of the project life cycle. The different methods used in the preparation of approximate

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estimates are described below. In addition to use in the preparation of estimates during early stages of
project development, these methods may also be sometimes used for cost estimating in the detailed
design phase.
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Unit estimate
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This technique is used for preparing preliminary estimates (i.e. order-of- magnitude type

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estimate). This estimate is generally prepared during the conceptual planning phase of a project, with

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less information available with the estimator. In this method, the total estimate of cost is limited to a
single factor. The examples of some of the ‘per unit factor' used in construction projects are
construction cost per square meter, housing cost per boarder of a hostel, construction cost per bed for
a hospital, maintenance cost per hour, fuel cost per kilometer, construction cost per kilometer for a
highway etc. The total cost is calculated by multiplying the cost per unit factor with the number of
units of the corresponding factor. For example, a preliminary estimate is required to estimate the cost
of constructing a new house with floor area of 170 square meter. If the cost per square meter is
Rs.26,900 (assumed), then the cost of constructing the house will be Rs.45,73,000 (Rs. 26,900x170).
Similarly the preliminary cost estimate of constructing a given length of highway can be calculated
by multiplying the unit cost i.e. construction cost per kilometer by the length of highway (in km).

Factor estimate

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In this method, the estimate is divided into individual segments and then the cost of each
segment is calculated followed by adding all the individual costs to estimate the total cost. Unlike
unit technique, the factor technique includes separate factors for different cost items. Thus compared
to unit technique, factor technique is a more detailed method of preparing the cost estimate and
shows improved accuracy. The factor method is useful when several components are involved in the
preparation of cost estimate.

Considering a simple example, a preliminary estimate is required to find out the cost of
constructing a new multi-storey hostel of an educational institute. By unit method, the preliminary
cost will be simply the cost per square meter multiplied with the total floor area (square meter) of the

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hostel. However a comparatively improved estimate can be prepared by using factor method wherein
the total cost estimate is divided into different components. The hostel will consist of individual

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living rooms for students, hostel office, a kitchen cum dining room, a reading room, a common room,
an indoor sports room, lavatories on each floor and other common amenities. The estimate of the total

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cost of the hostel will comprise of cost of these components. The cost of residing rooms for the

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students can be calculated by multiplying the cost of constructing one room (the information can be

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obtained from past similar projects with adjustment for different parameters as mentioned in unit
estimate technique) by the required number of rooms.

Cost indexes n eer


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The method involving cost indexes is used for obtaining preliminary cost estimate by
considering the historical data of similar past projects. Cost indexes (or indices) are dimensionless

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numerical values which represent the price change of individual or multiple cost items over time with
respect to a reference year. Cost indexes are used to update the historical cost figures and to obtain
the current cost estimates. The relationship used for updating the historical cost figures to the cost at
another point of time using cost index is presented below.

Where

Cn = estimated cost of the item in year ‘n'

Cr = cost of the item in year ‘r' (at earlier point of time and n > r )

I n = index value in year ‘n'

Ir = index value in year ‘r'

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Here ‘r' is the reference year (i.e. at earlier of point of time) at which the cost of the item known and
‘n' is the year for which cost of the item is to be estimated. Cost indexes are periodically published by
various public and private agencies.

5. Calculate Detailed Estimate for the Proposed Residential building given below.

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6. Calculate the detailed estimate of the proposed building given below by using 1)
Long wall short wall method 2) Centre wall method

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CE 6407 ESTIMATION AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

UNIT II
PART A

1. What are the different types of roads? (N/D 16)

 Freeways

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Highways

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Arterials
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 Local streets
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 Collector street
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2. Calculate the size of septic tank for 25 users.
i ng. (N/D 16)

Liquid capacity of Tank @ 0.1 Cu.m per user = 0.1 X 25 = 2.50 Cu.m

Taking Liquid depth as 1.40m the floor area of tank = 2.50/1.40 = 1.80 sq.m
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Taking length as 2¼ times the breadth, LXB = 1.80 sq.m, or 2¼ BXB = 1.80m

Or B² = 1.80/2¼ = 0.80, therefore B = 0.8 = 0.9m

Therefore the length of the tank = 2¼ x 0.9 = 2.0 m

Taking a freeboard of 30cm total depth of the tank = 1.40+0.30 = 1.70 m

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3. State plinth area rate. (M/J 16)

The built up covered area measured at the floor level of the basement is called

Plinth area. To prepare an estimate, the plinth area of a building shall be determined first. It

can be calculated including the following such as area of the floor level, porch, stair cover,

internal shaft, machine room.

ww4. Explain aqueduct. . (M/J 16)

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In antiquity, aqueducts were a means to transport water from one place to another,

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achieving a regular and controlled water supply to a place which would not otherwise

have received sufficient water to meet basic needs such as irrigation of food crops and

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drinking fountains. They may take the form of underground tunnels, networks of surface

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channels and canals, covered clay pipes or monumental bridges.
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5. What are the main components of culvert?
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1.Abutments

2.Wing walls
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3.Arch

6.What are factors to be considered in design of septic tank?

The following factors should be taken into consideration: • Material should be water

proof and corrosion resistant. • Natural ventilation provided should be adequate • A

manhole should be provided to permit inspection and cleaning. • Baffles should be

limited to one at the inlet and one at the outlet. • The escape of gas and sludge to effluent

pipe should be avoided.

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7.Define lead.

Lead is the crow flying horizontal distance from the centre of borrow pit to the centre of

the earthwork at site, i.e centre of the area of excavation to the centre of placed earth.

8.Define lift.

Lift is the distance through which the excavated soil is lifted beyond a certain

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specified depth.

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9 .Write the formula for Mid ordinate rule and Prismoidal formula Rule.

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Mid sectional area method: Q = (Bdm+sdm2 ) x L

Where

B – Formation width
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S – Side slopes n eer
dm – Mean depth
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L – Length of the section downloaded from

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Prismoidal formula rule:

Q = L/6(A1 +A2+4Am) A1 = Bd1 + sd12 A2 =

Bd2+Sd22 Am = Bdm+sdm2

dm = (d1+d2)/2

10.Write the recommendation for degree of accuracy in measurements.

• Dimensions of works shall be measured to an accuracy of 0.01 m

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• Thickness of R.C works shall be measured to an accuracy of 0.0005 m

• Areas of works shall be calculated to the nearest 0.01 m2

• Volumes of work shall be calculated to the nearest 0.01 m3

• Volumes of wood shall be calculated to the nearest 0.001 m3

11.Define Floor area

It defined as covered area i.e plinth area excluding area of walls (generally 10% 15 %)

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sills of the doors are not included in floor area. The floor area of very storey shall be

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measured separately.

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12.Define Carpet area
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This means area in a building which is useful one i.e area of drawing room, dining room

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bedroom etc. Areas of kitchens, staircase, stores, verandahs, entrance hall, bathroom,

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basement etc. are excluded. It is generally 50% to 60% of the plinth area.

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13.Workout the quality of stone metal required for 2Km.Length for wearing coat of a 4m

wide road. The thickness of the metal road required is 12cm loose.

Quality of metal = 1 X 2 X 1000 X 4 X 0.12 = 960.00cu.m

14.An approach road 2Km.long is to be constructed. Work out the quantity of materials

required i.e. stone metal and bricks. Data is given below.

Length = 2 Km

Metalled width = 3.60m

Soiling of bricks = 10cm

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Wearing coat of stone metal = 12 cm

Quantity of bricks = 1 x 2 x 1000 x 3.60 x 0.10 = 720 cu.m

No of bricks = 720.0 x 3.60 x 0.12 = 3,60,000

Stone metal = 1 x 2000 x 3.60 x 0.12 = 864 cu.m

Bricks = 3,60,000 Nos

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15.A cement concrete road (1:2:3) is to be constructed over the existing water bound

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macadam road .The thickness of slab =10cm.The length of the road is one km and the

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width 3.60m.Calculate the quality of cement concrete and the material required,

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Quality of cement concrete = 1 x 1000 x 3.60 x 0.10 = 360 cu.m

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Length = 1Km
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16.Calculate the quality of earthwork for the construction of an approach road

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Width of formation = 10 m i ng.
Height of embankment = 60 cm

Side slope = 1:2


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Quantity of earth work = L (Bd+Sd2)

B=10cm ; d =0.60m ;S = 2

Quantity of earth work = 1000 x (10 x 0.60) +2 x 0.60 x 0.60 = 6720 cu.m

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PART B

1. Describe in detail the different types of roads. (N/D 16)

The roads are classified as

i) National highways

ii) State highways

iii) District highways

ww a) major district roads

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b) minor district roads

iv) village roads

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NECESSARY OF CLASSIFYING ROADS:- To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic
operation , and for knowing the clear information of a particular root in a country, the
classification of roads is necessary.
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a. NATIONAL HIGHWAYS:- These are the important roads of the country. They connect

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state capitals, ports and foreign highways. They also include roads of military
importance. They are financed by the central government.

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b. STATE HIGHWAYS :- these are the important roads of a state. They connect important
cities and district head quarters in the state , national highways & state highways of

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neighbouring states. They are financed by state government roads and buildings
department of the state government constructs & maintain these roads.

c. DISTRICT ROADS :- these are the roads within a district . they are financed by
zillaparishads with the help of grants given by state government.

d. THE MAJOR DISTRICT ROADS:- They are roads connecting district head

e. quarters, taluk head quarters and other important town in the district production and

market centers with each other and with state & national highways & railways.

f. OTHER DISTRICT ROADS :- They are district roads of less importance

g. VILLAGE ROADS:- they connect villages with each other and to the nearest district
road. They are financed by panchayats with the help of zillaparishads and state
government.

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 Asphalt – One of the most popular types of construction ever since its inception in the early

1920s is asphalt paving. In this construction technique, a layer of asphalt is laid on top of an

equally thick gravel base. Advantages of this form of road construction are that the pavement

produces relatively little noise, its relative low cost compared to other materials, and that it is

relatively easy to repair and maintain as well. However, asphalt is known to be significantly

less durable and strong than most other choices, and isn’t the best for the environment either.

 Concrete – Concrete is another popular choice for roadways, though it is typically only used

ww for local roads and not other types of construction. There are three major types of concrete

road surfaces, JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP; the distinguishing feature between the three being the

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joint system that is used to help prevent cracks from forming. Concrete is more long-lasting


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than asphalt and significantly stronger as well, but is quite expensive to lay and maintain.

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Composite – Composite materials are often used in types of construction that are more related

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to maintenance, recycling, and rehabilitation. Composite materials are combinations of both

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asphalt and concrete, and are typically employed in one of two methods. Asphalt overlays

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literally are placed over a damaged surface, or alternatively pavement may be cracked and

seated instead, forming a true new surface.


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Recycling – There are three typical types of construction techniques related to recycling the

surface of distressed or damaged pavement. Rubblizing, Cold/Hot in-place Recycling, and

Full-depth Reclamation. Rubblizing involves reducing the road to gravel and then applying a

new surface, both hot and cold in-place recycling relies on using bituminous pavement to

reinforce the road (at different temperatures and admixtures, of course), and Full-depth

reclamation involves both total pulverization and the addition of binding agents or other

additives.

 Bituminous Solutions – Bituminous and other temporary solutions are types of construction

that are only suitable for use on very low-traffic thoroughfares. Chipsealing techniques, thin

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membrane surfacing, and Otta sealing are all examples of bituminous surface options. These

are all more commonly employed as sealing coats or finishes than as full road surfaces

2. Describe briefly the different types of irrigation structures. (N/D 16)

The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a conveyance
system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system (see Fig. 69).

Fig. 69. An irrigation system

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The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply, such
as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.

The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main pumping
station up to the field ditches.

The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.

The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.

The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the fields.

5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station

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5.1.1 Main intake structure


5.1.2 Pumping station

5.1.1 Main intake structure

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system (see Fig. 70). Its purpose is to direct
water from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.

Fig. 70. An intake structure

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5.1.2 Pumping station n eer
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In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a pump
must be used to supply water to the irrigation system (see Fig. 71).

Fig. 71. A pumping station


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There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the centrifugal pump.

The centrifugal pump (see Fig. 72a) consists of a case in which an element, called an impeller, rotates
driven by a motor (see Fig. 72b). Water enters the case at the center, through the suction pipe. The
water is immediately caught by the rapidly rotating impeller and expelled through the discharge pipe.

Fig. 72a. Diagram of a centrifugal pump

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Fig. 72b. Centrifugal pump and motor

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The centrifugal pump will only operate when the case is completely filled with water.

5.2 Conveyance and distribution system

5.2.1 Open canals


5.2.2 Canal structures

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The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the whole
irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the water flow.

5.2.1 Open canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one place
to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more farms. Field
ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the irrigated fields.

i. Canal characteristics

According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal (c),
circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73).

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Fig. 73. Some examples of canal cross-sections

The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal cross-

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section. For the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered.

The typical cross-section of a trapezoidal canal is shown in Figure 74.

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Fig. 74. A trapezoidal canal cross-section

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The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is
required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.

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The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the
horizontal distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to two),
this means that the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig. 75).

Fig. 75. A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)

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The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the

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longitudinal section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.

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Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal

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An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):

or

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ii. Earthen Canals

Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth, as illustrated in
Figure 77a.

Fig. 77a. Construction of an earthen canal

The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to
seepage. They also require continuous maintenance (Fig. 77b) in order to control weed growth and to

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repair damage done by livestock and rodents.

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Fig. 77b. Maintenance of an earthen canal

iii. Lined Canals

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Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of weeds
(Fig. 78).

Fig. 78. Construction of a canal lined with bricks


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Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The materials mostly

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used for canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry and
asphaltic concrete (a mixture of sand, gravel and asphalt).

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The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined canals,
but skilled labour is requi

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3. Describe Open wells and its types. (M/J 16)

Open Well:

To tap the groundwater storage vertical hole of bigger diameter (2 to 10 metres


generally) is some time dug or sunk in the rock or soil mass. The hole is sunk till it penetrates
saturated underground material. The hole is further taken down to reach a depth quite below

ww ground water-table. The depth of well or hole below the ground water-table should be such that
even during a dry year there will be sufficient depth 3 to 4 metres) of water to cope up with the

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requirements then. The water surface in the well and free surface of water in the soil are at
atmospheric pressure.

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Types of Open Wells:
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Depending upon the type of protection provided to the sides of the wells, first
classification of open wells may be:

i. Wells with pervious lining and


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ii. Wells with water-tight lining i ng.
i. Wells with Pervious Lining:
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In this type, the wells are lined with dry bricks or stone masonary. Water contribution
to the well takes place through the sides. This type is very suitable when subsoil is formed of
gravel or coarse sand deposits. When the subsoil consists of sand layers, along with the seeping
water sand also comes in the well through pervious lining.

As a result hollow space is formed behind the wall lining. To check development of
such hollow formation, brick ballast of about 20 mm size is packed behind the lining at least
up to the ground water-table from the bottom. Figure 17.1 shows the typical cross-section of a
well with pervious lining.

To make the construction stable following procedure can be adopted. Construct 1.25 m
of lining just above the curb in mortar and give about 1 m thick concrete plug in the bottom.

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Lining up to the ground water-table is laid dry but with 0.3 m strip of lining in mortar after
every 1.25 m of dry lining. Above the ground water-table construct the lining in mortar upto
the top. When the rate of water withdrawal is not more, this type is very economical and
lasting.

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2. Wells with Impervious or Pucca (Permanent) Lining:

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In regions with alluvial soil formation this type is mostly adopted. Once constructed, it

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forms a permanent source of water as long as ground water conditions remain favourable. This
type is very suitable for irrigation purposes. The wells with impervious lining are deeper than the

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well with previous lining. In this type the depth should not exceed 30 m for efficient working.
(Fig. 17.2).

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If the well is dug deeper than 30 m then lifting of water becomes uneconomical. The
well lining is set in lime mortar or cement mortar. Sometimes the well may meet some clay
layer of small thickness. Then the well may be founded on it and a bore may be drilled to tap
underlying water bearing stratum. Such an arrangement helps in keeping the depth of wells

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within specified limits. The thickness of steening wall varies from 0.3 to 0.7 m. Table 17.1
shows suitable thickness for various depths.

4. What are the components of a culvert? Illustrate. (M/J 16)

What is a Culvert?

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drainage or to take electrical or other cables from one side to other. The culvert system is

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totally enclosed by soil or ground.

Materials for Culvert Construction


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Culverts are like pipes but very large in size. They are made of many materials like

 Concrete ngi


Steel
Plastic n eer


Aluminum
high density polyethylene i ng.
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In most cases concrete culverts are preferred. Concrete culverts may be reinforced or
non-reinforced. In some cases culverts are constructed in site called cast in situ culverts.
Precast culverts are also available. By the combination above materials we can also get
composite culvert types.

Location of Culverts

The location of culverts should be based on economy and usage. Generally it is


recommended that the provision of culverts under roadway or railway are economical. There
is no need to construct separate embankment or anything for providing culverts. The provide
culverts should be perpendicular to the roadway. The culverts should be of greater
dimensions to allow maximum water level. The culvert should be located in such a way that
flow should be easily done. It is possible by providing required gradient.

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Types of Culverts

Following are the types of culverts generally used in construction:

 Pipe culvert ( single or multiple)


 Pipe Arch ( single or multiple)
 Box culvert ( single or multiple)
 Arch culvert
 Bridge culvert

Pipe Culvert (Single or Multiple)

ww Pipe culverts are widely used culverts and rounded in shape. The culverts may be of

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single in number or multiple. If single pipe culvert is used then larger diameter culvert is
installed. If the width of channel is greater than we will go for multiple pipe culverts. They are

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suitable for larger flows very well. The diameter of pipe culverts ranges from 1 meter to 6m.
These are made of concrete or steel etc..

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Pipe Arch Culvert (Single or Multiple)

Pipe arch culverts means nothing but they looks like half circle shaped culverts. Pipe arch
culverts are suitable for larger water flows but the flow should be stable. Because of arch shape
fishes or sewage in the drainage easily carried to the outlet without stocking at the inlet or bottom

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of channel. This type of culverts can also be provided in multiple numbers based on the
requirement. They also enhance beautiful appearance.

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Box Culvert (Single or Multiple)

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Box culverts are in rectangular shape and generally constructed by concrete.
Reinforcement is also provided in the construction of box culvert. These are used to dispose rain

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water. So, these are not useful in the dry period. They can also be used as passages to cross the
rail or roadway during dry periods for animals etc. Because of sharp corners these are not suitable

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for larger velocity. Box culverts can also be provided in multiple numbers.
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Arch Culvert

Arch culvert is similar to pipe arch culvert but in this case an artificial floor is provided
below the arch. For narrow passages it is widely used. The artificial floor is made of concrete
and arch also made of concrete. Steel arch culverts are also available but very expensive.

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Bridge Culvert
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Bridge culverts are provided on canals or rivers and also used as road bridges for vehicles. For

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this culverts a foundation is laid under the ground surface. A series of culverts are laid and pavement

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surface is laid on top this series of culverts. Generally these are rectangular shaped culverts these can
replace the box culverts if artificial floor is not necessary.

5. Prepare a detailed estimate of a Septic tank with dispersion trench and calculate the quantities

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6. Prepare a detailed estimate of a septic tank with soak pit and calculate the quantities for.

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7. Explain in detail about sanitary fittings and its types and usages.

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8. Explain about Tube well and Open well in detail.

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9. Prepare a detail estimate for the construction of a highway for 1 km length for the given fig. below.

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CE 6407 ESTIMATION AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

UNIT III
PART A

1. What is analysis of rates? (N/D 16)

In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors affecting the rate of that item are

wwstudied carefully and then finally a rate is decided for that item. This process of determining the rates of an

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item is termed as analysis of rates or rate analysis.

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2. Briefly illustrate the schedule of rates. (N/D 16)

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In its most simple form, a schedule of rates can be a list in a contract setting out the staff, labour
and plant hire rates the contractor will use for pricing cost reimbursable instructed daywork.

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However, on a much larger scale, a 'schedule of rates term contract', 'term contract' or 'measured
term contract' may be used when the nature of work required is known but it cannot be quantified, or if

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continuity of programme cannot be determined. In the absence of an estimate, tenderers quote unit rates
against a document that is intended to cover all likely activities that might form part of the works. As the

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extent of the work is unknown the unit rates include overheads and profit. General preliminaries such as
scaffolding, temporary power, supervision and temporary accommodation will also have rates. On projects
longer than say 18 months there might be escalation provisions based on annual percentage increases.

3. Discuss the different types of specification? (M/J 16)

Types of Specifications

1. General Specifications
2. Detailed Specifications

General Specifications

In general specifications, nature and class of works and names of materials that should be used are described.
Only a brief description of each and every item is given. It is useful for estimating the project. The general
specifications do not form a part of contract document.

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Detailed Specifications

The detailed specifications form a part of a contract document. They specify the qualities, quantities and
proportions of materials and the method of preparation and execution for a particular item of works in a project.
The detailed specifications of the different items of the work are prepared separately and they describe what the
work should be and how they shall be executed. While writing the detailed specifications, the same order
sequence as the work is to be carried out is to be maintained.

4. Explain the types of contract? (M/J 16)

 Lump sum contract.

 Item rate contract/schedule contract.

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 Lump sum and scheduled contract.


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Cost plus fixed fee contract.

Cost plus percentage of cost contract.


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Special contracts.
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5.write the essentials requirements of contract.
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• There must be an offer of one party, and its acceptance by the other party to make an agreement.

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• There must be an intention of both the parties to create legal relation.

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• The object of the contract must be legal, and it must not be opposed to any policy of the government or
company.
• The agreement to make a contract should be supported by consideration, or recongnised by law.
6.what are the types of contract?
1.Lump-sum contract
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2.Cost plus percentage of cost contract
3.Item rate contract
4.Labour contract
5.Integrated contracting system
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7.what are the important legal implications of a contract?
• Agreement should not violate the provisions of law.
• It should not have any adverse effect on the morals of the society
• The form of contract should be in writing and each page of the documents of the contract should of the
contract should be signed by both the parties.
• A contractor who refuse to carry out the work before completion can be sued in a court of law for breach of
contract.
8.What is specification?
Specification is an important document attached with a tender form/contract agreement, which in most cases
controls the quality of materials and works.
9.State the different types of specification.
1. General or brief specification
2. Detailed specification
3. Standard specification

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10.Describe general or brief specification.

General specification gives the nature and class of work and materials in general to be
used in the various parts of the works, from the foundation to the superstructure.
General specifications give idea of the whole work or structure and are useful for
preparing the estimate.

11. Describe detailed specification

The detailed specifications form a part of the contract document. The detailed
specification of an item of the work specifies the qualities and quantities of materials
proportion of mortar workmanship, the method of preparation and execution and
method measurement.

ww The detailed specifications of different items of work are prepared separately which
description what the work should be and how they should executed and constructed.

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12. What are the types of penalties that are imposed on a contract and why are they
imposed?
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Penalties may be imposed for non-fulfillment of conditions of contract such as not

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maintaining progress, deley in completion and unsatisfactory work etc. The penalty
may be fixed sum per day or a percentage of the estimated cost upto 10%

13.What is arbitration? n eer


i ng.
Arbitration means the settlement of a dispute by the decision of a third person chosen
and acceptable as a judge. The decision of the arbitrator is binding on both the parties.
In public works department the superintending engineer function as the arbitrator.

PART B
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1. Mention and describe the general specifications of a bituminous road.? (N/D 16)

SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM

1. INTRODUCTION:

The Indian Roads Congress published the first specifications for Bituminous Macadam in the year 1967. The

Flexible Pavement committee (EPC) in its meeting held on 10thFebruary, 2001 decided to revise the

specification to keep pace with the changes in the technology and improvements in the construction

procedures as well as quality control expectations.

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SCOPE:

2.1 This specification deals with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed while laying

bituminous macadam course for highways.

2.2 Bituminous macadam (BM) shall consist of mineral aggregate and appropriate binder, mixed in a hot mix

plant and laidwith a mechanizedpaver. It is an open graded mixture suitable for base course. It is laid in a single

course or in a multiple layers on a previously prepared base. Thickness of the single layer shall be 50 mm to

100 mm.

2.3 Since the bituminous macadam is an open-graded mixture there is a potential that it may trap water or

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moisture vapour within the pavement system. MATERIALS:

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3.1.1 The bitumen shall be viscosity graded paving bitumen complying with Indian Standard Specification for

paving bitumen,IS:73. The grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic conditions and the

traffic.
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SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM syE
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(a)All materials used in the work shall conform to the requirements of Section 401 or 306 as stated above.

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The aggregate requirements shall conform to Section 401 titled “Materials for Bituminous Mixtures and Surface

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Treatments” in these specifications. When a Special Wear Course is specified, the aggregates used in the

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Special Wear Course shall be 100 percent crushed mine trap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100

percent crushed natural gravel.

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(b)The bituminous material to be used in the work shall be asphalt type AC in the penetration grades 60-70, 85-

100, 120-150, 200-300. The penetration grade shall be designated by the Engineer in the Special Specifications.

COMPOSITION OF PAVING MIXUTRES:

(a) General: The paving mixtures shall be composed of homogenous mixture of coarse aggregate, fine

aggregate, mineral filler, and bituminous material.

(b) Base Course: Aggregates to be used shall conform to the gradation requirements for gradation No. 1 of

“Aggregates for Bituminous Road Mix and Plant Mix Surfaces and Pavements” or Gradation No. 1 or

Gradation No. 2 of “Aggregates for Bituminous Base Course.” Bituminous material in the approximate

range of 4% to 7% of the composite mix, and as specifically determined by the Engineer on the basis of

laboratory tests, shall be incorporated into the mixture.

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(c) Surface Course: The aggregates, including mineral filler, shall conform to the gradation requirements

for Gradation No. 3 of “AggregateSpecifications”; except that Gradation No. 4 shall be used when

specifically required by the contract; or when the nominal thickness of a given layer or course to be

built as a separate operation is less than 1 ¼ inches; or when the characteristics of the material in the

deposit are of such a nature as to require crushing to a smaller size in order to obtain 45% or more of

particles retained on a No. 4 sieve having at least one surface or face producedby the fracture of a larger

particle. Special Wear Course: The Special Wear Course when specified in the Special Provisions;

and/or called for in the bid proposal; and/or as shown on the plans, shall be a ¾ inch thick (or a

ww thickness as specified) wearing course of hot plant mixed asphaltic concrete. The aggregate shall be 100

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percent crushed minetrap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100 percent crushed natural

gravel and shall be produced from material retained on a square mesh sleeve having an opening at least

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twice as large as the specification permit for the maximum size of the aggregate.

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(d) Uniformity: The aggregate constituents shall conform to the job-mix formula within the following

percentage tolerances:
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Aggregates passing on the No. 4 and Larger Sieves.............................+-7%

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Aggregates passing the No. 8 to No. 100 sieves.................................+-4%

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Aggregates passing the No. 200 sieve.............................................+-2%

2. Explain detailed specification of earth work.? (N/D 16) ne


Earthwork In Excavation

10.1 Excavation shall be carried out in any material met on the site to the lines, levels and contours shown on

the detailed drawings and the Contractor shall remove all excavated materials to spoil heaps on site or transport

for use in filling on the site or stack them for reuse as directed:

10.2 Excavated material shall not be deposited with in 1.5m from the top edge of the excavation.

10.3 The sides of the excavation may be cut sloping, orshored and strutted to hold the face of earth

as per site requirements and as directed by the Engineer-in- Charge.

10.4 Foundation pits/trenches shall not be excavated to the full depth unless construction is imminent. The last

fifteen (15) cm depth of the excavation shall not be done until concreting work is imminent. The full depth may

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at the discretion of the MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge be excavated and the bed covered with a fifty (50)mm

(minimum) thick (or as indicated on drawing) layer of lean concrete 1:4:8 mix (1 cement: 4 coarse sand: 8

crushed stone aggregate) or as specified in schedule of rates/shown on drawing, after watering if required, and

consolidating the bed.

10.5 If the bottom of any excavation has been left exposed by the Contractor and in the opinion of the

MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge, that has become badly affected by the atmosphere or by water, then the

Contractor shall remove such portions of the deteriorated material as the MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge

may direct and shall make good with lean concrete 1:4:8 mix (1 Cement: 4 Coarse Sand: 8 Crushed Stone

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Aggregate). All expenses for such additional concrete and excavation shall be borne by the Contractor.

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10.6 Where excavation is made in excess of the depth required, the Contractor shall, at his own expense, fill

upto required level with lean concrete 1:4:8 mix (1 Cement : 4 Coarse Sand : 8 Crushed Stone aggregates ) or as

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decided by MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge.

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10.7 The Contractor shall provide suitable drainage arrangement to prevent surface water from any source

entering the foundation pits at his own cost.


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10.8 The Contractor shall make all arrangements for dewatering during excavation and subsequent works, the

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accumulated water from any source (including subsoil water) in the excavated pits/trenches and keeping the

excavated pits/trenches dry for subsequent works.


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10.16.2 The following works shall not be measured separately and allowance for the same shall be deemed to

have been made in the description of main item:

a) Setting out works, profiles, etc.


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b) Site clearance, such as cleaning grass and vegetation;

c) Unauthorized battering or benching of excavation;

d) Forming (or leaving) ‘dead men’ or ‘tell-tales’ in borrow pits and their removal after measurements;

e) Forming (or leaving) steps in sides of deep excavation and their removal after measurements;

f) Excavation for insertion of planking and strutting;

g) Unless otherwise specified, removing slips or falls in excavations;

h) Baling out or pumping of water in excavation from rains;

i) Baling out or pumping of water in

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excavation from sub-soil water, and

j) Slinging or supporting pipes, electric cables, etc, met during excavation.

10.16.3 Special pumping other than what is included in 10.16.2 (h and i) and well point dewatering where

resorted to, shall each be measured separately, unless otherwise stated, in kilolitres of water against separate

specific provision(s) made for the purpose.

10.16.4 The Contractor shall intimate to the MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge as soon as different

classification of soils are met with.

a) Joint levels shall be taken as to the levels of different soil classifications and volume worked out on the basis

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of levels only.

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b) Where levels of different strata cannot beclearly marked and defined the Contractor shall stack different soils

of various classifications separately for measurement purpose and then dispose it off.

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c) If the quantum of work involved in (b) above is extensively large & time consuming, then the total area may

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be divided into various zones and reasonable representative samples as in (b) above may be taken and quantities

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of soils of various classifications finalized for the entire zone based on the representative. If soil of any

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classification other than that specified in the Schedule of Rates is met with during excavation, the decision ofthe

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MMCI/HPCL Engineer-in-Charge as to the classification of soil, levels of the strata of different classifications

and their location shall be binding.

3. Explain a detailed specification of super structure.? (M/J 16)


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Brick Masonry with Cement Mortar ne
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the
term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick,
stone such as marble, granite, travertine, limestone, concrete block, glass block and tile. Masonry is generally a
highly durable form of construction. Brick masonry construction involves use of high quality materials in
construction. Use of low grade materials in construction or mortar mix in inappropriate ratio can affect the
quality of construction.

Specifications for Brick masonry in Cement Mortar

 The bricks shall be of first class, regular in shape, size and colour.

 The bricks should be free from flaws, cracks and lumps of any kind.

 Shall have minimum crushing strength 10.5N/mm2.

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 The bricks shall not absorb the water more than one sixth of the weight of the brick.

 The sand used shall be medium coarse, clean, sharp, free from clay, mica and other organic matter.

 The cement used shall satisfy the requirement of Bureau of Indian Standard.

 The mortar is designated in specified proportion of cement and sand. The materials are weighed or
measured and mixed on watertight platform after allowing bulkage of sand.

 Bricks before laying shall be thoroughly soaked in water.

 The bricks laid truly horizontal in course with frogs upwards.

 The brickwork shall be raised 1m in height at a strength all round the building.

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Only fresh mortar within ½ hour for cement mortar, the time of adding water shall be used.

During rains, no brickwork is carried out when special arrangements are made.

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The brickwork shall be kept wet for atleast 10 days.

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Specification of 'Bricks Walls'

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Brick walls are probably the most common building elements in construction of a house in India. These

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walls form basic units for creating rooms that make up a house. The walls besides being space dividers are also
structural elements that transfer the load of the roof to the ground. Brick walls are constructed on strip spread or

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raft foundations that support the walls. The walls are constructed using bricks and mortar. These can also be
constructed with various structural qualities and thicknesses.
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Brickwork
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Brick walls are constructed by joining bricks with cement mortar in arrangements called English Bond,
Flemish Bond or Rat Trap Bond. These bonds give different external appearances to the wall. All construction
systems of brick walls are such devised that vertical cross joints in any layers are staggered. The bricks thus
bonded form a solid mass that does not split when the wall is loaded with live loads and dead loads.

Classification of Brick Work

The classification of brick work according to the quality of brick is following.

 First class brick work


 Second class brick work
 Third class brick work

First Class Brick Work

First class brick work is made by using first class bricks and cement mortar. This brick work is used for
load bearing walls. It is made in rich mortar in which the cement and sand ratio is from 1:3 to 1: 6.

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First class bricks are identified by their uniform color and a ringing sound when struck. The bricks are
equal in size and have even edges and surfaces. These bricks do not chip and don’t have any cracks. First class
bricks do not absorb water more than 1/6 of their weight. There is no salty residue when the bricks are dry. First
class bricks have a minimum crushing strength of 105.kg. Per sq. cm

Bricks of first class quality

Second Class Brick Work

Second class bricks work is made by using second class bricks and cement mortar. These bricks also
have the property of first class bricks but are not very regular or even in shape. These bricks should not be used
for load bearing walls for more than two storey buildings. Second class bricks have minimum crushing strength

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70.kg per sq. meter.

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Third Class Brick Work
Second class quality of bricks

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This type of brick work is made by using third class bricks and cement mortar or mud mortar. Third
class brick work is not made in any Govt. work. Generally this type of brick work is made for temporary work
in private sector.
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4. Illustrate the specifications for a septic tank? (M/J 16)
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Septic tank design specifications:
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These model septic design regulations discusses the design specifications for septic tanks, including septic tank
size requirements, septic tank cover access, septic tank characteristics, steel septic tanks, tanks for aerobic septic
systems, and related details.

We discuss septic tank materials, sizes, compartments, strengths, installation details, and special requirements
for fiberglass, polyethylene septic tanks, concrete septic tanks, and for aerobic treatment unit construction.

(1) Septic tank capacities shall be based upon the number of household bedrooms. An expansion attic
shall be considered as an additional bedroom.

Table 3 given below specifies the minimum septic tank capacities and minimum liquid surface areas

Table 3: Minimum Septic Tank Capacities & Properties Based on Number of Bedrooms
Minimum Liquid Surface Area
Number of Bedrooms Septic Tank Size (Gallons)
(Sq.Ft.)

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1, 2, or 3 1000 27
4 1,250 34
5 1,500 40
6 1,750 47

(2) Septic tank covers shall always be accessible. Where manholes are more than 12 inches below final grade,
an extension collar shall be provided over each opening. Extension collars shall not be brought flush with the
ground surface unless the cover can be locked to prevent tampering. Driveways or other facilities shall not be
constructed above septic tanks unless specially designed and reinforced to safely carry the load imposed.

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(b) Design and Installation of Septic Tanks
(1) General Requirements for Septic Tanks.

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The following applies to all septic tanks regardless of material.

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(i) A minimum liquid depth of 30 inches. The maximum depth for determining the allowable design volume of
a tank shall be 60 inches. Deeper tanks provide extra sludge storage, but no credit shall be given toward design
volume.
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(ii) The minimum distance between the inlet and outlet shall be six feet. All tanks shall meet the minimum

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surface area requirement for the specific design volume specified in Table 3. The effective length of rectangular

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tanks should not be less than two nor greater than four times the effective width.

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(iii) Tanks must be watertight, constructed of durable material not subject to corrosion, decay, frost damage, or

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cracking. After installation, all septic tanks shall be able to support at least 300 pounds per square foot (psf).

(iv) Tanks with a liquid depth of 48 inches or more shall have a top opening with a minimum of 20 inches in the
shortest dimension to allow entry into the tank. Tanks with a liquid depth less than 48 inches shall have a top
opening that is at least 12 inches in the shortest dimension.

(v) Tanks shall have inlet and outlet baffles, sanitary tees or other devices to prevent the passage of floating
solids and to minimize disturbance of settled sludge and floating scum by sewage entering and leaving the tank.
Outlet designs such as gas deflection baffles are strongly recommended in all tanks. Inlet and outlet baffles shall
extend a minimum of 12 inches and 14 inches respectively, below the liquid level in tanks with a liquid depth of
less than 40 inches, and 16 and 18 inches respectively, in tanks with a liquid depth of 40 inches or greater. The
distance between the outlet baffle and the outlet shall not exceed six inches. Baffles shall be constructed of a
durable material not subject to corrosion, decay or cracking.

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(vi) There shall be a minimum of one inch clearance between the underside of the top of the tank and the top of
all baffles, partition and/or tees to permit venting of tank gases. Multi-chamber and multi-tank systems shall
also be designed to permit the venting of tank gases.

(vii) Tanks shall be placed on at least a three inch bed of sand or pea gravel. This will provide for proper
leveling and bearing. Additional instructions provided by the manufacturer shall also be followed.

(viii) There shall be a minimum drop in elevation of two inches between the inverts of the inlet and outlet pipes.

(ix) Garbage grinders. An additional 250 gallons of capacity and seven square feet of surface area is required
when a garbage grinder can reasonably be expected at the time of construction or in the future. A gas deflection

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baffle or other acceptable outlet modification, and a dual compartment tank or two tanks in series must also be
provided.

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(2) Design Specifications for Concrete septic tanks

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(i) Concrete used for septic tank construction shall have a minimum compressive strength of 2,500 pounds per

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square inch (psi) at 28 days set; 3,000 psi concrete is recommended as a minimum.

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(ii) Wall thickness for concrete septic tanks shall be a minimum of three inches unless the design has been
certified by a New York licensed professional engineer as complying with all appropriate requirements for thin-

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wall construction. All walls, bottom and top shall contain reinforcing to assure support for 300 psi.

must be tested for water tightness prior to backfilling. i


(iii) All concrete septic tank joints shall be sealed such that the tank is watertight; joints below the liquid level

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(iv) The walls and floor of cast-in-place septic tanks shall be poured at the same time (monolithic pour).

(4) Design Specifications for Fiberglass and Polyethylene Septic Tanks

Fiberglass or polyethylene (plastic) septic tanks must meet the following additional requirements:

(i) Fiberglass or polyethylene septic tanks shall not be installed in areas where the groundwater level can rise to
the level of the bottom of the septic tank.

(ii) Particular care must be taken during installation, bedding, and backfilling of Fiberglass or polyethylene
septic tanks so as to prevent damage to tank walls. The manufacturer's installation instructions shall be
followed.

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(iii) All Fiberglass or polyethylene septic tanks should be sold by the manufacturer completely assembled. If,
because of size, the tank is delivered to the site in sections, all joints shall be sealed with watertight gaskets and
shall be tested for water tightness after installation, and prior to backfilling.

(3) Design specifications for Aerobic Septic Septic Tanks or Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs)

A homeowner may choose to install an aerobic unit instead of a septic tank under the following conditions:

(i) The aerobic treatment unit shall have a label indicating compliance with the standards for a Class I unit as
described in the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) Standard 40 or equivalent.

(ii) The rated capacity of the aerobic treatment unit shall be equal to or greater than the design flow as

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determined from Table 1.

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(iii) The absorption system that follows the aerobic treatment unit shall be sized in the exact same manner as it
would for a septic tank.

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(iv) aerobic treatment unit which do not include as a standard feature a service contract which provides for, as a
minimum, semiannual inspections and annual pumping for three years or more are prohibited.

5. Explain Types of contracts in detail.? ngi


Types of Contracts n eer
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Contracts under Seal Traditionally, a contract was an enforceable legal document only if it was

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stamped with a seal. The seal represented that the parties intended the agreement to entail legal
consequences. No legal benefit or detriment to any party was required, as the seal was a symbol of the
solemn acceptance of the legal effect and consequences of the agreement. In the past, all contracts
were required to be under seal in order to be valid, but the seal has lost some or all of its effect by
statute in many jurisdictions. Recognition by the courts of informal contracts, such as implied
contracts, has also diminished the importance and employment of formal contracts under seal.

Express Contracts In an express contract, the parties state the terms, either orally or in writing, at the
time of its formation. There is a definite written or oral offer that is accepted by the offeree (i.e., the
person to whom the offer is made) in a manner that explicitly demonstrates consent to its terms.

Implied Contracts Although contracts that are implied in fact and contracts implied in law are both
called implied contracts, a true implied contract consists of obligations arising from a mutual
agreement and intent to promise, which have not been expressed in words. It is misleading to label as

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an implied contract one that is implied in law because a contract implied in law lacks the requisites of
a true contract. The term quasi-contract is a more accurate designation of contracts implied in law.
Implied contracts are as binding as express contracts. An implied contract depends on substance for its
existence; therefore, for an implied contract to arise, there must be some act or conduct of a party, in
order for them to be bound.

A contract implied in fact is not expressed by the parties but, rather, suggested from facts and
circumstances that indicate a mutual intention to contract. Circumstances exist that, according to the
ordinary course of dealing and common understanding, demonstrate such an intent that is sufficient to
support a finding of an implied contract. Contracts implied in fact do not arise contrary to either the

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law or the express declaration of the parties. Contracts implied in law (quasi-contracts) are
distinguishable in that they are not predicated on the assent of the parties, but, rather, exist regardless
of assent.
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The implication of a mutual agreement must be a reasonable deduction from all of the circumstances

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and relations that contemplate parties when they enter into the contract or which are necessary to

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effectuate their intention. No implied promise will exist where the relations between the parties
prevent the inference of a contract.

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A contract will not be implied where it would result in inequity or harm. Where doubt and divergence
exist in the minds of the parties, the court may not infer a contractual relation-ship. If, after an

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agreement expires, the parties continue to perform according to its terms, an implication arises that

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they have mutually assented to a new contract that contains the same provisions as the old agreement.

A contract implied in fact, which is inferred from the circumstances, is a true contract, whereas a
contract implied in law is actually an obligation imposed by law and treated as a contract only for the
purposes of a remedy. With respect to contracts implied in fact, the contract defines the duty; in the
case of quasi-contracts, the duty defines and imposes the agreement upon the parties.

Executed and Executory Contracts An executed contract is one in which nothing remains to be done
by either party. The phrase is, to a certain extent, a misnomer because the completion of performances
by the parties signifies that a contract no longer exists. An executory contract is one in which some
future act or obligation remains to be performed according to its terms.

Bilateral and Unilateral Contracts The exchange of mutual, reciprocal promises between entities
that entails the performance of an act, or forbearance from the performance of an act, with respect to

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each party, is a Bilateral Contract. A bilateral contract is sometimes called a two-sided contract
because of the two promises that constitute it. The promise that one party makes constitutes sufficient
consideration (see discussion below) for the promise made by the other.

A unilateral contract involves a promise that is made by only one party. The offeror (i.e., a person who
makes a proposal) promises to do a certain thing if the offeree performs a requested act that he or she
knows is the basis of a legally enforceable contract. The performance constitutes an acceptance of the
offer, and the contract then becomes executed. Acceptance of the offer may be revoked, however, until
the performance has been completed. This is a one-sided type of contract because only the offeror,
who makes the promise, will be legally bound. The offeree may act as requested, or may refrain from

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acting, but may not be sued for failing to perform, or even for abandoning performance once it has
begun, because he or she did not make any promises.

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Unconscionable Contracts An Unconscionable contract is one that is unjust or unduly one-sided in

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favor of the party who has the superior bargaining power. The adjective unconscionable implies an

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affront to fairness and decency. An unconscionable contract is one that no mentally competent person

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would accept and that no fair and honest person would enter into. Courts find that unconscionable
contracts usually result from the exploitation of consumers who are poorly educated, impoverished,

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and unable to shop around for the best price available in the competitive marketplace.

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The majority of unconscionable contracts occur in consumer transactions. Contractual provisions that

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indicate gross one-sidedness in favor of the seller include limiting damages or the rights of the

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purchaser to seek court relief against the seller, or disclaiming a Warranty (i.e., a statement of fact
concerning the nature or caliber of goods sold the seller, given in order to induce the sale, and relied
upon by the purchaser).

Unconscionability is ascertained by examining the circumstances of the parties when the contract was
made. This doctrine is applied only where it would be an affront to the integrity of the judicial system
to enforce such a contract.

Adhesion Contracts Adhesion contracts are those that are drafted by the party who has the greater
bargaining advantage, providing the weaker party with only the opportunity to adhere to (i.e., to
accept) the contract or to reject it. (These types of contract are often described by the saying "Take it
or leave it.") They are frequently employed because most businesses could not transact business if it
were necessary to negotiate all of the terms of every contract. Not all adhesion contracts are
unconscionable, as the terms of such contracts do not necessarily exploit the party who assents to the

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contract. Courts, however, often refuse to enforce contracts of adhesion on the grounds that a true
meeting of the minds never existed, or that there was no acceptance of the offer because the purchaser
actually had no choice in the bargain.

Aleatory Contracts An aleatory contract is a mutual agreement the effects of which are triggered by
the occurrence of an uncertain event. In this type of contract, one or both parties assume risk. A fire
insurance policy is a form of aleatory contract, as an insured will not receive the proceeds of the policy
unless a fire occurs, an event that is uncertain to occur.

Void and Voidable Contracts Contracts can be either void or Voidable. A void contract imposes no

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legal rights or obligations upon the parties and is not enforceable by a court. It is, in effect, no contract
at all.

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A voidable contract is a legally enforceable agreement, but it may be treated as never having been

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binding on a party who was suffering from some legal disability or who was a victim of fraud at the

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time of its execution. The contract is not void unless or until the party chooses to treat it as such by
opposing its enforcement. A voidable contract may be ratified either expressly or impliedly by the

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party who has the right to avoid it. An express ratification occurs when that party who has become

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legally competent to act declares that he or she accepts the terms and obligations of the contract. An

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implied ratification occurs when the party, by his or her conduct, manifests an intent to ratify a
contract, such as by performing according to its terms. Ratification of a contract entails the same

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elements as formation of a new contract. There must be intent and complete knowledge of all material

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facts and circumstances. Oral Acknowledgment of a contract and a promise to perform constitute
sufficient ratification. The party who was legally competent at the time that a voidable contract was
signed may not, however, assert its voidable nature to escape the enforcement of its terms.

6. Describe about Elements of Contract in details?

Elements of a Contract

The requisites for formation of a legal contract are an offer, an acceptance, competent parties who
have the legal capacity to contract, lawful subject matter, mutuality of agreement, consideration,
mutuality of obligation, and, if required under the Statute of Frauds, a writing.

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Offer An offer is a promise that is, by its terms, conditional upon an act, forbearance, or return
promise being given in exchange for the promise or its performance. It is a demonstration of
willingness to enter into a bargain, made so that another party is justified in understanding that his or
her assent to the bargain is invited and will conclude it. Any offer must consist of a statement of
present intent to enter a contract; a definite proposal that is certain in its terms; and communication of
the offer to the identified, prospective offeree. If any of these elements are missing, there is no offer to
form the basis of a contract.

Preliminary negotiations, advertisements, invitations to bid Preliminary negotiations are clearly


distinguished from offers because they contain no demonstration of present intent to form contractual

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relations. No contract is formed when prospective purchasers respond to such terms, as they are
merely invitations or requests for an offer. Unless this interpretation is employed, any person in a

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position similar to a seller who advertises goods in any medium would be liable for numerous
contracts when there is usually a limited quantity of merchandise for sale.An advertisement, price

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quotation, or catalogue is customarily viewed as only an invitation to a customer to make an offer and
not as an offer itself. The courts reason that an establishment might not have sufficient stock to satisfy

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potential demand and that it would not be reasonable for a customer to expect to form a binding
contract by responding to advertisements that are intended to make consumers aware of a product for

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sale. In addition, the courts have held that an advertisement is an offer for a unilateral contract that can
be revoked at the will of the offeror, the business enterprise, prior to performance of its terms.

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An exception exists, however, to the general rule on advertisements. When the quantity offered for

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sale is specified and contains words of promise, such as "first come, first served," courts enforce the
contract where the store refuses to sell the product when the price is tendered. Where the offer is clear,
definite, and explicit, and no matters remain open for negotiation, acceptance of it completes the
contract. New conditions may not be imposed on the offer after it has been accepted by the
performance of its terms.

An advertisement or request for bids for the sale of particular property or the erection or construction
of a particular structure is merely an invitation for offers that cannot be accepted by any particular bid.
A submitted bid is, however, an offer, which upon acceptance by the offeree becomes a valid contract.

Mistake in sending offer If an intermediary, such as a telegraph company, errs in the transmission of
an offer, most courts hold that the party who selected that method of communication is bound by the
terms of the erroneous message. The same rule applies to acceptances. In reaching this result, courts
regard the telegraph company as the agent of the party who selected it. Other courts justify the rule on

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business convenience. A few courts rule that if there is an error in transmission, there is no contract,
on the grounds that either the telegraph company is an Independent Contractor and not the sender's
agent, or there has been no meeting of the minds of the parties. However, an offeree who knows, or
should know, of the mistake in the transmission of an offer may not take advantage of the known
mistake by accepting the offer; he or she will be bound by the original terms of the offer.

Termination of an offer An offer remains open until the expiration of its specified time period or, if
there is no time limit, until a reasonable time has elapsed. A reasonable time is determined according
to what a reasonable person would consider sufficient time to accept the offer.

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The death or insanity of either party, before an acceptance is communicated, causes an offer to expire.
If the offer has been accepted, the contract is binding, even if one of the parties dies thereafter. The

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destruction of the subject matter of the contract; conditions that render the contract impossible to
perform; or the supervening illegality of the proposed contract results in the termination of the offer.

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When the offeror, either verbally or by conduct, clearly demonstrates that the offer is no longer open,
the offer is considered revoked when learned by the offeree. Where an offer is made to the general

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public, it can be revoked by furnishing public notice of its termination in the same way in which the
offer was publicized.

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Irrevocable offers An option is a right that is purchased by a person in order to have an offer remain

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open at agreed-upon price and terms, for a specified time, during which it is irrevocable. It constitutes
an exception to the general rule that an offer may be withdrawn prior to acceptance. The offeror may

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not withdraw this offer because that party is bound by the consideration given by the offeree. The
offeree is free, however, to decide whether or not to accept the offer.

Most courts hold that an offer for a unilateral contract becomes irrevocable as soon as the offeree
starts to perform the requested act, because that action serves as consideration to prevent revocation of
the offer. Where it is doubtful whether the offer invites an act (as in the case of a unilateral contract) or
a promise (as in the case of a bilateral contract), the presumption is in favor of a promise, and
therefore a bilateral contract arises. If an offer to form a unilateral contract requires several acts, it is
interpreted as inviting acceptance by completion of the initial act. Performance of the balance
constitutes a condition to the offeror's duty of performance. Where such an offer invites only a single
act, it includes by implication a subsidiary promise to keep the offer open if the offeree will
commence performance. Some courts hold that an offer for a unilateral contract may be revoked at any
time prior to completion of the act bargained for, even after the offeree has partially performed

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it.Rejection of an offer An offer is rejected when the offeror is justified in understanding from the
words or conduct of the offeree that he or she intends not to accept the offer, or to take it under further
advisement. Rejection might come in the form of an express refusal to accept an offer by a
counteroffer, which is a new proposal that rejects the offer by implication; or by a conditional
acceptance that operates as a counteroffer. The offer may continue, however, if the offeree expressly
states that the counteroffer shall not constitute a rejection of the offer.

If an offer is rejected, the party who made the original offer no longer has any liability for that offer.
The party who rejected the offer may not subsequently, at his or her own option, convert the same
offer into a contract by a subsequent acceptance. In such a case, the consent of the offeror must be

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obtained for a contract to be formed.

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Acceptance Acceptance of an offer is an expression of assent to its terms. It must be made by the
offeree in a manner requested or authorized by the offeror. An acceptance is valid only if the offeree

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knows of the offer; the offeree manifests an intention to accept; the acceptance is unequivocal and

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unconditional; and the acceptance is manifested according to the terms of the offer.

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The determination of a valid acceptance is governed by whether a promise or an act by the offeree was

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the bargained-for response. Since the acceptance of a unilateral contract requires an act rather than a

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promise, it is unnecessary to furnish notice of intended performance unless the offeror requested it. If,
however, the offeree has reason to believe that the offeror will not learn of the acceptance with

i ng.
reasonable promptness, the duty of the offeror is discharged unless the offeree makes a reasonable

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attempt to give notice; the offeror learns of the performance; or the offer indicates that no notice is
required.

In bilateral contracts, the offer is effective when the offeree receives it. The offeree may accept it until
the offeree receives notice of revocation from the offeror. Thereafter, an offer is revoked. Under the
majority rule, which is known as the "mailbox rule," an acceptance is effective upon dispatch if the
offeror explicitly authorizes that method of acceptance to be employed by the offeree, even if the
acceptance is lost or destroyed in transit.

The majority rule is inapplicable, however, unless the acceptance is properly addressed and postage
prepaid. It has no application to most option contracts, as acceptance of an option contract is effective
only when received by the offeror.

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If the acceptance mode used by the offeree is implicitly authorized by the offeror, such as the selection
by the offeree of the same method used by the offeror, who neglected to designate a method of
communication, an acceptance is effective upon dispatch if it is correctly addressed and the expense of
its conveyance is prepaid. As with expressly authorized methods, the acceptance need not ever reach
the offeror in order to form the contract.

In some jurisdictions, the use of a method not expressly or impliedly authorized by the offeror, even if
more rapid in nature, results in a contract only upon receipt of the acceptance. In most jurisdictions,
however, if the acceptance mode is inherently faster, it is deemed to be an impliedly authorized means,
and acceptance is effective upon dispatch.

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If the acceptance is transmitted by an expressly or impliedly authorized method to the wrong address,

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it is effective only upon receipt by the offeror. A wrong address is any address other than that
implicitly authorized, even if the offeror were in a position to receive the acceptance at the substituted
address.
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An offeror who specifically states that there is no contract until the acceptance is received is entitled to

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insist upon the condition of receipt or upon any other provision concerning the manner and time of
acceptance specified.

n eer
Rejection of the offer or revocation of conditional acceptance is effective upon receipt. A late or

i ng.
defective acceptance is treated as a counteroffer, which will not result in a contract unless the offeror
accepts it. If offers cross in the mail, there will be no binding contract, as an offer may not be accepted
if there is no knowledge of it.
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As a general rule, an offer may be accepted only by the offeree or an authorized agent. If, however, the
offer is contained in an option contract, it may be the subject of an assignment or transfer without the
consent of the offeror, unless the option involves a purchase on credit or expressly prohibits an
assignment.

In contracts that do not involve the sale of goods, acceptance must comply exactly with the
requirements of the offer (this is known as the "mirror-image rule"), and must omit nothing from the
promise or performance requested. An offer of a prize in a contest, for example, becomes a binding
contract when a contestant successfully complies with the terms of the offer. If a response to an offer
purports to accept it, but adds qualifications or conditions, then it is a counteroffer and not an
acceptance.

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Acceptance may be inferred from the offeree's acts, conduct, or silence; but as a general rule, silence,
without more, can never constitute acceptance. The effect of silence accompanied by Ambiguity must
be ascertained from all the circumstances in the case.

Prior dealings between the parties may create a duty to act. Silence or the failure to take some action
under such circumstances might constitute acceptance. For example, if the parties have engaged in a
series of business transactions involving the mailing of goods and payment by the recipient, the
recipient will not be permitted to retain an article without paying for it within a reasonable time, due to
their prior dealings. A recipient who does not intend to accept the goods is under a duty to inform the
sender. Silence, where there is a duty to speak, prevents the offeree from rejecting an offer and the

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offeror from claiming that there is no acceptance. If ownership rights are exercised over an item, this
might be deemed an acceptance.

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Unsolicited goods At Common Law, the recipient of unsolicited goods in the mail was not required to

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accept or to return them, but if the goods were used, a contract and a concomitant obligation to pay for

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them were created. Today, in order to offer protection against unwanted solicitations, some state

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statutes have modified the common-law rule by providing that where unsolicited merchandise is
received as part of an offer to sell, the goods are an out-right gift. The recipient may use the goods and

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is under no duty to return or pay for them unless he or she knows that they were sent by mistake.

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7. Analysis of Rates in construction – Explain.
i ng.
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In order to determine the rate of a particular item, the factors affecting the rate of that item are studied
carefully and then finally a rate is decided for that item. This process of determining the rates of an
item is termed as analysis of rates or rate analysis.

The rate of particular item of work depends on the following:

1. Specifications of works and material about their quality, proportion and constructional operation
method.

2. Quantity of materials and their costs.

3. Cost of labours and their wages.

4. Location of site of work and the distances from source and conveyance charges.

5. Overhead and establishment charges

6. Profit

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Cost of materials at source and at site of construction:

The costs of materials are taken as delivered at site inclusive of the transport local taxes and other
charges.

Purpose of Analysis of rates:

Purpose of Analysis of rates:

1. To work out the actual cost of per unit of the items.

2. To work out the economical use of materials and processes in completing the particulars item.

3. To work out the cost of extra items which are not provided in the contract bond, but are to be done

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as per the directions of the department.

4. To revise the schedule of rates due to increase in the cost of material and labour or due to change in
technique.
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Cost of labour -types of labour, standard schedule of rates:

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The labour can be classified in to

1) Skilled – 1st class


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2) Skilled – 2d Class ngi
3) Unskilled n eer
i ng.
The labour charges can be obtained from the standard schedule of rates 30% of the skilled labour
provided in the data may be taken as Ist class, remaining 70% as II class. The rates of materials for
Government works are fixed by the superintendent Engineer for his circle every year and approved by

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the Board of Chief Engineers. These rates are incorporated in the standard schedule of rates.

Lead statement: The distance between the source of availability of material and construction site is
known as “Lead ” and is expected in Km. The cost of conveyance of material depends on lead.

This statement will give the total cost of materials per unit item. It includes first cost, conveyance
loading, unloading stacking, charges etc.

The rate shown in the lead statement are for metalled road and include loading and staking charges.
The environment lead on the metalled roads are arrived by multiplying by a factor.

a) For metal tracks – Lead x 1.0

b) For cartze tracks – Lead x 1.1

c) For Sandy tracks – Lead x 1.4

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CE 6407 ESTIMATION AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

UNIT IV
PART A

1. List the different methods of depreciation? (N/D 16)

 Methods of Depreciation. Some of the most common methods used to calculate depreciation are

ww straight-line, units-of-production, sum-of-years digits, and double-declining balance, an accelerated

 w.E
depreciation method.

Straight-Line method.


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Units of Production method.

Sum-of-years-digits method,
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 Double-declining Balance method. ngi
 MACRS method.
n eer
2. Define valuation? (N/D 16) i ng.
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Valuation is the process of determining the current worth of an asset or a company; there are many

techniques used to determine value. An analyst placing a value on a company looks at the company's

management, the composition of its capital structure, the prospect of future earnings and market value of

assets.

3. Define the Gross income? (M/J 16)

Gross income is an individual's income and receipts from nearly all sources. It is the starting point for

determining the taxes that individual will pay. Sources of gross income include salary, wages, tips, capital gains,

dividends, interest, rents, pensions and alimony.

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4. What is scrap value? (M/J 16)

In financial accounting, scrap value is associated with the depreciation of assets used in a business. In

this situation, scrap value is defined as the expected or estimated value of the asset at the end of its useful life.

Scrap value is also referred to as an asset's salvage value or residual value.

5.What is a tender notice?

Tender notice is the publicity of offer to the contractor to quote their rates for construction for

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construction work or supplied. Sealed tenders are invited in the most open and public manner. It is
made public by advisement in leading newspaper, in the government gazette or by notice in English

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and in the regional languages in public places.

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6.What informations should a contract document contain?

1.Title page
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2.Index page
3.Tender notice and tender forms
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4.Schedule of quantities
5.Drawings
i ng.
6.General specifications
7.Detailed specification
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8.Schedule of issue of materials
9.Conditions of contract.

7. Define valuation

Valuation is the process of estimating the cost of a property based on its present condition. The
properties may be immovable properties like land, buildings, mines trees quarries etc., and movable
properties such as coal, oil, steel, cement, sand etc.

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8. What are the important factors influencing the value of building?

1. Type of the building


2. Location of the building
3. Expected life of the building
4. Size and shape of the building
5. The Present condition of the building
6. Legal control of the building

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9. What is the purpose of valuations?

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1. For assessment of wealth tax, property tax etc
2. For fixation of rent

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3. For security of loans or mortgage

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4. For insurance, betterment charges etc
5. For compulsory acquisition
6. For reinstatement. ngi
10. Define Floor rate.
n eer
i ng.
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It is the ratio between the total built up area (Plinth area) of all floors and the area of the plot.
Floor Area Ratio = Total Plinth area of all floors / Plot area

11.Define the Cost?

Original cost of construction. It is used to find out the loss of value of property due to various
reasons.

12.Define the Obsolescence?

The value of property decreases if its style and design are outdated i.e rooms not properly set, thick
walls, poor ventilation etc. The reason of this is fast changing techniques of construction, design, ideas

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leading to more comfort etc.

13.Define the Gross income:

Total amount of the in come received from the property during the year, without deducting outgoings

PART B

ww 1. Examine in detail about various methods of calculations Depreciation? (N/D 16)

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Depreciation Calculation Methods

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Various depreciation calculation methods are mentioned below:
i. Base Method
ii. Declining Balance Method
iii. Maximum Amount Method ngi
iv. Multi Level Method
v. Period Control Method n eer
Base Method- Base method primarily specifies:
i ng.


The Type of depreciation (Ordinary/ Special Depreciation)
Depreciation Method used (Straight Line/ Written Down value Method) ne
Treatment of the depreciation at the end of Planned useful life of asset or when the Net Book value of
asset is zero (Explained in detail later in other related transactions ).

Straight Line Method (SLM)

 This is the simple method of depreciation.


 It charges equal amount of depreciation each year over useful life of asset.
 It first add up all the costs incurred to bring the asset in use and then it divides that by the useful life of
asset in years to calculate the depreciation expense.
 E.g.: Say a Computer costs Rs. 30,000 and Rs. 11,000 (as additional set-up/installation/maintenance
expenses) = Rs 41,000 and it is anticipated that its scrap value will be Rs. 1,000 at the end of its useful
life, of say, 5 yrs.

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Total Cost = Cost of Computer + Installation Exp. + Other Direct Costs

Written Down Value Method (WDV)

 This method involves applying the depreciation rate on the Net Book Value (NBV) of asset. In this method,
depreciation of the asset is done at a constant rate.
 In this method depreciation charges reduces each successive period.
 This method should be used in those assets, where high depreciation should be charged in initial years.
 Assume the price of a depreciable asset i.e. computer is Rs.40,000 and its salvage value after 10 years is 0.
 In this method NBV will never be zero.

Depreciation Per year = (1/N) Previous year’s value, Where N= No. of years

ww So in our example, the depreciation amount during the first year is [Rs. 40,000*1/10] =Rs. 4,000

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NBV of computer after 1st year= Rs 40,000- 4,000 = Rs. 36,000

Declining Balance Methoda


Depreciation for 2nd year is [Rs. 36,000*1/10] =Rs. 3,600

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A multiplication factor for determining the depreciation percentage rate. The system multiplies the
depreciation percentage rate resulting from the total useful life by this factor.

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A lower limit for the rate of depreciation. If a lower depreciation percentage rate is produced from the
useful life, multiplication factor or number of units to be depreciated, then the system uses the minimum


percentage rate specified here.
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An upper limit for the rate of depreciation.If a higher depreciation percentage rate is produced from the

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useful life, multiplication factor or number of units to be depreciated, then the system uses the maximum
percentage rate specified here.

Maximum Amount Method


 Generally, If we uses Straight line method, then depreciation amount should be same for all years. But
depreciation on asset is subject to change due to many factors e.g. any addition to the asset, change in
estimate of useful life, change in estimate of scrap value etc.

 So for maintaining better control on the amount of depreciation, SAP has provided this method where
we can specify the maximum amount that can be charged as expense in a particular year. If this is
specified, user will not be able to post depreciation exceeding the amount specified here.

Multi Level Method

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As the name itself suggests, this method provides the flexibility to specify different rate of depreciation for
different years/periods. E.g. in some cases depreciation rate required is different in initial years and after
that the rate should be changed. This can be achieved in SAP by using Multi level Method.

In this method, SAP provides us the possibility to specify different levels during the useful life of an asset.
Each level represents the period of validity of a certain percentage rate of depreciation. This percentage
rate is then replaced by the next percentage rate when its period of validity has expired. We can specify the
validity period for the individual levels of a asset in years and months.

It also provides the flexibility to us to choose the defined validity period, which can begins with

 The capitalization date.

ww  The start date for ordinary or tax depreciation.


The original acquisition date of the asset under construction.


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The changeover year.

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2. Define the following : ngi
a. Type of lease
b. Mortgage
c. Escalation
n eer (N/D 16)

Types of leases: i ng.


1. Financial Lease
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Financial leasing is a contract involving payment over a longer period. It is a long-term lease and the lessee will
be paying much more than the cost of the property or equipment to the lessor in the form of lease charges. It is
irrevocable. In this type of leasing the lessee has to bear all costs and the lessor does not render any service.

2. Operating Lease

In an operating lease, the lessee uses the asset for a specific period. The lessor bears the risk of obsolescence
and incidental risks. There is an option to either party to terminate the lease after giving notice. In this type of
leasing

 lessor bears all expenses


 lessor will not be able to realize the full cost of the asset

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 specialized services are provided by the lessor.

This kind of lease is preferred where the equipment is likely to suffer obsolescence.

3. Leveraged and non-leveraged leases

In leveraged and non-leveraged leases, the value of the asset leased may be of a huge amount which may not
be possible for the lessor to finance. So, the lessor involves one more financier who will have charge over the
leased asset.

4. Conveyance type lease

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In Conveyance type lease, the lease will be for a long-period with a clear intention of conveying the ownership of
title on the lessee.

5. Sale and leaseback


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In a sale and leaseback, a company owning the asset sells it to the lessor. The lessor pays immediately for the

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asset but leases the asset to the seller. Thus, the seller of the asset becomes the lessee. The asset remains
with the seller who is a lessee but the ownership is with the lessor who is the buyer. This arrangement is done

6. Full and non pay-out lease


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so that the selling company obtains finance for running the business along with with the asset.

eer
i ng.
A full pay-out lease is one in which the lessor recovers the full value of the leased asset by way of leasing. In
case of a non pay-out lease, the lessor leases out the same asset over and over again.

7. Specialized service lease


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The lessor or the owner of the asset is a specialist of the asset which he is leasing out. He not only leases out
but also gives specialized personal service to the lessee. Examples are electronic goods, automobiles, air-
conditioners, etc.

8. Net and non-net lease

In non-net lease, the lessor is in charge of maintenance insurance and other incidental expenses. In a net lease,
the lessor is not concerned with the above maintenance expenditure. The lessor confines only to financial
service.

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9. Sales aid lease

In case, the lessor enters into any tie up arrangement with manufacturer for the marketing, it is called sales aid
lease.

10. Cross border lease

Lease across national frontiers are called cross border lease, Shipping, air service, etc., will come under this
category.

11. Tax oriented lease

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Where the lease is not a loan on security but qualifies as a lease, it will be considered a tax oriented lease.

12. Import Lease


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In an Import lease, the company providing equipment for lease may be located in a foreign country but the

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lessor and the lessee may belong to the same country. The equipment is more or less imported.

13. International lease


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n eer
Here, the parties to the lease transactions may belong to different countries which is almost similar to cross
border lease.

A Mortgage: i ng.
ne
The terms “mortgage” and "home loan" are often used interchangeably. Technically, a mortgage is

the agreement that makes your home loan possible — not the loan itself. For real estate transactions,

agreements need to be in writing, and a mortgage is a document that (among other things) gives your lender the

right to foreclose on your home.

Escalation.

Business accounting and planning should take into consideration the effect of inflation on costs.

Inflation is an essential consideration when a company manages multiple contracts that specify costs and

revenues based on a level of inflation determined at the time of the contract signing. Escalation comes into

play when the actual rate of inflation differs from the rate specified in the contract.

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3. State the following terms :


(1) Scrap valve
(2) Salvage valve
(3) Market valve (M/J 16)

Scrap Value:

In financial accounting, scrap value is associated with the depreciation of assets used in a
business. In this situation, scrap value is defined as the expected or estimated value of the asset at

wwthe end of its useful life. Scrap value is also referred to as an asset's salvage value or residual value.
The following example illustrates how the scrap value is used.

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A business acquires equipment at a cost of Rs.150,000 and estimates that its scrap value will be

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Rs.10,000 at the end of its useful life of 7 years. The annual straight-line depreciation expense will be

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Rs.20,000 [(Rs.150,000 cost minus Rs.10,000 scrap value) divided by 7 years]. Accountants and

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U.S. income tax regulations often assume that for the depreciation calculation the asset will have no
scrap value. (If cash is received when the asset is scrapped, any amount that is in excess of the
asset's carrying value will be
n reported

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as a gain.)

i ng.
In cost accounting, scrap value often refers to the amount that a manufacturer will receive from
materials or products that will be scrapped.

Salvage value:
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Salvage value is the estimated resale value of an asset at the end of its useful life. Salvage value
is subtracted from the cost of a fixed asset to determine the amount of the asset cost that will be
depreciated. Thus, salvage value is used as a component of the depreciation calculation.

For example, ABC Company buys an asset for Rs.100,000, and estimates that its salvage value
will be Rs.10,000 in five years, when it plans to dispose of the asset. This means that ABC will depreciate
Rs.90,000 of the asset cost over five years, leaving Rs.10,000 of the cost remaining at the end of that time.
ABC expects to then sell the asset for Rs.10,000, which will eliminate the asset from ABC's accounting
records.

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If it is too difficult to determine a salvage value, or if the salvage value is expected to be minimal,
then it is not necessary to include a salvage value in depreciation calculations. Instead, simply depreciate
the entire cost of the fixed asset over its useful life. Any proceeds from the eventual disposition of the asset
would then be recorded as a gain.

The salvage value concept can be used in a fraudulent manner to estimate a high salvage value
for certain assets, which results in the under-reporting of depreciation and therefore of higher profits than
would normally be the case.

Salvage value is not discounted to its present value.

ww Market Value

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Market value refers to the current or most recently-quoted price for a market-traded security. It can
also refer to the most probable price an asset, like a house, would fetch on the open market.

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How it works (Example):
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The market value of an asset is determined by fluctuations in supply and demand. It should be
noted that market value represents what someone is willing to pay for an asset -- not the value it is offered
for or intrinsically worth.
n eer
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For example, say a person is selling their house for $300,000. However, no one is willing to buy

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the home for more than $250,000. In this case, even though the house is being offered at a higher price, its
market value is $250,000.

Why it Matters:
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One of the most important factors when purchasing a security is its market value. Many investors
(especially value investors) pick securities or assets based on disconnects between market value and what
they perceive the security is worth, hoping they might have uncovered a future star for a discount price.

4. Explain in detail about various methods of Valuation? (M/J 16)

Land valuation could be described as the process by which the valuation of the land is ascertained. It is

done according to the market value of that place and according to the norms of property tax of that area.

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Methods for valuation of land are enormous and none of them comes without disadvantages. These

methods are solely dependent on the fact that is behind your motto of valuation. Whether you are buying, selling

or building, you need to do valuation in each case and the process differs for each of them. Whatever the

regular misconception prevails but it is also true that the type of method will alter the value of your land.

Generally before applying any method people check the Open Market Value of that property which

doesn’t give the real value of that land but provide a rough estimation of land if to be sold at that span of time. It

is not a mathematical valuation but surely gives you a rough valuation which is near to the real one.There are

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many methods of calculation but the popular ones are:

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a) Comparable Method – It is a process in which the valuation of a land is done by comparing it with

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the valuation of same type of land or property in the same area. Though it is the most common one but as it is

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completely based on the assumption and ignore the other factors such as condition of the land/property, if any

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other asset is provided with the land and so on. It reflects the open market value and the real price may go high

or low depending upon the situation.


n eer
b) Repayment Method – This method is used by those who plan to pay the amount in long tenure

i ng.
based on their income. Taxes, repair cost, vacancy period and other factors are also taken into consideration.

After the tenure is finished the ownership shifts to the buyer and then he/she could sell it.
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c) Investment Method – This method takes into consideration the yield generated from the selected

property and the market value of same. More yields means the possibility of ROI is more. It is useful if you are

comparing it to decide in which pocket you should invest- property, equity, bonds, fixed deposits etc.

d) Residual Method – It is used to decide whether investment on this land will be fruitful or not. The

formula that is used here is, value of finished project= value of same project in present condition. Open market

value is also necessary here in order to get residual value. Calculation of cost that is involved in developing a

land is a necessary factor for getting residual value.

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e) Cost Method – The calculation of certain land is done via base value that takes into consideration all

the cost that is involved in building. Base cost often provides a good stand for measuring all calculation.

It is noticed that the estimation of open market value is necessary in all the above cases and if the buyer

is not a local resident than he/she my face many problems. A good Liaison Consultant is the answer to all your

problems that do all the research work regarding the prevailing market price or the estimated increase/ decrease

in price or the returns that could be earned from it. Land Valuation is a very crucial stage before you decide to

buy or sell any property and it should be done with proper care.

ww
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5. Explain about Valuation of Properties.?

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The Sales Comparison Approach

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The sales comparison approach (SCA) is one of the most recognizable forms of valuing residential real estate.

ngi
This approach is simply a comparison of similar homes that have sold or rented over a given time period. Most
investors will want to see an SCA over a significant time frame to glean any potentially emerging trends.

n eer
The SCA relies on attributes to assign a relative price value. Price per square foot is a common and easy to

i
understand metric that all investors can use to determine where there property should be valued.

ng.
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If a 2,000 square foot townhome is renting for $1/square foot, investors can reasonably expect a similar rental
income based upon similar rentals in the area. Keep in mind that SCA is somewhat generic; that is, every home
has a uniqueness that isn't always quantifiable. Buyers and sellers have unique tastes and differences. The SCA
is meant to be a baseline or reasonable opinion and not a perfect predictor or valuation tool for real estate.

It is also important for investors to use a certified appraiser or real estate agent when requesting a comparative
market analysis. This mitigates risk of fraudulent appraisals, which became widespread during the 2007 real
estate crisis. (For related reading, see Valuing A Real Estate Property.)

The Capital Asset Pricing Model

The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is a more comprehensive valuation tool for real estate. The CAPM
introduces the concepts of risk and opportunity cost as it applies to real estate investing. This model looks at
potential return on investment (ROI) derived from rental income and compares it to other investments that have

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no risk, such as United States Treasury bonds or alternative forms of real estate investments such as real estate
investment trusts (REITs).

In a nutshell, if the expected return on a risk-free or guaranteed investment exceeds potential ROI from rental
income, it simply doesn't make financial sense to take the risk of rental property. With respect to risk, the CAPM
considers the inherent risks to rent real property.

For example, all rental properties are not the same. Location and age of property are key considerations.
Renting older property will mean landlords will likely incur higher maintenance expenses. A property for rent in a
high crime area will likely require more safety precautions than a rental in a gated community.

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This model suggests factoring in these "risks" before considering your investment or when establishing a rental
pricing structure. (CAPM helps you determine what return you deserve for putting your money at risk. For more,

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see The Capital Asset Pricing Model: An Overview.)

The Income Approach


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The income approach focuses on what the potential income for rental property yields relative to initial

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investment. The income approach is used frequently for commercial real estate investing.

n eer
The income approach relies on determining the annual capitalization rate for an investment. This rate is the
projected annual income from the gross rent multiplier divided by the current value of the property. So if an office

i ng.
building costs $120,000 to purchase and the expected monthly income from rentals is $1,200, the expected
annual capitalization rate is:

($1200 * 12 months) / $120,000 = 12% ne


This is a very simplified model with few assumptions. More than likely there are interest expenses on the
mortgage. Also, future rental income may be less or more valuable five years from now than they are today.

Many investors are familiar with the net present value of money. This concept applied to real estate is also
known as a discounted cash flow. Dollars received in the future will be subject to inflationary as well as
deflationary risk and are presented in discounted terms to account for this. (For related reading, see How
Interest Rates Affect Property Values.)

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The Cost Approach

The cost approach to valuing real estate states that property is only worth what it can reasonably be used for. It
is estimated by summing the land value and the depreciated value of any improvements.

Appraisers from this school often espouse the "highest and best" use to summarize the cost approach to real
property. It is frequently used as a basis to value vacant land.

For example, if you are an apartment developer looking to purchase three acres of land in a barren area to
convert into condominiums, the value of that land will be based upon the best use of that land. If the land is
surrounded by oil fields and the nearest person lives 20 miles away, the best use and therefore the highest

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value of that property is not converting to apartments, but possibly expanding drilling rights to find more oil.

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Another best use argument has to do with property zoning. If the prospective property is not zoned "residential,"
its value is reduced since the developer will incur significant costs to get rezoned.

a syE
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n eer
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CE 6407 ESTIMATION AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

UNIT V
PART A

1. Define Analysis of work? (N/D 16)

Job analysis (also known as work analysis) is a family of procedures to identify the content of a job in

terms of activities involved and attributes or job requirements needed to perform the activities.

ww Analysis of rates for building works is the process of separation of works into components/elements (Viz.

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Labour, materials, machinery, transport, overheads and profit) of work and pricing them.

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2. What are the principles of report preparation? (N/D 16)

A good reporting system helps the management in proper planning and controlling. If the reports are

ngi
available to every level of management at the proper time, current activities may be regulated and controlled

n eer
and necessary corrective actions may also be taken in time. Hence, some principles have been followed for

making the reporting system more effective.


i ng.
3. List the factors involved in locating a site? (M/J 16) ne
1. Purpose of Building

2. Friendly Neighborhood

3. Available Facilities

4. Government Laws

5. Shape & Size

6. Terrain Condition

7. Type of Ground Soil

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3. Explain Work sheet? (M/J 16)

Worksheet commonly refers to a sheet of paper with questions for students and places to record

answers. The term may also refer to a single array of data in spreadsheet software or an informal piece of

paper that an accountant uses to record information.

Informal document in which an accountant or auditor records the information for (1) adjusting trial balances

prior to preparing financial statements, or to (2) substantiate his or her opinion regarding an account

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balance or a transaction.

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4.What are the types of Arbitration?

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1.Arbitration with out intervention of court.

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2.Arbitration with intervention of court and thre is no suit pending

3.Arbitration is suits.
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5. Define Engineer:
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He is the person appointed by the owner. He is technically very sound in work an

i ng.
his job is to see that the work is being done by contractor entirely according to drawings

and specification

6. Define Owner:
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The person of behalf of which work is to be done . He may be an individual or

firm or organization .

7.Define Site:

Site means the place where the work is to be executed.

8.Define Drawings:

The section, map, plans etc… which completely define the construction work

geometrically is known as drawings.

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9. Define work:

It means the work is to be carried out under this contract

10. Define Arbitration:

Arbitration is the settlement of a dispute by the decision not of a court or law but

of one or more persons chosen by the parties themselves involved in the dispute.

11. Define the Annuity

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Annuity : The return of capital investment in the shape of annual installments

monthly, quarterly, half yearly &yearly.

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12. Define the Obsolescence:

a
The value of property decreases if its style and design are outdated i.e rooms not

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properly set, thick walls, poor ventilation etc. The reason of this is fast changing

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techniques of construction, design, ideas leading to more comfort etc.

13. Define the Scrap Value:


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Scrap Value: If a building is to be dismantelled after the period its utility is over,

i
some amount can be fetched from the sale of old materials. The amount is known as
ng.
scrap value of a building. If various from 7% to 10% of the cost of construction

according to the availability of the material.


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14. Define the Salvage value

If a property after being discarded at the end of the utility period is sold without

being into pieces, the amount thus realized by sale is known as its salvage value.

15. Define the Capitalized value:

It is defined as that amount of money whose annual interest at the highest

prevailing rate will be equal to the net income received from the property. To calculate

the capitalized value, it is necessary to know highest prevailing on such properties and

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income from the property.

16. Define sinking fund.

A fund which is gradually accumulated and set aside to reconstruct the property

after the expiry of the period of utility is known as sinking fund. The sinking funds may

be found out by taking a sinking fund policy with any insurance company or deposition

some amount in the bank. Generally while calculating the sinking fund, life of the

building is considered. 90 % of the cost of construction is used for calculations 10 % is

ww
left out as scrap value.

17. Define Market value

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Market value: The market value of a property is the amount, which can be

a
obtained at any particular time from the open market if the property is put for sale. The

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market value will differ from time to time according to demand and supply.

18.Define Book value


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Book value: Book value is the amount shown in the account book after allowing

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necessary depreciations. The book value of a property at a particularly year is the original

cost minus the amount of depreciation up to the previous year.


i ng.
19. Define the Year’s purchase
ne
Year’s purchase : It may be as the figure which when multiplied by the net

income from a property gives capitalized value of the property.It can also be defined as

“a certain amount of capital whose annuity of Rs.1/- at a certain rate of interest can be

received”

Year’s purchase = 100/rate of interest = 1/i

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PART B

1. Explain the report on estimation for construction of bituminous roads? (N/D 16)

SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS ROADS

1. INTRODUCTION:

The Indian Roads Congress published the first specifications for Bituminous Macadam in the year 1967. The

Flexible Pavement committee (EPC) in its meeting held on 10thFebruary, 2001 decided to revise the

specification to keep pace with the changes in the technology and improvements in the construction

ww
procedures as well as quality control expectations.

SCOPE:
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a
2.1 This specification deals with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed while laying

bituminous macadam course for highways.syE


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2.2 Bituminous macadam (BM) shall consist of mineral aggregate and appropriate binder, mixed in a hot mix

n
plant and laidwith a mechanizedpaver. It is an open graded mixture suitable for base course. It is laid in a single

eer
course or in a multiple layers on a previously prepared base. Thickness of the single layer shall be 50 mm to

100 mm.
i ng.
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2.3 Since the bituminous macadam is an open-graded mixture there is a potential that it may trap water or

moisture vapour within the pavement system. MATERIALS:

3.1.1 The bitumen shall be viscosity graded paving bitumen complying with Indian Standard Specification for

paving bitumen,IS:73. The grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic conditions and the

traffic.

SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM

(a)All materials used in the work shall conform to the requirements of Section 401 or 306 as stated above.

The aggregate requirements shall conform to Section 401 titled “Materials for Bituminous Mixtures and Surface

Treatments” in these specifications. When a Special Wear Course is specified, the aggregates used in the

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Special Wear Course shall be 100 percent crushed mine trap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100

percent crushed natural gravel.

(b)The bituminous material to be used in the work shall be asphalt type AC in the penetration grades 60-70, 85-

100, 120-150, 200-300. The penetration grade shall be designated by the Engineer in the Special Specifications.

COMPOSITION OF PAVING MIXUTRES:

(a) General: The paving mixtures shall be composed of homogenous mixture of coarse aggregate, fine

aggregate, mineral filler, and bituminous material.

(b) Base Course: Aggregates to be used shall conform to the gradation requirements for gradation No. 1 of

ww “Aggregates for Bituminous Road Mix and Plant Mix Surfaces and Pavements” or Gradation No. 1 or

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Gradation No. 2 of “Aggregates for Bituminous Base Course.” Bituminous material in the approximate

a
range of 4% to 7% of the composite mix, and as specifically determined by the Engineer on the basis of

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laboratory tests, shall be incorporated into the mixture.

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(c) Surface Course: The aggregates, including mineral filler, shall conform to the gradation requirements for

Gradation No. 3 of “AggregateSpecifications”; except that Gradation No. 4 shall be used when

n eer
specifically required by the contract; or when the nominal thickness of a given layer or course to be built

i ng.
as a separate operation is less than 1 ¼ inches; or when the characteristics of the material in the

deposit are of such a nature as to require crushing to a smaller size in order to obtain 45% or more of

ne
particles retained on a No. 4 sieve having at least one surface or face producedby the fracture of a

larger particle. Special Wear Course: The Special Wear Course when specified in the Special

Provisions; and/or called for in the bid proposal; and/or as shown on the plans, shall be a ¾ inch thick

(or a thickness as specified) wearing course of hot plant mixed asphaltic concrete. The aggregate shall

be 100 percent crushed minetrap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100 percent crushed

natural gravel and shall be produced from material retained on a square mesh sleeve having an

opening at least twice as large as the specification permit for the maximum size of the aggregate.

(d) Uniformity: The aggregate constituents shall conform to the job-mix formula within the following

percentage tolerances:

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Aggregates passing on the No. 4 and Larger Sieves.............................+-7%

Aggregates passing the No. 8 to No. 100 sieves.................................+-4%

Aggregates passing the No. 200 sieve.............................................+-2%

2. Write a report on estimate for construction of cement concrete roads? (N/D 16)

Cement Concrete Road Construction

Cement concrete road construction is one of the types of low volume road construction. We know that the

ww
construction of the road is mostly dependent upon the factor like amount traffic that is to be handled by the
road after its completion. On most of the village roads connecting small villages in the rural areas of the

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country, the type of vehicular traffic is quite different from the traffic on other highways. The traffic passing on
a road can be categorized into three categories as light commercial traffics, medium commercial traffics and

a
heavy commercial traffics, but the frequency of each class of traffic varies with the road.

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The sub-grade of low volume roads like cement concrete roads may be constructed using local soil

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available along road alignment, provided the specified minimum requirements are fulfilled. The total thickness
of the prepared sub-grade is limited to 300 mm.

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General Feature of Cement Concrete Road Construction for Low Volume Roads eer
i ng.
As we have already discussed earlier that cement concrete roads are a type low volume roads, but

the design life a road is expected to be between 1,00,000 & 10,00,000 then an appropriate design and
construction of a cement concrete road may be considered. The thickness requirement of cement concrete
ne
among all the types it does have consideration for its implementation. For example, when the ESAL during

road construction of low volume road is much lesser in comparison with those for the national and state
highways, as the expected magnitude of wheel loads and their repetition are much smaller. In general, the
thickness of cement concrete roads lies between 160 mm – 190 mm but the thickness of state highways and
national highways varies between 250 mm – 330 mm, this may be because the design of cement concrete
roads is done for a minimum life of 20 years, after carefully deciding the designing wheel load.

The components of cement concrete road construction

The main components of cement concrete road construction are subgrade, granular sub base
course, cement concrete slab, and joints. The sub-grade of total thickness 300 mm is constructed using well
graded coarse-grained soil or soil- aggregate mix or stabilized soil. Fixed form method of construction of

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cement concrete road is adopted. M40 mix may be preferred even for the construction of cement concrete
road for low volume roads, as the flexural strength of concrete will be higher resulting in lesser slab thickness
and consequent reduction in warping stresses. After the cement concrete pavement, it is joint that follows the
list of components.

There are three types of joints namely construction joints, expansion joints and contraction joint. The
transverse contraction joints are to be provided in the form of dummy groove joints up to a depth of one-
fourth to one-third of slab thickness. The spacing between the contraction joints may preferably be equal to
the width of the single lane pavement, i.e. 3.75 m.

The contraction joints may be formed by cutting grooves 6 to 8 hours after laying; the grooves may

ww
also be formed by pressing a mild steel T-section into the fresh concrete. At expansion joints and

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construction joints in cement concrete roads, load transfer dowel bars of 25 mm diameter, 500 m length and
250 mm spacing may be installed. There is no need to provide longitudinal joints, as these roads have single

a
lane pavement; however at a location of cross drainage structure, if the paved width exceeds 4.5 m width, a

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longitudinal joint has to be provided, similar to the contraction joint. The joints are sealed using rubberized
bitumen compound. At expansion joints, joint sealing is done after compressibility synthetic filter board.

Materials for concrete cement road construction ngi


n eer
The materials for the cement concrete road construction may be divided into two parts. These are
mentioned as follows:

1. Selection of basic component materials


i ng.
2. ne
Mix design and production of pavement quality concrete(PQC) mix required to construct the
cement concrete road pavement

The Selection of Component of Materials

The basic component materials for the cement concrete road construction are consists of Portland
cement, coarse aggregate, water, admixture and also steel is used at the joints, in the form of dowel bars and
tie bars.

Portland Cement

The type of cement that may be used for the preparation of PQC and construction of cement
concrete road construction pavement are:-

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(i) Ordinary Portland cement of 43 Grade.


(ii) Ordinary Portland 53 Grade.
(iii) Portland Pozzolana cement with fly ash content up to 20% by weight.
(iv) Portland slag cement. However most commonly used cement for the cement concrete road
construction is ordinary Portland cement of 43 Grade.

Coarse Aggregate Values of Cement Concrete Road

The coarse aggregate that is used for PQC of cement concrete road construction should fulfill the
following requirements apart from this the maximum size being limited to 31.5 mm.

ww Los angles abrasion value


Combined flakiness and elongation index
Less than 35 percent
Less than 35 percent

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Water absorption Less than 3.0 percent

sodium sulphate a
Soundness test after five cycles: loss with

Loss of magnesium sulphate


syE Less than 12 percent

Less than 18 percent

Fine Aggregates Used in Road Construction ngi


n eer
Fine aggregate consists of clean natural sand or crushed stone sand or a combination of both; the

i
fine aggregate shall be from clay, coal and lignite. The fine aggregate shall be well graded, with 100 percent

ng.
passing 10 mm sieve. The IRC has suggested four gradations of fine aggregate for the preparation of the
PQC mix.

Water
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Water used for mixing of the cement concrete, and also that used for curing of the cement concrete
road construction shall be clean and portable. The water should be free from salt, acid, oil and other organic
matter.

Admixture in Cement Concrete Road Construction

Commonly used chemical admixture in the cement concrete road construction are:

(i) To improve the workability of the concrete; a suitable air entraining agent may be used.
(ii) To provide an adequate extension of setting time of the concrete mix without adversely affecting the other

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desirable properties of the concrete; super-plasticizers which retard the setting time may be used. The total
quality of chemical admixture used is limited to a maximum of 2.0 %by weight of the cement or used.

Steel

Steel dowel bars with yield strength 2400 kg/sq. cm or 240 Mpa is used for the load transfer across
in the expansion joints and construction joints of cement concrete roads. Plan or twisted steel bars are used
as tie bars at longitudinal joints. All steel rods shall be coated with epoxy paint for protection against
corrosion.

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3. Explain the report on estimation for construction of Water bound macadam roads? (M/J 16)

SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM ROADS

1. INTRODUCTION: w.E
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The Indian Roads Congress published the first specifications for Bituminous Macadam in the year 1967. The

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Flexible Pavement committee (EPC) in its meeting held on 10thFebruary, 2001 decided to revise the

ngi
specification to keep pace with the changes in the technology and improvements in the construction

procedures as well as quality control expectations.

SCOPE:
n eer
i ng.
2.1 This specification deals with the basic outline for the design, construction and controls needed while laying

bituminous macadam course for highways.


ne
2.2 Bituminous macadam (BM) shall consist of mineral aggregate and appropriate binder, mixed in a hot mix

plant and laidwith a mechanizedpaver. It is an open graded mixture suitable for base course. It is laid in a single

course or in a multiple layers on a previously prepared base. Thickness of the single layer shall be 50 mm to

100 mm.

2.3 Since the bituminous macadam is an open-graded mixture there is a potential that it may trap water or

moisture vapour within the pavement system. MATERIALS:

3.1.1 The bitumen shall be viscosity graded paving bitumen complying with Indian Standard Specification for

paving bitumen,IS:73. The grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the climatic conditions and the

traffic.

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SPECIFICATION FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM

(a)All materials used in the work shall conform to the requirements of Section 401 or 306 as stated above.

The aggregate requirements shall conform to Section 401 titled “Materials for Bituminous Mixtures and Surface

Treatments” in these specifications. When a Special Wear Course is specified, the aggregates used in the

Special Wear Course shall be 100 percent crushed mine trap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100

percent crushed natural gravel.

(b)The bituminous material to be used in the work shall be asphalt type AC in the penetration grades 60-70, 85-

100, 120-150, 200-300. The penetration grade shall be designated by the Engineer in the Special Specifications.

ww
COMPOSITION OF PAVING MIXUTRES:

w.E
(a) General: The paving mixtures shall be composed of homogenous mixture of coarse aggregate, fine

a
aggregate, mineral filler, and bituminous material.

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(b) Base Course: Aggregates to be used shall conform to the gradation requirements for gradation No. 1 of

ngi
“Aggregates for Bituminous Road Mix and Plant Mix Surfaces and Pavements” or Gradation No. 1 or

Gradation No. 2 of “Aggregates for Bituminous Base Course.” Bituminous material in the approximate

n eer
range of 4% to 7% of the composite mix, and as specifically determined by the Engineer on the basis of

laboratory tests, shall be incorporated into the mixture.


i ng.
(c) Surface Course: The aggregates, including mineral filler, shall conform to the gradation requirements for

ne
Gradation No. 3 of “AggregateSpecifications”; except that Gradation No. 4 shall be used when

specifically required by the contract; or when the nominal thickness of a given layer or course to be built

as a separate operation is less than 1 ¼ inches; or when the characteristics of the material in the

deposit are of such a nature as to require crushing to a smaller size in order to obtain 45% or more of

particles retained on a No. 4 sieve having at least one surface or face producedby the fracture of a

larger particle. Special Wear Course: The Special Wear Course when specified in the Special

Provisions; and/or called for in the bid proposal; and/or as shown on the plans, shall be a ¾ inch thick

(or a thickness as specified) wearing course of hot plant mixed asphaltic concrete. The aggregate shall

be 100 percent crushed minetrap rock, quartzite or granite; or shall consist of 100 percent crushed

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natural gravel and shall be produced from material retained on a square mesh sleeve having an

opening at least twice as large as the specification permit for the maximum size of the aggregate.

(d) Uniformity: The aggregate constituents shall conform to the job-mix formula within the following

percentage tolerances:

Aggregates passing on the No. 4 and Larger Sieves.............................+-7%

Aggregates passing the No. 8 to No. 100 sieves.................................+-4%

Aggregates passing the No. 200 sieve.............................................+-2%

4. Examine the report on estimation for construction of Small bridge? (M/J 16)

ww The procedure adopted to lay out any given bridge is site specific. The site shall be carefully studied

w.E
and the method adopted shall give the greatest accuracy of measurement, and the best chance to check

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important measurements by alternative methods. All principle marks shall be located away from the construction

operations and well referenced to avoid being disturbed during construction. Preference shall be given to the

direct measurement of distances, although inaccessible


ngi
n eer
piers can be very accurately located by triangulation if a good base can be laid out and favourable

i ng.
intersection angles obtained. In spite of the relatively large allowable error in the location of piers, great care

shall be ne
taken to locate them as accurately as possible since there is always the possibility that lack of accuracy

in the formwork, or movement of the formwork will throw the pier further out of position. The important

dimensions, such as centre to centre of anchor bolts, and face to face of ballast walls shall be checked on the

formwork immediately before and during the placement of concrete. Regardless of the method used previously

to lay out the structure, these important dimensions shall be checked by direct measurement whenever possible.

For this purpose, it is advisable to run two lines coinciding with the centre lines of each outer stringer or truss,

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and to measure anchor bolts centres, etc. on each line. This not only measures the important dimensions

directly, but also provides a check on the orientation of the piers and abutments.

It is a good idea to scribe a line on the surface of the concrete into which a tack can be driven to mark

the centres of anchor bolt groups, centres of piers, abutments, etc. The points are useful in checking the work,

after it is built, and are useful in setting the superstructure when erection commences. The main substructure

ww
dimensions shall always be carefully checked after construction and any discrepancies from the dimensions

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called for on the plans shall be reported immediately to the Project Manager and Manager of Bridge

a
Construction. If discrepancies are reported promptly, it is usually possible to make the necessary alternations in

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the superstructure before it is shipped to the site. Site modifications are difficult and expensive.

ngi
All distanc es shall be measured several times and the true distance is then taken as the average of all

n eer
measurements taken. Every opportunity shall be taken to check the work, and an entirely independent check by

another person is valuable


i ng.
ne

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