Beruflich Dokumente
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SURVEYING
UNIT-3A
OMITTED MEASUREMENTS
3.1. CONTENTS:
1. AIMS
2. OBJECTIVES
3. INTRODUCTION
4. OMMITTED MEASUREMENTS
5. ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
6. S.A.Q.
7. SUMMARY
8. ANSWERS TO S.A.Q.
3.2. AIMS: To compute the length or bearing of one or two sides of a closed traverse field work.
3.3. OBJECTIVES: To determine a) length or bearing of one line b) length or bearing of two
sides adjacent to each other c) length or bearing of sides not adjacent to each other d) length and
bearing of any line in someway related to the given traverse.
The student is expected to solve mainly numerical problems of different cases.
3.4. INTRODUCTION: In traversing work, a) distances between the stations, i.e. line AB, BC,
CD, DE, EA are measured using a chain or tape, and b) bearings of lines AB, BC, CD, DE, EA
or included angles A,B,C,D,E in the traverse shown in figure are noted using a compass or
theodolite.
CE401/17 2
Fig.3A.1 Traverse
From the values of lengths ( l ) and Bearing ( ) Latitudes and Departures of survey lines
are calculated.
Latitude is a coordinate length of a line measured parallel to an assumed meridian.
L = l cos . Northward latitudes are taken as positive and Southern latitudes are termed
negative. Departure is a coordinate length of a line measured at right angles to the assumed
meridian direction. D = l sin . Departures measured eastward are positive and westwards are
taken as negative.
A closed traverse satisfies the following conditions.
a) Sum of the interior angles of a closed polygon is equal to (2n – 4) right angles; where n
= number of sides.
b) i) Algebraic sum of the latitudes equals to zero or sum of the (+) Northings = sum of (-ve)
Southings i.e.. l cos = 0.
ii) Algebraic sum of the departures equal to zero or sum of (+) Northings = Sum of
(-ve) Westings i.e. . l sin = 0.
These rules are useful to determine and adjust the closing errors of a closed traverse in a
systematic way.
3.5. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS: While taking the lengths and bearings of main sides of a
closed traverse in the field, a surveyor may omit to take either length or bearing of one or two
sides. Such missing quantities may be computed as the conditions of a closed traverse are
known.
Few standard cases are studied with the help of worked out examples.
3.5.1. Case-I : When length or bearing of one line is required:
Example 1. : A four sided traverse A B C D has the following lengths and bearings. Find the
length and bearing of closing line DA.
Side Length (m) Bearing
AB 248 500
BC 320 1600
CD 180 2300
Solution:
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Fig 3A.2
Table – Traverse Computations for Example 1:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Line Length Whole Reduced Latitude Departure
(m) (l) circle bearing
Bearing ( )
Northing + Southing Easting Westing
AB 248 500 N500 E 248 cos 50 248 Sin 500
= 159.41 =189.98
BC 320 1600 S 200 E 320 cos 200 320 Sin 200
= 300.70 =109.45
CD 180 2300 S 500 w 180 cos 500 180Sin500
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=115.70 =137.89
159.41 416.40 299.43 137.89
Algebraic sum of the latitudes = Difference between Sum of Northings and Sum of
Southings = 159.41 – 416.40 = (-) 256.99.
Algebraic sum of the Departure = Difference between sum of Eastings and Sum of
Westings = 299.43 – 137.89 = (+) 161.44.
161.44
tan = = 0.628
256.99
i.e., reduced bearing of DA = N 320 81w
(whole circle bearing of line) DA = 360 – 320 81 = 3270521 .
Note: (i): The missing line DA is in North west quadrant as northern Latitude and western
departure of the line DA make the sum total of latitudes equals to zero and the sum total of
departure equals to zero.
(ii) As per the coordinate system ,
AD2 = AZ2 + ZD2 where AZ = departure and DZ = latitude of line DA.
3.5.2. Case II: When length or bearing of two sides adjacent to each other are missing.
Example 2: Lengths and Bearings of a theodolite traverse are shown below. Calculate the
missing lengths RS and ST.
Line PQ QR RS ST TP
Length(m) 980 675 -- -- 700
S 75 0 61 w N 35 0 361 E
Bearing 00 N 250121 w S 560 241 E
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Fig 3A.3.
Solution: (a) Assuming PQRT to be a closed traverse as in example 1 , solve for the length and
bearing of RT.
(b) Use the Sine rule and obtain the sides of triangle RST.
Line Latitude Departure
S E W
PQ + 980 Cos 0 + 980 sin0
0 1
QR + 675 Cos 25 12 - 675 Sin 250121
RS -RS cos 75061 - RS Sin 75061
ST - ST cos 560241 + ST Sin 560241
TP +700 cos 350361 + 700 sin 350361
Algebraic Sum of the latitudes = 2159.93
Algebraic Sum of the departures = 120.08.
Solutions:
(a) Calculate the length and bearing of CE as in the previous examples.
(b) In the Triangle CDE , CD , CE and DEC are known. Using Sine rule , obtain the angle
CDE , DCE length DE are calculated.
(c) Calculate the bearing of CD with the help of Bearing of DE and included angle CDE.
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Fig 3A.4
(a) latitude = 1000 cos 0 + 550 cos 220 15 + 700 cos 360301 = 2071.37.
departure = 1000 Sin 0 – 550 sin 220151 + 700 sin 360301 = 208.13.
Length of CE = L2 + D 2 = 2081.8m.
D 208.13
tan = = = 0.1005
L 2071.37
Bearing of CE = S50441w = 1850441.
In a closed traverse ABCE as L must be zero , bearing of CE must have Southern
(-Ve) latitude and as D must be zero bearing of CE must also have negative i.e., western
departure).
(b) DEC = Bearing of ED + Bearing of EC
= 58010 W + N50 441E = 630541
CD = 2500 and CE = 2081.8m.
Using Sine Rule ,
CDE = 680011
and ECD = 180 – (630541 + 680011) = 48051
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CD 2500
DE = = 3741.38.
SinDEC × SinECD Sin 63 541 Sin 48051
0
1
where a , b , c are sides and s = (a + b + c).
2
1 1 1
(c) From the relationship area of triangle = ab sin C = bc sin A = ca Sin B
2 2 2
obtain the angles A , B , C of the triangle.
(d) Calculate the bearings of lines RS and ST as the required bearings and included angles are
known.
(a) length of RT = 2162.2m
bearing of RT 1820331
(b) Area of triangle RST = (3706.1)(1206.1)(956.1)(1543.9) = 2568626.4 Sqm
2×
(c) Sin S = = 0.7472
RS . ST
2
Sin R = = 0.9504
SR . RT
2
Sin T = = 0.8639
ST . TR
CE401/17 9
Fig 3A.5
(a) Shift a side whose bearing is not known , to adjacent position of another side whose bearing
is also not known. i.e., draw a line from C., Parallel to DE and equal to DE. Join the new
point D1 with B. In the traverse ABD1 EFA , length and bearing of D1B is only unknown.
(b) In the C D1 B obtain CD1B using the formula.
2
CD1 + D1B 2 CB 2
Cos CD B = obtain also angle CBD1
2CD1 × D1B
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(c) Calculate the bearing of line D1C , using the values of included angle C D1B and bearing of
D1B. Bearing of DE is same as that of CD1 .
(d) Calculate the bearing of B C , using the values of bearing of BD1 and included angle CBD1 .
CD1B = 420221
CBD1 = 60031
Example 6: Find the bearing of side AB and length of side CD from the date given below.
BC 320 1700
CD ??? 2500
DA 300 200
Solution:
Fig 3A.6.
(a) Draw AC 11 and equal to BC Draw CC1 111e and equal to BA.
1 1e
(b) Calculate length and bearing of C1D from the triangle AC1D.
(c) Solve the triangle DCC1 using sine rule obtain DCC1 and length C D.
Bearing of CC1 is equal to bearing of BA.
(e) Northern latitude of C1D = 300 cos 200 – 320 cos 100 = 33.23
Western departure of C1D = 300 sin 200 + 320 sin 100 = 158.15
Length of CD = 680.11m
Bearing of AB = Bearing of C1C = Bearing of C1D + DC1C
= 2810541 + 1390121 = 610061
Example 7: Calculate the distance between a point P on AB 20m from A and a point Q on
C D 50m from C , from the traverse details given below.
Line Length(m) Bearing
AB 60 N 600 W
BC 100 N 300 E
CD 75 S 300 E
Fig 3A.7
Solution:
Example 8: A traverse is run from A to E where there are certain obstacles in the way and the
following observations are noted.
Line Length(m) W.C.B
AB 420 3600
BC 500 3450501
CD 610 3000201
DE 400 300301
It is necessary to mark a point which is exactly midway between A and E. Calculate the
length and bearing of this point from Station .C.
3.8. Summary:
A closed traverse (polygon) satisfies two conditions viz , latitude = 0 , departure = 0.
Missing lengths or bearings are obtained in different cases using the conditions of a closed
figure. Two relationships of closed traverse that are quite useful are (I) missing length =
departure
( latitude ) + ( departure ) and (ii) tan
2 2
.
latitude
A rough sketch helps in analyzing the problem. Application of solution of triangles is
required in a number of cases. In addition to using formula (Lat )2 + (Dep )2 to find the length
‘1’ of the survey line or the side of a traverse , Since length
= Lat . x Sec. R.B.
Dep. X Cosec R.B.,
The length may also be calculated from either of the above two relationships , using Lat , or Dep.
Whichever is grater.
Thus in the solution of example 1 on page 3 , using Dep which is grater than Lat., length
= 256.99 sec. 320081 which gives 303.48. However , it may be seen that each of these three
formulas gives almost the same value. When L and D happen to be large as in example 2 and
only four figure log tables are used for calculations , the above two formulas serve well.
***
CE401/17 14
SURVEYING
UNIT - 3B
PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF A THEODOLITE
3.1 Contents:
Aims
Objectives
Introduction
Plate Level Adjustment
Collimation Adjustment
Spire Test
Two Peg Adjustment
Vertical Axis Adjustment
SAQ
Summary
3.2. Aims:
To know the fundamental relationships between various lines of a transit theodolite and to adjust the
instrument if standard relationship are not maintained , so that errors in observation are eliminated.
3.3. Objectives:
Precise observations are to be noted with a theodolite. Some instrumental errors are eliminated by making
permanent adjustments of the instrument.
Student is expected to be familiar with parts of a theordolite , various axes or lines and
the relationships among them. Whether the instrument is in order or nor , can be verified. If any
adjustment is required to be made , it may be done with care.
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The following adjustments are to be made to obtain the five relationships in order:
1. Plate level adjustment
2. Collimation adjustment
3. Horizontal (Trunnion axis) adjustment.
4. Altitude level adjustment
5. Vertical axis index frame.
Some adjustments upset and disturb the already completed set of conditions. Hence the order of making
adjustments is also very important.
Fig 3B.1. shows the parts and lines of a theodolite. Theodolite is used for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles. When horizontal angles are measured , plate level must be adjusted where as altitude level is adjusted while
measuring vertical angles. Temporary adjustments are made whenever a theodolite is in use in the field. They are
centering , levelling focusing adjustments. Sometimes horizontal and vertical crosshairs may be in their true
position. Moving the telescope in horizontal and vertical direction (using tangent screws) simultaneously observing
a well defined object , ensure whether the horizontal and vertical hairs are truly horizontal and vertical. Diaphragm
ring may be properly rotated and Diaphragm screws may be tightened depending upon the needs.
Ist adjustment (Adjustment of plate levels) is essential for all observations regarding horizontal and vertical
angles.
II nd adjustment with reference to vertical axis must be tested frequently.
III rd adjustment (Adjustment of trunnion axis) is essential observed while measuring horizontal angles or
in prolonging a straight line.
IVth and Vth adjustments are connected with measurements of vertical angles.
S A Q: What are the errors that are likely to be eliminated if both right face and left face observations are taken ?
2. Keep the telescope over the third foot screw and bring the bubble to the centre by adjusting the third screw only.
See that the bubble traverse for all positions. Otherwise repeat the procedure.
3. Sight an object with altitude and plate bubble in adjustment in one position. Transit the theodilic , with changed
face bisect the same object. Bubble should remain central.
4. if not , note the deviation. Correct half the divisions by using clip screw of vertical circle and the other half by
same set of levelling screws.
5. Keep the telescope over third foot screw and adjust the bubble. Repeat the procedure to make perfect adjustment
for other positions.
3.6. Collimation line and optical axis of telescope should coincide.
The objective of this adjustment is to place the intersection of crosshairs in the optical axis of telescope.
Horizontal crosshair must be in the plane of motion of optical centre of object glass. Line of collimation must be
perpendicular to horizontal axis.
Horizontal hair adjustment is required for measuring vertical angles. Vertical hair adjustment is for
measuring horizontal angles between points of different elevation and also required when the instrument is
transitted.
Fig 3B.2
Procedure:
1. From a theodolite at station P , keeping the telescope horizontal , take readings on Staff held at A as Ad , and at B
as Ba.
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2. Transit the telescope and turn the telescope through 1800. Set the line of sight to the previous reading on staff at A
on the nearer peg at 10m distance.
3. Read the staff reading at B the reading must be Ba. If the instrument is not in good adjustment , the staff reading
may be Bb. Let the c may be half way through ab.
4. Bring the horizontal hair to mean reading B c on the staff held at 100m distant station B , by means of the vertical
diaphragm screws.
Repeat the procedure few times , to make perfect adjustment.
Alternative Method:-
1. Instead of staff reading , the vertical circle readings may be noted on the two occasions as mentioned above for
the staff held at stations as explained in (1) and (2).
2. Set the vertical circle vernier for the angle observed on the staff reading mark at the nearer station and move the
horizontal hair by means of vertical diaphragm screws to get the required central reading on the staff held at the
distant station.
Fig 3B.3.
CE401/17 19
Procedure:
1. Set theodolite at P clamp both horizontal motions. Sight object at A 100m , away.
2. Turn the telescope and locate point R , on one side of line A A1 , about 100m from P. Transit the telescope ,
unclamp the vernier plate , swing through 1800 and again bisect the object at A , with the telescope reversed. Clamp
the upper motion.
3. Transit the telescope. If R is again bisected by the cross hairs , the instrument is in good adjustment. R may be out
of sight.
1
4. In that case mark a point S , on the other side of R , as shown in figure. Mark an arbitrary point at of angular
4
distance in RPS. Adjust the horizontal diaphragm screws and move the diaphragm , until the vertical hair coincides
with the new mark.
Fig 3B. 4.
Procedure:
1. Select a fairly level ground. Let A , P , B are three points in one line at 50m interval. Set up the theodolite at P.
Level it . From the instrument station , obtain the true difference in elevation between A and B. Vertical circle must
be read zero i.e., telescope is horizontal.
2. Instrument is shifted to Q , a point nearer to A and on the line BPA produced. Read the staff at A and at B to
obtain the difference in elevation between A and B. If this is same as that of first observation , the adjustment of the
instrument is in order.
3. If not , bring the horizontal hair exactly to the correct reading on B , by means of vertical circle tangent screw.
Later bring the bubble exactly to the centre of the run by means of capstain headed tube nuts of the level tube.
4. Staff reading on A , from Q , must show the required calculated value of the reading indicating the difference in
level.
3.9. Vertical axis adjustment:
Index error is the reading on the vertical circle , when the telescope bubble traverses or when the telescope
is horizontal. This may be noted initially and applied to the observed reading as correction , to eliminate errors.
Index error may be avoided by noting the vertical angle as the difference of two readings on the vertical circle
whenever it is possible.
Fifth adjustment is to make the vertical circle reading equals to zero when the line of collimation is
horizontal.
Procedure:
1. In transit theodolites , telescope can be brought into , horizontal position by adjusting the clip screws to move the
altitude bubble to the centre.
2. Set up the theodolite and make temporary adjustments. When the bubble is attached to the telescope , bring it to
the centre by using vertical tangent screw. If the vernier scale of vertical circle is not reading zero - zero , loosen the
scale and move to correct position by means of its attached screws to the A frame.
3. When a theodolite consists of a plate level and an altitude level , the following arrangement is made for this
adjustment. Set up the instrument. Adjust the plate bubble by levelling screws.
CE401/17 21
Bring the altitude bubble to the centre by adjusting clip screw. Keep the vertical scale to read zero by
turning the telescope in slow motion by tangent screw. Keep a staff at 100m distance from the instrument and take a
reading , when the telescope is horizontal. Change the face , again bisect the same staff and read while the telescope
is horizontal as in the previous case. The reading should be same. If not , adjustment is to be made. Bring the
horizontal hair on to the mean of two readings by adjusting the clip screw. Again bring the altitude bubble to the
middle of its run by means of capstain screws fixed to the index arm.
Repeat the procedure for perfect adjustment.
Note: Some of the theodolites do not have two plate levels. There may not be a bubble tube on the top of telescope
as in the case of a levelling instrument. Cautions and notes given by the manufacturer have to be followed in all the
cases. Unless sufficient skill and expertise is available , it is not advisable to open some of the nuts and screws of the
instrument as more damage may be caused than proper adjustment.
Student is expected to have a knowledge of the permanent adjustments of a theodolite , and to understand
the errors that are likely to creep in due to lack of proper condition of the instrument. Careful and proper handling of
the instruments , is required in any case.
3.10. S A Q:
1. Briefly discuss how the permanent adjustment of a plate level in a transit theodolite is checked and adjusted. What
happens if the plate level is out of adjustment ?
3.11. Summary:
Fundamental lines of a theodolite are (a) Trunnion axis (b) Vertical axis (c) Line of collimation (d) Axis of
plate level (e) axis of altitude level. The relationship between the above are given in this chapter. When the standard
relationship is not maintained in the instrument , it is said to be out of permanent adjustment. Readings observed
with such an instrument are not true and correct. Hence it is essential to rectify the errors by verifying and making
the permanent adjustments of instrument periodically. Five fundamental requirements and their adjustments are
given.
***
SURVEYING
UNIT 4
TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING
4.1. Contents (in brief):
Calculations of elevations and distances of objects accessible and inaccessible - problems.
4.1.Contents:
Aim
Objectives
Introduction
Elevation of object (base accessible)
Elevation of object (base inaccessible).
CE401/17 22
(i) instrument stations in the same vertical plane as object and instrument axis at same level at both the stations.
(ii) Instrument axes at different levels but the two instrument stations in the same vertical plane as the object.
(iii) Same as above but instrument axes at very different levels.
ELEVATION OF OBJECT:
Base of object inaccessible , object and the instrument stations not in the same vertical plane.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES , ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS.
SUMMARY:
4.2. Aim:
To determine the relative elevation of stations (or points) with the help of (i) observed vertical angles (may
be angle of elevation or depression) and (ii) measured or computed horizontal distances.
4.3. Objectives:
In unit 1 of this course the student has studied about , the use of theodolite and measurement of vertical and
horizontal angles with the same. After going through this chapter the student should be able to solve the field
problems wherein he has to determine the difference in elevation between different stations and also the horizontal
distances between different stations wherever required in the problem. The observations required are the
measurement of vertical angles and also horizontal angles in certain cases.
4.4. Introduction:
Trigonometrical levelling is that branch of surveying in which the use of trigonometrical functions is made
for determining the elevation of an unknown point. The main observation is either an elevation angle or a depression
angle (with the help of a theodolite) to a known point on a staff or a pole. Knowing the horizontal distance between
the point sighted (staff) and the vertical angle , the vertical component of the difference in elevation between the
point sighted on the staff (or pole) and the instrument axis , can be determined. This is added to or subtracted from
the R.L. of the instrument axis to get the R.L. of the point sighted. From this value the height of the point sighted
above the ground level is subtracted to get the R.L. of the corresponding ground point.
4.5. Elevation of Object , Base of Object Accessible:
Fig 4.1.
P = Instrument Station
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Fig 4.2.
The instrument stations P and Q and the object station R are in the same vertical plane. R.L1s. of the two
instrument axis (A and B) same.
Distance between the two instrument stations P and Q can be measured. Let it be ‘d’.
and are the vertical angles measured at P and Q.
D and R.L. of R to be determined.
CE401/17 24
h = D tan
h = (D + d) tan
D tan = (D + d) tan
D (tan - tan ) = d tan
d tan
D= 4.3
(tan tan )
R.L. of R1 = R.L. of B.M + S + h
(R.L of Instrument axis) + h 4.4
R.L of R (Ground point) = R.L. of R1 - R1R.
4.6.2.1. Base of Object Inaccessible Instrument Stations in the same Vertical Plane as the Object Instrument
Axes at Different Levels (Figs 4.3.1. and 4.3.2):
Fig 4.3.1
P , Q Instrument Stations
‘d’ distance between the instrument stations.
D distance between the instrument station ‘P’ and the object.
R staff or object Station.
A and B level of instrument axes.
S1 and S2 readings on staff held on B.M.
B1B1 = (S2 - S1) cos = S cos
and vertical angles measured from P and Q at levels A and B.
h1 = D tan
h2 = (D + d) tan
h1 - h2 = S1 - S2 = S(difference in levels of instrument axis)
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= D tan - (D + d) tan
= D(tan - tan ) – d tan
D(tan - tan ) = S + d tan
S + d tan
D= 4.5
(tan tan )
h1 = D tan
=
(S + d tan ) tan 4.6
(tan tan )
h2 = (D + d) tan
S + d tan
= + d tan
tan tan
S + d tan
= tan 4.7
tan tan
Alternatively
By extending the line R1B to meet the horizontal through A at B1 .
h1 = D tan
= (D + d + S cos ) tan
D tan = (D + d + S cos ) tan
D(tan - tan ) = (d + S cos ) tan .
(d + S cos ) tan
D= 4.8
(tan tan )
h1 = D tan and h2 = (D + d) tan .
h1 =
(d + S cos ) tan tan 4.9
tan tan
h2 =
(d + S cos ) tan + d tan 4.10
(tan tan )
If the instrument axis at P is at a higher level than at Q a similar formula for D , h1 and h2 can be arrived at
and the student is advised to do it as an assignment (fig 4.3.2).
CE401/17 26
Fig 4.3.2.
4.6.2.2.: Base of the object Inaccessible:- Instrument stations and object in the same vertical plane. Difference in
levels of instrument axes considerable.
Fig 4.3.3.
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Fig 4.3.4.
If the difference in levels of the instrument axes is considerable this difference S1 - S2 = S cannot be
obtained by observing the same staff kept on a B.M from the two different instrument stations as S1 - S2 = S is
greater than the size of the staff used for the purpose. In such a case the following procedure is adopted.
The horizontal distance D between the instrument station P and the object is obtained in terms of ‘S’
(difference in levels of instrument axes) as in 4.6.2.1. above , and the value of S calculated as shown below is
substituted there (fig 4.3.4).
From the instrument station at P after sighting the object at R , the telescope is transited and station Q fixed.
After measurement of angle x(to point R on object at P(station) the instrument is shifted to Q , from Q
angle to the point R1 on the object measured. A staff is kept at P and angle ‘ ’ to a known point. S on the staff
(staff reading ‘r’) measured.
Before shifting the instrument from ‘P’ height of the instrument at P is measured.
h
= tan h = d tan
d
= h - r = (d than - r) =
Difference in level between the instrument axis at Q and the ground point at P. To this difference the height
of the instrument at P(h1) (when the instrument was set up there at P to measure ) was added to get ‘S’.
h1 = D tan
h2 = (D + d) tan
(h2 - h1) = S = (D + d) tan - D tan
D tan + S = (D + d) tan
D (tan - tan ) = d tan B - S.
CE401/17 28
d tan S
D=
(tan tan )
D=
d tan (d tan r)
4.11
(tan tan )
h1 =D tan =
d tan (d tan r)
tan 4.12
(tan tan )
R.L of R1 = R.L of A + h1
R.L of R = R.L. of A + h1 - R1R
R.L. of A = S1 + S
R.L of R = S1 + S + h1 - R1R 4.13
(w.r.t B.m)
4.6.3. Base of Object Inaccessible. Instrument Stations Not in the same Vertical Plane as the Elevated Object.
Fig 4.3.5.
P , Q are the instrument station (Fig 4.3.5)
R , the position of the object
R1 the point sighted on the object from the instrument stations P and Q.
P Q = d measured
P R = D to be determined
A and B levels of instrument axes at P and Q.
1 and 2 horizontal angles measured at P and Q in the ground triangle PQR.
3 = 180 - ( 1 + 2 ).
D d
=
Sin 2 Sin(180 ( 1 + 2 ))
d sin 2
PR = D = 4.14
Sin( 1 + 2 )
d sin 1
QR .
Sin( 1 + 2 )
H1 = D tan
d Sin 2
= tan 4.15
sin ( 1 + 2 )
h2 = Q R tan
d Sin 1
= 4.16
sin ( 1 + 2 )
R.L. of R1 = B.M + S + h1 4.17
R.L of R = B.M + S + h1 - R1R 4.18
The same can be checked from the observations at Q (i.e., B).
4.7. Worked our Examples:
4.7.1.: To determine the elevation of the top of a flag staff the following observations were made
Instrumentation Station Reading on B.M. Angle of elevation Remarks
P 1.265 100 . 481 R.L. of B.M 248.360
0 1
Q 1.085 7 . 12
Stations P and Q and the top of the flag staff are in the same vertical plane. If the distance between P and Q
is 50m find the elevation of the top of the flag staff.
Solution:
S = S1 - S2 = 1.265
- 1.085
0.180
hd
= cot 100481 hd = 0.18 cot 100481
S
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Fig 4.4
h2 = (D + d) tan
h2 = (D + hd) tan
(D + d) tan = (D + hd) tan
D(tan - tan ) = d tan - hd tan
d tan hd tan
D= (S cot )
tan tan
( )
50 × tan 7 0121 0.18 cot 100 481 tan 100.481
( )
=
tan 100.481 tan 7 0121
6.316 0.18 6.136
= = = 95.875.
0.19 0.126 0.064
h2 = (D + d) tan
= (95.875 + 50) tan 70 121
= 145.875 x 0.126 = 18.428m.
R.L. of top of flag
= R.L of B.M + S2 + h2
= 248.360 + 1.085 + 18.428
R.L. of top of flag staff = 267.875m Answer.
4.7.2. A theodolite was set up at a distance of 200m from a tower. The angle of elevation to the top of the tower was
80181 while the angle of depression to the foot of the tower was 20241. The staff reading on the B.M. with R.L.
248.360 with the telescope horizontal was 1.285. Find the height of the tower at the R.L. of the top of the tower.
CE401/17 31
Fig 4.5
h1
= tan 80181
200
h1 = 200 tan 80 181 = 200 x 0.14588 = 29.18
h2 = 200 tan 20 241 = 200 x 0.0419 = 8.38
h1 + h2 = height of the tower = 200(tan 80 .181 + tan 20.241)
= 200(0.14588 _ 0.0419) = 37.56.
R.L of the top of the tower = 248.360 + 1.285 + 29.18 = 278.825 m.
distance between p and Q was 100m and the R.L. of Q was 250.00. Find the R.L. of the top of the spire and the
horizontal distance from P to the foot of the spire.
4.8.3. : Find the R.L of the top of church spire R from the following observations taken from two stations P and Q
50 meters apart (the top of the spire and the two stations being in different planes).
Q P R = 600 P Q R = 500
Angle of elevation form P to the top of the spire = 300
Angle of elevation from Q to the top of the spire = 280
Staff reading from P on a B.M of R.L. of 250.00 = 3.50
Staff reading from Q to the same B.M. = 1.00.
SUMMARY:
The common procedure in practice for determining the heights of objects (such as towers , poles , or
chimney) and also the reduced levels of various object stations knowing the R.L of a B.M was explained. Two
problems on the above principles were worked out and 3 problems were given for the practice of the student as an
assignment. Solutions for the problems in assignments will be supplied at the time of contact programme.
Note: Units 4 and 5 are independent of the first 3 units. So an assignment exclusively independent from unit 3 was
set for the unit 4. Actually it can be clubbed with unit 5).
***
SURVEYING
UNIT - 5
TRIGONOMETRICAL LEVELLING
5.1. Contents:
Aim
Objectives
Introduction
Geodetical observations
Combined correction for curvature and Refraction
Axis signal correction
Determination of Difference in elevation
Single observation (i) for angle of elevation
(ii) for angle of depression.
Reciprocal observations
Worked out examples
Assignment Problems.
Summary.
5.2. Aim:
CE401/17 33
To know the different corrections such as Refraction , curvature , and Axis signal to be applied , calculation
of the same when the distances involved are geodetic and large and then to determine the difference in elevation
between stations observed.
5.3. Objectives:
The student should be able to apply judiciously the principles studied in this chapter such as applying
curvature , refraction and Axis signal corrections as per the guidelines indicated in the lesson and then he must be
able to determine the difference in elevations, between the various stations observed and must be able to determine
the elevation of a particular station given the elevation of another station.
5.3. Introduction:
In Geodetic observations of trigonometrical levelling where the distances involved are large ordinary
principles of plane surveying are not applicable. For smaller distances the corrections can be applied in linear
measure. For larger distances the corrections for curvature and refraction are applied in angular measure directly to
the observed angles. For the benefit of the student linear corrections are reviewed briefly here.
Fig 5.1.
ABC is the level line through the instrument axis at A. AC is the horizontal line through A. AO plumb line
(vertical line through A) CBO plumb line through B. As the line of sight through A is horizontal it bisects the
vertical through B at C. d = distance between the two stations in km. correction fur curvature is BC = Cc.
The effect of curvature is that the objects appear to be lower than what they really are because of higher
reading recorded.
AO = Radius of the earth = R = 6370 km assumed.
AO2 + AC2 = OC2 = (OB + BC)2 = OB2 + BC2 + 2OB.BC = R2 + 2 x Rcc
(BC is very small when compared with OB).
AC = AB = d
R2 + d2 = R2 + 2R.Cc
d2
curvature correction Cc = d2 / 2R km or x 1000 meters = 0.0785d2 meters.
2R
CE401/17 34
The effect of Refraction is that the ray of light when travels through atmosphere bends and the reading
recorded would be lower than what it should be and so the objects appear to be higher than what they really are i.e.,
1
the effect of refraction is opposite to that of curvature and this value is found to be of that of curvature.
7
1 d2
correction for refraction = × = 0.0112d2
7 2R
combined correction (-ve) = (0.0785 - 0.0112) d2 = 0.0673 d2
where d is in kilometre.
Relation between the observed angles and corrections (curvature and Refraction):
It is required to determine the difference in elevation between two points P and Q separated by horizontal
distance ‘d’ P1P0 and Q Q10 are the plum lines (vertical lines) drawn through the two ground points P and Q and ‘O’
their intersection point i.e., the centre of earth.
General topography of the ground is shown with the usual convention , chord
P1Q = Arc PQ1
= Chord PQ1 = Arc PQ1 = d
Q1 is the projection P on the plumb line through Q
P1 is the projection of Q on the plumb line through P
Arc PQ1 is the level line through P
Arc QP1 is the level through Q
(To review the memory of the student A level surface is concentric with the surface of the earth which is
assumed to be a spheroid. A level line is a line on a level surface. Every point on the line is equidistant from the
centre of the earth. A horizontal line is tangential to a level line. A horizontal line through a point is perpendicular to
the plumb line or vertical line or Radius of earth drawn through that point).
PO1 = Horizontal drawn through P
Q2 QO1 = Horizontal drawn through Q.
PQ = direct lines of sight from P to Q. But due to terrestrial refraction the line of sight bend and it takes a
curved path as shown in fig 5.2. For Q to be visible from P the telescope at P should be directed along PP1 tangential
to the curved line of sight. Similarly for P to be visible from Q the telescope at Q should be directed along
QQ1tangential to the curved line of sight drawn through Q. PP1 and QQ1 are the apparent lines of sight through P
and Q (because of the effect of refraction) as against the direct line from P to Q.
The vertical angles measured at any point are always with reference to the horizontal lines drawn through
the corresponding ground points.
CE401/17 35
Fig 5.2.
P1PO1 = 1 = Measured or observed angle of elevation from P to Q after applying correction for the
difference in height of signal at Q and the height of the instrument at P.
Q2QQ1 = 1 = Observed angle of depression from Q to P after applying correction for the difference of the
height of the signal at P and the height of the instrument at Q.
P1PQ = Q1QP = r = angle of refraction are angular correction for refraction. Refraction correction is
assumed to be same at both stations.
= angle subtended at the center of the earth by the distance PQ1 (d) over which the observations were
made.
O1PQ1 the angle between the horizontal through P and the chord PQ1 .
Coefficient of refraction m is the ratio of the angle of refraction and the angle subtended at the centre of earth by
the distance over which observations are taken
r
m= or r=m .
In the absence of refraction the measured angle at P should have been QPO1 .
Because of refraction the measured angle = P1 PO1 = 1 .
True angle after applying refraction correction = QPO1
= P1PO1 - P1PQ = 1 -r
In the absence of curvature the angle should have been measured with reference to PQ1 .
PQ1 would have coincided with PO1 the horizontal through P.
Correction for curvature = O1 PQ1
True angle after applying
Refraction and curvature corrections = QPO1 + O1PQ1
= 1 -r+ 5.1
2
Similarly true angle of depression at Q after applying curvature and refraction corrections
= 1 - +r 5.2
2
P1 Q parallel to PQ1
P1QP = QPO1
= 1 -r+ = 1 - +r
2 2
2r = + 1 - 1 .... (5.3. (applicable for large M and small d).
r=m
2m = + 1 - 1
1 = 1 + - 2m
1 = 1 + (1 - 2m). 5.4
Value of m varies roughs between 0.06 and 0.08. An average value of 0.07 may be taken in the absence of
accurate data.
At a given place greatest value of m occurs in the early morning. It diminishes until 9 or 10 A.M. after
which it remains fairly constant upto about 4 ‘O’ clock after which it commences to increase. So value of (1- 2m) is
always a positive value.
That means observed angle of depression (between two points) always exceeds the angle of elevation by
the amount (1 - 2m).
CE401/17 37
The student may arrive at the above relation by equation the interior angles to the external angle for the
QPO1 .
(This may be verified as an assignment)
Rewriting 5.3 (for large d and small H)
2r = -( 1 - 1)
1 1
r=
2 2
for large ‘d’ and small ‘H’ both are angles of depression changing the sign of 1.
r= 1 ( 1 )
2 2
1 + 1
m =
2 2
2m = -( 1 + 1)
1 + 1 = (1 - 2m). 5.4a
5.5. Combined correction for Curvature and Refraction:
Correction for curvature is additive for angle of elevation and subtractive for angle of depression and
correction for refraction is subtractive for angle of elevation and additive for angle of depression as seen from the
angles reproduced below (5.1 and 5.2).
True angle of elevation
The combined correction for angle of elevation = - r and the combined correction for angle of depression = -
2 2
+ r.
The magnitude of curvature correction is much more than refraction correction and so the combined
correction is positive or additive to angles of elevation and subtractive (or negative) for angles for depression.
The combined angular correction to be applied is of very small magnitude and is usually arrived at in
seconds , as shown below:
CE401/17 38
Fig 5.3
d is the horizontal distance between the stations.
R = Radius of earth is the central angle subtended by the two stations from which observations are taken.
R =d
d
= radians
R
radians = 1800
180
1 radian = degrees
d 180 d
radian = × degrees
R R
As the corrections are very small they are expressed in seconds
d 180 d
= radians = × × 60 × 60 seconds
R R
d
= ( ) seconds
R
1
= value of
sin 111
d md
= 11
;m =
R sin 1 R sin 111
d
=
2 2 R sin 111
Combined angular correction for curvature and refraction
CE401/17 39
= -r
2
2m
= m =
2 2
= (1 – 2m)
2
d
= (1 – 2m) seconds 5.5
2R sin 111
which should be added for angles of elevation and should be subtracted from angles of depression.
5.6. Axis Signal Correction: (Also called eye and object correction):
While explaining the details of fig 5.2. where in the correction for curvature and refraction are explained in
detail it is mentioned that 1 or 1 are the observed or measured angles of elevation and depression after applying
axis signal correction.
1 or 1 = observed angle ± Axis signal correction.
Fig 5.4.
CE401/17 40
Normally in all observations the height of the signal is not the same as the height of the
instrument axis above the station and so a correction known as Axis signal correction (or eye and
object correction) has to be applied to the observed angles.
h1 and h2 heights of instruments at P and Q respectively.
S1 and S2 heights of signals at P and Q respectively
BQ = difference in height of signal at Q and height of instrument at P = (S2 - h1)
d = Horizontal distance between P and Q
Arc PP1 is the level line through P.
QQ1 is the level line through Q and the details with reference to this line are not required in this explanation
and so not shown in the Fig.
Q station observed.
PA is the horizontal line through P
BPA = = observed angle of elevation uncorrected for axis signal.
= observed angle of depression corrected for axis signal (not shown in the figure 5.4).
1 = angle of elevation corrected for axis signal.
1 = angle of depression corrected for axis signal.
BPQ = 1 = axis signal correction (angular) at P.
2 axis signal correction at Q (not shown in fig)
Construction: Produce PQ upto C and draw perpendicular BC x to PB at B
In BPO
BPO = BPA + APO
0
+ 90
0
POB =
PBO = 180 – (90 + ) -
90 - - = 900 - ( + )
As per construction PBC= 900
QBC = 90 – [90 – ( + )]
= 9/ 0 - 9/ 0 + ( + )
= + .
As 1 is very small
PCB can be approximately taken as 900
BC
= cos QBC = cos QBC = cos ( + )
BQ
BC = BQ cos ( + )
CE401/17 41
BC
= tan 1
PB
BC determined above.
Now PB has to be determined for that , take the P1 B
PP1B = 90 +
2
BPP1 = +
2
PBP1 = 90 – ( + )
Applying sin Rule
PB PP1
=
sin PP1B sin PBP1
Before applying sine rule carefully observe what is required and how to make use of the available data.
PB is required PP1 = d known ; all the three angles known
sin PP1B
PB = PP1
sin PBP1
sin 90 +
2
=d
sin[90 ( + )]
cos
=d 2
cos ( + )
From PBC
Tan =
BC (S h )cos ( +
= 2 1
)
1
PB d cos / cos ( + )
2
tan =
(S 2 h1 ) cos 2 ( + )
1 (exact value) 5.6
d cos / 2
Usually is small compared to and may be ignored.
In such a case
tan =
(S 2 h1 )cos 2
1 5.7
d
CE401/17 42
tan =
(S1 h2 ) cos 2
5.8
2
d
If the vertical angles additive or are very small it can be calculated with sufficient accuracy
S 2 h1
tan 1 = 1 = seconds 5.9
d sin 111
S1 h2
tan 2 = 2 = seconds 5.10
d sin 111
After calculating 1 and 2 angular corrections for axis signal for angles of elevation and depression.
Fig 5.5.
S 2 h1
= seconds
d sin 111
Arc PQ1 = chord PQ1 = PA = d
P1PQ = r = m
QQ1 = H = difference in elevation
in PQQ1
CE401/17 44
PQ1Q = 90 +
2
QPQ1 = 1 –r+
2
= 90 - - 1 +r-
2 2
= 90 – ( 1 –r+ )
Applying sine rule = 90 - ( 1 -m + )
QQ1 PQ1
=
sin QPQ1 sin PQQ1
sin QPQ1
QQ1 = H = PQ1
sin PQQ1
sin 1 m +
2
=d
sin [90 ( 1 m + )]
sin 1 m +
2
=d
cos( 1 m + )
d
Substituting =
R sin 111
( d %
sin & 1 + (1 2m ) "#
' 2 R sin 1 $
H=d 5.11
d
cos 1 + (1 m )
R sin 1"
d d
Note (1 – 2m) and (1 – m) in seconds
2R sin 1" R sin 1"
For approximate expression when is small.
H
= tan (corrected angle of elevation)
d
= d tan (corrected angle of elevation)
= d tan ( 1 m + )
2
CE401/17 45
( d %
= d tan & + (1 2m ) 5.12
2 R sin 1" #$
1
'
This formula is to be used and when is small.
5.7.1.2. For angle of Depression:
= observed angle of depression to P
1 = observed angle of depression corrected to axis signal
Fig 5.6
Arc QP1 = Level line through Q
QB = horizontal through Q
P1P = H = difference in elevation between Q and P
Arc QP1 = chord QP1 = d = horizontal distance
In QPP1
P1QP = 1 - +r= 1 - +m
2 2
QP1P = 90 -
2
CE401/17 46
= 90 + - 1 + -m
2 2
= 90 - 1 + -m
90 – ( 1 - +m )
PP1 P1Q
=
sin P1QP sin QPP1
sin 1 +m
sin P1QP 2
H = PP1 = P1Q1 =d
sin QPP1 sin 90 ( 1 +m )
( d %
d sin & 1 (1 2m ) "#
' 2 R sin 1 $
H= Exact 5.13
( d %
cos & (1 m )
R sin 1" #$
1
'
For small values of
P1P = H = P1Q tan P1QP
= d tan ( 1 +m - )
2
( d %
= d tan & (1 2m ) 5.14
2 R sin 1" #$
1
'
5.7.2. Reciprocal Observations:
By reciprocal observations for determining the difference in elevation the refraction correction can be
eliminated. The principle involved here is that observations should be taken simultaneously from both the stations
i.e., the vertical angles (elevation or depression) to the other station from each station has to be taken simultaneously
and the refraction effect at each station is assumed to be same and it will be nullified as will be seen from the
calculations below. If it is not possible to take simultaneous observations. Observations should be taken at the same
time at both the stations on different dates , at the time when refraction variation is minimum. Refraction is less
variable between 10 A.M. and 3 P.M. The results obtained by this method are more accurate than from signal station
observations.
CE401/17 47
Fig 5.7
After having studied the different figures in this chapter (unit 5) till now , the notation used need not be
explained.
P1Q is parallel to PQ1
A+ B
Then each angle =
2
similarly
1 –r+ = 1 +r-
2 2
1 r+ + 1 +r
2 2
=
2
+ +
= 1 1
= 1 1
(written like this for convenience)
2 2
1 + 1
Thus each corrected angle =
2
+
Also 1 +m = 1 1
+
2 2
In QPQ1
QPQ1 = 1 –r+ = 1 -m +
2 2
Substituting these values in the above equation
PQQ1 = 90 – ( 1 + r) from fig 5.7)
QQ1 PQ1
=
sin QPQ1 sin PQQ1
sin QPQ1
H = QQ1 = PQ1
sin PQQ1
sin 1 m +
2
=d
sin[90 ( 1 + m )]
sin 1 m +
2
=d
cos( 1 +m )
sin 1 m +
2
`H = d
cos( 1 +m )
CE401/17 49
1 + 1
But d1 - m + =
2 2
1 + 1
1 +m = +
2 2
1 + 1
d sin
2
H= 5.15
+
cos 1 1
+
2 2
If however is small
2
1 + 1
H = d tan 5.16
2
If both 1 and 1 are angles of depression the expression for H can be obtained by changing the sign of 1
1 1
d sin
H= 2 5.17
cos 1 1
+
2 2
The general expression for H is
1 ± 1
sin
2
H=
( ± %
cos & 1 1
+ #
' 2 2$
use plus sign for = angle of elevation.
(-) minus sign for = angle of depression.
If the value of H obtained from the above expression is positive (+) Q is higher than P and if H is negative
(-) Q will be lower than P.
5.8. Worked out examples:
5.8.1. Given the following data with reference to two survey stations P and Q , find the difference in levels between
the points P and Q are the reduced level of Q.
d = Horizontal distance between P and Q = 5600m.
- = Angle of depression from P to Q 10 281 OO11
S2 = Height of signal at Q 3.90m.
CE401/17 50
Solution:
Axis signal correction (angular) for the difference in height of the instrument at Q and the height of the
instrument at P.
S 2 h1
tan 1 = (equation 5.9)
d sin 1"
3.90 1.55
= × 206265
5600
1
(Value of = 206265) = 86.55 seconds 01”26”. 55 for depression angle correction is additive.
sin 1"
10 281 00
01 26.55
1 = + = 0
1 29 26.55
1 = observed angle corrected to axis signal
d
= central angle =
R sin 111
5600
= = 181.37 = 0311.1137
30,876
d sin 1 +m
2
(vide equation 5.13)
cos( 1 +m )
= 10 291 26.55
+ 12.69
1 +m - = 0
2 1 29 39.24
- 01 30.68
CE401/17 51
10 29 39.24
- 03 01.37
1+m - = 0
2 1 26 37.87
H = 5600 ×
(
sin 10 281 08.56 )
= 5600 ×
0.02566
0
(
cos 1 26 37.87 ) 0.9997
= 143.63m
= 011.181169
2
R sin111 = 30.88 given. This can be calculated and verified.
R = radius of earth = 6370km.
1 = 1 = 100512111
- 03 26.26
1 = 1001154.74
1 = + 2 = 10 0015011
+ 03 20.32
1 = 10 041101132
+
1 1
= 1001154.7411
2
+ 10 04110.3211
(2 0
00 05.06 / 2 )
10 03 2.53 = 1
2
+
1 1
+ = 10 03 2.53
2 2
+ 01 18.69
+
10 04 21.22 = 1 1
+
2 2
H = difference in elevation in between P and Q
1 + 1
d sin
2
(5.15) or (5.18)
( + %
cos & 1 1
+ #
' 2 2 $
( )
sin 10 031 2115
= 4860
( )
cos 10 04 211122
sin (1 .0507 ) 0
= 4860 ×
cos(1 .0725) 0
0.01834
= 4860 × = 89.15m.
0.9998
H = 89.15m Answer 1.
For determining coefficient of refraction m use equation 5.3.
CE401/17 53
2r = + 1 - 1
(r = m
2m = + 1 - 1)
r= + 1 1
2 2
1 1
or
2 2
1 1
= 10 04 10.32
2
- 10 02 54.74
(0 02 15.58)/2 = 0110711.79
1 1
= 0 01 18.69
2 2
- 0 01 07.79
0. 00 10.90 = 10.90
r = 10.911
= 157.78
r 10.9
=m=
157.38
m = 0.069 Ans.
SUMMARY:
When the distances involved are large the principles of plane surveying are not valid and the effect of
curvature of earth and the refraction effect on light rays have to be taken into account particularly for determining
the difference in elevation of various ground stations.
The above principles were explained in detail in the above pages and the application of the same was also
explained with the help of two numerical examples.
***
SURVEYING
UNIT - 6
TACHEOMETRY
6.1. Contents:
6.2. Aim
6.3. Objective
6.4. Introduction
CE401/17 54
In this unit Stadia system by fixed hair method is explained and the other methods mentioned above are
explained in 7th and 8th units exclusively.
6.6. STADIA SYSTEM FIXED HAIR METHOD:
6.6.1. Principle: The theodolite employed differs from the ordinary transit only in having the diaphragm fitted with
two additional horizontal hairs called STADIA HAIRS one on each side (above and below) of the central horizontal
hair. The only other article of equipment required is a graduated staff or stadia rod which may be an ordinary
levelling staff and which is held on the points to be located with respect to the instrument station. On viewing the
staff through the telescope the stadia hairs are seen to intercept or subtend a certain length which increases with the
distance of the staff from the instrument , and from the observed value of the intercept the distance to the staff
station can be calculated. This constitutes the Fixed Hair Method. In the movable hair method the staff intercept is
kept constant and the corresponding stadia interval has to be obtained by adjusting the stadia hairs. Normally the
smallest graduation on the staff is 1/2 cm i.e., width of each graduation is 5mm on the stadia rod.
Fig 6.1.
d is the distance from object glass to the vertical axis of the instrument.
D = Horizontal distance from the vertical axis of the instrument to the staff.
CE401/17 56
The rays Aoa and Bob passing through ‘O’ are straight lines so that triangles AOB and aob are similar ,
whence
f1 S
=
f2 i
S f
Substituting for 1
i f2
fS
f1 = + f
i
Adding d to each side
fS
D = f1 + d = + f +d
i
fS
D= + f +d 6.1
i
f
The intercepts ‘S’ is observed as the difference of the stadia hair readings. The quantities and f + d for
i
the particular instrument must be known to calculate D.
f
and (f + d) for a particular instrument are constant.
i
D = KS + C
f , called multiplying constant 6.1a
K=
i
C = (f + d) , called additive constant.
f
The above two constants and (f + d) are called tacheometric constants and the equation 6.1 or 6.1a as
i
the distance equation in tacheometry.
6.6.3. Determination of Tacheometric constants:
(1) Measuring accurately two distance D1 and D2 on the ground (distance between the instrument and the staff) and
the corresponding staff intercepts S1 and S2
D1 = KS1 + C (a)
D2 = KS2 + C (b)
Solving the two above simultaneous equations the tacheometric constants K and C can be determined.
CE401/17 57
1
f1 is large and is every small and can be neglected.
f2
1 1
+
f f2
or f = f2 (measured).
(d) ‘d’ distance between the instrument axis and the objective is not constant strictly speaking , but the variation is
very small for different lengths of sights. So it can be measured directly on the instrument after focussing to a far off
object.
(e) Knowing f and d the constant c i.e., additive constant (f + d) is known.
f
(f) i (stadia interval) being very small cannot be measured accurately. The value of has to be computed first and
i
f
then from equation = K knowing f and K , ‘i’ can be determined.
i
(g) Focus the telescope to a staff kept at a known distance.
(h) Measure the distance D1 between the instrument and the staff and the corresponding staff intercept ‘S’.
D1 = KS1 + C
find K knowing D1 , S1 , and C
f
K= , f already known find i.
i
6.7. Angular Tacheometry (Inclined Sights):
In this case the staff may be held either vertically or normal to the line of sight , the former method being
generally preferred.
6.7.1. Inclined Sights (staff vertical):
This is adopted when the ground is undulating and when it is not possible to make observations with line of
collination horizontal.
Observation to be taken:
Angle of elevation or depression and three readings of staff corresponding to three horizontal hairs.
Let be the angle of elevation (or depression) of the line of sight from the horizontal. The inclined distance
‘L’ from the trunion axis G to the point C on the staff could be obtained directly from the formula 6.1 (or 6.1a) if
the observed intercept is normal to GC.
S is the (AB) observed intercept ie difference between top and bottom hair readings.
A1 B1 drawn perpendicular to GC at C.
CE401/17 58
A1 B1 = S1 = S cos
f 1
L= S + (f + d)
i
f
= S cos + (f + d)
i
Fig 6.2c
In General
R.L. of bottom of staff (staff point)
= R.L. of Instrument axis ± V - h
Use + Sign for angle of elevation
- Sign for angle of depression.
6.7.2. Inclined sights:
Staff Normal to line of Collination:
In fig 6.3a General arrangement of lens instrument axis and the staff are shown. For clarity for calculation
refer fig 6.3b and 6.3c.
CE401/17 60
Fig 6.3a
CE401/17 61
f
=[ S + (f + d)] Sin
i
f
= S sin + (f + d) Sin
i
If h is the projected reading on the vertical through the foot of the staff.
h = r cos where r is the central hair reading
R.L. of the staff point E = R.L. of Instrument axis + V - r cos .
R.L. of staff point.
f
E = R.L. of Instrument axis ± { S sin + (f +d) sin } – r cos 6.5
i
Use + V for angle of elevation and - V for depression angle
E = R.L. of Instrumentation axis + V - h 6.5a.
6.8. TACHEOMETER:
Although an ordinary transit fitted with stadia hairs or points can be employed for tacheometry , accuracy
and speed are promoted if the instrument is specially adopted for the work. The requirement of a good tacheometer
(used for tacheometry) are:
(1). The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of at least 20 diameters (preferable 20 to 30
diameters).
(2) For sufficiently bright image the effective diameter of objective should be at least 35mm (preferable 35 to
45mm).
f
(3) The multiplying constant ( ) should have a value of 100.
i
(4) The telescope should be truly Anallatic (explained below in 6.9).
6.9. The Anallatic Lens:
To eliminate the additive constant (f + d) or (c) from the distance equation.
f
D= S + (f + d)
i
or KS + C
For Tacheometric telescopes an additional lens known as an anallatic lens is sometimes provided in the
telescope between the object glass and the eye piece , which makes the additive constant vanish thus simplifying the
computations.
Principle:
f
D= S + (f + d) shows that the staff intercept is proportional to D - (f + d) the distance between the staff
i
station and the exterior principle focus of the objective. The latter point there- fore forms the apex of a constant
visual angle between the sides of which the quantity ‘S’ is intercepted. If this apex were situated on the vertical axis
CE401/17 63
of the instrument (point ‘G’ in the earlier figures of this chapter) the term (f + d) would vanish and D would be
proportional to ‘S’.
This is accomplished by the introduction in the telescope of an additional convex lens called an
‘ANALLATIC LENS’ placed between the eye piece and object glass and at a fixed distance from the object glass.
The anallatic lens is generally provided in external focussing tacheometer telescopes. Its use simplifies the
reduction of observations but it is open to the objection that it increases the absorption of light in the telescope with
consequent reduction in brilliancy of the image.
If the additive constant is zero and the multiplying constant = 100 (by the introduction of anallatic lens).
Then D = KS = 100 S
100 times the staff intercept.
Self Assessment Questions:
(1) What is an Anallatic Lens ?
(2) What are the advantages of providing an Anallatic Lens ?
(3) Mention the disadvantages if any of using an anallatic lens ?
6.10. THEORY OF ANALLATIC LENS:
Let O = Optical centre of the objective
N = Optical centre of the Anallatic lens
G = Position of vertical axis of the instrument
F1 = Exterior Principal focus of Anallatic lens.
A , B points on the staff corresponding to the stadia wires
i = ba is the position of the actual image
i1 = b1a1 is the image which would be produced if no anallatic lens were interposed.
f1 and f2 the conjugate focal lengths of the objective
D = Distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument.
CE401/17 64
Fig 6.4
d = distance of the vertical axis (G) from the objective
f1 = focal length of Anallatic lens
f = focal length of the objective
m = distance of diapharagm from objective
n = distance of the anallatic lens from the objective.
The rays emanating from A and B corresponding to stadia wires along AG and BG are refracted by the
object glass and meet at a point F1. The distance between the Anallatic lens and the object glass is so fixed that the
point F1 happens to be the exterior principal focus of the anallatic lens. Hence the rays passing through F1 will
emerge in a direction parallel to the axis of the telescope after being refracted by the anallatic lens. Then ba is the
inverted image of AB of the staff the points ‘b’ and ‘a’ correspond to the stadia wires.
If the anallactic lens was not interposed the rays would have formed a virtual image b1a1 at a distance f2
from the object glass.
From the conjugate relationship for the objective
1 1 1
= + 6.6a
f f1 f2
Since the intercept and the image (S and 1) are proportional to their distance from ‘O’.
S f1
= 6.6b
i1 f2
For the anallatic lens b1a1 and ba are conjugate and their distances (f2 - n) and (m - n)
from N are connected by
1 1 1
= + 6.6c
f1 f2 n m n
CE401/17 65
The negative sign being required for (f2 - n) since b1a1 and ba are on the same side of N. The length of b1a1
and ba are proportional to their distance from N so that
i1 f 2 n
= 6.6d
i m n
An expression for D can now be obtained by eliminating f2 , m and i1 , from the above equations.
Multiplying 6.6b and 6.6a , we get
S f f n
= 1. 2
i f2 m n
f1 f
But = 1 1 (from 6.6a
f2 f
f1 f
=
f
ff1
also f2 =
f1 f
f2 n f2 n
And = +1 (from (6.6c)
m n f1
f2 n+ f1
=
f1
f1 f n
substituting for and 2 in 6.6c
f2 m n
S f f f n+ f1
= 1 × 2
i f f1
( ff 1 %
& n + f1#
f1 f & f1 f #
=
f & f1 #
& #
'& #$
on further simplification
f1 =
S ff 1 (
f n f1 )
i f + f1 n f + f 1
n
The distance between the instrument axis and the staff = f1 + d
D = (f + d) =
ff 1
×
S (
f n f1 ) +d 6.6f
1 1
f + f n i f + f n
This is of the form
D = KS + C
CE401/17 66
ff 1 1
where K = 1
×
f + f n i
C=d-
f n ( f1 )
1
f + f n
Now the condition that D should be proportional to S requires that the 2nd and 3rd terms in 6.6f should vanish.
i.e., d=
(
f n f1 )
1
f + f n
which is secured by placing the anallatic lends N so that
fd
n= f1 + 6.6g
f +d
under these conditions the apex of the tacheometric angle is situated at G , the centre of the trunnion axis. The value
ff 1 1
of f1 and i must be so arranged that the multiplier
(f + f 1
n )× i is a suitable round number say 100.
If all these conditions are fulfilled then the Distance equation with an anallatic lens reduces to
D = KS = 100 S 6.7
The formula for inclined sights on either the fixed or the movable hair (to be studied in next unit) system
are similarly modified by omitting the term involving the second constant i.e.,
D = L cos = KS cos2
KS
V = L sin = sin 2 etc.....
2
The Anallatic lens is usually provided with means for adjusting its position in the telescope so that if the
constant is found to differ from 100 , the distance n may be adjusted until the desired value is obtained.
f
D= s + (f + d)
i
D = (50 S + 0.4) metres. Ans.
6.11.2.: To determine the tacheometric constants a levelling staff was kept at distance of 60 and 80 meters from a
theodolite station and the corresponding staff intercepts recorded wre 0.6m and 0.80 meters respectively. Find the
constants
D = KS + C
80 = 0.8K + C (1)
60 = -.6K + C (2)
(1) - (2) = 20 = 0.2K.
K = 100
Substituting the value of K in (1) 80 = -.80 x 100 + C
Ans. K = 100 , C = 0.
6.11.3. (JNTU 1984 Sept):
The following tacheometric data pertain to an intermediate point on AB
Station A B
Staff intercept 2.47 2.27
Axial hair reading 3.34 3.13
0 1 0 1
Bearing 218 37 38 37
0 1
Vertical angle - 50 30 - 600 201
The instrument fitted with anallatic lens has a constant as 100. Compute the length AB and R.L. of B. R.L
of A is 223.80 m and the observations are based on a vertically held staff.
Solution: Note to student:
In all survey problems the student is advised to draw as many sketches as are required to get a clear idea
about the problem and then transfer the given data on to the sketches.
Here if the instrument station is ‘O’ and the staff stations are A and B , if the whole circle bearings are
indicated in the diagram it will be clear from the diagram that the staff stations A and B and the instrument station
‘O’ are in the same vertical plane in a straight line (though sloping on either side from the instrument station) as is
evident from the minus vertical (depression) angles.
CE401/17 68
Fig 6.5
D = 100 S cos2
For distance OA1 , S = 2.47 , 1 = 500.5
OA1 = 100 x 2.47 cos2(500.5) = 247 x (0.636)2 = 99.91
S 1 = 2.27
OB1 = 100 x 2.27 cos2 (600.333) = 227 x (0.495)2 = 55.62.
2
= 600.333
similarly V2 =
100 × 2.27 sin 2 × 60 0 201( )
2
=
(
227 sin 180 0 590 201 )
2
=
(
227 × sin 59 0 201
= 97.61
)
2
R.L. of A given as 223.8
R.L. of instrument axis = 223.8 + 3.34 + 121.28 = 348.42 (Axial hair reading V1 at A)
R.L. of B = R.L. of instrument axis - V2 - central hair reading at B
= 348.42 - 97.61 - 3.13 = 247.68.
Answers
Horizontal distance AB = 155.53 meters
R.L. of B = 247.68m.
Fig 6.6
From the given data and the above figures it is evident that the included angle (Horizontal between RP and
0
RQ = 50 . From R to P it is angle of elevation and from R to Q it is angle of depression.
The observation sketches for the two lines are shown separately below.
L1 = KS1 + C K = 100 C = 0.5 S1 = 1.833 - 1.000 = 0.833.
(if necessary the student is advised to refer the corresponding sketch given near the derivation).
Fig 6.7
L1 = 100 x 0.833 + 0.5
= 83.3 + 0.5 = 83.9m.
D1 = R1 C1 + C1 P1
= L1 cos 1 + r1 Sin 1
V1 = L1 sin 1
Fig 6.8
L2 = inclined distance along line of collination
= KS2 + C K = 100 C = 0.5 S2 = 2.313 - 1.000 = 1.313
L2 = 100 x 1.313 + 0.5
= 131.3 + 0.5 = 131.80
D2 = R1 C1 - Q1 C1
= L2 cos 2 - r2 sin 2
= 131.368 sin 40
= 131.368 x 0.0698 = 9.169m.
h2 = projection of central hair reading r2 on the vertical axis
= r2 cos 2 = 1.657 cos 40 = 1.657 x 0.9976 = 1.653.
R.L. of Q = R.L. of R + Height of Instrument- V2 - h2
CE401/17 72
Fig 6.9
PQ = PR 2 + RQ 2 2 PR.RQ cos R
= (83.651)2 + (131.368)2 ( )
2 × 83.51 × 131.368 cos 50 0
= 10128 = 100.63
16 1
Gradient from P to Q = =
100.63 6.28
Answers:-
R.L. of P = 48.57
R.L. of Q = 32.59
Gradient from P to Q 1 in 6.28.
6.12. Problems for Practice:
6.12.1. A tacheometer has a diaphragm with three cross hairs spaced at distances apart of 0.65m. The focal length of
the object glass is 23.4cm. A staff is held normal to the line of sight on a Bench Mark whose R.L. 106.365m. The
reading on the staff are 2.465 , 2.010 , 0.155m with the telescope inclined at an angle of 50201 downwards.
Find the distance of the instrument station from the Bench Mark at its reduced level if the
height of the instrument above the ground is 1.35m (UPSC 1974).
6.12.2. Tacheometric readings were taken from a survey station ‘S’ to a staff held vertically at two pegs A and B
and the following readings were recorded.
CE401/17 73
***
SURVEYING
UNIT - 7
7.1. CONTENTS:
Introduction , Principles of Subtense Method Distance equation , Subtense Bar - Problems , Tacheometric
tables.
7.2. AIM:
The Principle of Subtence Method of Tacheometry Types of subtense method and subtense bar are
explained in this chapter. The use of tacheometric tables is also explained.
7.3. OBJECTIVES:
CE401/17 74
After going through this chapter the student should know the difference between the fixed hair stadia
method and the movable hair stadia method and the basic difference between the instruments used in the fixed and
movable hair methods. The student should also know the use of tacheometric tables for quick reduction of data when
a large number of observations is involved.
7.4. INTRODUCTION:
Stadia method is one of the methods of tacheometric surveying. Stadia metod is subdivided into (i) fixed
hair method and (ii) movable hair method. In the fixed hair method as the name indicates the distance between the
stadia hairs (one above and the other below the central hair) remains constant and the staff intercept varies. In the
movable hair method also knwo as SUBTENSE METHOD the stadia interval i.e., the distance between the two
stadia hairs is not constant. The intercept ‘S’ (distance between given targets) is constant and the distance between
the stadia hairs for a particular intercept varies depending on the distance of the staff or the targets on the staff from
the instrument. Depending on how the targets are placed one over the other (vertical) or in a horizontal plane (side
by side) (horizontal) the methods are known as VERTICAL SUBTENSE METHOD OR HORIZONTAL
SUBTENSE METHOD. The terms ‘subtense method’ is now more or less exclusively applied to horizontal base
subtense method. Both the methods are explained in the chapter besides working out some numerical examples. The
use of tacheometric tables is also explained.
For the subtense method of tacheometry the theodolite must be fitted with an arrangment to alter the
distance between the stadia hairs for the given intercept. A theodolite with such arrangement is known as subtense
theodolite.
For moving the upper and lower wires above or below the central fixed hair , micrometer screw
arrangement (fig 7.1) is made. Two micrometer graduated drums are provided one for moving the upper wire and
the other for moving the lower wire. The whole number of revolutions made by the micrometer drum are recorded
on the vertical dial while the fractional portion of the revolutions for the upper and lower wires are read on the upper
and lower drums respectively.
The distance of the respective wires from the central fixed wire is first read in terms of number of
revolutions made on the drum and then converting the number of revolutions into linear distance by multiplying the
number of revolutions with the pitch of the screw. Pitch of the screw is the linear distance traversed by the wire for
one complete revolution of the drum.
CE401/17 75
K1 S
D= +C 7.5.2.2
n e
For inclined sights and staff held vertical
K1 S
D= Cos2 + C cos 7.5.2.3
n
K1 S Sin2
V= + C Sin 7.5.2.4
n 2
When there is no index error.
1
KS
or D= Cos 2 + C cos
n e
K1 S Sin2
V= + C sin ,
n e 2
When there is index error of ‘e’ and S = staff intercept (the base) or the distance between the targets.
7.5.3. SUBTENSE BAR:
It is a horizontal wooden bar about 2 to 3 meters long fitted with two circular vanes at a constant distance
of 2m apart supported on a tripod stand. In the center of the horizontal bar there is a sight rule placed at right angles
to direction fo the bar for aligning the bar at right angles to the line of sight. The sight alidate can be turned on its
pivot so that it is parallel with the horizontal bar when not in use. The fixed circular targets are coloured in red and
white diagonally on one side and black and white on the other side. When it is intended to fix the two targets at 3m
distance the red and white targets are kept towards the observer and the targets fixed in slots which are enactly 3
meter center to center.
For 2m center to center between the slots the back side of the targets is kept towards the observer.
The colour enables the observer (from a distance) to observe the distance apart between the targets.
Given 2 = 50 . 241 = 50 . 4
S2 = 1.75
C = 0.5
K1 = 1000
CE401/17 78
1000 × 1.75 2
104.298 = cos 5.4 + 0.5 cos 50 . 4
n
1734.5
= + 0.4978.
n
1734.5
= 104.298 - 0.4978 = 103
n
n = number of turns registered on a movable hair instrument.
1734.5
= = 16.7
103.8
= 16 full turns + 0.7 times a turn (answer).
7.5. PROBLEM FOR EXERCISE: (Part of problem UPSC 1976):
A theodolite (with a multiplying constant of 100 and additional constant zero) was set up at station A and
observation were taken to a horizontally held subtense bar at station D. The horizontal angle subtended by the end
targets of the subtense bar at the theodolite at A was 00 5112011 . Distance between the end targets of the subtense
bar was 4m. Vertical angle at A to the central target on the subtense bar = 160 241 1811 .
Find the horizontal distance between the instrument station (A) and the subtense bar position (D). and also
the difference in elevation between A and D.
7.6. TACHEOMETRIC TABLES:
For survey of large extent where the number of points observed in a tacheometric survey are large
reduction of stadia notes can be done quickly with the help of tacheometric tables. In the tacheometric tables the
corrections to be applied to the horizontal distance and the vertical component as a multiple of staff intercept are
given for different values of . A simple form of such a table for an angle of elevation up to 30 is shown below and a
numerical example explaining its use is also given. To explain the use of tacheometric table given below:
Let
S = Staff intercept = 1.5m in a particular observation
= 20 201 Additive constant (f + d) = c = 0.4.
TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING:
Minutes 00 10 20 30
Hor. Diff. Hor. Diff. Hor. Diff. Hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev Corr. Elev Corr. Elev Corr. Elev
0 0.00 0.00 0.03 1.74 0.12 3.49 0.27 5.23
2 0.00 0.06 0.03 1.80 0.13 3.55 0.28 5.28
4 0.00 0.12 0.03 1.86 0.13 3.60 0.29 5.34
6 0.00 0.17 0.04 1.92 0.13 3.66 0.29 5.40
8 0.00 0.23 0.04 1.98 0.14 3.72 0.30 5.46
10 0.00 0.29 0.04 2.04 0.14 3.78 0.31 5.52
12 0.00 0.35 0.04 2.09 0.15 3.84 0.31 5.57
14 0.00 0.41 0.05 2.15 0.15 3.89 0.32 5.63
16 0.00 0.47 0.05 2.21 0.16 3.95 0.32 5.69
CE401/17 79
To find the horizontal distance between the staff and the instrument and the difference in elevation between
the instrument axis and axial reading on the staff (vertical component). From the table corresponding to 20 201 the
following information is noted:
Horizontal correction Difference in elevation
0.17 4.07
0.00 0.02
Distance reading = 100 x 1.5 = 150m
Horizontal Distance = 150 - (0.17 x 1.5) + (0.4 - 0.00)
150.00 - 0.255 + 0.4 = 150.145m.
Horizontal distance = 150.145m.
V = 4.07 x 1.5 + 0.02 = 6.105 + 0.02 = 6. 125m.
***
SURVEYING
UNIT-8
CE401/17 80
8.1. CONTENTS:
Introduction, Tangential method (Different cases) , Problems , Special Instruments , (i) Beam Stadia Arc ,
(ii) Direct Reading or Auto-Reduction (Self-reducing) tacheometers. (a) Jeffcott Direct Reading Tacheometer (b)
Szepessy Direct Reading Tacheometer and (c) Auto reduction (self reducing) Tacheometer.
8.2. AIM:
The tangential method of tacheometry and the use of special instrument for quick reduction of
Tacheometric data are explained with the help of examples.
8.3. OBJECTIVES:
As this is the concluding chapter on Tacheometry the student is expected to know thoroughly the difference
between different methods used in this type of survey and also to know in detail the different special instruments
(mentioned in this chapter) used for quick reduction of tacheometric data.
8.4. INTRODUCTION:
When the telescope of a theodolite is not fitted with a stadia diaphragm the TANGENTIAL METHOD of
tacheometry is used. In this method the horizontal and vertical distance from the instrument to the staff station are
computed from the observed vertical angles to two vanes fixed at a constant distance ‘S’ apart upon the staff. The
vanes are bisected every time with the axial hair and necessarily two vertical angles are to be observed
corresponding to each vane and recorded. There may be three cases of the vertical angles:
(i) Both angles - angles of elevation
(ii) Both angles - angles of depression
(iii) One angle of elevation and one angle of depression.
8.5. TANGENTIAL METHOD:
8.5.1. Both the observed angles being angles of elevation:
P1 represents the axis of the instrument (fig 8.1)
P position of the instrument
Q Staff station
R and T the two vanes
angle of elevation to T from P1
angle of elevation to R from P1.
CE401/17 81
Fig 8.1.
D = Horizontal distance between the instrument on the staff
h = Height of lower vane above the foot of the staff at Q
From fig 8.1,
V + S = D tan (A)
V = D tan (B)
(A) - (B) = S = D(tan - tan )
S
D= 8.5.1.1
(tan tan )
V = D tan
S tan
V=
tan tan 8.5.1.2
Equation 8.5.1.1. gives the horizontal distance between the instrument station and the staff.
Equation 8.5.1.2 gives the difference in elevation between the instrument axis and the lower vane.
Elevation of staff station Q = Elevation of Inst. Axis + v - h.
8.5.2. Both the observed angles being angles of depression:
CE401/17 82
Fig 8.2.
V = D tan (A)
V - S = D tan (B)
A - B = S = D(tan - tan )
D = S / (tan - tan ) 8.5.2.1
S tan
V = D tan = 8.5.2.2
(tan tan )
Elevation of staff station Q = R.L. of Inst. axis p1 - V - h.
8.5.3. One of the obserbed angles is an angle of elevation and the other an angle of depression:
Fig 8.3
S - V = D tan (A)
V = D tan (B)
A + B = S = D(tan + tan )
S
D= 8.5.3.1
(tan + tan )
CE401/17 83
V = D tan
S tan
= 8.5.3.2
(tan + tan )
Elevation of staff station Q
= Elevation of Instrument axis p1 - V - h.
The amount of calculation work is practically the same in both the tangential and stadia methods. For each
observation in tangential method vertical angle is to be observed. This method is considered inferior to the stadia
method. The stadia method (fixed hair method) with the staff held vertical is the common used method of
Tacheometry.
8.6. PROBLEMS:
8.6.1. An ordinary transit theodolite without stadia hairs was set up at station p and the vertical angles observed to
upper and lower vanes (T and R) of a staff held at Q are respectively 60 ,301 and 20 241. The distance between the
vanes of the stadia rod was 2m. R.L. (Elevation) of station was 10.25m. Height of instrument at p was 1.650m.
Height of lower vane above ground is 1.05m.
Calculate the horizontal distance PQ and the R.L. of staff station Q.
Solution:
Fig 8.4
0 1
V + 2m = D tan 6 30 (1)
0 1
V = D tan 2 24 (2)
0 1 0 1
(1) - (2) = 2 = D(tan 6 30 - tan 2 24 )
= D(0.1139 - 0.0419) = 0.07202 D.
D = 2 / 0.07202 = 27.768 m. Ans.
0 1
V = D tan 2 , 24 = 27.768 x 0.0419 = 1.164m.
R.L. of Instrument axis = R.L. of p + ht. of Instrument
CE401/17 84
1.52m and the R.L. of the instrument station is 20.50. If the bottom of the 3m intercept is at a height of 1.10m from
the bottom of the pole (Q). Calculate the reduce level of the bottom of the pole.
(Ans. 19.67 m).
8.7. SPECIAL INSTRUMENTS:
8.7.1. THE BEAMAN STADIA ARC:
It is a mechanical device fitted to the vertical circle of a theodolite (or to the telescopic alidata of a plane
table) to reduce rapidly an inclined stadia distance (L) to the corresponding horizontal distance (D) and the vertical
component (V) (i.e., the difference in elevation) without measuring vertical angles and without much calculation or
even without the use of tables etc.
Principle Used: The reductions would be simplified if only the values of used were those for which either cos2 or
1
sin 2 is a convenient figure. The former (cos2 ) varies too slowly for the small angles usually required , but a
2
1
list of values of for which sin 2 = 0.01 , 0.02 etc. can be prepared as follows:
2
0.09 5 11 06
0.10 5 46 07
etc. etc.
If these particular angles were used the vertical component ‘V’ for a multiplying constant of 100 and no
additive constant would be S , 2S , 3S etc. This is the principle used in preparing the graduations of the Beaman
Stadia Arc.
The Beaman Stadia Arc is fixed to the vertical circle and consist of a scale engraved with the above angles
1
on either side of zero upto about 260 331 5411 for which sin 2 = 0.40.
2
sin 2
The scale is figured in terms of 100 and is read against a fixed index mark. The arc carries two
2
scales H and V having their central points marked 0 and 50.
To avoid possible confusion between elevation and depression the zero is commonly marked 50 so that 50
must be subtracted from every reading. No fitting is required to enable fractional parts of the scale to be read since
for every sight a graduation of the scale is to be brought opposite the index by means of the vertical circle tangent
screw (fig 8.5).
To facilitate the calculation of horizontal distance the stadia arc also carries a scale of percentage reduction
f
to be applied to the distance reading ×s.
i
The example below will explain the use of Beaman stadia arc. Its scales are shown in fig 8.5.
CE401/17 86
Fig 8.5.
Example:
Observed Data: Central hair reading: 1.86
Reading on V scale : 56
Reading on H scale : 2
Staff intercept : 1.5m
Elevation of instrument axis: 80.00
Assuming constants of the instrument as 100 and 0 , determine (i) the horizontal distance between
instrument and the staff and (ii) the elevation of the staff.
Solution:
Stadia arc reading = 56 - 50 = 6.
V = 6 x 1.5 = 9.0
Elevation of the instrument being 80.00,
CE401/17 87
When the telescope is elevated or depressed the two outer pointers were actuated by a system of levels and cams in
such a manner that the staff interval read between the fixed central pointer and the movable right hand pointer when
multiplied by 100 (200 in some instruments) gives the reduced horizontal distance and the staff intercept read
between the center pointer and the left had pointer when multiplied by 10 gives the vertical component.
8.7.3. Another type of direct reading tachemeter also was invented by a Hungarian going by the name the ‘Szepessy
direct reading tacheometer’ based on the principle of tangential system using the percentage angles.
A scale of percentage of vertical angles is engraved on a glass arc which is fixed to the vertical circle cover.
By means of prisms , this scale is reflected in the view of the eye-piece and when the staff is sighted , the
image of the staff is seen along side that of the scale. The scale is divided to 0.005 and numbered at every 0.01 so
that the graduation 10 corresponds to the angle whose tangent is 0.10 or 10%.
CE401/17 88
The read the staff (i) a numbered division say 15 is brought opposite the horizontal cross hair by means of
the vertical circle tangent screw and the staff reading at this division (axial reading) is noted. (ii) The staff intercept
between the short 0.005 divisions immediately , above and below the numbered division is read. This intercept
multiplied by 100 gives the horizontal distance D , while the vertical component V is obtained by multiplying the
intercept by the number marking the division brought opposite the horizontal cross hair. Suppose the staff intercept
is 1.96 and the number is 15. Then the horizontal distance (D) is 196 and the vertical component is 1.96 x 15 = 29.4.
In this type of tacheometer the movable pointers are replaced by special curves engraved on rotating glass
circles. In the kern DKR self reducing tacheometer the engraved circle is mounted at right angles to the axis of the
telescope with the face on which the curves are engraved almost in contact with the ordinary diaphragm carrying a
vertical line. The circle rotates as the telescope is elevated or depressed and the appropriate parts of the four curves
are seen in the eye piece against the center of the staff when the fixed vertical line is directed to it.
For the Hammer Fennel type of Auto reduction tacheometer , in the field of view are seen four curves
marked by the letters N , E , D and d. (Fig 8.7).
The ‘N’ curve is the zero curve, ‘E’ curve is for reading distance ‘D’ curve is to be used for angles upto +
14 while ‘d’ curve is for angles upto + 470 . The curve D and d are marked +ve for angles of elevation and for
0
angles of depression. The multiplying constant for the distance curve is 100 , that for the height curve (D) , is 10
while for the height curve (d) , it is 20.
To take a reading the zero curve is (N) made to bisect the specially marked zero point of the staff by
bringing the perpendicular edge of the prism into line with the staff. The staff readings are taken with the distance
curve and the height curve. The distance curve reading multiplied by 100 gives the horizontal distance D while the
height curve reading multiplied by the corresponding multiplying constant gives the vertical component V.
Auto reduction tacheometers permit both the distance and the difference of altitude to be read by a single
reading of a vertically held staff , thus reducing the tacheometric operation as simple as that of ordinary levelling.
CE401/17 89
***
CURVE SURVEYING
9.1 Contents: Introduction, Types of curves, Simple Curves, Designation of a curve, Elements of a curve. Setting
out simple curves; Linear methods-Offsets from long chord, Offsets from tangents, Offsets from Chords produced.
Angular method: Rankine’s method of deflection angles, two theodolite method, Tacheometric method, problems,
exercises.
9.2. Aim: Different types of curves and the condition under which each type is adopted with emphasis on simple
curves is explained in this Unit. Different methods of calculating the date required for setting out simple curves in
the field (both linear and angular) are explained with numerical examples at the end of the unit.
9.3. Objectives:: As it is difficult to get a long continuous stretch of straight approach connecting two places on the
surface of the earth, curves are a must in communication lines to over come the obstacles on the way.
The student is expected to know the different methods of setting out the curves connecting the straight
portions. This chapter suggests some of the popular methods in different situations.
CE401/17 90
9.4. Introduction: The ranging of curves is required in the location of various kinds of public works. For example
in road, railway or pipe line construction two straights will normally be connected by a curve whenever there is a
change in direction. As a general rule a curve which is a circular arc is required to connect two straight lengths and
they must be tangential to the curve in order that there shall be no abrupt break at the junctions. Different types of
curves are adopted in different situations and each is dealt with separately here in different units.
9.4.1. Simple Curve or a Circular Curve: It is a single arc connecting two straights. This curve is dealt with in
detail in Unit 9.
Fig.9.1.(a) Fig.9.1.b
9.4.2. Compound Curve: Consists of two arcs of different radii bending in the same direction and lying on the
same side of their common tangent, their centers being on the same side of the curve. (Unit 10).
9.4.3. Transition curve: A curve of variable radius inserted between a straight and a circular curve in order that the
centrifugal force may build up in a gradual and uniform manner and this way the lateral shock is minimised (Unit
11)
FIG.9.1.c
9.4.4. Reverse Curve:
CE401/17 91
Consists of two arcs of same or different radii curving in opposite directions with the centers on opposite sides of the
curve and on opposite sides of the common tangent (Unit 12)
FIG.9.1.d
Du = D ×
180
= D = Central angle
R = RD = Arc length
Du = D × Radians
180
D
R .× = 30m (arc length)
180
180 × 30 1718.9
R= = meters.
D D
CE401/17 92
Alternatives: If the degree of the curve is defined in terms of the chord length and the chord AB in
Fig.9.2.
D AE 30 / 2 D
sin = = =
2 OA R 2
When D is small,
D D
Sin ) =
2 2
15 15
R= = D where D in radians
D/2 ×
2 180
15 × 360 1718.9
R= =
D D
9.5.2. Elements of a Curve: Let AB and BC be the two straight lines intersecting at B and let the curve touch them
at the two tangent points T1 and T2, fig(9.3). If the chainage is carried out in the directions T1 and T2, T1 is called
the Point of curve and T2 is called the Point of tangent. From T1 if the curve turns to left it is called a left hand
curve. The radii of curve at T1 and T2 will be at right angles to AB and BC respectively. If these perpendiculars are
drawn their intersection at ‘O’ locates the centre of the circle of which the curve T1 E T2 is a part . The line joining
T1 and T2 is known as the LONG CHORD.
CE401/17 93
Fig.9.3
From the properties of the circle
B T1 T2 = B T2 T1
Tangent distance B T1 = B T2
If a line be drawn connecting O and B it will intersect the curve at E and the long chord T1 T2 at D (its mid
point). The point E (Mid point of the curve) is called the CROWN POINT or APEX or SUMMIT of the curve.
The intercept D E on the line OB between E and the Point of intersection of O B and the long chord T1 T2
(the Point D on T1 T2 ) is known as the VERSED SINE OF THE CURVE F B C ( = ) ) is known as the
deflection angle of the curve and is equal to the sum of the two interior and opposite angles of the triangle B T1 T2
i.e. F B C = 2 B T1 T2
)
OR B T1 T2 = B T2 T1 =
2
T1 O T2 = ) = FBC
Apex distance B E = OB - OE
) )
O B = O T1 Sec = R Sec
2 2
OE=R
)
B E = R (Sec - 1)
2
D E = Versed sine of the curve
=O E - O D
)
= R - R Cos
2
)
= R (1 - Cos )
2
)
= R Ver Sine
2
Length of the curve = R )
) is the deflection angle
R is the radius of the curve.
9.5.3. Setting out simple curves:
9.5.3.1. Linear Methods:
a) Offsets from long chord
b) Offsets from tangents
c) Offsets from chords produced
9.5.3.2. Angular or Instrumental Methods:
a) Rankine’s method of deflection angles
b) Two theodolite method
c) Tacheometric method
9.5.3.1. Linear Methods : While plotting the curve on the ground it is rather a series of chords than arcs because the
1
difference in chord and arc length is negligible particularly for chords not greater than th of radius of the curve.
20
Length of Unit chord = 30m for flat curves
20m for sharp curves
10m for very sharp curves
For plotting any curve whatever may be the method adopted the following preliminary calculations should
be done to locate the tangent points T1 and T2.
i) The direction of the two tangents is known as they are the two directions to be connected by a curve.
Producing the tangent line, the intersection point B can be got.
ii) Setting the theodolite at B, the angle I can be measured.
CE401/17 95
Small curves for street kerbs etc may be set out by means of offsets from the long chord. A formula for the
ordinate at any distance ‘x’ from the center D of the long chord can be deduced as follows. Let L be the length of
the long chord T1 and T2 its extremeties. DE the versed sine (O0) and O the center of the curve. Ox is the ordinate
from long chord at distance x from D.
From O T1 D
2
O T 1 = O D2 + T1 D2
CE401/17 96
= (OE - DE)2 + T1 D2
L 2
R2 = ( R - O0)2 + ( )
2
2 L 2
R - O0 = R - ( )
2
2 L 2
O0 = D E = R - R - ( )
2
from which O0, the versedsine can be calculated when R and L are known
Draw H H1 Parallel to T1 T2
and HG Parallel to OE
From OHH1
R2 = (OD + Ox)2 + x2
OD + Ox = R 2 - x2
2 2
Ox = R - x - OD
= R 2 - x2 - (R - Oo)
If the radius of the curve is very large in comparision with the length of the chord T1 T2 the ordinate at x (H
G) is very nearly equal to the radial length H G1 so that
T1 G × G T2
HG =
2R
HG2 being the square of a small quantity can be neglected.
(L - x1 )
Ox1 = x1
2R
x1 measured from T1 ( and not from D)
To set out the curve as per the method indicated above, T1 T2 must be located as indicated in 9.5.3. Then
divide the long chord T1 T2 into number of parts and calculate the offsets at those points as per any of the above two
methods. Erect perpendiculars along the long chord. The tops of all offsets will be along the required curve.
In this method the offsets are set out from the two tangents B T1 and B T2 (Fig.9.4. and 9.5.)
From Fig.9.5.a (radial offsets) Let the Offset a a1 ( = Ox ) at a distance Tl a ( =x ) from the tangent point T1 be set
out radially as in Fig.9.5.a.
CE401/17 97
FIG.9.5.
a T12 = a a1 ( a a1 + 2R)
= 2R × a a1
(neglecting squares of small quantities)
a T1 2 x2
aa1 = = (approximately)
2R 2R
Alternatively AT2 = O a2 - OT12
x2 = (R + Ox)2 - R2
(R + Ox)2 = R2 + x2
2 2
Ox = R + x - R (exact)
For flat curves the center O is often inaccessible and the ordinates are then set out without any great error at right
angles to the tangents BT1 and BT2 and at equal distances along these lines. This entails that the points so fixed on
the curve are at unequal distances apart which is occassionally an inconvenience and the curve though closes
approximately to a circle is strictly speaking parabolic.
Join O a1 (Fig.9.5.b)
anda draw a1 a11 parallel to BT1 and r to O T1
(O a1)2 = O a112 + a1 a112
R2 = (R - Ox)2 + x2
R - Ox = R 2 - x2 Ox = R - R 2 - x2
) )
To locate E the summit of the curve the value of x1 required = e E = O E Sin = R Sin
2 2
9.5.3.1.c. Offsets from Chords produced: This method is usually employed when an angle measuring instrument is
not available and when it is necessary to resort to chain and tape. The method is as follows. It is generally desirable
CE401/17 98
in railway and other works that the chainage shall be carried continuously throughout the whole line so that if the
chainage at T1 is n chains + m links the first chord length will be the remaining portion of the chain length i.e.(100-
m) links. The end of the m th link which falls at T1 is held there while the front end of the chain is swung round
from a in line with T1 and B through the calculated distance aa1 (as explained below), thus forming the point a1 i.e.
(n + 1) chains from the commencement of the work. (Fig.9.6). The chain is next pulled in the direction of T1 a1
produced until a1 b = 1 chain and the rear end of the chain being held at a1. It is swung round this point as centre
moving the fore end from b to b1 through the 2nd calculated offset distance b1b1 . a1b1 is then prolonged to C . b1 C
being the length of the chord required and the point C1 found by swinging the chain round b1 as center through a
distance equal to the 3rd calculated offset CC1.
FIG.9.6.
Derivation of formula for offsets from the chord
Let the angle a T1 a1 between the tangent a T1 and the chord T1 a1 be radians. Then the angle subtended at the
center ‘O’ by T1 a1 is equal to 2
T1 a1 = R × 2
T1 a1
=
2R
Similarly arc aa1 is nearly equal to the chord aa1.
a a1 = T1 a1
T1 a1
=T1 a1 x
2R
T1 a1 2 C1 2
= = = O1
2R 2R
where O1 is the 1st offset and C1 is the length of the first chord.
At a1 draw a tangent to the curve cutting T1 a1 in a2 and b b 1 in b2.
a2 T1 = a2 a1 since both are tangents to the circle from a2.
a 2 T1 a 1 = a 2 a 1 T1
CE401/17 99
FIG.9.7.
a1 having been located and the instrument still remaining at T1, the vernier is altered to read the 2nd
tangential angle B T1 b1 and reclamped. The telescope is consequently directed along the line T1 b1 and the second
chord a1 b1 is set out by swinging the chain round a1 as a center until the image of b1 coincides with the cross hairs.
The remaining chords are set out in a similar manner. e.g. the position of C1 is fixed by swinging the chain round b1
as a center and getting coincidence with the cross hairs of the diaphragm when the telescope is directed along the
line T1 C1 and the vernier reads the third tangential angle B. T1 C1 .
Derivation of formulae for Tangential Angles:
The first tangential angle ( 1 ) in the angle B T1 a1 between the tangent T1 B and the chord T1 a1 and is
equal to half the angle subtended by T a1 at the centre of the circle so that
T1 O a1 = 2 1.
When the length of the chord is small compared with the radius of the curve, the chord T1 a1 is
2 1
approximately equal to arc T1 a1 and its length l1=2 R where 2 R is the circumference of the complete
360
circle.
360 l1 90 l
1 = × = × 1 degrees
2 2 R R
60 x 90 l
= × 1 minutes
R
l1
i.e. 1 = 1718.9 minutes.
R
Similarly the tangential angle 2 of a1 b1 from the tangent at a1 i.e.,
CE401/17 101
l2
b a 1 b1 is 1718.9 × minutes
R
b a 1 b1 between the tangent b a1 and the chord a1 b1 is equal to the angle in the opposite segment.
i.e., b a 1 b1 = a1 T b1
B T1 b1 the total tangential angle of b1 i.e. C2 is equal to 1 + 2 . Similarly B T1 C1 , the total
l3
tangential angle of C1 i.e. 3 is equal to 1 + 2 + 3 where C3 = 1718.9 minutes
R
The total tangential angle n for the last chord (i.e. 1 + 2 + 3 + ---------------------- + n )
FIG.9.8.
To set out a curve over a rough ground, dispensing with chain and tape two theodolites can be used one
each simultaneously at T1 and T2 . The method is not economical as two experienced surveyors are required instead
of one as in the method mentioned before in 9.5.3.2.a.
If the chainage at the tangent point T1 is n chains + m links, the first point a1 on the curve will be (100 - m)
( 100 - m )
links from T1 and the tangential angle B T1 a1 i.e. 1 is calculated as 1 = 1718.9 minutes . (R
R
is expressed in links).
The angle B T1 a1 in equal to the angle in the opposite segment i.e. T 1 T2 a1 and similarly the second
total tangential angle 2 i.e. B T1 b1 is equal to T1 T2 b1 .
If a theodolite is set up at T1 with its vernier reading 3600 and sighted to B while another instrument with its
vernier reading 3600 is fixed at T2 and sighted to T1, then by fixing the same reading on each instrument, the
intersection of two lines of collimation gives a point on the curve.
The same total tangential angles calculated in the earlier method (9.5.3.2.a) can be used
in the two theodolite method. The calculated total angles should be rounded off to be a multiple
of the least count of the instrument before setting the angle on the instrument vernier.
CE401/17 102
FIG.9.9.
This method can be used for rough and undulating ground avoiding chain and tape but this is not so
accurate as the other instrumental methods.
T1 is the position of the Tacheometer
T1 D = D1 = 2 R Sin 1
T1 E = D2 = 2 R Sin 2
T1 F = D3 = 2 R Sin 3
1, 2, 3, etc. are the total deflection angles for the points D, E and F respectively. i.e. D1, D2, and D3 can
calculated by knowing the radius of the curve and the total deflection angle upto that point
f
D1 = S1 + (f + d) horz.line of signals.
i
f
or S1 cos + (f + d) Cos for inclined signal knowing the instrument constants
i
f
and f + d and D1, S1 can be calculated
i
similarly S2 etc. ------Sn .
Sighting to B, vernier is set to 3600. Then the first total deflection angle w.r.t. T1 B is set i.e. the instrument
(Telescope) is directed in the direction of T1 D.
A staff is moved along T1 D till the calculated intercept S1 on the staff is read. Similarly S2, S3, ------Sn.
i.e. staff moved along T1 E till an intercept of S2 is got and point E fixed and staff moved along T1 F till an intercept
of S3 is got and point F fixed and the procedure repeated till Sn.
9.6.Worked out Examples:
Example 9.6.1.: Two straights AB and BC of a communication line intersect at a chainage (200 + 15), the angle of
deflection being 1200. calculate the chainages of the point of commencement and the point of tangency if the
radius of the right handed circular curve is 200 meters.
SOLUTION: F B C = Deflection Angle
CE401/17 103
Assume also value of the chain 20m or 30m if not given and if it is required. Assuming 30m chain,
= 11chains + 16.31m
= 13 chains + 29.05m
Example 9.6.2.: Two straights AB and BC meet at a point B. The bearings of BA and BC are 2000 and 680 . These
two are to be connected by a simple curve of radius 25 chains. The chainage of the pointed of intersection is (320
+ 50). Tabulate the values required to set out the curve by deflection angles. The least count of the theodolite to be
used is 20” . Take the standard length of chord as 20m (Note 20m chain is being used and it is divided into 100
links i.e. each link is 0.2 meters).
SOLUTION:
Fig.
R = 20 chains = 20 x 20 = 400 m
)
B T1 = R tan = 400 x tan 240 = 178.09m
2
= 8 chains + 18.09m
= 8 chains + 90.45 links
Length of the curve = R )
= 400 x x 48 = 335.23m
180
= 16 ch + 15.23 m
= 16 ch + 76.15 links
Chainage of intersection points = 320 + 50
- (8 + 90.45)
Subtract Tangent length =
311 + 59.55
Add length of the curve = 16 + 76.15
3 = 1 + 2 + 3
To summerise the above problem to set the curve in the field theodolite reading should be set to 1 = 00 27 40 ‘
‘ (1st tangential angle)
0
2= 1 36 ‘ 40 ‘’ (2nd total tangential angle)
3 = 20 45’ 20 ‘’ (3rd total tangential angle)
9.7. Exercise:
9.7.1.: Explain the following with reference to a simple curve
i) Designation of a curve
ii) Versed Sine
CE401/17 106
b) Calculate the data required for setting out a simple curve of radius 100 meters. Deflection angle is equal
to 600.
i) by offsets from long chord
ii) Two theodolite method
least count of the instrument = 20” chainage of the intersection point is equal to 350 chains + 20
meters. 30 meter chain being used.
iii) by offsets from chords produced.
9.7.2.: Explain the procedure for setting out a simple curve by ordinates from long chord method.
b) Calculate the ordinates at 5m distances for a circular curve having a long chord of
60m and a versed sine of 3m.
9.8.SUMMARY:
9.8.1. Offsets from long chord
2
2 L
O0 = versed sine = R - R
2
Ox = Ordinate at x from the mid point of long chord
2 2
= R +x - (R - O 0 ).
9.8.2 Offsets from tangents
2
x
i) Ox = aa1 = 3(approximate)
2R
2 2
= R +x - R (exact)
ii) Perpendicular offsets
2 2
Ox = R - R x
9.8.3. Offsets from chords produced
C12
O1 =
2R
( C1 + C 2 )
O2 = C2
2R
C32
O3 = O4 = On - 1 =
R
( Cn -1 + C n )
On = Cn
2 R
l
9.8.4. 1 = 1718.9 1 minutes (Tangential angle)
R
****
SURVEYING
CE401/17 107
UNIT - 10
CURVE SURVEYING
10.1 Contents:
INTRODUCTION, Obstacles in locating simple curves: Intersection point inaccessible
Buildings or other objects obstructing the line of sight, COMPOUND CURVES, Relationship
between the different parts of a compound curve, setting out compound curve, problems.
10.2 Aims: Obstacles that we come across in general in curve setting and how to over come them is explained in
this unit. Also about the compound curve the relationship between its different elements is explained and two
numerical examples have been worked out.
10.3.Introduction: While connecting two places separated by some distance, the communication line has to take a
bend to overcome an obstacle. The bend or the transition from one straight to another should be smooth, hence the
introduction of the curves in communication lines.
Even while negotiating a curve if further obstacles come, the curve has to take a further bend, thus
changing the radius of the curve, necessiating the introduction of a compound curve. The student should be able to
know the difference between different curves and under what circumstances each type is adopted.
10.4: From a detailed study of the unit 9 it is clear that for setting out a curve the targent points T1 and T2 and the
intersection point B must be located first irrespective of the method adopted for plotting the curve. In certain cases
the intersection point B may be inaccessible to measure back or forward the tangent lengths BT1 and BT2 to locate
respectively T1 and T2. Some times some obstruction may come in the path of the curve and in certain cases T2 is
farther off from T1 and it may not be possible to set up the entire curve from T1 only. This unit deals with the
explanation of overcoming the different types of obstacles (hurdles) indicated above, besides compound curves and
the relations between its different elements. Two problems have been worked out.
10.5.1. Obstacles in Curve Location Intersection point Inaccessible: To find the positions of the two tangent
points T1 and T2 for a curve of radius R when the directions of the two tangents AB and BC have been decided upon
but the point of intersection B is inaccessible.
CE401/17 108
Fig.10.1
On the tangents BA and BC respectively fix any two points E and F and measure the angles AEF and EFC.
By subtracting each of these values from 1800 the angle BEF and BFE in the tringle BEF are found, and the
deflection angle ) is equal to BEF + BFE.
The length EF is next measured and the distances BE and BF calculated
EF
BF = x sin BEF
sin EBF
EF
BE = x sin BFE
sin EBF
The Radius of the curve R and the deflection angle ) being known the tangent distances BT1 and BT2 are
calculated from
)
BT1 = BT2 = R tan
2
To fix the point T1 on the ground a length equal to BT1 - BE is chained off (measured) from E and similarly
T2 is found by chaining a distance (BT2 - BF) from F after which the curve may be set out by any of the known
methods.
CE401/17 109
10.5.2. Buildings or other objects obstructing the line of sight: If it is not possible on account of buildings or
other objects intervening in the line of sight, to set out all the points on a curve by means of tangential angles from
one position of the instrument T1 the instrument may be moved to another point on the curve as described in the
procedure below and the work continued.
Fig.10.2.
Suppose c1 is the last point which can be seen from T1 and that the tangential angle is c. while the
instrument is still stationed at T1 and directed towards c1 set out another point in the same line T1c1 produced
(fig.10.2). Move the instrument to c1, fix the vernier at 3600 and direct the cross hairs on to C3.
If nc1 c4 be the tangent at c1, nc1 = nT1 and the angle nc1 T1 = c, consequently the vertically opposite angle
c3 c1 c4 must be equal to c, so that if the vernier of the theodolite is again set at c the telescope will point along
the tangent c1 c4,
The angle c4 c1 d1 between this tangent and the next chord c1d1 is equal to the angle c1 T1 d1 in the opposite
segment (i.e. 4). Hence by adding c to each , c3 c1 d1 will be equal to d.
This way the instrument can be moved from the tangent point to any other oint on the curve and the staking
out proceeded with from that point using the same calculated tangential angles as before.
10.5.3: Then T1 T2 is large, part of the curve can be set from T1by tangential angles and the remaining from T2
using the same method.
CE401/17 110
Fig.10.3
AB and BC are the initial straights. Because of some obstruction both the straights are to be connected by a
compound curve T1 DT2. The two branches of the curve join at D. With their centres at O1 and O2 and Radial R1
and R2 respectively, R2 denoting the greater whether it comes first or second in the direction of chainage. The two
end straights as in simple curves, on being produced meet at B, the intersection point. ) is the deflection angle and it
is the intersection angle. The tangent lengths T1B and T2B are necessarily unequal and will be distinguished as T11
and T21 of which T21 is greater and is adjacent to the arc of greater radius. The common tangent at D meets these
end tangents at E and F and makes with them the angles )1 and )2 which in turn are equal to the respective central
angles subtended by the arcs.
For the two simple curves
)1
ET1 = ED = R1 tan = t1
2
)2
FT2 = FD = R2 tan = t2
2
a) The centres O1 and O2 are in the same straight line with D since radii O1D and O2D are both perpendicular to the
common tangent.
b) ) = )1 + )2 since ) is the exterior angle to the triangle BEF.
EF
3) BE = x sin )2
sin)
sin ) 2
T1 = t1 + (t1 + t2) ... ... ... ... (A)
sin )
CE401/17 111
sin )1
Similarly T2’ = t2+ (t1 + t2) ... ... ... ... (B)
sin )
length of the compound curve = R1)1 + R2)2
10.6.2 Relationship between the parts of a compound curve: The seven quantities involved in a compound curve
of two branches), )1, )2, R1, R2, T1 and T2 are inter related in a manner deducible from the expressions (A) and (B)
above
sin ) 2
T1' = t1 + (t1 + t 2 ) (fig.10.3)
sin)
)1 ) ) sin )2
= R1 tan + (R1 tan 1 + R 2 tan 2 )
2 2 2 sin)
) or ) 2 1 - Cos)1 or )2
put tan 1 =
2 sin)1 or ) 2
1 - cos )1 1 - cos )1 1- cos)2 sin ) 2
T1' = R1 + (R1 + R2 )
sin )1 sin )1 sin )2 sin )
1- cos )1
T1 sin ) = R1 ( Sin) + Sin) 2 ) + R 2 (1- cos) 2 )
sin )1
Substituting sin ( ) - )1) for sin )2 this reduces to
T11 sin ) = R1 (sin ) sin )1 + cos ) cos )1 - cos )) + R2 ( 1 - cos )2)
= R1 [cos ()-)1) - cos )] + R2 ( 1 - cos )2)
which may be expressed as R1 [ (1 - cos )) - ( 1 - cos )2) ] + R2 ( 1 - cos )2)
(The candidate has to do the simplification in between steps and check the above simplification )
or T11 sin ) = R1 versin ) +. (R2 - R1) versin . )2 . . .(C)
similarly T2’ sin ) = R2 versin ) - (R2 - R1) versin )1 . . . (D)
Expressions (C) and (D) in conjunction with the relationship ) = )1 + )2 provide three simultaneous equations, the
solution of which will determine three of the seven parts of the curve if the remaining four form the data
Setting out of compound curve: The two branches of the compound curve (which are individual simple curves)
can be set out as per the methods explained in unit 9 for setting out simple curves.
Example 10.7.1:
Given R1 = 20 chains R2 = 40 chains.
T1 = 17.5 chains ) = 630 30’ measured chainage at the commencement of smaller curve (1st arc)
= 250.5 chains,
CE401/17 112
Determine T2, chainage of point of compound curvature (point D in fig 10.3) and chainage of point of tangency of
the 2nd curve.
SOLUTION:
T1’ sin ) = R1 versin ) + (R2 - R1) versin )2
= R1 (1 - cos ) ) + (R2 - R1) (1 - cos )2)
17.5 sin 630.5 = 20 (1 - cos 630.5) + (40 - 20) (1 - cos )2)
on simplifying )2 = 390.57 ( 390 34’ 12’’)
)1 = ) - )2 = 63.5 - 39.57 = 230.93
T2’ sin ) = R2 versin ) - (R2 - R1) versin )1
T12 sin 630.5 = 40 (1- cos 63.5) - 20 (1 - cos 23.93)
on simplifying T21 = 22.83 chains
)1 R1 22 23.93 x 20
Arc T1D = = x = 8.35 chains
180 7 180
)2 R 2 22 39.57 x 40
Arc T2D = = x = 27.64 chains
180 7 180
chainage of T1 = 250.5 chains.
chainage of D = 250.5 + Arc T1D = 250.5 + 8.35 = 258.85 chains
Add Arc length DT2 + 27.64
Example 10.7.2 : Two straights AI and BI meet at I on the far side of a river. On the near side of the river a point E
was selected on the straight AI and a point F on the straight BI and the distance from E to F measured and found to
be 85m.
The angle AEF and found to be 1650 36’ and the angle BEF 1680 44’. If the radius of a circular curve
joining the straight is 500m, calculate the distance along the straight from E to F to the tangent points.
Solution IEF = 1800 - 1650.36’ = 140.24’00’’
From IEF
EF 0 85
EI = 0
x sin 11 16' = x 0.195 = 38.27m
sin 25 40' 0.433
85 0 85 x 0.2487
FI = 0
x sin 14 24' = = 48.82 m
sin 25 40' 0.433
) 250 401
AI = BI = R tan = 500 tan
2 2
AI = BI = 113.90 m
AE = AI = EI = 113.90 - 38.27 = 75.63 m
FB = BI - IF = 113.90 - 48.82 = 65.08 m
10.8.Exercise:
10.8.1: Two straights AB and BC meet at an inaccessible point B. They are to be fixed by a circular curve of
radius 450m in length. Two points P and Q were selected respectively on AB and BC. The following observations
were made.
Obtain the 2nd tangent length or the distance from the intersection point to the other end of the curve and the length
of the whole curve.
10.9 SUMMARY:
For a compound curve
Length of the back tangent
T1 = [ R1 versin ) + (R2 - R1) versin )2] / sin )
Length of the forward tangent
T2 = [R2 versin ) - (R2 - R1) versin )] / sin )
*****
SURVEYING
UNIT : 11
TRANSITION CURVES
11.1 Contents: Introduction, requirements of a transition curve, super elevation (cant) calculation of length of
transition curve different methods, equation for ideal transition curve, shift of the curve, determination of total
length of the curve - problems.
11.2 Aim: To study about curves of varying radius known as transition curves.
11.3 Objectives: The student is expected to know from this chapter the necessity and requirements of transition
curves and the salient features connected with the setting out of the same.
11.4.1 Introduction: A transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight (tangent) and the
circular curve to have smooth transition of direction. It is also called an easement curve.
i) To accomplish gradually the transition from the tangent to the circular curve and
ii) To obtain a gradual increase of curvature from zero at the tangent point to the
specified quantity at the junction of the transition curve with the circular curve
specified value at the junction of the circular curve and the transition curve.
i) It should meet the original straight and the circular curve tangentially.
ii) The radius of the transition curve at the direction of the circular curve should be
iii) Rate increase of curvature along the transition curve should be the same as that
of increase of superelevation.
iv) Length of transition curve should be such that full superelevation is attained at
11.5.1(a) Superelevation: Raising of the outer edge of the road or rail above the inner one is called superelevation
or cant. The effect of centrifugal force is to push the vehicle off the road (rail or track). In order to counteract this
action the plane of the rails or road surface is made perpendicular to the result (R’) of the centrifugal force (P) and
the weight of the vehicle (W).
Fig.11.1
W = Wt. of the Vehicle ,
P = Centrifugal force,
v = Speed in meter/sec.
h = Superelevation in meters.
Wv 2
P =
gR
CE401/17 116
P v2
=
W gR
P dc h
But = tan = =
W ac b
2
P h v
= =
W b g.R
bv 2
h = in case of highways (.11.1. a )
gR
Gv 2
= for railways. ( 11.1. b )
gR
p
The ratio i.e. ratio of the centrifugal force and the weight of the vehicle is called centrifugal ratio. The
W
1 1
maximum value of centrifugal ratio is taken as for roads and for railways and this ratio is useful in
4 8
arriving at the length of the transition curve.
11.5.1(b) Equilibrium Cant and Cant Deficiency: In case of railways if the cant is provided as per the equation
GV 2
h = where h is superelevation, the load carried by both the wheels will be the same, the spring will be
gR
equally compressed and the passengers will not tend to lean in either direction. Such cant is known as the
“equilibrium cant”. If the cant provided is less than this more weight will be carried by the outer wheels, the outer
springs will be more highly compressed than the inner and the passengers will tend to lean outward. The track under
these conditions will have cant deficiency.
11.5.2 Determination of length of transition curve. (Of the various methods some are mentioned below)
11.5.2 (a) Arbitrary Method: Based on uniform variation of superelevation over a length as
1 in n
l = nh
n = rate of canting
h = Superelevation.
11.5.2 (b) Based on rate of change of Radial Acceleration: The rate of change of radial acceleration should be
such that the passengers should not experience any sense of discomfort when the vehicle is moving over the curve.
v = Max.Speed in meters/second
L
t = time taken to travel over transition curve = seconds
v
L
acceleration attained in this time = x m/sec2
v
,2
Radial acceleration for circular curve = m / sec2
R
L v2
=
v R
3
v
L = length of transition curve =
R
v3
L = ..... ( 11.3a )
R
3
v
= ..... ( 11.3b )
0.3R
V x 1000
v =
60 x 60
1 V x 1000 3
L = ( )
0.3 R 60 x 60
V3
- ..... ( 11.3c )
14 R
(Note 11.3 b can be used when v is in m/sec are 11.3c when v is in m/sec and 11.3c when
V is in Kmph).
CE401/17 118
P v2 1
= =
W gR 4
gR 9.81 R
v = = = 2.452 R
4 4
v3
L = (as per 11.3 b)
0.3R
( 2.452 )3/2 R 3/2
= = 12.80 R ..... ( 11.4 a )
0.3 R
for highways
P v2 1
= =
W gR 8
L = 4.526 R ........ ( 11.4b )
Fig.11.2
) = the angle between the tangent TB and the tangent to the transition curve at the
The fundamental requirement of the spiral curve is that its radius of curvature at any point shall vary
inversely as the distance ‘ l ’ from the beginning of the curve.
1
.
l
1
or = ml
.
d)
for all curves = curvature
dl
1
=
.
1
d) = x dl
.
d) = ml dl
Integrating we get
2
ml
) =
2
Constant of integration is zero
since ) = o when l = o
At the junction point E
l= L
. = R
)1 =
1
= mL
.
1 1
or m = = at the junction point
. L RL
CE401/17 120
ml 2 1 l2 l2
) = = x =
2 RL 2 2RL
2
l
) =
2 RL
l = 2 RL
l = k ) ( 11.5 )
where k = 2 RL
1 L2 L
) = spiralangle = x ( at the junction point l = L ) =
RL 2 2R
L
Spiral angle ) = .............. (11.6 )
2R
11.5.4 Shift of the Curve: To introduce transition curves between the straights and the circular curve the main
2
L
curve is shifted inwards and this displacement ‘S’ is generally known as shift whose value is
2 4R
FIG.11.3
11.5.5. To determine the shift of the circular curve, length of the combined curve and the total tangent length T1 I is
) = Spiral angle
EN = tangent at E
Arc EB = R )
L L
= Rx =
2R 2
L
( Q ) = spiral angle = )
2R
But EC is approximately equal to EB
L
EC =
2
Hence the shift T’1 B bisects the transition curve at C
Shift S = T11 B
= T11 M - B M
= DE - (OB - OM)
= X - (R - R cos ) )
= X - R(1 - cos ) )
)
= X - R x 2 sin2
2
)
= X - 2R( ) Since sin ) = ) for small values of ).
2
3
l
For a cubic parabola the co-ordinates of any point are represented by X =
6RL
L
Substituting l = L and ) =
2R
L3 L 2
Shift S = - 2R ( )
6RL 4R
CE401/17 122
2 2
L L
= - 2R
6R 16R 2
2 2
L 1 1 L
Shift S = ( - ) = ... ( 11.7 )
R 6 8 24R
Hence the shift of the main curve is directly proportional to the square of the length of the transition curve
and inversely proportional to the radius of the circular curve.
Referring to fig.11.3
I = Point of intersection
= Deflection angle
= T1 T’1 + T’1 I
T’1 I = ( R + S ) tan
2
L
T1 T’1 =
2
L
Total tangent length = ( R + S ) tan + (11.8)
2 2
Length of combined curve
R ( - 2 ))
length of circular curve = (11.9)
180
Total length of the combined curve
R ( - 2 ))
= L + + L
180
R ( - 2 ))
= 2L + (11.10)
0
180
CE401/17 123
11.6 Problems:
11.6.1 : A transition curve is proposed for a circular curve of 400 m radius the gauge being 1.5m between rail
centers and maximum superelevation restricted to 12 cm. The transition is to be designed for a velocity such that no
lateral pressure in imposed on the rails and the rate of gain of radial acceleration is 30 cm/sec3. Calculate the
required length of the transition curve and the design speed. (JNTU
Sept.1984)
2
1.18 V
h =
12
R.h 400 x 12
or V = = = 63.77 kmph
1.18 1.18
Design speed = 63.77 km ph.
3
V 63.77 x 63.77 x 63.77
L = = = 46.3 meter
14 R 14 x 400
3
V
(The student is advised to arrive at the formula L =
14R
using = 0.3 m/ sec2 before substituting the various values in the formula).
11.6.2: Two straights AB and BC intersect at chainage 2500 m the deflection angle being 600 . It is proposed to
insert a circular curve at 250 m radius with two transition curves 75m long at each end. Calculate the shift of the
main curve, the spiral angle of the transition curve and the chainage at the point of commencement of the curve.
2
L 75 x 75
Shift S = = = 0.9375 m
24R 24 x 250
L 75
Spiral angle ) = = = 0.15 radians
2R 2 x 250
0.15 x 180 o
= = 8 . 59
T'
80 35’ 24”
CE401/17 124
L
= (R + S) tan +
2 2
60 75
= (250 + 0.9375) tan +
2 2
= 250.9375 x tan 300 + 37.5
-------------
11.7 Exercise:
11.7.1.: Two straights intersect at chainage (100 + 15), the intersection angle being 1000. The centrifugal ratio is
0.25 and the maximum allowable speed is 50 kmph. Rate of change of acceleration is 0.3m/sec3 Calculate the radius
of the circular curve, length of transition curve and the chainage of the beginning and end of the combined curve and
the Junction of the transition curve with the circular curve.
11.8.Summary:
P v2
Centrifugal ratio =
W gR
2
bv
h = superelevation = for highways.
gR
2
G V
= for railwys.
gR
v3
L = , v in m/sec.
0.3 R
CE401/17 125
V3
= , V in kmph
14 R ,
P V2 1
= = for highways.
W gR 4
L = 12.8 /R
v2 1
= for railways.
gR 8
L = 4.526 /R
L
Spiral angle ) =
2R
2
L
Shift of circular curve =
24 R
L
Total tangent length = (R + S) tan +
2 2
R ( - 2) )
Total length of combined curve = 2L +
1800
*****
SURVEYING
UNIT - 12
12.1. Contents: Reverse curves, vertical curves, Types of vertical curves, length of vertical curve, computations for
setting out vertical curves. Problems on reverse curves and vertical curves, Exercises.
12.2. Aim: To study about reverse and vertical curves, where and how they are used and some points on the setting
out of the same.
12.3. Objectives: The student is expected to know from this chapter the necessity and requirement of reverse and
vertical curves and some methods connected with calculation of salient points and setting out of the same.
12.4. Introduction:
CE401/17 126
12.4.1. Reverse curves: A reverse curve consists of two circular arcs curving in opposite direction with a common
tangent at their junction. The radius of the two curves may or may not be equal . The points at which the two arcs
meet is called the point of reverse curvature or point of contraflexure. Reverse curves are a must when two parallel
straights are to be connected particularly in railway sidings or when two straights meet at a small angle.
12.4.2. Vertical Curves: When two different or contrary gradients meet they are connected by a curve in a vertical
plane called a vertical curve. The main purpose of providing this curve in roads and railways is to obtain a gradual
change in grade avoiding abrupt change at the apex. The vertical curve may be a circular arc or a parabolic curve.
Parabolic curve is generally preferred.
12.5. Theory:
Components of the reverse curve bend in opposite directions and so the curve direction also changes at the
junction point. Reverse curves should be avoided on main high ways or Railways where speeds are necessarily high
for the following reasons:
1. Because of sudden change of cant (Super elevation) from one side to the other if proper
care is not taken at the junction point accidents are likely to occur.
It is always preferable whenever practicable to insert a short straight length between the two branches of a
reverse curve. A few cases of reverse curves are explained below (i) Reverse curve connecting non parallel
straights (ii) connecting parallel straights.
Fig.12.1
CE401/17 127
Of the various elements of a reverse curve knowing certain quantities for example the central angle 1 and
2 and the length of the common tangent DEF to find the common radius R (equal Radius) and the chainages
of T1, E, and T2 if that of B is given.
O1E = O2E = R
since T1D and DE are tangents to the first arc they are equal in length. Similarly EF and FT2 with reference to the
second curve
BDE = 1 = EFC = 2
FT2 = FE = R tan 2 /2
1 2
DF = d = DE + EF = R tan + R tan
2 2
d = R (Tan 1 + tan 2 )
2 2
d
R = ........ ( Eq.12.1 )
1 2
tan + tan
2 2
Knowing R, 1 and 2 , the lengths of the two arcs can be determined
) = 2 - 1
From BDF,
DF
BD = x sin 2
sin )
BT1 = BD + DT1
d sin 2
= + R tan 1 ........... ( Eq.12.2 )
sin ) 2
The first branch of the curve can be set out from T1 and the 2nd branch from E by the method of Tangential
angles.
12.5.3. Reverse curve connecting parallel straights: Given the radius of the two branches and the corresponding
central angles of the two curves to determine the perpendicular distance between the straights (v) and the direct
distance between T1 and T2 i.e., L and the projected distance between T1 and T2 i.e., distance between the
perpendicular drawn at T1 and T2.
Fig.12.2.
0 O2E = R2
O1O2 = R1 + R2
CE401/17 129
To determine v
v = T1B + T2D
= R1 - R1 cos ( 1 = 2 = )
= R1 ( 1 - cos )
= R1 ver sin
= R2 - R2 cos 2
= R2 ( 1 - Cos 2 )
= R2 ver sin 2
v = T1B + D T2
since 1 = 2
v = ( R1 - R2 ) versin ( 12.3a )
T1E = 2 R1 sin 1
2
T2E = 2 R2 sin 2
2
h = BE + ED = R1 sin + R2 sin
( R1 + R2 ) sin ( 12.5 )
If R1 = R2 = R
V = ( R + R2 ) versin
CE401/17 130
= 2R versin
= 2R ( 1 - cos ). . . . . . ( 12.6 )
v 4Rv
L = 2 ( R1 + R2 ) =
L L
or L = 4Rv ( 12.7 )
h = 2R sin ( 12.8 )
12.6. Problems: 12.6.1. A reverse curve is to be set between two parallel railway tangents 30m. apart. If the direct
distance between the tangent points T1 and T2 is 150m and if the two arcs of the curve are to have the same radius,
calculate the radius.
= 4Rv
v = 30m
150 = 4R x 30
4R x 30 = 1502
12.6.2. Two Roads AB and CD meet at a point Q. They are to be connected by a reverse curve such that A and D
are on opposite sides of the common tangents BEC
The common tangent BC = 25 chains of 20m length i.e., 500m. Given the chainage of B as 2000 meters determine
the common radius R and the chainage of the Point D.
d 500
R= =
60 60
tan + tan tan + tan
2 2 2 2
CE401/17 131
Fig.12.3
500 500
= = = 250 x 1.32 = 433 meters
2 tan 30 1
2x
3
B A = R tan
2
60
= 433 tan
2
1
= 433 tan 30 = 433 x = 250 meters.
3
Chainage of B = 2000m
Chainage of A = 1750m
Chainage of E = 1976.6
Chainage of D = 2203.2m
12.7.1. General: All the curves discussed earlier are related to movement in horizontal plane. On highways or
railways changes in vertical motion occurs due to difference in elevation between points on ground. Movement
must be smooth for a vehicle whenever there is an elevation change in vertical motion. Hence vertical curves are
CE401/17 132
intended to join two intersecting grades for the safety and convenience of movement whenever there is an elevation
or depression along the direction of curve.
Parabolic curves are prefered as the gradient on this curve changes from point to point uniformly
throughout. This ensures smooth movement of vehicles along the track.
12.7.2. Terminology:
a) Grade or slope of the curve (g): The increase or decrease in elevation along the direction of motion is known as
grade or gradient of a road. It is a positive grade (up grade) when elevation increase and negative grade (down
grade) when elevation decreases from point to point on the straight or curve.
Gradient is expressed as a percentage (2% or 3%) or as 1 vertical to ‘n’ horizontal (1 in
200).
b) Rate of change of grade (r): is also important for smooth travel along the curve. For a parabolic (vertical)
curve, the general equation is y = ax2 + bx + c.
dy
Slope of the curve is = 2ax + b and the rate of change of gradient is ( d2y/dx2) = 2a. In this case ‘r’ is constant
dx
(usually about 0.03 to 0.06 per 20m interval ), whereas ‘g’ varies from point to point.
Fig.12.4
c) Tangent correction: It is the vertical offset distance from the point P on the tangent to the point Q on the curve.
PQ,MN are tangent corrections as shown in the figure. Elevation of point P is known from the values of g and r.
Point Q on the curve is obtained using the calculated value of tangent correction PQ.
d) Chord gradient: It is the elevation difference CN between two adjacent station points on the curve Q and N as
CE401/17 133
shown in the figure Elevation of station points on the curve are calculated using the values of corresponding
gradients and the elevations of previous station points starting from the first station nearer to tangent point.
Fig.12.5.
It can be obtained from the known values of g1 and g2 and the rate of change of grade ‘r’ (as length is equal
g
to in a given case ) i.e.,
r
g1 - g 2
L = chains (12.9 )
r
g - g2
= 1 x 20 or 30m depending upon the interval taken
r
for example if g1 = + 1%
g 2 = - 0.8%
and r = 0.18% for 20m chain
(+1) - (- 0.8)
length of the curve = = 10 chains or 200 meters.
0.18
CE401/17 134
In all the types length of curve is always considered as the horizontal projection, distances along the curve
are measured horizontally and offsets from the tangents to the vertical curve are measured vertically.
dy
= 2ax + b
dx
dy
At x = 0, = + g1 g1 = b hence y = ax 2 + g1x ....( i )
dx
tangent correction h = PQ = PR - QR = g1x - y ......( ii )
h = -ax2
2
or h (2n) . .....( iii )
Let e1 and e2 are corresponding increase (or decrease ) in elevation per chord length ‘ l ’. For the total curve
change in elevation from point A to C consisting of two parts ne1 and ne2 algebraically added to obtain the height
between A C points.
( e1 - e2 )
k = ( 12.10 )
4n
From this tangent correction values (h) for different points are calculated to trace the vertical curve as
follows:
1
a) Chainage of starting point A = Chainage of apex point B - length of curve (i.e.nl)
2
Chainage of last point on the vertical curve = Chainage of apex point + nl
ne1 + ne 2
Elevation of E =
2
CE401/17 135
In the fig.12.6. ABC is the line of sight of the driver tangential to the curve. h1 and h2 are the heights of driver
and the object position on the highway. p and q are distances on the curve on up and down grades totalling to a
length of sight distance S.
h1 p2 and h2 q2
CE401/17 136
g1 - g 2 L 1
the constant of proportionality is ( ) ( 2 )
100 2 L
10 2 L
hence s =
g1 - g2
[ h1 + h2 ]
2
s ( g1 - g2 )
L= ( 12.11)
200 ( h 1 + h 2 )2
For a reasonably minimum value of sight distance and the usual height of the observer on a road the length of the
vertical curve may be calculated from the above formula.
12.8.PROBLEMS:
12.8.1: A vertical parabolic curve 120m long is introduced to connect two grades -1.5% and + 1.5% R.L. of point of
intersection 300.00m and its chainage is 550m. Calculate the elevation of points on curve at 20m interval (i) by
tangent correction method of (ii) by chord gradient method for few stations.
Solution:
1.5
e2 = + x 20 = + 0.3m
100
Elevation of starting point of curve = 300 + ( 3 x 0.3 )m = 300.9m.
e1 - e 2 2
h = N
4n
-
1.5 - 1.5 2 -3 2 2
h = N = N = 0.25 N
4 x 3 12
i.e., h = -0.25N2
= -0.05
12.8.2.: Calculate the length of the vertical curve if the height of the driver’s eye in 1.96m above the ground..
Height of an obstacle is 0.16m on the highway ahead of the vehicle, value of sight distance to be observed is 200m
Grades on the vertical curve are g1 is +1.2% and g2 is -1.8%.
12.9.1. A reverse curve AB is to be set out between two parallel railway tangents 12m apart. If the two arcs of the
curve are to have the same radius and the distance between the tangent points A and B is 96m. Calculate the radius.
The curve is to be set out from AB at 8m intervals along that line. Calculate the offsets.
12.9.2.: Design a vertical curve connecting two gradients 2% to 1.5% at a summit (R.L. 70.50 chainage 850.00m).
The curve is to be such that two points 300m apart and 1.25 above the curve are intervisible.
CE401/17 138
SUMMARY
Reverse Curves:
d
(i) Connecting non-parallel straights R =
1
tan + tan 2
2 2
BT1 = distance of the intersection point from the beginning of the curve
= [ d sin 2/ sin ) ] + R tan 1/2
s 2 (g1 g2 )
L=
200 ( h1 + h 2 ) 2
where h1 and h2 are the heights of observer and obstacle respectively.
*****
SURVEYING
UNIT - 13
TRIANGULATION SYSTEM
CE401/17 139
Contents:
1. Aims and Objectives
2. General
3. Triangulation figure and frame
4. Strength of a figure
5. Field work
6. Intervisibility of stations
7. Signals and Towers
8. Summary.
13.1.Aims and Objectives: In geodetic surveying, Triangulation is followed for all computations. General
principles connected with triangulation systems, signals, stations and procedures for conducting field job are
described in brief. This chapter gives a basic knowledge on the essentials of triangulation networks.
13.2.General: Triangulation is the process of measuring angles of a triangle, in addition to one side ( a base line )
and other sides are computed. The vertices of individual triangle are known as triangulation stations. Stations form
a system of control points in the field which is the basis of network of triangles. Triangulation is more accurate than
theodolite traversing and so the former is preferred. Ground features are located from these survey stations and
survey lines.
13.2.1.The purpose of a triangulation survey is
(i) to establish ground control points for plane and Geodetic surveys of large size field areas .
(ii) to locate engineering works accurately
(iii) to fix up control points for photogrammetric surveys .
Triangulation systems are classified on the basis of precision requirements and to suit for a purpose.
(i) Primary triangulation: This is the most accurate and highest grade of triangulation system. It is used for
determining the size and shape of earth’s surface. Subsidiary triangulation stations are connected with the precise
control points. All precautions must be observed in linear and angular measurements and their computation work.
(ii) Secondary triangulation: In this system, two primary series are connected. Hence control points are nearer.
Accuracy is not as in primary triangulation system.
(iii) Tertiary Triangulation: It is the system to provide control points between the stations located by primary and
secondary systems. These form the immediate control points for topographical surveys, by the Survey departments.
Details of three systems are shown in the table:
_______________________________________________________________________
S.No. Specification Primary Secondary Tertiary
________________________________________________________________________
1. Length of base 8 to 12 Km 2 to 5 Km 100 to 500 Km
2. Length of side 16 to 150 Km 10 to 25 Km 2 to 10 Km
3. Average triangular
error permitted 1” 3” 12”
CE401/17 140
4. Maximum station
closure 3” 8” 15”
5. Actual error in base 1 in 50,000 1 in 25,000 1 in 10,000
6. Probable error
of distances 1 in 50,000 1 in 20,000 1 in 5,000
________________________________________________________________________
13.3.Triangulation Figure and Frame:
An arrangement of series of triangles is known as layout.
Fig.13.2
CE401/17 142
cos A A
a1 = c
sin C
a1
i.e. = A cot A ________________________________ (1)
a
Let an error C introduce a 2 inside, similarly
a2
= - C cot C _________________________________ (2)
a
Assuming, A = B = , and
C = 180o - (A + B) = 180 - 2A
in an isosceles triangle,
a
= cot 2 A + cot 2 2A __________________________ (3)
a
a
This means is minimum if
a
4 cos2 A + 2 cos2 A - 1 = O
or A = 56o14’
i.e. the best shape of a triangle is an isoscales triangle with base angles 56o 14 each.
For all practical purposes, equilateral triangles are well conditioned triangles.
Angles less than 30o and more than 120o should be avoided in the chain of triangles.
13.5.1.Location of Stations: Triangulation stations must be intervisible. This should be ascertained first. Elevated
places are chosen, and signals erected at high places to facilitate easy observations from station to station. Easy
access and approach must be available for a station. All the stations in one system should form well conditioned
triangles. Detailed surveys are carried from these stations for locating the salient features. There should be always
a possibility of future expansion of a base and triangulation system for further work. Clear line of sight to signals is
preferred.
CE401/17 143
Stations are permanently marked on the ground on a stable foundation. Marks must be clear and
indestructable, preferably on a rock or pipes embedded in concrete. The station is located with reference to two or
three permanent identification marks on the field.
13.6.Intervisibility of Stations:
(D) Distance of visible horizon from a station of known elevation. (h is the height of station above datum )
above mean seal level is given by
h = 0.06735 D2 where
h is in meters and D is in Kilometres.
(a)
(b)
Fig 13.3 Intervisibility of Stations
In case (a) shown in fig.13.3, where there is no intervening ground obstruction,
h1 h2
D1 = and D2 = and D = D 1 + D2 .
0.06735 0.06735
Required elevation of one station is calculated from the other known values.
In case (b), shown in fig.13.3, when there is an intervening ground obstructs, the elevation of obstruction must be
calculated using the Mc Cows, formula as ,
1 1 d 2 2
h = ( h 2 + h1 ) + ( h 2 - h1 ) - ( S + d ) x 0.06735
2 2 s
when the elevation of intermediate object is known, whether the line of sight joining the two stations goes above the
intermediate point or not, is ascertained.
Example: Stations A and B are 50 km apart and their elevations are 220 m and 250 m. respectively. The
intervening ground is at a mean elevation of 200 m. Find the minimum height of signal to be erected at B so that
the line of sight may not graze the ground less than 3 m.
Ans:
CE401/17 144
17
or D1 = = 15.89
0.06735
D2 = 50 - D1 = 34.11
h2 = 0.06735 x (34.11)2 = 78.36m
elevation of line of sight at B = 203 + h2 = 281.36 m. Minimum height of signal above ground at B = 281.36 - 250
= 31.36 m.
13.7.Signals and Towers : Signals are used to define the correct position of a triangulation station on the ground.
They are erected truly vertical. Bisecting the centre of a signal is a very important operation, to avoid errors.
Signals are classified as Luminous signals and opaque signals.
Some of the opaque signals used for daytime observations have been shown in figs (a), (b), (c) and (d).
Signals are painted in black and white in alternate so that they are conspicuous in observation. They are held
vertically by tripod stands.
(d) Beacons
CE401/17 145
Figs.13.4 Signals
Pole and target signals are used for an observation upto 5 km. Cairn is a signal of about 3 to 5 m height
above stones arranged for a support.
Beacons are signals in red and white colours. Three poles are provided for easy Centering over a station
mark. They are useful when observation are taken from two stations at a time. In a variety of Luminous signals,
heliotropes, reflect the Sun’s rays towards the station for observation. These are used in clear weather and Sky.
Heliotrope consists of a circular plane mirror and a sight vane carrying cross wires. Mirror can be rotated in any
direction. Mirror has a small hole at the centre so that the sight vane can be adjusted (looking through the hole)
from the flashes given at the station. Heliotrope is not distrubed when the flash falls at the centre of cross. Mirror
is rotated such that the shadow of the hole falls on the exact centre of cross of sight vane. Reflected rays are
observed at the station.
Heliotropes are useful when observation stations are at an elevated place.
Night signals: For sights less than 80 km, oil lamps with reflectors are used, and for higher distances acetylene
lamps are used.
An ideal signal should be clearly visible from a distance against any background. It should be properly
centered over the station mark. Line of sight should accurately bisect the signal centre.
When an opaque signal is bisected by the observer, observer may see only partly illuminated portion of
the signal and bisect that portion only. This is not the true centre line of the whole signal circle. This error is
known phase of signal. Angles of vision are reduced to the centre of the signal by applying a phase correction, to
the observed angles depending upon the relative positions of sun and signal.
Elevated Towers are useful for fixing up the positions of instrument stations,. This facilitates easy
visibility from station point to signals. They must be sufficiently rigid and stable as at higher elevations survey
party and instruments are working.
Various types of signals and towers are constructed before the commencement of triangulation work at
suitable points.
13.8.Summary: In this chapter, systems and layouts of triangulation, and procedures for location stations have been
discussed. Always, intervisibility of triangulation systems is an essential requirement and hence that verification
procedures are given.
Signals and towers of various types to be adopted in the triangulation system are briefly described and
illustrated.
******
SURVEYING
UNIT NO.14
CONTENTS:
2. Introduction
5. Extension of a base
7. Satellite Computations
8. Heights of stations
9. Summary.
14.1.Aims and Objectives: Base line must be very accurately measured. Corrections are applied for the field
measurement. Triangulation stations and satellite computations are also dealt here.
14.2.Introduction: Base line measurement is the basis on which computations are made in a triangulation system.
Hence in alignment and measuring the base, first importance is given to the accuracy. Depending upon the order of
triangle, base line may be upto a length of 10 to 15 km.
Site selection: Base line is taken on a fairly level, smooth and firm ground, free from obstructions. Uniform or
gentle slope may be considered but undulating surfaces are avoided. whole length of base must be laid so as to form
well shaped triangles in the system. Terminal stations must be intervisible. There should always be a possibility for
future expansion and extension to triangulation systems.
14.3.Equipment and Use : Rigid bars offer more precision. Ends of bars are brought into successive contacts for
measuring total length. Marks engraved on the effective lengths of bars may be observed through optical
instruments. Bars may be monometallic or bimetallic. They may be of compensating type to minimise temperature
corrections.
By using steel or inver tapes, brass or steel wires longer lengths may be measured at a time. Accurate
measurement is possible inspite of undulations on the ground. This method is flexible. quick and economical.
Bars or tapes must be standardised before and after measurement . They should be carefully handled.
This is a compensating type of equipment for measuring base line. The rigid bar eliminates the effects due
to temperature variations in the field.
Due to temperature increase, steel bar increases its length to ‘b1’ position and simultaneously brass bar
expands upto ‘c1’ position, on one side. Similarly on the otherside. These variations do not have an effect on
distance a a’ as the ratios of lengths ab to ac is according to the ratios of coefficient of expansion of meterials (3:5)
and due to the similar triangles formation in the figure.
14.3.2. Wheeler’s apparatus (Hunter’s short base) : All supports must be kept in one line using a theodolite.
Tape or chain is supported by intermediate stakes, (with a nail or strip at the top supporting stake) one end of tape is
fixed to a straining pole and the other end to a spring balance of a counter weight. Tension of the tape is kept
constant so as to adjust to the standard length of tape.
The Equipment set up consists of standard tapes, straining devices, tripods, supports, spring balance,
thermometers etc.
In field work, line alignment is done by one party and the distance measurement is done by another group.
Field work includes, clearing the site, making sections, alignment of line, fixing up of tripods, measuring distances,
packing the equipment for further extension of work etc.
CE401/17 148
In undulating grounds, tacheometric observations are useful. Accurate observations may be carried out
using electronics distance measurement devices.
measured length
Correction for absolute length = x
designated length
standardised.
x coefficient of expansion
pull applied in the field is more than that at which tape length is standardised.
iv) Sag ( - )
tape due to self weight, between supports may take the shape of catenary,
Normal tension may be aplied so as to minimise sag and balance with the
pull correction.
v) Slope ( - )
( difference in level )2
or =
2 x length
vii) M.S.L ( - )
Base line AB is extended by means of well conditioned triangles as shown in the figure 14.3 (a). In the
triangle ABE, all the angles and side AB are measured. Other sides are calculated. Length of BC is calculated using
the data of AEC and AFC.
ii)
14.3 (b)
From the known angles at A and B, sides AC, BC, AD, BD and later DC are obtained as in fig. 14.3 (b).
From the measured angles at C and D towards F and E, sides FC, EC, FD, DE and later EF is calculated.
The new base line forms a larger base for a greater triangle.
i) Main stations
These are the stations used to carry forward the net work of main triangulation. Observations at all these
stations must be done with sufficient care.
These are stations selected close to main triangulation stations to avoid intervening obstructions.
Measurements are taken with high degree of accuracy. Data from these satellite stations are reduced to the values
from triangulation stations.
Angles measured at these stations are used for making the continuity in the series of triangulation.
14.7.Satellite Computations: Some times observations are taken to satellite stations from one or more triangulation
stations. Distance of the satellite station from the main triangulation station may be measured. Data is used to
fixing the main triangle.
When one of the main stations is not visible or obstructed from the view, from other station, observations
are taken from a satellite station and later the data is used to compute and fix up the main station.
station C.
A S B, B S C are observed at S:
Sin ABC
A C = AB and
Sin ACB
Sin CAB
B C = AB
Sin ACB
Applying sine rule to A C S,
Sin ASC d Sin ( + )
Sin = SC =
AC b
Similarly
SC sin CSB d Sin
Sin = =
BC a
Knowing the values of , , and , A C B is computed from the figure.
d sin ( + ) d sin
as ACB = 1 + -
b sin 1 ' ' a sin 1 ' '
Knowing all the three sides and three angles of a triangle, Lalitudes and departures of all sides are computed,
starting from a known bearing value.
d = 14 m
Find A C B.
Ans:
14.8.Heights of triangulation stations: Heights and distances are computed as in cases of trignometrical levelling,
considering all aspects of applications of corrections to observed angles.
14.9.Summary: In this Chapter, how base line is measured in triangulation systems and the various corrections to
be applied are described.
Some details on stations and extension of a base line and computations regarding satellite stations are
given.
(Chapter 13 and 14 are giving the fundamentals of geodetic surveying. Care has been taken to avoid
astronomical observations and their applications, as this is the first courses intended at the graduate level).
*******
SURVEYING
UNIT NO.15.
2. Introduction
3. Terminology
4. Law of weights
5. Probable errors
8. Additional examples
9. Summary.
i) To know the different methods of evaluating the probable values from the observed
ii) Application of different methods have been explained through illustrative examples.
15.2.Introduction: At the time of taking linear and angular measurements in field surveying, errors may come due
to imperfect instruments, atmospheric conditions and individual limitations. Principles explained in this chapter are
intended to arrive at the most probable value of an observed quantity that is nearer to its true value. Computations
can be carried from the knowledge of trust worthiness of the measured value.
i. Cumulative or Systematic Errors: If measurements are taken with a chain of 29.9 m, only instead of 30 m, for
each unit of length measured,
b. it is cumulative. c. it is of constant value during total measurement. Such type of errors are systematic errors.
They are of known value and corrections are applied for the observed quantity.
ii. Compensating errors: If measurements are taken with a theodolite, having incorrect graduations on the
horizontal circle,
a. Some times the error is positive and negative for some observations. They may tend to compensate each other.
b. the magnitude and sign of error may vary during a set of observations.
iii. Accidental errors: Some times accidental errors are unavoidable. During the observations in a day, the
atmospheric variations may affect the measured quantities. Results may be increased or decreased. Errors caused
beyond the observer’s control are termed as Accidental errors. As they cannot be fully accounted for and taken care
of, all observations are combined to arrive at a most probable value of measurement which is likely to be close to the
real value. In this chapter, such type of computations are dealt in detail.
iv. Personal mistakes: Sighting a wrong signal, manipulating wrong screw, reading or recording a wrong value are
classfied as personal or observers mistakes. Sufficient care must be taken to avoid such type of errors which may
be difficult even to detect and rectify.
15.3.Terminology:
b. Indirect observation:- In trignometrical levelling, heights and distances are computed from direct observations,
indirectly.
2.a. Independent quantity:- Observed measurements such as length of a line, elevation of a point, which do not
have any relationship with or not based on anyother data, are known as independent quantities.
b. conditioned Quantity:- If two angles in a triangle are observed first, then the third angle observation is
conditioned quantity as the sum of angles must be 1800.
3.a. Observed Value:- Standard corrections are applied to the measured value, (due to known and possible sources of
error) for getting the observed value.
b. Most probable value:- It is considered as the most likely nearer value to the true or real value and free from all
possible errors.
c. True value:- It is observed value corrected for all true errors. If the true error is unknown, true value is always
indeterminate.
4. Weight of an observation:- Two measurements may not be made under truly identical conditions. If angles are
measured with a compass and a theodolite, or length is measured by steel tape or chain, accuracy or reliability
of observation is not going to be same. Weight of a quantity is expressed as a measure of precision of
measurement. It is a number and used to compare different quantities. Suppose two values are measured as
10 + 9
10 and 9 with equal consideration for precision. The average is taken as = 9.5. But if the first
2
measurement is twice as accurate than the second measurement, the better mean value would be
10 + 10 + 9
= 9.67. That is the weight of first observation is 2 and the weight of the second
3
observation is 1 only. Weight of quantity is inversely proportional to square of its probable error.
5.a. True error:- It is the difference between observed value and true value.
b. Probable error:- From this quantity, one can understand the limiting values of a true values from observed
quantity.
c. Residual error:- It is difference between the most probable value and the observed value (as arithmetic mean is
influenced by errors).
d. Average error:- It is arithmetic mean of separate errors. If three separate set of observations cause errors of
+20’’ , +30’’ and -20’’ , the average error
+20 + 30 + 20
=
3
2 2 2
e. Mean square error = [20 + 30 + + 20 ]/[2]
Probable error = 0.845 x average error = 0.674 mean square error.
6.a. Observation equation:- It is the relationship between the observed quantities such as 50 = K0 (S) + C in
techeometry.
b. Conditioned equation: - It is a equation stipulating relationship between several independent quantities, such as
0
A + B + C = 180 in a triangle.
c. Normal equation:- For each unknown, one normal equation is framed. Those equations are solved to obtain the
probable values of quantities. To find a normal equation of A, multiply each observation equation by the
coefficient of A and add all such equations.
15.4.Law of Weights: When weights of individual observations are known, these rules help in finding the weight
of the result. They are illustrated with suitable examples below.
a. If the length is measured three times as 10.1 m, 10.2 m, 10.3 m, with equal weights (1, 1, 1), then weight of
10.1 + 10.2 + 10.3
arithmatic mean [ ] is 1 + 1 + 1 i.e.3 only.
3
CE401/17 155
b. In the case above, if the respective weights are 2,3 and 2, then weight of arithmatic mean
10.1 x 2 + 10.2 x 3 + 10.3 x 2
[ ] is 2 + 3 + 2 i.e. 7 only.
2 + 3 + 2
c. If the weight of A is 2, wt. of 3A will [2/(3)2].
1 1
g. If the weight of A is 4 and weight of B is 3, then weight of A ± B is [(1)/( + )] i.e. [ 12/7] i.e. sum of
4 3
reciprocal of individual weights.
r = residual error
w = weight
ii. Ew = [ Es/ w]
ii. Ew = [Es/ w ]
c = a constant.
If Y = ± x + c, ey = ex
Y = ± x.c, then ey = c. ex
CE401/17 156
2 2
Y = ± x ± z, they ey = e x + e z + .....
Y = f(x) , then ey = ex [dy/dx]
dy 2 dy 2
Y = f(x,Z) then ey = (e x ) + (e z ) + . . . .
dx dz
Example.15.5.1:
ii. Calculate the probable error in the sum of 1800 in a triangle from the data
ii. from indirectly observed quantities involving unknowns of equal or unequal weights, and
Example.15.6.1:
in case (ii)
ii. Determine the probable value of angles A and B from the following data.
A = 360 .................(1)
B = 98 0 .................(2)
A + B = 13401' ........(3)
B = 98 0 0' . 33.
iii. Determine the probable values of angles a,b,c from the data,
Ans:
a + b + c = 148044’ eq (5) x 1
2a + 2b = 144048’ eq (3) x 2
2b + 2c = 2 x 118032’ eq (4) x 2
a + b + c = 148044’ eq (5) x 1
___________________
iv. Find the probable values of angles of a quadrilateral from the following data,
Note: d is eliminated by using the equation 4 as a + b + c = 3600 - 780 18’ and framing normal equations in a,
b, c and further solved for obtaining values.
15.7.Method of Least Squares: Suppose, observed equations consisting of two unknowns are as follows:
1.5 = 0.4a + b
CE401/17 159
4.9 = 1.1a + b
6.83 = 1.6a + b
8.98 = 2.2a + b
1.5 - 0.4a - b = r1
4.9 - 1.1a - b = r2
8.98 - 2.2a - b = r4
The condition to be satisfied in the least squares method would be, sum of squares of errors should be equal to
minimum i.e., r12 + r22 + r32 + r42 = minimum. Differentiating this equation with respect to ‘a’ and equating the sum
to zero.
differentiating the same equation with respect to ‘b’ and equating the sum to zero.
5.3a + 4b - 22.21 = 0. This is the normal equation in b - (2). Solving the two equations 1 and 2, a
and b are obtained.. Hence the equation in general form is y = 4.146x + 0.058. This principle, involved in the
least squares method is given as follows:
Rule: Most probable values of the observed quantities are those that render the sum of squares of residual errors a
minimum.
In observations of equal weights, errors may be +ve or -ve and the probable value must be symmetrical to
all observed quantities. i.e., the arithemetic mean of observed quantities must be equal to:
observed quantities x
number of observations n
Let p be the most probable value of a quantity,
(P - x1) + (P - x2) + . . . . . . . = 0
x1 + x 2 + . . . .
and P = . . . . = (1)
n
This is the case for direct observations of equal weight. In the case of direct observations of unequal weight, the
most probable value of the observed quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean of the observed values. If
w1, w2, w3. are the weights of n observations x1, x2, x3 etc., then
CE401/17 160
w1x 2 + w2 x2 + . . . . . .
or P = . . (2)
w1 + w2 + . . . .
In all the cases explained earlier, normal equations are framed and solved for the most probable values.
Conditioned equations are avoided or eliminated.
15.8.Additional Examples:
Example 15.8.1.By the method of differences: Determine the most probable values of angles A, B and C from
the following observations of triangulation.
B + C = 1560 2’ 10’’ wt 2
0
A + B + C = 226 30’ 30’’wt 1
and
B + C = 1560 2’ 10’’ + e2 + e3
e1 = 0 wt 2
e2 = 0 wt 4
e3 = 0 wt 2
e1 + e2 = 30’’ wt 3
e2 + e3 = 60’’ wt 2
e1 + e2 + e3 = 60’’ wt 1
2e1 = 0
CE401/17 161
Similarly normal equation for e2 and e3 are formed and simultaneous equations are solved to obtain the ultimately
the probable values of A, B and C.
Example 15.8.2.By the method of correlates: In this method, one extra condition is taken as that the sum of the
squares of residual errors should be minimum. If c1, c2, c3 are the corrections to be observed angles A, B, C with
weights W1, W2, W3 .....then
c = c1 + C2 + c3 = 180 - (A + B + C) (1)
c1 + c2 + c3 = 0 (3)
multiply equation (3) by a correlative (-’K’) add that resultant equation to equation (4).
1 1 1
and K ( + + ) = 180 - (A + B + C ) (6)
w1 w2 w3
Corrections are known and probable values of angles are thus calculated.
A = 700 10’ wt 2
B = 500 20’ wt 3
C = 590 20’ wt 2
c1 + c2 + c3 = 0 (3)
K K K
c1 = , c2 = , c3 =
2 3 2
K K K 10 x 3
from equation (1) - - - ( + + ) = 10' or K = = 7.5'
2 3 2 4
15.9. Summary :
1..Errors are classified as systematic, compensating, accidental and mistakes.
2. Observed values are corrected. Based on the weight or strength of observation probable values of errors are
determined.
3. In different cases, most probable values are determined from the principles of law of weights,
Least squares, through a number of illustrative worked examples.
*********
SURVEYING
UNIT : 16
TRIANGULATION ADJUSTMENT
Contents
1. Aims and Objectives
2. Introduction
3. Principles of Adjustment
4. Triangle Adjustment
5. Chain of Triangles
6. Summary.
16.1 Aims and Objectives: In this chapter, triangle adjustment has been illustrated with suitable principles of use.
Method of adjusting chain of triangles has also been explained. Student should understand the procedures and
method of adjusting the triangulation system.
16.2 Introduction: Geodetic triangle should satisfy a number of geometric and trignometric conditions in the set up.
Some relate to a station, whereas other requirements pertain to the figure and framework of system.
Probable values should be estimated from the methods illustrated in chapter 15. Few examples have been
shown in this chapter, on adjustment of triangles.
16.3 Principles of Adjustment: Angles are measured in Geodetic triangulation surveys. They have to satisfy a
number conditions.
CE401/17 163
i) First step is to adjust individual observed angles most probable value of an angle may be obtained by calculating
the weighted arithmetic mean, or corrections may be applied inversely proportional to the respective weights.
ii) Second step is to determine the most probable values of two or more angles measured at each and every station.
The geometric condition to be satisfied is that at one station sum of angles around a station must be 3600.
As the horizon is closed, discrepancy or error is distributed among all angles at that station, inversely as their
respective weights. In case of equal weights, the error is distributed equally among all measured angles at that
station. When individual and combined angles are measured, most probable values of angles are obtained by
framing normal equations.
iii) Third step is to satisfy the geometric conditions of a triangle or a quadrilateral or a polygon regarding the sum of
angles in the figure.
The following are the general rules for making necessary corrections to observed angles in figure
adjustment of a triangle, if the sum of angles is not 1800.
rule VI - From the residual error of each observation, weights can be calculated by Gauss rule
as
1 2
n
w=
2
( residual error )2
knowing the weights of angles, rule II may be used for correcting the angles.
16.4 Triangle adjustment
Examples 16.4.1: Find the probable values of the following angles measured at station P.
/ A P B = 1580 56' 42'' - -- - - - - - - - - weight 1
0
/ B P C = 144 21' 26' ' - - - - - - - - - - weight 2
0
/A P C = 56 43' 06' ' - - - - - - -- - - weight 3
Ans: total error of closure = 360 - (158 56’ 42’’ + 1440 21’ 26’’ + 560 43’ 06’’) = 00 1’ 14’’
0 0
1 1 1
error is distributed in proportion to weights as : : or 6 : 3 : 2
1 2 3
Hence corrections are
6 x 74' '
= - 40'' .36 to angle APB
11
3 x 74' '
= - 20'' .18 to angle BPC
11
2 x 74' '
= - 13'' .45 to angle APC
11
The probable values of angles are (1580 56’ 42’’ ________ 40’’ . 36)
(1440 21’ 26’’ _______ 20’’ . 18) and (560 43’ 06’’ ______ 13’’ . 45)
Example 16.4.2: Find the most probable values of angles A, B and C, from the following observations at a
stations.
A = 350 22’ 26’’ --- wt 1
0
E = 38 20’ 8’’ --- wt 1
0
A + B = 73 44’ 32’’ ---- wt 2
0
B + C = 112 44’ 30’’ ---- wt 2
0
A + B + C = 148 6’ 45’’ ---- wt 1
Ans: Assuming the value of C as (B + C) - B from the above data
i.e. C = 1120 44’ 30’’ - 380 20’ 8’’ = 740 24’ 22’’
Let C1, C2, C3 be the corrections for angles A, B and C respectively.
A = 350 22’ 26’’ + C1
B = 380 20’ 8’’ + C2
C = 740 24’ 22’’ + C3
The reduced observation equations are
CE401/17 165
C1 = 0 ---- wt 1
C2 = 0 ---- wt 1
C1 + C2 = -2’’ ---- wt 2
C2 + C 3 = 0 ---- wt 2
C1 + C2 + C3 = - 11’’ - ---- wt 1
Normal equations are
1 C1 + 2 C1 + 2 C2 + 1 C1 + 1 C2 + 1 C3 - (2 x 2 + 1 x 11) -- (1)
1 C2 + 2 C1 + 2 C2 + 2 C3 + 2 C3 + 1 C1 + 1 C2 + 1 C3 = - (2 x 2 + 11) --- (2)
2 C2 + 2 C3 + C1 + C2 + C3 = -11 --- (3)
Solving these three normal equations, values of C1, C2, C3 are obtained and from them, most probable values of
angles are calculated.
Example 16.4.3: Adjust the following angles of a triangle.
A = 550 14’ 26’’ B = 640 32’ 50’’ C = 600 12’ 56’’
= 550 14’ 24’’ = 640 32’ 49’’ = 600 12’ 54’’
= 550 14’ 28’’ = 640 32’ 48’’
Ans:
mean value A = 550 14’ 26’’ n1 = 3
0
B = 64 32’ 49’’ n2 = 3
0
C = 60 12’ 54’’ n3 = 2
total correction = - 9’’
As per Gauss’s law
1 2
n1
weight of Angle A = 2
( mean value - observed value ) 2
1
× 9
2 9
wA = 2 2 2
=
(0 + 2 + 2 ) 16
1
× 32
2 9
wB = 2 2 2
=
(1 + 0 + 1 ) 4
1
× 22
2 1
wC = 2 2
=
(2 + 2 ) 4
CE401/17 166
1
wA
Correction to angle A = × ( - 9' ' )
1 1 1
+ +
wA wB wC
16 9
= × × ( - 9' ' )
9 56
4 9
Correction to angle B = × × ( - 9'' )
9 56
4 9
Correction to angle C = × × ( - 0.9'' )
1 56
Hence the corrected angles are obtained.
16.5 Adjustment of a chain of triangles
Adjustment is carried as in the previous case in two steps for station and figure adjustments at stations
A, 1 + 2 = 3600
B, 3 + 4 + 5 = 3600
C, 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 3600 etc.
and
In triangle ABC, 1 + 3 + 6 = 1800
BDC, 5 + 7 + 10 = 1800 etc.
Then, error at each station or triangular error is distributed inversely propositional to their weights.
Example 16.5.1:
In the above figure taken as ABCD only, the following angles are observed.
1 = 630 42’ 12’’
6 = 670 28’ 40’’
7 = 710 05’ 58’’
3 = 480 49’ 18’’
5 = 50o 29’ 50’’
10 = 580 24’ 18’’
6 + 7 = 1380 34’ 28’’
3 + 5 = 990 19’ 08’’
Adjust the angles
CE401/17 167
The four unknown Angles A, B, C and D of the figure are expressed in terms of independent
unknown angles 3, 5 and 6, 7 as, 1 = 630 42’ 12’’
= 180 - ( 3 + 6)
or 3+ 6 = 180 - 630 42’ 12’’ = 1160 17’ 48’’
and 5 + 7 = 180 - 580 24’ 18’’ = 1210 35’ 42’’
3 + 5 = 990 19’ 08’’
6+ 7 = 1380 34’ 28’’
Let C1, C2, C3 C4 be the required corrections to angles
6, 7, 3, 5, then
0
6 = 67 , 28’ 40’’ + C1
7 = 710, 05’ 58’’ + C2
From the Right observed
0
3 = 48 , 49’ 18’’ + C3 equations only.
0
5 = 50 , 29, 50’’ + C4
3 + 6 = 1160 17’ 58’’ + C1 + C2
5 + 7 = 1210 35’ 42’’ + C2 + C4
6 + 7 = 1380 34’ 38’’ + C1 + C2
3 + 5 = 990 19’ 08’’ + C3 + C4
C1 = 0
C2 = 0
C3 = 0
C4 = 0
C1 + C3 = 0
C2 + C4 = 0
C1 + C2 = - 10’’
C3 + C4 = 0’’
Hence normal equations are
3 C1 + C2 + C3 = - 10’’
C1 + 3 C2 + C4 = - 10
C1 + 3 C3 + C4 = 0
C2 + C3 + 3 C4 = 0
values of corrections are obtained and angles are corrected
16.6.SUMMARY :
In adjusting the angles at a station or in a triangle geometric condition of the figure is observed as the
required condition.
Most probable values of a triangle or a chain of triangles have been calculated in a set of examples.
CE401/17 168
(NOTE: Problems on triangulation adjustment in the few chapters mentioned here, have been taken from standard
text books on surveying II by Shahani, Punmia, Kanetkar and Agor. In the contact programme, they will be
discussed in detail. In normal theory examinations, it is very difficult for a student to answer these problems in a
limited time. However, the student should understand the procedures involved so that in a practical and field
situation, he may be in a position to solve the computations).
****
SURVEYING
UNIT – 17
ADJUSTMENT OF QUADRILATERAL
CONTENTS:
1. 1.Aims and objectives.
2. General.
3. Least squares method.
4. Approximate method.
5. Method of equal shifts.
6. Adjustment of triangle with central station.
7. Summary.
1. Aims and objectives:
In this chapter, different procedures of adjusting quadrilaterals and triangles with central
station have been briefly explained. Student is excepted to have some basic knowledge of these
adjustments.
2. General:
If one diagonal is only measured in the system of quadrilateral, the problem is treated as
chain of triangles. If two diagonals are also considered, the case is explained now. Sometimes, a
central station may be located connecting all the other stations of a figure. Such cases are taken.
Eight angles of a quadrilateral are independently measured. Three methods are adopted for adjusting the
quadrilateral.
CE401/17 169
2. Approximate method.
1+ 2 = 5+ 6 (2)
3+ 4 = 7+ 8 (3)
(ii) Even if the angle conditions are satisfied, the quadrilateral may have a closing error i.e.,
figure may not close at the same starting point.
sin \5
AB = BC.
sin \8
sin \1
DC = AB
sin \ 4
CE401/17 170
sin \ 7
AD = AB.
sin \ 2
sin \ 3
BC = DC.
sin \ 6
Hence
sin 1. sin 3. sin 5. sin 7. = sin 2. sin 4. sin 6. sin 8
(iii) Let E1, E2, E3, E4, are the discrepancies for the four condition equations, then
E1 = 360 – ( 1+ 2 + ….. 8)
E2 = ( 5+ 6) –( 1+ 2)
E3 = ( 7+ 8) =( 3+ 4)
e1 + e2 + e3 + . . . . .= E1
(e1 f1 + e3 f3 + e5 f5 + e7 f7 ) – (e2 f2 + e4 f4 + e6 f6 + e8 f8 ) = E4
Where f1, f2 . . . .f8 are log sine differences for 1” in the values of eight measured angles
respectively from the log tables. Another condition to be satisfied from the least squares rule is.
(iv) Differentiate the above 5 conditional equations and multiply the first four equations by –k1, -
k2, -k3 and –k4 respectively. Then the correction equations may be written as,
e1 = k1 + k2 + f1k4
e2 = k1 + k2 - f2k4
e3 = k1 + k3 + f3k4
CE401/17 171
e4 = k1 + k3 - f4k4
e5 = k1 - k2 + f5k4
e6 = k1 - k2 - f6k4
e7 = k1 - k3 + f7k4
e8 = k1 - k3 - f8k4
Hence
E1 = 8k1 + [(f1 + f 3 + f 5 + f 7 ) (f 2 + f 4 + f6 + f8 )] k 4
E 2 = 4k 2 + [(f1 f 2 ) (f5 f 6 )] k 4
E 3 = 4k 3 + [(f 3 f4 ) (f 7 f8 )] k 4
E 4 = [(f1 + f 3 + f 5 + f 7 ) (f 2 + f 4 + f 6 + f8 )] k1
+ [(f1 f 3 ) (f 5 f 6 )]k2 + [(f 3 f4 ) (f 7 f8 )] k 3
( )
+ f12 + f 22 + f 32 + . . . . . .f 82 k 4
As the values of E1, E2, E3, E4 are known k1, k2, k3, k4 are calculated. Then e1, e2 . . . .e8 are
known and later angles are corrected.
Example 4.1: Adjust the quadrilateral from the given data of angles of equal weights.
E1 = 360 - = 1511
E2 = ( 5 + 6) -( 1 + 2) =0
E3 = ( 7 + 8) -( 3 + 4) = 0.00833
e2 =
e3 =
e4 = are obtained
e5 =
e6 =
e7 =
e8 =
Hence the corrected angles are
1 =
2 =
3 =
4 =
5 =
6 =
7 =
8 =
(The student may completely solve the problem. He is expected to know the procedure only)
4. Approximate method: This gives fairly reasonable values. Except the least squares
conditions, all the other four conditioned equations are to be satisfied.
ii) ( 1 + 2) –( 5 + 6) = correction
iii) ( 3 + 4) –( 7 + 8) = correction
iv) Adjusted values of 1, 2 .... 8 are tested for the condition log sin L = log sin R.
CE401/17 174
5. Method of equal shifts: As in the other method, conditions to be satisfied in the case of
quadrilateral with a central station are
Any shift made in the angles to satisfy local station equation, should also be equally applied
to each of the triangle of the quadrilateral, and any shift made to satisfy the side equation should
be equally applied for each triangle.
Example 2: Following are the measured angles of a quadrilateral ABCD with a central station
E, Adjust the quadrilateral.
AEB 590 031 1011 1= 610 001 5411 2 = 590 561 0611
BFC 1180 231 5011 3 = 320 031 5411 4 = 290 321 0611
CED 600 321 0511 5 = 560 281 0111 6 = 620 591 4911
DEA 1220 001 5311 = 280 421 0011 = 290 171 0011
7 8
CE401/17 175
LEFT RIGHT
Triangle Observed Observed Log sine Differen Correc Correc- Observed Log sine Differ- Correct Correc Sum of Correct
11
angles angles ce for 1 tion tion diff. angles ence ion in tion observed ion in
11
secs for 1 secs Diff. angles secs.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)
AEB 5900311011 6100015411 9.9418823 11.67 + 1.23 + 14 5905610611 9.9372458 12.68 - 7.07 - 90 18000011011 - 1011
BEC 11802315011 3200315411 9.7249972 33.63 + 7.80 + 263 2903210611 9.6928074 37.15 - 0.40 - 15 17905915011 + 10
CED 6003210511 5602810111 9.9209407 13.93 + 6.23 + 87 6205914911 9.9498691 10.73 - 2.06 - 22 17905915511 + 5
DEA 12200015511 2804210011 9.6814434 38.45 + 6.23 + 240 2901710011 9.6894232 37.57 - 2.06 - 78 17905915511 + 5
+ 604 - 205
39.2693240 39.2693250
39.2693240
10
CE401/17 10
Triangle Ist Trial II Trial Final Corrected Remaining Trial Trial Final Trial Corrected
correction correction correction angles correction correction correction correction correction angles
for angles for angle difference difference
(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24)
0 1 11 11
AEB - 3.33 - 4.17 - 4.16 59 3 5.84 - 5.84 -.2.92 -34 +1.23 +14 6100155.2311
BEC + 3.33 -2.49 + 2.50 118023152.511 +7.5011 + 3.75 +136 +7.80 +263 320411.8011
CED + 1.67 + 0.83 + 0.83 6003215.831 +4.1711 + 2.08 +29 +6.23 +87 5602817.2311
DEA + 1.67 + 0.83 + 0.83 122000155.8311 + 4.1711 + 2.08 +80 +6.23 +240 2804216.2311
Face Right
Triangle correction for Trial correction Difference Final correction Final correction difference Corrected angles Sum of corrected
angles angles
(25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30)
- 2.92 - 37 - 7.07 - 9011 59055158.9311 1800
+ 203 - 205
Note Face Right observation are given under the same table columns corresponding to Face left due to lack of space in single page. Please observe it.
CE401/3A 11
i. Observed angles at centre, left, right, sum of observed angles are filled up in the table.
Then correction values are obtained to each triangle in column 14.
ii. In column (15), 1/3 of corrections obtained in column (14) are entered as first trial
corrections. Sum of four central angles must be 3600.
3.34
Second trial correction must be = 0.84 to each of the first trial corrections.
4
Find corrections are made in column (17). To make the sump zero. This satisfies the
station equation. Corrected angles at the centre are entered.
iii. Remaining correction in column (19) is the difference of values in column (14) and
column (17). This is distributed equally to left and right angles of each triangles.
These values are shown in column (20) and column (25).
iv. Log sine values and difference for 111 are noted from log tables. Colum 20 and 25
gives the actual shift after applying the correction to the angles. Calculatate the
difference for correction (using the value of difference of 111) for column 20 and col.
25 and enter in column 21 and column 26.
v. Total shift = (sum of column 21 and column 4) % (sum of colmn 26 and colmn 9)
= 39.2693658 – 39.2692847)
Increase the left hand angles and decrease the right hand angles.
vi. log sin difference for 111 for all right angles = 97.68 + 98.13 = 195.81 i.e., for a shift
811
of 111. For shifting 811 value, = 411.15 is the required correction value for
195.81
angles. Column 22 and column 27 are obtained by changing the angles. Correction are
applied to angles and noted in column 24 and column 29.
vii. Check: column 23 and 28 are noted, by multiplying the corrections by the
corresponding difference of 111 in log sine.
Comparing the above two values, the required correction is 10 which is negligible as
10
it causes an error of i.e., 0.00511 in each angles.
195.81
Adjustment of Geodetic triangle with central station (by method least squares):
e4 = k2 - f4 k5
e5 = k3 + f5 k5
e6 = k3 - f6 k5
e7 = k1 + k4
e8 = k2 + k4
e9 = k3 + k4
iii. e1, e2, e3 . . . .values are substituted in equations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Five equations are
obtained as given below.
k1 + k2 + k3 + 3k4 = E4
First k1, k2, k3, k4, k5 values are obtained by solving the above simultaneous equations. Later
on the correction values e1, e2, . . .e9 are obtained and the angles 1, 2. ... 9 are corrected.
17.7 Summary: Procedures for adjusting a quadrilateral and triangle with central stations
have been worked out in brief, by various methods.
In minor triangulation problems, these computations are quite useful in field practice.
*****
SURVEYING
UNIT - 18
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING SOUNDINGS
METHODS OF LOCATING SOUNDINGS
THREE POINT PROBLEMS
18.0 Hydrographic Surveying:
Hydrographic surveying so far as civil engineer is concerned covers the survey work for project in or
18.1 AIM:
Generally speaking the types and purpose of the various branches of hydrographic surveying may be
summarised as
a) Measurement of tides for sea-coast work. Ex: construction of sea defence works jetties
harbours etc.
(i) For navigation including the location of rocks, sand bars, navigation lights buoys etc.
(ii) For the location of under water works, volumes of under water excavation etc.
18.2. OBJECTIVES:
After going through this chapter the students is expected to know thoroughly the
different methods of measurement of depth of water (or depth of bed below the surface of water)
under various conditions and using different instruments suitable for a particular condition. He
must also be able to locate the points where depth measurements are taken (soundings) wherever
required.
18.3. INTRODUCTION:
CE401/3A 15
18.4. LESSON:
18.4.1 Soundings: The measurement of depths below the water surface are called soundings. It
is to determine the configuration of the bottom of the body of water. This is done by
measurement from a boat, the depths of water at various points (similar to levelling).
18.4.2 Horizontal Control: When making sounding of the depth of a river bed or a sea bed the
location of the sounding vessel (sounding boat) is made by reference to fixed control points on
shore and the accurate establishment of this shore frame work is of utmost importance.
(b) Self registering gauge: It automatically registers the variation of water level with time. It
essentially consists of float protected from wind, waves etc. The float has attached to it a wire
or cord which passes over a wheel (called the float wheel) and is maintained at constant tension
by some suitable arrangement. The movement of the float is transferred to the wheel which
CE401/3A 16
reduces it through some gear system and is finally communicated to a pencil attached to a level
and the reading recorded on a graph paper attached to a rotating drum.
I. Sounding boat: Flat bottomed boat for quiet water and round bottomed boat for
rough water are suitable. Steam or motor launch is suitable even under winds and
stray currents of water.
II. Sounding rods: For shallow and smooth waters (4 to 6 m depth) a timber pole (or
rod) of well seasoned tough timber about 5 to 6 cm diameter and length 4 to 7.5
meters can be used. At the lower end of the wooden fole an iron or lead shoe of
sufficient weight is attached. The purpose of the weight is to hold the rod upright in
water and to facilitate plunging. The shoe should have sufficient area at the base to
prevent the pole from sinking into the mud or sand.
III. Lead lines: Also called sounding lines. These are used for depths over 6 m. They
are made up of hemp (a fibre from plants for making rope) cotton rope or brass chain
having at its end a weight called lead. Because of possible change in length the lines
are stretched and subjected to alternate wetting and drying continuously till there is no
appreciable change in length and then graduated with zero at the bottom of the lead.
The line should be kept dry when not in use but should be soaked in water for about
an hour before use in order to bring it to the tested length. For regular work brass
chain is preferable. Each meter marked with cloth or leather tag (cloth or leather to
avoid injury to the leads man). Each one meter marked with a tag of different colour
and each 5 cm interval with a leather tag similar to the brass tag of a measuring chain.
The weight attached to a lead line is conical in shape and varies from 2.5 kg to
shallow still water to about 10 kg for greater depths and stormy current.
IV. Sounding Machine (for depth greater than 30 m): This is used when large scale
sounding operations are carried out. It consists of a piano wire carrying 7 kg of lead
weight at the end and wound round a drum. Two dials are provided on the drum the
outer one, indicating the depth in meters and the inner one tenth of meter.
V. Fathometer: For depths greater than 30 m and for ocean sounding an instrument
known as fathometer is used. It is an electric device and measures the time required
for the sound to travel to the bottom of the water and back.
CE401/3A 17
VI. Signals: They are required to mark ranges and range lines along which soundings are
to be taken and the reference points to which angular observations are to be taken
from a boat. For angular observations objected such as church spires, wind mills light
houses and chimneys etc are used as signals. Triangulation tripod signal may also be
used. For identification the signals should be distinguished from each other by flags
of different colours at their top, or by nailing figures of different geometrical forms
etc.
Fig 18.1
VII. Buoy: Sometimes the signals may have to be placed in water. For shallow water
pole signals may be used. For deep waters BUOYS are used. A buoy is a float made
of light wood or hollow air tight vessel properly weighted at the bottom and anchored
in vertical position by means of guy ropes on the top of buoy in a hole in which is
inserted a short flag pole.
VIII. Sextant: It is a portable and very accurate hand instrument for measuring angles
from a boat in hydrographic surveying. (It is also used for astronomical observations
and for measuring vertical angles. It can also measure oblique angles when the
observed objects are at different altitudes.
(i) To make index glass (I) and horizon glass perpendicular to the plane of the graduated
arc.
(ii) To make horizon glass H parallel to the index glass when the vernier reads zero.
(iii) To make the line of sight of the telescope parallel to the plane of the graduated arc.
(ix) Range and Range lines:
The lines on which soundings are taken are called ranges or range lines. These are laid
on the shore parallel to each other and at right angles to the shore line or radiating from a
prominent natural object. Spacing of range lines vary from 6 to 30 m.
Each range line should be marked by means of signals erected at two points on it at
considerable distance apart.
18.6 Methods of locating soundings:
i) By cross rope
v) By intersecting ranges
viii) By tacheometry.
CE401/3A 20
(i) By cross rope: This is the most accurate method of locating soundings. It involves
stretching across the line of sounding a rope marked off by equidistant tags, the
soundings being taken opposite the tags. The method is suitable for sounding in
harbour, and across rivers if the section does not exceed about 500 meters in length.
(ii) Range and time interval: The sounding boat is kept in range with two shore poles
defining the section line and is rowed at a uniform rate. The sounding being taken at
regular time intervals. This is useful in conjunction with other methods. While
proceeding along the section the boatsman must maintain a steady stroke so that equal
time intervals may correspond to equal distances.
(iii) Range and angle from shore:
Fig 18.5
BP = d tan
measured
‘d’ known
It is customary to locate every 10th sounding by angle and the intermediate soundings
by time interval.
In this method the instrument man will be in the boat itself and therefore there will be better
control over the work.
CE401/3A 21
Fig 18.6
AP
= cot
AB
measured
AP = AB cot = d cot .
(v) By intersecting ranges: In this method angular observations are avoided if the
position of each sounding is defined by the intersection of two ranges as shown in fig
18.7. The method is suitable for the location of a few isolated soundings and proves
highly accurate if the intersections are good.
Fig 18.7
(vi) Two angles from shore: In this system the fix is made independent of a range by
having simultaneous observations to the boat taken by theodolite from two shore
stations the sounding being located by the intersection of the sight lines. This method
is used when it is not possible to keep the boat exactly on a range.
CE401/3A 22
Fig 18.8
Co-ordinates of P (x, y)
d tan `
x=
tan \ + tan `
d tan \ tan `
y=
tan \ + tan `
(vii) By two angles from boat: By observation of the two angles subtended at the boat by
three suitable shore objects of known position the boat can be located by solution of
the three point problem explained in article 18.7. This method is largely used
particularly when periodical soundings are not required. It not only possesses the
merit of concentrating the party as in the range and one boat angle method but if a
sufficient number of land marks are exhibited on an existing map no preliminary
shore work is required.
18.9
CE401/3A 23
18.7 Three point problem: The problem may be stated as: Given three points A, B and C
representing the shore signals and the values and of the angles APB and BPC subtended
by them at the boat P it is required to plot P. The problem may be solved mechanically,
graphically and analytically.
(a) By station pointer: The station pointer or three arm protractor consists of a graduated
circle with one fixed and two movable arms. The fiducial edges of the arms pivot about
the centre of graduation. The edge of the fixed arm passes through the zero division and
the movable arms can be set so that their fiducial edges subtend the observed angles with
that of the fixed arm.
(a) A, B, C three known points. Join AC. At A make DAC = . At C make DCA = .
Draw a circle passing through A, D and C, join DB and produce it to cut the circle in P.
Join AP, CP
APD = DCA =
BPC = DAC =
Fig 18.11
(b) Join AB, BC. Draw AO1, BO1, making 90 - each with AB on the side towards P.
Fig 18.12
(3) Join AB and BC and from B set off BD and BE making angles of 90 - and 90 - with
BA and BC respectively and on the side of P.
Fig 18.13
From A erect a perpendicular to AB to cut BD at D. And from C a perpendicular to CB to cut
BE at E. Join DE from B, drop a perpendicular BP on DE. This will intersect DE at the
required pt P, for the quadrilateral BADP and BCEP can be circumscribed by circles
BPC = BEC =
Fig 18.14
Given the lengths AB and BC and angles. , , the values and of angles BAP
and BCP and the distances AP, BP and CP may be computed trigonometrically.
By sine ratio.
AB sin \ BC sin b
BP = =
sin c sin a
CE401/3A 26
So that by substitution
AB sin BC sin(S - )
=
sin c sin a
AB sin \ sin a
sin S cos - cos S sin =
BC sin c
AB sin a
Cot - cot S =
BC sin sin
AB sin a
Cot = cot S +
BC sin S sin
Knowing other angles can be determined and hence the sides PA, PB, PE.
18.8 Problems: A, B and C are three shore stations on a coast line and P is sounding point
at sea AB = 400 m, BC = 381 m, APB = 480.361 BPC = 450241 A and C are respectively East
and West of BP, B and P are respectively North and South of AC. Calculate the distance AP,
BP and CP.
Solution:
BCP = \ BAP = b
+ = 3600 - 1220301
- 480361
- 450241
= 1430301
= 1430301 -
CE401/3A 27
Fig 18.15
BP 381
=
sin \ sin 450 241
BP 400
=
sin b sin 480361
sin =
400 sin 450 241
381 sin 480361
× sin (
= sin 1430301 )
on simplifying = 720221 = 710281
AP 400
0 1
= AP = 459 m
sin 59 22 sin 480361
(0.86) (0.75)
BP 381
0 1
= BP = 507.28 m
sin 71 28 sin 450 241
(0.948) (0.712)
CP 381
0 1
= CP = 477 m
sin 63 08 sin 450 241
(0.892) (0.712)
CE401/3A 28
During a hydrographic survey three shore stations A, B and C were established such that AB
= 792 m, BC = 870 m the three stations lying in a straight line. Angles APB and BPC were
measured simultaneously by sextent as 480361 and 460241 respectively from a float P which
was then due East of B. Determine the reduced bearing of ABC given that A lies southwards
of B. (Ans. N 040291).
*****
SURVEYING
UNIT – 19
PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEYING
CONTENTS:
1. Terrestrial photogrammetry
2. Photo theodolite
3. Definitions
4. Calculation of horizontal and vertical angles from terrestrial photographs.
5. Elevation of a point by photographic measurements, stereo photogrammetry.
6. Problems.
19. Photogrammetry: Photogrammetry can be defined as the method of determining the
shapes, sizes and positions of objects using photographs and therefore, it is, in the main , an
indirect method measurement. Some linear or angular measurements in the object ‘object
space’ need to be obtained or to be known for control purposes.
19.1 Aim: To study about phototheodolite method of taking photographs with the same and
then preparation of plans etc with the help of the photographs.
19.2 Objectives: Given the data connected with a photograph the student must be able to
prepare the plane with details making use of various coordinates of the points taken from the
photographs.
19.3 Introduction: Photogrammetry is classified into two groups.
(a) Terrestrial photogrammetry or ground photogrammetry: where in the photographs
are taken from ground only and maps prepared with the help of the same.
CE401/3A 29
(b) Aerial photogrammetry: Where in maps are prepared with the help of photographs
taken from air.
19.4 Lesson: Terrestrial photogrammetry is a further development of plane table survey. It
is not suitable for wooded country. A modern development of the method consists in taking
stereoscopic views of the surface features in pairs at the end of a base line and this method is
known as stereo-photogrammetry.
19.4.1 Photo Theodolite (and definitions): The phototheodolite is a combination of a
camera and theodolite (of least count 111) and is used for taking photographs and for
measuring the angles which the vertical plane of collimation makes with the base line. The
camera is mounted on a conventional theodolite. This enables.
i) The determination of the orientation of camera axis and
ii) The angular measurements needed to fix the camera stations.
The image plane of the camera is represented by the surface of a glass plate upon which are
engraved for fiducial marks which appear on the negative or photograph obtained after an
exposure has been made when joined by lines these produce horizontal and vertical principle
axes for coordinate measurement, their intersection lactating the principal point which is also
defined on the plate in the camera.
The collimation line or optical axis of the camera contain the optical center of the lens
and the intersection of the principal axis mentioned above. This line is to be perpendicular to
the glass plate and hence to the photographic material (film or plate). Also this line or axis
has to be parallel to the line of collimation of the theodolite telescope and the line joining the
fiducial marks on the short sides of the format must be horizontal when the theodolite axis is
vertical.
19.4.2 (a) Principle involved: The principle of survey is same as that of plane table for
locating points (method of intersection). Reconnaissance should be carried out first to cover
the required area with minimum number of photographs. The following points should be
taken care off while fixing the camera stations.
CE401/3A 30
iii) Camera stations should be fixed on higher ground to command the area.
v) Each photograph should contain at least one triangulation station or a point which has
already been fixed previously.
No. of photographs of an area depends on the size of the area to be covered. In plane table
survey most of the work is done in the field whereas it is done in the office here.
Fig 19.2
A and B are camera stations from which photographs were taken AC and BC are the
directions of camera axis from stations A and B respectively.
P is the point to be located from the photographs. It is shown as P on the prints (fig 19.2.b (i)
(ii))
To obtain the position of the point P photographed with reference to the base line.
First draw the base line to a convenient scale. Then draw AC making an angle with
AB, and BC with angle with BA. On AC mark a point d at a distance equal to f in front of
A and mark e at a distance of f from B on BC. Through the points d and e draw
perpendiculars XA and XB equal to dd1 and ee1 respectively. Join Ad1 and Be1 and produce
them to meet at P which gives the required position of P on plan. AP can be measured on
plan. Knowing the distance AP and the co-ordinate of P (YA) from the print the elevation of
the P can be determined with reference to the level of the axis of the camera.
CE401/3A 32
Fig 19.3
h YA YA + A P
= h=
AP f +X
2 2
A f 2 + X 2A
AP is the distance of the point P from camera station from the plan plotted. YA co-ordinate of
P from the print of the photograph at A.
Knowing the R.L of camera axis R.L of P can be determined either by adding ‘h’ suitably.
CAB = CBA =
CAP = CBP =
XA X
tan bc = tan ba = B
f f
PAB = c + bc PBA = a bB
APB = 180 (c + bc ) (a ba )
AP AP
=
sin (a ba ) sin 180 - (c + bc ) (a ba )
D sin (a - ba )
AP =
sin (180 (c + bc ) (a ba ))
YA × AP
h=
f 2 + X 2A
In this method pairs of photographs are taken from stations at each end of a line with
the instrument set up normally so that the image planes are in the same vertical plane and
parallel to the line joining the stations. Thus the camera axis when set up at each station in
turn must be made parallel by setting them at right angles to the line. Which is achieved by
initially sighting the theodolite along the line and then rotating through 900 in the horizontal
plane. The length of the base line horizontal distance between parallel principle planes is
usually between 30 to 120 m. It is measured either with a tape or by transit and stadia
method.
Fig 19.4
XA and YA the distances (co-ordinates) of the point P on the plate exposed at A from the
vertical and horizontal hairs respectively.
XA
YA = ×X
f
XB
YB = ×X
f
X
D = YA YB = (X A XB )
f
fD
X= (f, D, X A , X B Known )
XA XB
XA fD XAD
YA = × =
f XA XB XA XB
XB D
YB =
XA XB
knowing X, YA and YB the co-ordinates of the point P on the ground known (with reference
to base AB)
hA AP X
= =
YA APA f
X
hA = × YA
f
CE401/3A 35
X
similarly h B = × YB
f
YA YB
hA hB = ×X
f
Note: If the point P appears on the point at B to the left of the vertical hair D = YA + YB
19.6 Problems:
19.6.1 The horizontal angle between two points P and Q was measured directly at a station R
and found to be 240 481. A phototheodolite was set up at R and on the photograph P was
found to be 3 cm to the left of the vertical hair and 1.25 cm above the horizontal hair. While
Q was found to be 3.5 cm to the right of the horizontal hair and 2.0 cm below the horizontal
hair. Determine the focal length of the camera lens and the difference in level between P and
Q.
If PR = 85 m and QR = 67 m
Fig 19.5
tan c + tana
tan (c + a ) =
1 tan c tan a
+ = 240.481
3
tan c =
f
3.5
tan a =
f
CE401/3A 36
( )
tan 240 481 =
3 3.5
f
+
f
3 3.5
1- ×
f f
3 + 3.5
( )
tan 240.481 =
f
f 2 - 3 + 3.5
f
6.5 f2
0.461 = × 2
f f 10.5
f2 – 14.1 f – 10.5 = 0
y P × RP 1.25 × 85 106.25
hP = = = = 7.036 m
X 2P + f 2 32 + 14.82 15.1
yQ × R Q 2 × 67 134
hQ = = = = 8.82 m
X 2R + f 2 3.52 + 14.82 15.2
19.6.2 Two photographs were taken with a photo theodolite from stations A and B 100 m
apart the line of collination being 900 to AB in each case. A point P appears on the
photograph from A, 5 cm to the right of the vertical line and 2.5 cm above the horizontal line
while on the photograph from B it appears 7.5 cm to the left of the vertical line and 2 cm
above the horizontal line. B is east of A. Calculate the co-ordinates of P and the difference in
level of the two collimation planes if the focal length of the camera lens is 15 mm.
A1P AA1
=
5 15
CE401/3A 37
7.5
B1P = × A1P
5
7.5
A1P + × A1P = 100 = 2.5 A1P = 100
5
100
A1P = = 40
2.5
A1P AA1 40
= =
5 15 5
40 × 153
AA1 = = 120 m
5
hB 2 2 × 120
= , hB = = 16 m.
120 15 15
From both the photographs at A and B, P is above the horizontal. It is 20 m above A and 16
m above B i.e., A is lower than B by 4 m.
CE401/3A 38
Fig 19.6
19.7.1 Two photographs are taken with a photo theodolite from stations A and B 160 m
apart, the lines of collinations being at right angles to AB in each case. A point C appears on
the photograph from A as 32 mm to the right of the vertical hair and 16 mm below the
horizontal hair and on the photograph from B as 35 mm to the left of the vertical hair and 11
mm below the horizontal hair. B is to the right of A and the focal length of the instrument is
165 mm. Calculate the co-ordinates of C from A as origin and the difference in levels of the
two collimation planes.
19.7.2 From two stations A and B 100 m apart photographs of an area where taken. The
focal length of the camera is 160 mm. The camera axis makes an angle of 600 and 400 with
the base line at stations A and B respectively. The image of a point P appears 2 cm to the
right and 1.5 cm above the hair line on the photograph taken at A and 3.5 cm to the left on the
photograph taken at B. Calculate the distance AP and BP and elevation of point P if the
elevation of the axis of the instrument at A is 125.00 m.
*****
SURVEYING
UNIT – 20
CE401/3A 39
AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
20.1 Aerial photogrammetry:
20.3 Objectives: Given the data connected with the aerial photography the student is
expected to know how to calculate from the available data scale of the photograph, or the
flight altitude or, the length of a base line or the focal length of a camera lens. He must be
able to distinguish the different types of Mosaics and their uses.
20.4 Introduction: Photographs from the air may be used for compilation of topographical
maps, but for the photography to give a TRUE PLAN certain conditions must be fulfilled
namely.
(ii) The camera must not be tilted from the vertical when the exposure is made
(iii) The camera lens and photographic material should be as perfect as possible and there
should be no atmospheric refraction. In addition when flying at high altitude the
curvature of the earth is of some account.
20.5 Lesson: As the photographs are taken from air and to cover a large area aerial camera
is mounted at the bottom of a fast moving aeroplane.
a) Fast lens
b) High speed efficient shutter
c) High speed emulsion for the film
d) Provision to hold (Magazine) large rolls of film.
Since the air craft is at a considerable distance from the terrain to be photographed all the
points on the ground can be considered to be at an infinite distance from the lens and hence
the focal plane of the camera can be fixed at one location. Thus the aerial camera is always of
a fixed focus type the focus being set for infinity.
CE401/3A 40
20.5.2 Definitions:
a) Vertical Photograph: A vertical photograph is an aerial photograph with the axis of the
camera truly vertical coinciding with the direction of gravity.
b) Tilted photograph: In a photograph made with the axis of the camera tilted
unintentionally from the vertical axis by a small amount not exceeding 30 (for tilts of 20 to
30 )the photograph is treated as a ‘near vertical photograph’.
c) Oblique photograph: For tilts greater than 30 the photographs are classified as
(i) If the apparent horizon is not included in the photograph it is called a low oblique
photograph.
(ii) If the horizon is included in the photograph it is called a high oblique photograph.
d) Flight height: It is the elevation of the camera station is space (air space above mean sea
level or another datum.
d) Focal length: It is the distance from the front nodal point of the lens to the plane of the
photograph.
e) Principal point: In a point where the perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point
strikes the photograph.
f) Nadir point: Nadir point is a point where a plumb line dropped from the front Nodal
point pieces the photograph.
g) Ground Nadir point: Ground Nadir point or the ground plumb point is the datum
intersection with the plumb line through the front nodal point.
h) Iso Center: Iso center is the point in which the bisector of the angle of tilt meets the
photograph.
Fig 20.1
f
=
H h ave
H is the flying height or flight height. f is the focal length of camera lens.
(ha + hb)/2= Ave height of ground photographed.
20.5.4 Flight height:
Flight height depends on:
(i) The scale of map or plan
When sophisticated plotting machines are used it is economical to increase the flying height
upto 6000 meters and thereby ground coverage per photograph can be increased.
Lower flying heights are required for close contouring over flat terrain.
Notation:
Lg = SLp (1 – 0L)
Wg = SWp (1 – 0w)
Aq
No of photographs required =
Ap
Alternatively:
Width of Area
Theoretical No. of strips = =K
Wg
Actual no. of strips = K + 1 ( one strip being added to cover the sides)
20.6 Problems:
Lp= 20 cm OL = 0.6
Wp = 20 cm Ow = 0.3
S = 100
= S Lp (1 – 0L)
= 100 x 20 (1 – 0.6)
= S Wp (1 – 0w)
= 100 x 20 (1 – 0.3)
Ag 160
No. of photographs = =
A p 1.12
CE401/3A 44
= 142. = 143.
20.6.2: A line A B measures 10.92 cm on a photograph taken with a camera having a focal
1
length of 20 cm. The same line measures 2.85 cm on a map drawn to a scale of .
50,000
Calculate the flying height of the air craft if the average altitude of the ground is 320 m.
Solution:
S = Photo scale
S 10.92
=
1/50,000 2.85
1
Simplifying S =
13500
1 0.2 1
S = Photo scale = = =
H h H 320 13500
0.2 1
=
H 320 13500
20.7.1 Calculate the aeroplane flying height to obtain the average scale of the photograph
1
equal to . Ground surface elevation vary from 150 m to 450 m. Focal length of camera
7500
lens = 15 cm.
20.7.2: The scale of an aerial photograph is 1 cm = 150 m and the size of the photograph is
22 x 22 cm. If the longitudinal lap is 62% and the side lap = 30% determine the number of
photographs required to cover an area of 230 sq. km.
b) Mosaic produces a greater amount of detail than can be shown on a topographic map.
1) Uncontrolled Mosaic
2) Controlled Mosaic
2) Controlled Mosaics: If the photographs are rectified and brought to a common scale the
Mosaic is said to be controlled and is superior to the uncontrolled mosaic. Controlled
mosaics are constructed so that points identified on the photograph will be super imposed
over the plotted positions which may be geographical control points. The process is done
by means of a rectifying projector.
If the photograph is truly vertical and the ground is horizontal and if other sources of
error are neglected the scale of the photograph will be uniform. Such a photograph represents
a true orthographic projection and hence the true map of the terrain. In actual practice,
however, such conditions are never fulfilled. When the ground is not horizontal the scale of
the photograph varies from point to point and is not constant. Since the photograph is the
perspective view the ground relief is shown in perspective view on the photograph. Every
CE401/3A 46
point on the photograph is therefore displaced from their true orthographic position. This
displacement is called relief displacement.
A, B and K (fig 20.2) are the ground points having elevations ha,. hb, hk above datum.
A0, B0, K0 are their datum position respectively when projected vertically downwards on the
datum planes.
On the photograph their positions are a, b and k respectively the point k being chosen
vertically below the principal point. If the datum points A0, B0, K0 are imagined to be
photographed along with the ground points their positions will be a0, b0 and k respectively.
As is clear from the figure the points a and b are displaced outwards from their datum
photographic positions, the displacement being along the corresponding radial lines from the
principal point. The radial distance aa0 is the relief displacement of A while bb0 is the relief
displacement of B.
The point K has not been displaced since it coincides with the principal point of the
photograph.
CE401/3A 47
Fig 20.2
References:
2) “SURVEYING AND LEVELLING (Part II)” by Late T.P.Kanetkar, B.A (Hons), B.E.,
A.M.I.E (Ind), B.E.S and Prof S.V.Kulkarni, B.E. (Hons), M.Sc(Engg). F.I.E (Ind).
4) ‘SURVEYING’ by the Late W.Norman Thomas. C.B.E., M.A., D.Phil. (Oxom) M.Sc
(B.hon), M.I.C.E., F.R.I.B.A.
*****