KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

CHAPTER 1. KINEMATICS OF FLOW

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Kinematics is defined as the branch of science which deals with the study of motion of such
particles without considering the forces causing the motion. In this branch of fluid mechanics, the velocity
at any point in a flow field at any time is studied. Once the velocity is known, then the pressure distribution
and hence forces acting on the fluid can be determined.

1.2. METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION

The fluid motion is described by two methods:
1.2.1. LANGRANGIAN METHOD – wherein, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion
and its velocity, acceleration, density, etc., are described.
1.2.2. EULERIAN METHOD – wherein, the velocity, acceleration, pressure, density, etc., are
described at a point in flow field. This method is commonly used in fluid mechanics.

1.3. TYPES OF FLUIDS

The fluids may be of the following types:
1.3.1. NEWTONIAN FLUIDS. In continuum mechanics, it is a fluid in which the viscous stresses
arising from its flow, at any point, are linearly proportional to the local strain rate or the rate of
change of its deformation over time. These fluids follow Newton’s viscosity equation. For such
fluids, the dynamic viscosity μ does not change with rate of deformation.
Examples: Water, oil, gasoline, alcohol, glycerin, air, etc.
1.3.2. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS. These fluids do not follow the linear relationship between
shear stress and rate of deformation. Such fluids are relatively uncommon. These fluids are
generally complex mixtures and are studied under rheology, a science of deformation and flow.
Examples: Solutions or suspensions (slurries), gels, colloids, mud flows, polymer solutions, blood,
etc.
Types of Non-Newtonian Fluids based on mechanical properties and behavior upon presence of
stresses:
1.3.2.1. RHEOPECTIC FLUID. Rheopecty or Rheopexy is the rare property of some Non-
Newtonian Fluids to show a time-dependent increase in viscosity; the longer the fluid
undergoes shearing force, the higher its viscosity.
Examples: lubricants, gypsum pastes, printer inks, synovial fluid (body)

1|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

1.3.2.2. THIXOTROPIC FLUID. Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear thinning property.

Certain fluids that are thick, or viscous, under static conditions will flow (become thin, less
viscous) when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed over time. Hence, the longer the
fluid undergoes shear stress, the lower its viscosity.
Examples: Ketchup, yogurt, gels, fumed silica, clay (soil), honey, drilling muds, cytoplasm.
1.3.2.3. DILATANT FLUID. Also known as shear thickening fluids, are liquids or solutions
whose viscosity increases as stress is applied. This behavior is only one type of deviation
from Newton’s Law, and it is controlled by such factors as particle size, shape and
distribution. The properties of these suspensions depend on Hamaker theory and Van der
Waals forces and can be stabilized electrostatically or sterically. Shear thickening behavior
occurs when a colloidal suspension transitions from a stable state to a state of flocculation.
A large portion of the properties of these systems are due to surface chemistry of particles
in dispersion, known as colloids.
This can be readily seen with a mixture of cornstarch and water (also known as
oobleck mixture) which acts in counterintuitive ways when struck or thrown against a
surface (cornstarch science).
1.3.2.4. PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUID. Also known as shear thinning fluids, are fluids whose
viscosity decreases under shear strain excluding the time-dependent effects which are
considered for thixotropy. Shear thinning behavior is generally not seen in pure liquids
with low molecular mass or ideal solutions of small molecules like sucrose or sodium
chloride but is often seen in polymer solutions and molten polymers and complex fluids
and suspensions like blood, paint, nail polish, quicksand.
1.3.2.5. PLASTIC FLUIDS. In the case of a plastic substance which is non-newtonian
fluid, an initial yield stress is to be exceeded to cause a continuous deformation. These
substances are represented by straight line intersecting the vertical axis at the yield stress.
An Ideal Plastic (Bingham Plastic, named after Eugene C. Bingham) is a viscoplastic
material that behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high
stresses. It has a definite yield stress and a constant linear relation between shear stress
and the rate of angular deformation.
Examples: Sewage sludge, drilling muds, etc.

1.4. TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

The fluid flow is classified as:
1.4.1. STEADY OR UNSTEADY FLOW.
STEADY FLOW is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure, density, etc., at a point do not change with time. Thus, mathematically
stated, we have
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝝆
( ) = 𝟎, ( ) = 𝟎, ( ) =𝟎
𝝏𝒕 𝒙𝟎𝒚𝟎𝒛𝟎 𝝏𝒕 𝒙𝟎𝒚𝟎𝒛𝟎 𝝏𝒕 𝒙𝟎𝒚𝟎𝒛𝟎

Where (x0, y0, z0) is a fixed point in a fluid flow field.

2|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

UNSTEADY FLOW is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure, density, etc., at a
point changes with respect to time. Thus, mathematically, we have
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝝆
( ) ≠ 𝟎, ( ) ≠ 𝟎, ( ) ≠𝟎
𝝏𝒕 𝒙𝟎𝒚𝟎𝒛𝟎 𝝏𝒕 𝒙𝟎𝒚𝟎𝒛𝟎 𝝏𝒕 𝒙𝟎𝒚𝟎𝒛𝟎

1.4.2. UNIFORM OR NON-UNIFORM FLOW.

UNIFORM FLOW is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
does not change with respect to space (i.e. length of direction of the flow). Mathematically,
for uniform flow we have
𝝏𝑽
( ) =𝟎
𝝏𝒔 𝒕=𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
NON-UNIFORM FLOW is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given
time changes with respect to space. Thus, mathematically, we have
𝝏𝑽
( ) ≠𝟎
𝝏𝒔 𝒕=𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

1.4.3. LAMINAR OR TURBULENT FLOW.

LAMINAR FLOW is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along
well-defined paths or stream line and all the stream-lines are straight and parallel. Thus,
the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. This type
of flow is also called stream-line flow or viscous flow.
TURBULENT FLOW is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a zig-zag way.
Due to the movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, the eddies formation takes place
which are responsible for high energy loss.
For pipe flow, laminar and turbulent flows are determined by a non-dimensional number
𝑉𝐷
called the ‘Reynold Number (Re)’. Where D denotes the diameter of the pipe, V as
𝜈
mean velocity of flow in pipe and ν for the kinematic viscosity of fluid.
If the Reynold number is less than 2000, the flow is considered laminar. If the Reynold
number is more than 4000, it is considered turbulent flow. Nonetheless, if the Reynold
number lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow is considered in transition either to laminar
or turbulent flow.

1.4.4. COMPRESSIBLE OR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW.

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from
point to point or in other words the density is not constant for the fluid.
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the fluid
flow. Liquids are generally incompressible while gases are not.

3|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

1.4.5. ROTATIONAL OR IRROTATIONAL FLOW.

ROTATIONAL FLOW is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along
stream-lines, also rotate about their own axis.
IRROTATIONAL FLOW is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along
stream-lines do not rotate about their own axis.

1.4.6. DIMENSIONAL FLOWS.

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW is that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as
velocity is a function of time and one space coordinate only, say x. For a steady one-
dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one space coordinate only. The variation of
velocities in other directions is assumed negligible. Hence, mathematically,
𝒖 = 𝒇(𝒙), 𝒗 = 𝟎, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝟎

TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time
and two rectangular space coordinates, say x and y. For a steady two-dimensional flow,
the velocity is a function of two space coordinates only. The variation of velocity in the
third direction is negligible. Thus, mathematically,
𝒖 = 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙, 𝒚), 𝒗 = 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙, 𝒚), 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝟎
THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of
time and three mutually perpendicular directions. For a steady three-dimensional flow, the
fluid parameters are functions of three space coordinates. Thus, mathematically,
𝒖 = 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛), 𝒗 = 𝒇𝟐 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛), 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝒇𝟑 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)

1.5. RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE (Q)

It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of a pipe or a channel.
For an incompressible fluid (liquid), the rate of flow or discharge is expressed as the volume of fluid
flowing across the section per second. For compressible fluids (gases), the rate of flow is usually
expressed as the weight or mass of fluid flowing across the section.
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆)
𝑾 = 𝜸𝑨𝑽 (𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆)
𝑴 = 𝝆𝑨𝑽 (𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆)
where A = cross-sectional area of a pipe and
V = average velocity of fluid across the section

4|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

1.6. LAW OF CONTINUITY EQUATION (LOCE)

This equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. Hence, for a fluid flowing through
the pipe at all the cross-section, the quantity of fluid per second is constant. Consider two cross-sections
of a pipe as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1. Fluid flowing through a pipe.

Let V1 = Average velocity at cross-section 1 V2 = Average velocity at cross-section 2

ρ1 = Density at section 1 ρ2 = Density at section 2
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 A2 = Area of pipe at section 2

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (SI UNIT)

Problem 1.1. The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm, respectively. Find
the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s.
Determine also the velocity at section 2.
Given: D1 = 10cm = 0.1m Solution: a. Q = A1V1
𝜋
D2 = 15cm = 0.15m = (0.1𝑚)2 (5𝑚⁄𝑠)
4

V1 = 5 m/s Q = 0.0393 m3/s

Find: a. Q b. V2 b. from Q1 = Q2 or A1V1 = A2V2

𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐷1 2 𝑉1 (0.1𝑚)2 (5𝑚/𝑠)
𝑉2 = = = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝒎/𝒔
𝐴2 𝐷2 2 (0.15𝑚)2

Problem 1.2. A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters 20 cm and
15 cm, respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in
this pipe. Also, determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm pipe is 2 m/s.
Given: D1 = 30cm = 0.3m Find: a. Q
D2 = 20cm = 0.2m b. V3
D3 = 15cm = 0.15m
V1 = 2.5m/s
V2 = 2m/s

5|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

Solution: a. Q = A1V1
𝜋
= (0.3𝑚)2 (2.5𝑚⁄𝑠)
4

Q = 0.1767 m3/s
b. Q1 = Q2 + Q3
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 + 𝐴3 𝑉3

𝐷1 2 𝑉1 = 𝐷2 2 𝑉2 + 𝐷3 2 𝑉3

(0.3𝑚)2 (2.5𝑚⁄𝑠) = (0.2𝑚)2 (2𝑚⁄𝑠) + (0.15𝑚)2 𝑉3

V3 = 6.44 m/s

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (ENGLISH UNIT)

Problem 1.3. Water flows through a 3-in diamter pipe at a velocity of 10ft/s. Compute a. volume flow rate
(Q) in cfs and gpm, b. weight flow rate and c. mass flow rate.
Given: D = 3.0 in = 0.25 ft Solution: a. Q = AV
𝜋
V = 10 ft/s = 4 (0.25𝑓𝑡)2 (10𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)

Find: a. Q in cfs and gpm Q = 0.4909 ft3/s or cfs

b. W 0.4909 cfs / 0.002228
c. M Q = 220.32 grams/min or gpm
b. W = γAV
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝜋
= (62.4 ) [ (0.25𝑓𝑡)2 ] (10𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)
𝑓𝑡 3 4
W = 30.63 lbf/s
c. M = ρAV
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝜋
= (1.94 ) [ (0.25𝑓𝑡)2 ] (10𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)
𝑓𝑡 3 4
M = 0.95 slugs/s
Note: to convert cfs to gpm, divide the cfs value by constant 0.002228 to express the value in gpm.

Problem 1.4. The conduit shown below has inside diameters of 12in and 18in at sections 1 and 2,
respectively. If water is flowing in the conduit at a velocity of 16.6 ft/s at section 2, find the (a) velocity at
section 1 and (b) volume flow rate of the conduit.
Given: D1 = 12in = 1ft
D2 = 18in = 1.5ft
V2 = 16.6 ft/s
6|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

Find: a. V1 b. Q
Solution: a. from Q1 = Q2 or A1V1 = A2V2

𝐴2 𝑉2 𝐷2 2 𝑉2 (1.5𝑓𝑡)2 (16.6𝑓𝑡/𝑠)
𝑉1 = = = = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟑𝟓𝒇𝒕/𝒔
𝐴1 𝐷1 2 (1𝑓𝑡)2
b. Q = A2V2
𝜋
= 4 (1.5𝑓𝑡)2 (16.6𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠)

Q = 29.33 ft3/s

1.7. CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x, y and z. Let u, v and w be
the inlet velocity components in x, y and z directions, respectively. Mass of fluid entering cross-section
ABCD per second

D H

= 𝜌 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 A C E G

= 𝝆𝒖𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 B F

Then the mass of fluid leaving cross-section EFGH per second

𝝏
= 𝝆𝒖𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 + (𝝆𝒖𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛)𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒙
Thus, the gain of mass in x-direction
𝝏
=− (𝝆𝒖)𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙
Similarly, the gain of mass in y-direction
𝝏
=− (𝝆𝒗)𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒚
and in z-direction
𝝏
=− (𝝆𝒘)𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒛
Therefore, net gain of masses in three-direction,
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
= −[ (𝝆𝒖) + (𝝆𝒗) + (𝝆𝒘)] 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

7|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, the net increase of mass per unit
time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element. But mass
of fluid in the element is ρdxdydz and its rate of increase with time is
𝝏
= 𝝆𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒕
Equating the two expressions,
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
−[ (𝝆𝒖) + (𝝆𝒗) + (𝝆𝒘)] 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛 = 𝝆𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
Cancelling dxdydz from both sides,
𝝏𝝆 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
+ (𝝆𝒖) + (𝝆𝒗) + (𝝆𝒘) = 𝟎 𝑬𝒒. 𝟏. 𝟕
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Equation 1.7 is the continuity equation in cartesian coordinates in its most general form. This equation is
applicable to:
a. Steady and Unsteady Flow
b. Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
c. Compressible and Incompressible Flow

𝝏𝝆
For steady flow, 𝝏𝒕
= 𝟎, hence equation 1.7 becomes

𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
(𝝆𝒖) + (𝝆𝒗) + (𝝆𝒘) = 𝟎 𝑬𝒒. 𝟏. 𝟖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ is constant and the above equation becomes
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒘
+ + =𝟎 𝑬𝒒. 𝟏. 𝟗
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

8|Page
 KINEMATICS OF FLOW | CE 413

HOME ACTIVITY
1. Define the terms:
a. Path Line
b. Streak Line
c. Stream Line
d. Stream Tube
2. A 30 cm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity equivalent to 0.8 at a velocity of 2m/s. At
another section, the diameter is 20cm. Find the velocity of flow at this section also the mass rate
of flow of oil.
3. Define the following terms:
a. Total acceleration
b. Convective acceleration
c. Local acceleration

Note: Do not forget to cite the references for your homework.

9|Page