Lysosome

•Cell is the fundamental structural and

functional unit of all living organisms
because they possess all the
characteristics of life.
•Organelle is a membrane-bounded tiny
cellular structure that performs specific
functions and processes within a cell.
• Thin barrier that forms a boundary,
separating an individual cell from the
external environment.
• Living system that controls the passage of
needed materials into and out of the cell.
• The cell membranes of both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells consist of a double layer of
phospholipids embedded with a variety of
molecules.
•Lipid Bilayer – 2 layers of phospholipids
•A. phosphate head is polar (water loving)
•B. Fatty acid tails non-polar (water fearing)
•C. Proteins embedded in membrane
• Cell membrane proteins have a number of
different functions.
• Structural proteins help to give the cell support
and shape.
• Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells
communicate with their external environment
through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters,
and other signaling molecules.
• Transport proteins, such as globular proteins,
transport molecules across cell membranes
through facilitated diffusion.
•In plants, as well as algae, fungi, and
bacteria, the cell membrane is surrounded
by an additional boundary, a strong cell
wall, which is a rigid layer that gives
protection, rigid support, and shape to the
cell.
•The cell walls of multiple cells can cling to
each other to help support an entire
organism.
•Cell wall’s composition varies and is
related to the different needs of each
type of organism.
•In plants and algae, the cell wall is
made up of the polysaccharide
cellulose.
•In fungi, cell walls are made up of
chitin.
•In bacteria, they are composed of
peptidoglycan.
•Fills the space between
the nucleus and the cell
membrane.
•Cytosol is the fluid
portion consisting mainly
of water and excluding
the organelles in it.
•The nucleus is the storehouse of genetic
information in the form of DNA inside the cells
and is usually the most prominent organelle.
• The nuclear membrane encloses the
nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm.
• The nuclear membrane is a double
membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid
bilayer.
• Each nuclear pore is a large complex of
proteins that allows small molecules and ions
to freely pass, or diffuse, into or out of the
nucleus.
• The nucleus of most cells contains a
substance that suspends structures inside the
nuclear membrane. Just like the cytoplasm
found inside a cell, the nucleus contains
nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm.
• In the nucleus, DNA and proteins form genetic
material called chromatin.
•The nucleus contains most
of the DNA in a eukaryotic
cell.
•Chromatin condenses to
form discrete
chromosomes.
•The nucleolus is located
within the nucleus and is
the site of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) synthesis.
• Much of the cell’s activities are devoted to making proteins.
Several organelles are involved in making and processing
proteins.
• Since proteins are responsible for
the critical functions in your body,
your cells must manufacture them
correctly at all times. Several
organelles and structures help in
manufacturing, storing, and
distributing these proteins.
Collectively, these organelles are
part of a connected system called
endomembrane system.
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is such an
extensive network of membranes that it
accounts for more than half the total membrane
in many eukaryotic cells. (The word
endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm,” and
reticulum is Latin for “little net.”)
• The ER consists of a network of membranous
tubules and sacs called cisternae (from the
Latin cisterna, a reservoir for a liquid).
• About 50% of the total
membrane surface in
an animal cell or plant
cell is provided by
endoplasmic
reticulum and is very
important
manufacturing site for
lipids (fats) and many
proteins.
• Rough ER (RER) is
involved in some protein
production, protein
folding, quality control
and dispatch. It is called
‘rough’ because it is
studded with ribosomes
on its cytosolic surface.
• Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum synthesizes lipids
and steroids, metabolize
carbohydrates and steroids,
and regulate calcium
concentration, drug
detoxification, and
attachment of receptors on
cell membrane proteins.
• From the ER, proteins
are transported into
layered stacks of
membrane enclosed
spaced called Golgi
apparatus or Golgi
complex, where proteins
are processed, sorted,
and delivered.
• After a protein has been
manufactured, part of the ER
pinches off to form small,
membrane-bound sacs called
vesicles enclosing the protein.
• The protein being protected
by the vesicle can now be
transported to Golgi apparatus,
where further modifications
can be made.
• A new vesicle will again be
formed at the end of the Golgi
apparatus for storage,
transport, or secretion.
• Vesicles are generally short-
lived and are formed and
recycled as needed by the cell.
• Some vesicles may develop
into lysosomes and vacuoles.
• Fluid-filled sac for the
storage of materials needed
by cell. That includes water,
food molecules, inorganic
ions, and enzymes.
• Most animal cells contain
many small vacuoles, while
plants have a central
vacuole that is unique to
them.
• Lysosomes are round-
shaped, membrane-bound
structures containing
chemicals that can break
down materials in the cell.
• They contain powerful
enzymes, known as
lysozyme.
• The purpose of the lysosome is to digest cell parts.
They might be used to digest food or break down
the cell when it dies.
• Lysosomes perform autophagy or autolysis to
phagocyte a cell. It is classified into two:
Heterophagy, wherein it engulfs the cell organelle
when it is damaged and autophagy when the cell
itself is damaged.
• Like lysosomes, peroxisomes
also exist as small vesicles
around the cell.
• These organelles were named
“peroxisomes” because they
are the site of synthesis and
degradation of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), a highly
reactive and toxic oxidizing
agent.
• Catalase in peroxisomes destroys H2O2 by
breaking it down into water and oxygen.
• Peroxisomes also help in breaking down alcohol
in the body. Because of this, you would expect
your liver cells to have more peroxisomes than
other cells in your body.
• Mitochondria supply energy to the cell.
• They are bean-shaped
and have two
membranes.
• Within the innerfolds
and compartments, a
series of chemical
reactions convert
molecules from the food
you eat into usable
energy.
• Unlike most organelles, mitochondria have their
own ribosomes and DNA, suggesting that
mitochondria were originally free-living
prokaryotes that were taken in by larger cells.
• The relationship must have helped both
organisms to survive.
• Chloroplasts carry out
photosynthesis, which is a
series of complex
chemical reactions that
transform solar energy to
energy-rich molecules
the cell can use.
• Like mitochondria,
chloroplasts are highly
compartmentalized.
• Sacs, called thylakoids, are
organized into a stack called
granum.
• Thylakoids contain
chlorophyll, a light-absorbing
molecule that gives plants
their green color and plays a
role in photosynthesis.
• Stroma is the liquid portion of
the chloroplast.