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Pancreas
The pancreas[note 1] is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine
Pancreas
system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind
the stomach.

The pancreas is a gland, having both an endocrine and a digestive

exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate
blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive
system, it secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the
pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid
entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes,
which break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in food entering the
Anatomy of the pancreas
duodenum from the stomach.
Details
Pronunciation /ˈpæŋkriəs/

Contents Precursor Pancreatic buds

Artery Inferior
Structure
Shape pancreaticoduodenal
Blood supply artery, anterior
Microanatomy superior
Variation pancreaticoduodenal
Gene and protein expression artery, posterior
Development superior
Function pancreaticoduodenal
Blood glucose regulation artery, splenic artery
Digestion
Vein Pancreaticoduodenal
Additional functions
veins, pancreatic veins
Clinical significance
Inflammation Nerve Pancreatic plexus,
Cancer celiac ganglia, vagus
Diabetes mellitus nerve[1]
Type 1 diabetes
Lymph Splenic lymph nodes,
Type 2 diabetes
celiac lymph nodes
Other
and superior
History mesenteric lymph
Other animals nodes
Cuisine
Identifiers
Additional images
Latin Pancreas
Notes
Greek Πάγκρεας (Pánkreas)
References
Bibliography MeSH D010179 (https://mesh
External links b.nlm.nih.gov/record/u
i?ui=D010179)
TA A05.9.01.001 (http://w
Structure ww.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/
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The pancreas is an organ that in humans lies in the upper left part of the EntryPage/TA98%20Tr
abdomen. In adults, it is about 12–15 centimetres (4.7–5.9  in) long, ee/Entity%20TA98%20
lobulated, and salmon-coloured in appearance.[3] EN/05.9.01.001%20En
tity%20TA98%20EN.ht
Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into a head, neck, body, and tail.
m)
The pancreas stretches from the inner curvature of the duodenum,
FMA 7198 (https://bioportal.
where the head surrounds two blood vessels, the superior mesenteric
bioontology.org/ontolog
artery, and vein. The longest part of the pancreas, the body, stretches
ies/FMA/?p=classes&c
across behind the stomach, and the tail of the pancreas ends adjacent to
onceptid=http%3A%2
the spleen.[3]
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Two ducts, the main pancreatic duct and a smaller accessory pancreatic 2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma
duct, run through the body of the pancreas, joining with the common 7198)
bile duct near a small ballooning called the ampulla of Vater. Anatomical terminology
Surrounded by a muscle, the sphincter of Oddi, this opens into
the descending part of the duodenum.[3]

Shape
The head of the pancreas sits within the curvature of the
duodenum, and wraps around the superior mesenteric artery and
vein. To the right sits the descending part of the duodenum, and
between these travel the superior and inferior
pancreaticoduodenal arteries. Behind rests the inferior vena cava,
and in front sits the peritoneal membrane and the transverse
colon.[3]

From the back of the head emerges a small uncinate process,
which extends to the back of the superior mesenteric vein and
ends at the superior mesenteric artery.[4] The superior
mesenteric artery passes down in front of the left half across the
uncinate process; the superior mesenteric vein runs upward on
the right side of the artery and, behind the neck, joins with the
lienal vein to form the portal vein.
The body of the pancreas travels from the head, separated by a
short neck. The neck is about 2  cm (0.79  in) wide, and sits in
front of the portal vein. The gastroduodenal artery and the
anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal arteries travel in front of
the gland and begin where the neck meets the head of the
pancreas. The neck lies mostly behind the pylorus of the
stomach.[3]
1. Bile ducts: 2. Intrahepatic bile ducts, 3. Left
and right hepatic ducts, 4. Common hepatic
duct, 5. Cystic duct, 6. Common bile duct, 7.
Ampulla of Vater, 8. Major duodenal papilla
9. Gallbladder, 10–11. Right and left lobes of
liver. 12. Spleen.
13. Esophagus. 14. Stomach. 15. Pancreas:
16. Accessory pancreatic duct, 17. Pancreatic
duct.
18. Small intestine: 19. Duodenum, 20.
Jejunum
21–22. Right and left kidneys.
The front border of the liver has been lifted up
(brown arrow).[2]

The body is the largest part of the pancreas, and mostly lies behind the stomach. It has a triangular cross-section, with
the tip near the top of the pancreas, and the base at the bottom. The peritoneum sits on top of the front-facing and
lower surfaces of the pancreas. Behind the pancreas are several blood vessels, including the aorta, the splenic vein, and
the left renal vein, as well as some of the superior mesenteric artery. Below the body of the pancreas sits some of the
small intestine, specifically the last part of the duodenum and the jejunum to which it connects, as well as the
suspensory ligament of the duodenum which falls between these two. In front of the pancreas sits the transverse
colon.[3]

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The pancreas narrows towards the tail, which sits next to the spleen.[3] It is usually between 1.3–3.5 cm (0.51–1.38 in)
long, and sits between the layers of the ligament between the spleen and the left kidney. The splenic vein, which also
passes behind the body of the pancreas, passes behind the tail of the pancreas.[3]

Blood supply
The pancreas has a rich blood supply, with vessels originating as branches of both the coeliac artery and superior
mesenteric artery. The splenic artery runs along the top margin of the pancreas, and supplies the left part of the body
and the tail of the pancreas through its pancreatic branches, the largest of which is called the greater pancreatic artery.
The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries run along the anterior and posterior surfaces of the head of the
pancreas at its border with the duodenum. These supply the head of the pancreas. These vessels originate join together
(anastamose) in the middle.[3]

The body and neck of the pancreas drain into the splenic vein, which sits behind the pancreas. The head drains into,
and wraps around, the superior mesenteric and portal veins.[3] The pancreas drains into lymphatic vessels that travel
alongside its arteries. These lymphatic vessels drain primarily into pancreaticosplenic nodes, and some into the lymph
nodes that lie in front of the aorta.[3]

Microanatomy
The pancreas contains tissue with an endocrine and exocrine role, and this
division is also visible when the pancreas is viewed under a microscope.[5]

The tissues with an endocrine role can be seen under staining as lightly-
stained clusters of cells, called pancreatic islets (also called islets of
Langerhans).[5] Pancreatic islets contain alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells,
and F cells, each of which releases a different hormone. These cells have
characteristic positions, with alpha cells (secreting glucagon) tending to be
situated around the periphery of the islet, and beta cells (secreting insulin)
more numerous and found in the centre.[3] Islets are composed of up to
3,000 secretory cells, and contain several small arterioles and venules that This image shows a pancreatic islet
allow the hormones secreted by the cells to enter the systemic when pancreatic tissue is stained
and viewed under a microscopy.
circulation.[6]
Parts of the digestive ("exocrine")
pancreas can be seen around the
The majority of pancreatic tissue has a digestive role. On staining, these
islet, more darkly. These contain
darker-staining cells form clusters (Latin: acini), which are arranged in
hazy dark purple granules of
lobes that have thin fibrous walls. The cells of each acinus secrete inactive inactive digestive enzymes
digestive enzymes called zymogens into small intercalated duct which they (zymogens).
surround. Because of their secretory function, these cells have many small
granules of zymogens that are visible. The intercalated ducts drain into
larger ducts within the lobule, and finally interlobular ducts. The ducts are lined by a single layer of column-shaped
cells. There is more than one layer of cells as the diameter of the ducts increases.[5]

Variation
The size of the pancreas varies considerably.[7] Several anatomical variations exist, relating to the embryological
development of the two pancreatic buds. The pancreas develops from these buds on either side of the duodenum. The
ventral bud eventually rotates to lie next to the dorsal bud, eventually fusing. If the two buds, each having a duct, do
not fuse, a pancreas may exist with two separate ducts, a condition known as a pancreas divisum. This condition has no
physiologic consequence.[8] If the ventral bud does not fully rotate, an annular pancreas may exist. This is where
sections of the pancreas completely encircle the duodenum, and may even lead to duodenal atresia.[4]
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An accessory pancreatic duct may exist if the main duct of the pancreas
does not regress.[9]

Gene and protein expression

10,000 protein coding genes (50% of all genes) are expressed in the normal
human pancreas.[10][11] Less than 100 of these genes are more specifically
expressed in the pancreas. Similar to the salivary glands, most of the
pancreas specific genes encode for secreted proteins. Corresponding
A pancreatic islet that uses
pancreas specific proteins are either expressed in the exocrine cellular
fluorescent antibodies to show the
compartment and have functions related to digestion of food uptake such as
location of different cell types in the
digestive chymotrypsinogen enzymes and pancreatic lipase PNLIP, or pancreatic islet. Antibodies against
expressed in the various cells of the endocrine pancreatic islets and have glucagon, secreted by alpha cells,
functions related to secreted hormones such as insulin, glucagon, show their peripheral position.
somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.[12] Antibodies against insulin, secreted
by beta cells, show the more central
position that these cells tend to
Development have.[3]

As part of embryonic development, the pancreas forms as two

buds from the foregut, an embryonic tube that is a precursor
to the gastrointestinal tract.[13] It is therefore of endodermal
origin. Pancreatic development begins with the formation of a
dorsal and ventral pancreatic bud. Each joins with the foregut
through a duct. The dorsal pancreatic bud forms the neck,
body, and tail of the developed pancreas, whereas the ventral
pancreatic bud forms the head and uncinate process.[9]

The definitive pancreas results from rotation of the ventral

bud and the fusion of the two buds.[13] The rotation of the
ventral bud occurs in tandem with the duodenum, which also
rotates to the right Upon reaching its final destination, the The pancreas originates from the foregut, a
precursor tube to part of the digestive tract, as a
ventral pancreatic bud fuses with the much larger dorsal
dorsal and ventral bud. As it develops, the ventral
pancreatic bud. At this point of fusion, the main ducts of the
bud rotates to the other side and the two buds
ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse, forming the main fuse together.
pancreatic duct. The duct of the dorsal bud regresses, leaving
the main pancreatic duct.[9]

The cells of the pancreas differentiate through two main pathways. In progenitor cells of the exocrine pancreas,
important molecules that induce differentiation include follistatin, fibroblast growth factors, and activation of the
Notch receptor system.[14] Development of the exocrine acini progresses through three successive stages. These are the
predifferentiated, protodifferentiated, and differentiated stages, which correspond to undetectable, low, and high levels
of digestive enzyme activity, respectively.

The multi-potent pancreatic progenitor cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the pancreatic cells: acinar
cells, endocrine cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription
factors PDX1 and NKX6-1. Under the influence of neurogenin-3 and ISL1, but in the absence of notch receptor
signaling, these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the
direction of a Pax gene, forms α- and γ- cells, which produce glucagon and pancreatic polypeptides, respectively. The
second line, influenced by Pax-6, produces beta cells (β-) and delta cells (δ-), which secrete insulin and somatostatin,
respectively.

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Insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of fetal
development.[14]

Function
The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body, and also in the secretion of
substances (collectively pancreatic juice) which help digestion. These are divided into an "endocrine" role, relating to
the secretion of insulin and other substances within pancreatic islets and helping control blood sugar levels and
metabolism within the body, and an "exocrine" role, relating to the secretion of enzymes involved in digesting
substances from outside of the body.[6]

Blood glucose regulation

Cells within the pancreas help to maintain blood sugar levels (homeostasis).
The cells that do this are located within the pancreatic islets that are
present throughout the pancreas. When blood glucose levels are low, alpha
cells secrete glucagon, which increases blood glucose levels. When blood
glucose levels are high beta cells secrete insulin to decrease glucose in
blood. Delta cells in the islet also secrete somatostatin which decreases the
release of insulin and glucose.[6]
The pancreas maintains constant
Glucagon acts to increase glucose levels by promoting the creation of blood glucose levels (shown as the
glucose and the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver. It also waving line). When the blood
decreases the uptake of glucose in fat and muscle. Glucagon release is glucose level is too high, the
stimulated by low blood glucose or insulin levels, and during exercise.[15] pancreas secretes insulin and when
the level is too low, the pancreas
Insulin acts to decrease blood glucose levels by facilitating uptake by cells
secretes glucagon.
(particularly skeletal muscle), and promoting its use in the creation of
proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Insulin is initially created as a precursor
form called preproinsulin. This is converted to proinsulin and cleaved by C-peptide to insulin which is then stored in
granules in beta cells. Glucose is taken into the beta cells and degraded. The end effect of this is to cause depolarisation
of the cell membrane which stimulates the release of the insulin.[15]

Activity of the cells in the islets is also affected by the autonomic nervous system.

Sympathetic (adrenergic)
α2: decreases secretion from beta cells, increases secretion from alpha cells, β2: increases
secretion from beta cells
Parasympathetic (muscarinic)
M3: increases stimulation of alpha cells and beta cells[16]

Digestion
The pancreas plays a vital role in the digestive system. It does this by secreting a fluid that contains digestive enzymes
into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine that receives food from the stomach. These enzymes help to
break down carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats). This role is called the "exocrine" role of the pancreas. The cells
that do this are arranged in clusters called acini. Secretions into the middle of the acinus accumulate in intralobular
ducts, which drain to the main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum. About 1.5 - 3L of fluid are
secreted in this manner every day.[3][17]

The cells in each acinus are filled with granules containing the digestive enzymes. These are secreted in an inactive
form termed zymogens or proenzymes. When released into the duodenum, they are activated by the enzyme
enterokinase present in the lining of the duodenum. The proenzymes are cleaved, creating a cascade of activating
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enzymes.[17]

Enzymes that break down proteins begin with activation of trypsinogen

to trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen, as
well as chymotrypsinogen to its active form chymotrypsin.[17]
Enzymes secreted involved in the digestion of fats include lipase,
phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase.[17]
Enzymes that breakdown starch and other carbohydrates include The pancreas has a role in
amylase.[17] digestion, highlighted here. Ducts in
These enzymes are secreted in a fluid rich in bicarbonate. Bicarbonate helps the pancreas (green) conduct
maintain an alkaline pH for the fluid, a pH in which most of the enzymes digestive enzymes into the
duodenum. This image also shows
act most efficiently, and also helps to neutralise the stomach acids that
a pancreatic islet, part of the
enter the duodenum.[17] Secretion is influenced by hormones including
endocrine pancreas, which contains
secretin, cholecystokinin, and VIP, as well as acetylcholine stimulation from cells responsible for secretion of
the vagus nerve. Secretin is released from the S cells which form part of the insulin and glucagon.
lining of the duodenum in response to stimulation by gastric acid. Along
with VIP, it increases the secretion of enzymes and bicarbonate.
Cholecystokinin is released from Ito cells of the lining of the duodenum and jejunum mostly in response to long chain
fatty acids, and increases the effects of secretin.[17] At a cellular level, bicarbonate is secreted from the acinar cells
through a sodium and bicarbonate cotransporter that acts because of membrane depolarisation caused by the cystic
fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. Secretin and VIP act to increase the opening of the cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance regulator, which leads to more membrane depolarisation and more secretion of
bicarbonate.[17]

A variety of mechanisms act to ensure that the digestive action of the pancreas does not act to digest pancreatic tissue
itself. These include the secretion of inactive enzymes (zymogens), the secretion of the protective enzymes pancreatic
secretory trypsin inhibitor, which inactivates trypsin, the changes in pH that occur with bicarbonate secretion that
stimulate digestion only when the pancreas is stimulated, and the fact that the low calcium within cells causes
inactivation of trypsin.[17]

Additional functions
The pancreas also secretes VIP and pancreatic polypeptide. Enterochromaffin cells secrete the hormones motilin,
serotonin and substance P. [6]

Clinical significance

Inflammation
Inflammation of the pancreas is known as pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is most often associated with recurrent gallstones
or chronic alcohol use, with other common causes including traumatic damage, damage following an ERCP, some
medications, infections such as mumps and very high blood triglyceride levels. Acute pancreatitis is likely to cause
intense pain in the central abdomen, that often radiates to the back, and may be associated with nausea or vomiting.
Severe pancreatitis may lead to bleeding or perforation of the pancreas resulting in shock or a systemic inflammatory
response syndrome, bruising of the flanks or the region around the belly button. These severe complications are often
managed in an intensive care unit.[18]

In pancreatitis, enzymes of the exocrine pancreas damage the structure and tissue of the pancreas. Detection of some
of these enzymes, such as amylase and lipase in the blood, along with symptoms and findings on medical imaging such
as ultrasound or a CT scan, are often used to indicate that a person has pancreatitis. Pancreatitis is often managed

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medically with pain reliefs, and monitoring to prevent or manage shock, and management of any identified underlying
causes. This may include removal of gallstones, lowering of blood triglyceride or glucose levels, the use of
corticosteroids for autoimmune pancreatitis, and the cessation of any medication triggers.[18]

Chronic pancreatitis refers to the development of pancreatitis over time. It shares many similar causes, with the most
common being chronic alcohol use, with other causes including recurrent acute episodes and cystic fibrosis. Abdominal
pain, characteristically relieved by sitting forward or drinking alcohol, is the most common symptom. When the
digestive function of the pancreas is severely affected, this may lead to problems with fat digestion and the
development of steatorrhoea; when the endocrine function is affected, this may lead to diabetes. Chronic pancreatitis is
investigated in a similar way to acute pancreatitis. In addition to management of pain and nausea, and management of
any identified causes (which may include alcohol cessation), because of the digestive role of the pancreas, enzyme
replacement may be needed to prevent malabsorption.[18]

Cancer
Pancreatic cancers, particularly the most common type, pancreatic
adenocarcinoma, remain very difficult to treat, and are mostly diagnosed
only at a stage that is too late for surgery, which is the only curative
treatment. Pancreatic cancer is rare in those younger than 40, and the
median age of diagnosis is 71.[19] Risk factors include chronic pancreatitis,
older age, smoking, obesity, diabetes, and certain rare genetic conditions
including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, hereditary nonpolyposis
Pancreatic cancer, shown here,
colon cancer and dysplastic nevus syndrome among others.[20][18] About most commonly occurs as an
25% of cases are attributable to tobacco smoking,[21] while 5–10% of cases adenocarcinoma in the head of the
are linked to inherited genes.[19] pancreas. Because symptoms (such
as skin yellowing, pain, or itch) do
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the most common form of pancreatic cancer, not occur until later in the disease, it
and is cancer arising from the exocrine digestive part of the pancreas. Most often presents at a later stage and
[18] has limited treatment options.
occur in the head of the pancreas. Symptoms tend to arise late in the
course of the cancer, when it causes abdominal pain, weight loss, or
yellowing of the skin (jaundice). Jaundice occurs when the outflow of bile is
blocked by the cancer. Other less common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, pancreatitis, diabetes or recurrent
venous thrombosis.[18] Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed by medical imaging in the form of an ultrasound or CT
scan with contrast enhancement. An endoscopic ultrasound may be used if a tumour is being considered for surgical
removal, and biopsy guided by ERCP or ultrasound can be used to confirm an uncertain diagnosis.[18]

Because of the late development of symptoms, most cancer presents at an advanced stage.[18] Only 10 - 15% of tumours
are suitable for surgical resection.[18] As of 2018, when chemotherapy is given the FOLFIRINOX regimen containing
fluorouracil, irinotecan, oxaliplatin and leucovorin has been shown to extend survival beyond traditional gemcitabine
regimens.[18] For the most part, treatment is palliative, focus on the management of symptoms that develop. This may
include management of itch, a choledochojejunostomy or the insertion of stents with ERCP to facilitate the drainage of
bile, and medications to help control pain.[18] In the United States pancreatic cancer is the fourth most common cause
of deaths due to cancer.[22] The disease occurs more often in the developed world, which had 68% of new cases in
2012.[23] Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically has poor outcomes with the average percentage alive for at least one and
five years after diagnosis being 25% and 5% respectively.[23][24] In localized disease where the cancer is small (< 2 cm)
the number alive at five years is approximately 20%.[25]

There are several types of pancreatic cancer, involving both the endocrine and exocrine tissue. The many types of
pancreatic endocrine tumors are all uncommon or rare, and have varied outlooks. However the incidence of these
cancers has been rising sharply; it is not clear to what extent this reflects increased detection, especially through

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medical imaging, of tumors that would be very slow to develop. Insulinomas (largely benign) and gastrinomas are the
most common types.[26] For those with neuroendocrine cancers the number alive after five years is much better at
65%, varying considerably with type.[23]

A solid pseudopapillary tumour is a low-grade malignant tumour of the pancreas of papillary architecture that typically
afflicts young women.[27]

Diabetes mellitus

Type 1 diabetes
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the insulin-secreting
cells of the pancreas. Insulin is needed to keep blood sugar levels within optimal ranges, and its lack can lead to high
blood sugar. As an untreated chronic condition, diabetic neuropathy can result.[28] In addition, if there is not enough
insulin for glucose to be used within cells, the medical emergency diabetic ketoacidosis, which is often the first
symptom that a person with type 1 diabetes may have, can result.[29] Type 1 diabetes can develop at any age but is most
often diagnosed before adulthood. For people living with type 1 diabetes, insulin injections are critical for survival.[28]

An experimental procedure to treat type 1 diabetes is the transplantation of pancreatic islet cells from a donor into the
patient's liver so that the cells can produce the deficient insulin.[30]

Type 2 diabetes
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common form of diabetes. The causes for high blood sugar in this form of diabetes
usually are a combination of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion, with both genetic and environmental
factors playing an important role in the development of the disease. The management of type 2 diabetes relies on a
series of changes in diet and physical activity with the purpose of reducing blood sugar levels to normal ranges and
increasing insulin sensitivity.[28] Biguanides such as metformin are also used as part of the treatment along with
insulin therapy.[31]

Other
It is possible for one to live without a pancreas, provided that the person takes insulin for proper regulation of blood
glucose concentration and pancreatic enzyme supplements to aid digestion.[32]

Pancreas transplant refers to a transplant of a pancreas.

History
The pancreas was first identified by Herophilus (335–280 BC), a Greek anatomist and surgeon.[33] A few hundred
years later, Rufus of Ephesus, another Greek anatomist, gave the pancreas its name. Etymologically, the term
"pancreas", a modern Latin adaptation of Greek πάγκρεας,[34] [πᾶν ("all", "whole"), and κρέας ("flesh")],[35] originally
means sweetbread,[36] although literally meaning all-flesh, presumably because of its fleshy consistency. It was only in
1889 when Oskar Minkowski discovered that removing the pancreas from a dog caused it to become diabetic (insulin
was later discovered by Frederick Banting and Charles Herbert Best in 1921).

Other animals
Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrates, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to
three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including
humans), these "fuse" in the adult, but there are several exceptions. Even when a single pancreas is present, two or

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three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or equivalent part of the foregut).
Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.[37]

In teleosts, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being
distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen. In a few
teleost species, the endocrine tissue has fused to form a distinct gland within the abdominal cavity, but otherwise it is
distributed among the exocrine components. The most primitive arrangement, however, appears to be that of lampreys
and lungfish, in which pancreatic tissue is found as a number of discrete nodules within the wall of the gut itself, with
the exocrine portions being little different from other glandular structures of the intestine.[37]

Cuisine
The pancreas of calf (ris de veau) or lamb (ris d'agneau), and, less commonly, of beef or pork, are used as food under
the culinary name of sweetbread.[38][39]

Additional images

Pancreas of a human The pancreas and its Duodenum and

embryo at end of sixth surrounding structures pancreas. Deep
week dissection.

Notes
1. Etymology: from the Greek πᾶν (pân, “all”) & κρέας (kréas, “flesh”)

References
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1199 (https://archive.org/stream/anatomyofhumanbo
1918gray#page/1199/mode/2up) of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)

1. Nosek, Thomas M. Essentials of Human Physiology. Section 6/6ch2/s6ch2_30

2. Standring S, Borley NR, eds. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice. Brown JL, Moore
LA (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 1163, 1177, 1185–6. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8.
3. Gray's 2008, pp. 1183-1190.
4. Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W. M. Mitchell; illustrations by Richard; Richardson, Paul (2005).
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5. Wheater's 2006, pp. 299–301.
6. Wheater's 2006, pp. 342-3.
7. Khan, Ali Nawaz. "Chronic Pancreatitis Imaging" (http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/371772-overview).
Medscape. Retrieved 5 January 2014.

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8. "Pancreatic Divisum: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology" (http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/18530

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External links
Media related to Pancreas at Wikimedia Commons
Pancreas at the Human Protein Atlas (https://www.proteinatlas.org/humanproteome/pancreas)
Pancreatic Diseases – English – The Gastro Specialist (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWV9vHVmeL0&t=94
s)

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