Davies, 2010

TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE ’10
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TAILINGS AND MINE

WASTE, VAIL, COLORADO, USA, 17–20 OCTOBER 2010
Tailings and Mine Waste ’10

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Table of Contents
Preface IX
Organization XI
Keynote papers
Improving the safety of mine waste impoundments 3
N.R. Morgenstern
History and developments in the treatment of oil sands fine tailings 11
J.C. Sobkowicz
Mill tailings
Tailings impoundment failures, black swans, incident avoidance, and checklists 33
J. Caldwell & L. Charlebois
New directions in tailings management 41
C. Strachan & J. Caldwell
Overview: Tailings disposal and dam construction practices in the 21st century 49
A.J. Breitenbach
A history of South African slimes dams engineers 59
J. Caldwell & G. McPhail
Unique geosynthetic liner system for uranium mill tailings disposal 65
G.T. Corcoran & H.R. Roberts
Optimizing tailings deposition concentration at Minera Yanacocha, Peru 71
M. Keevy & R. Cooke
Geotechnical considerations
Peak and critical-state shear strength of mine waste rock 79
Z. Fox & J.A.H. Carraro
Ore geotechnical testing for heap leach pad design 91
J. Lupo & A. Dolezal
Critical state liquefaction assessment of an upstream constructed tailings sand dam 101
C.D. Anderson & T.L. Eldridge
Heap leach pad cover design analyses Salmon, Idaho 113
I. Hutchison, A. Whitman, J. Juliani & T. Hadj-Hamou
The effect of tailings characteristics on cover system success 121
J. Keller, M. Milczarek, T.M. Yao & M. Buchanan
V
Water management and water treatment
Dewatered tailings practice – trends and observations 133
M. Davies, J. Lupo, T. Martin, E. McRoberts, M. Musse & D. Ritchie
Groundwater modeling at the Panna Maria uranium facility in support
of an ACL application 143
M. Gard, J. Warner, L. Cope & K. Raabe
A priori and posterior probabilities in operational water balances
for tailing storage facilities 157
S.F. Truby, V. Lishnevsky & J.R. Kunkel
Single process arsenic and antimony removal using coagulation and
microfiltration 165
J.R. Tamburini, H.C. Liang & S.J. Billin
Mitigating impacts from acid-producing rock in Tennessee road
construction projects 171
J.J. Gusek, V. Bateman, J. Ozment, L. Oliver, D. Kathman, J. Waples,
T. Rutkowski, H. Moore, W. Bowden & A. Reither
20-day design build to save $50 million worth of equipment 187
S.J. Tamburini & S.J. Billin
The simultaneous removal of arsenic and manganese at a gold mine in Nevada 195
H.C. Liang, S.J. Billin & J.R. Tamburini
Geochemistry
The impact of short-term variations of weather conditions on the chemism
of rain water runoff from flotation wastes of Mississippi Valley-type Zn-Pb ores
(southern Poland) 203
A. Bauerek
The effect of weathering on the acid-producing potential of the Goathill
North Rock Pile, Questa mine, NM 213
V.T. McLemore, N. Dunbar, S. Tachie-Menson & K. Donahue
Effect of reservoir pool changes on metals release from
mining-contaminated sediment 229
T. Moyer, B. Striggow, J. Eldridge & C. Zeller
Neutral mine drainage water-quality impacts from a former taconite mine 241
B. Hanna
Benefits of timely and valid geochemical characterization of mine waste
for life of mine and closure planning: A case study of Newmont Boddington Gold
Mine in Western Australia 253
N. Amoah, R. Haymont & G. Campbell
Containment systems
Disposal of coal mine slurry waste using geotextile containers at the
North River Mine, Chevron Mining Inc. 265
M. Watts & E. Trainer
VI
Identification, management and disposal of PCB-containing equipment
used in mines 275
D.W. Bench
Waste management practices at Alaska’s large mines 285
J. DiMarchi & J. Vohden
East Mission Flats Repository design—challenges and case history 295
D.K. Vernon, Jr. & A. Mork
Physical properties of mill tailings as foundation material for waste
repositories, Bunker Hill Superfund Site 305
J.S. Woolston
Dry Stack/Paste
Dry stack tailings design for the Rosemont Copper project 315
L. Newman, K. Arnold & D. Wittwer
Dry stack tailings – design considerations 327
J. Lupo & J. Hall
Reprocessing of tailings of Chador-Malu iron ore, Iran 335
H. Nematollahi
Oil Sands
Suncor Pond 5 coke cap – The story of its conception, testing,
and advance to full-scale construction 341
P.S. Wells, J. Caldwell & J. Fournier
Treatment of fluid fine tailings with silica 347
R.H. Moffett
Filtration tests on PVD filter jackets in fine oil sands tailings 355
Y. Yao, A.F. van Tol, B. Everts & A. Mulder
Suncor oil sands tailings pond capping project 367
G. Pollock, X. Liu, E. McRoberts, K. Williams, P.S. Wells & J. Fournier
Review of oil sands tailings technology options 381
C.B. Powter, K.W. Biggar, M.J. Silva, G.T. McKenna & E.B. Scordo
Case study: Sand capping of weak tailings at Suncor’s Pond 1 393
E. Olauson, R. Dawson & P.S. Wells
The use of geosynthetics in the reclamation of an oil sands tailings pond 401
C. Athanassopoulos, P.S. Wells, S. Trinca & W. Urchik
A new approach to oil sand tailings management 409
L. Lawrence & Z. Ali
Environmental issues
A landscape design approach for the sustainable reclamation activities of a post-mining
area in Cartagena, SE Spain 419
S. Kabas, Á. Faz, D.M. Carmona, S. Martínez-Martínez, R. Zornoza & J.A. Acosta
Priority setting in Idaho’s Coeur d’Alene Basin 427
B. Adams & D.R. Pitzler
VII
Acid mine drainage as a sustainable solution to eliminate risk and reduce costs 439
J. Cormier
Chemical compound forms of cadmium in uranium tailings of Schneckenstein 451
T. Naamoun & B. Merkel
Uranium residue impacts on ground and surface water resources at the
Schneckenstein site in East Germany 457
T. Naamoun & B. Merkel
Author index 471
VIII
Preface
This marks the fourteenth annual Tailings and Mine Waste Conference. The purpose of these
conferences is to provide a forum for discussion and establishment of dialogue among people
involved in the mining industry and environmental community regarding tailings and mine waste.
Previous conferences have been successful in providing opportunities for formal and informal
discussion, exhibits by equipment and instrumentation companies, technical exhibits, and general
social interaction.
This year’s conference includes over 40 papers. These papers address the important issues faced
by the mining industry today. These proceedings will provide a record of the discussions at the
conference that will remain of value for many years.
IX
Organization
Organized by the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University,
Fort Collins, Colorado in conjunction with the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta and the
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia.
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Daniel Overton Engineering Analytics, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado

(Committee Chair)
Peter Mundy Alfa Laval, Inc., Calgary, Alberta
Michael Smith AMEC, Englewood, Colorado
Loel Renshaw Ausenco PSI, Concord, California
Antonio Carraro Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
Shawn Steiner ConeTec, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah
Bill Thompson Golder Associates, Inc., Lakewood, Colorado
Bryan Ulrich Knight Piésold Consulting, Elko, Nevada
Clint Strachan MWH, Fort Collins, Colorado
Robert Cooke Paterson & Cooke, Denver, Colorado
Andrew Robertson Robertson GeoConsultants, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia
Larry Cope SRK Consulting, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado
Mike Henderson Tetra Tech, Inc., Golden, Colorado
Kirk Palicki URS Corporation, Denver, Colorado
XI
Keynote papers
Improving the safety of mine waste impoundments
N.R. Morgenstern
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
ABSTRACT: Although failures of tailings storage facilities persist, there have been numerous
improvements in practice over the last decade that enhance the safety of mine waste impoundments.
Examples are provided of improvements in corporate and regulatory responsibility related to this
issue. The dam safety system applied to the Alberta oil sands industry is put forward as a successful
model. The role of Independent Tailings Dam Review Boards is discussed and emphasized as a
valuable component in the safety system applied to all tailings storage facilities.
1 INTRODUCTION
In 1996 and 1999 the writer published two presentations that summarized the then state of practice
with respect to tailings and other related mine waste management (Morgenstern, 1996; 1999).
The assessments were case history based, with a focus on modern structures as opposed to legacy
facilities. The recommendations arising from these studies were as follows:
“The mining industry must take action to reduce risk associated with waste management by:
• Improving quality control
• Documenting construction and quality control by more use of as-built records
• Improving construction procedures consistent with recommendations from well-qualified
geotechnical engineers familiar with the mining industry
• Utilizing more third party reviews
• Ensuring that there is no conflict between short term profitability and integrity of containment
• Ensuring that the responsibility for failure of waste containment structures is understood at the
highest corporate levels and that the standard of care is set by senior mine management.”
The intent of this presentation is to survey how far the industry has come in responding to these
recommendations. The role of third party reviews and highlights from the experience of the Writer
with such reviews will be singled out for more detailed discussion. It is the Writer’s hope that this
update will encourage on-going assessments of the safety management systems that are developing
in different jurisdictions.
2 RECENT HISTORY OF MAJOR FINDINGS
In order to illustrate the current state of practice, Table 1 has been created that lists publicly known
tailings dam failures over the past decade (2001–2010). Waste dump, pit wall and heap leach failure
incidents are not included.
This list is not intended to be definitive. Davies and Martin (2009) summarize a comprehensive
data base, augmented by their personal files, that indicate that there is no substantive reduction in
the temporal pattern of failure incidents.
Intriguingly, and not unreasonably, they suggest that there is a pattern with the periods of
commodity price peaks that indicates that safety may be compromised by market forces. A number
of reasons are put forward to account for this correlation that challenge designers, operators and
regulators alike. Reference to some of these issues will appear later in this presentation.
3
Table 1. Tailings dam failures.
Name (Place) Country Year
Sebastião dos Äquas Claras Brazil 2001

San Marcelino Philippines 2002
Cerro Negro Chile 2003
Malvési France 2004
Partizansk Russia 2004
Riverview USA 2004
Pinchi Lake Canada 2004
Bangs Lake USA 2005
Miliang China 2006
Nchanga Zambia 2006
Taoshi China 2008
Kingston USA 2008
Huayuan China 2009
Karamken Russia 2009
Las Palmas Chile 2010
Source: www.wise-uranium.org/mdaf.html
www.geerassociation.org
Table 1 and other unpublished data confirm conclusions made by the Writer in the past; namely:
• the failures reflect the current state-of-practice internationally in the industry
• there is no socio-economic pattern among the cases, with regulatory environments ranging from
weak to strong
• in no case, to the knowledge of the Writer, was there systematic third party review.
3 IMPROVEMENTS IN CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY
In response to the international failure incidents in the 1990’s, the Mining Association of Canada
established a task force in 1996 to promote safe and environmentally responsible management
of tailings and mine waste. The Task Force concluded that the main priority should focus on
improvement of tailings management. This resulted in the establishment of the MAC Tailings
Working Group with broad industrial representation.
The need for a Tailings Management System was regarded as necessary to support industry’s
commitment to continual improvement in health, safety and environmental stewardship. The first
product of this effort was the document “MAC Guide to the Management of Tailings Facilities”
which presents:
• a framework of management principles, policies and objectives
• checklists for implementing the framework through the life cycle of a tailings facility
• lists of technical considerations.
It is in a format that is adaptable to specific site and corporate considerations.
Following implementation of this advance it was recognized that there was a need for further
guidance to outline site specific procedures for the safe operation, maintenance and surveillance
(OMS) of facilities. This resulted in the publication “Developing OMS Manuals for Tailings and
Water Management Facilities”.
It is common in mining practice to verify conformance through technical audits. The need for
guidance in this regard led to the production of a third guide, “A Guide to Audit and Assessment
of Tailings Facility Management”.
A history of the development of these guides has been presented by Gardiner and Gladwin
(2009) and the guides themselves are freely available from the Mining Association of Canada
(www.mining.ca).
4
In the experience of the Writer who has conducted occasional corporate wide audits, if corporate
management is found deficient, it is usually a result of lack of compliance with MAC guidelines.
The MAC guidelines are readily adaptable to non-Canadian jurisdictions and site conditions of
any kind. They represent best available technology in the mining industry to-day and the Writer
recommends that all operators commit to compliance with them, subject to their adaptation to local
circumstances.
4 IMPROVEMENTS IN REGULATORY RESPONSIBILITY
It is the view of the Writer that the practice of the mining industry is too variable, as a whole, for
it to be self-regulating. A well-supported, technically skilled, transparent, regulatory system is an
integral part of sustainable mining and safe management of mine waste.
On October 11, 2000, near Inez, Kentucky, a breakthrough occurred in which a 72 acre surface
impoundment of waste materials of the Martin County Coal Corporation released approximately
250 million gallons of slurry into a nearby underground coal mine and subsequently into nearby
creeks and rivers. While there was no loss of life, the environmental damage was significant.
This incident prompted the U.S. Congress to request the National Research Council to examine
ways to reduce the potential for similar accidents in the future. To conduct this study, the National
Research Council appointed the Committee on Coal Waste Impoundments, which included the
Writer. Following a number of meetings, the Committee issued its report in 2002 (NRC, 2002).
Arising from the many observations and conclusions made by Committee, recommendations
were made to improve the regulatory process as practiced by the Mine Safety and Health Admin-
istration (MSHA) and the Office of Surface Mining (OSM). Recommendations were made both
with regard to technical and process-related considerations with a strong emphasis on dam safety
considerations.
The Writer was pleased to see the recent update and revision of the MSHA Engineering and
Design Manual – Coal Refuse Disposal Facilities which, together with other publications, is respon-
sive to the needs felt by the NRC Committee. A detailed discussion of the advances made within
MSHA related to the safety of mining industry dams is presented by Fredlund (2009).
It is not possible to ensure that the regulatory process will be constructive in all environments
and jurisdictions encountered by the mining industry. The industry has to be particularly diligent
on its own when regulatory review does not contribute effectively to technical assessment. As is
abundantly clear, there is much more to ensuring tailings dam safety than getting a permit.
In circumstances where regulatory review is technically weak, the Owner and Engineer should
exercise considerable caution to ensure that appropriate, as opposed to minimal, safety standards
are being met.
5 DAM SAFETY AND THE ALBERTA OIL SANDS
“If any of those tailings ponds were ever to breach and discharge into the river, the world would
forever forget about the Exxon Valdez”.
David Schindler, internationally respected water ecologist.
The Alberta Oil Sands contain an estimated bitumen resource of about 2 trillion barrels which,
if recoverable, could satisfy North American oil demands for several generations. Currently, the
reserves, which are recoverable with current technology, are estimated at about 177 billion barrels.
Of the total reserves about 20% are recoverable by current mining methods while the rest require
current and developing in-situ techniques to extract the bitumen. At this time production is 1.5
million barrels per day, split almost evenly between mining and in-situ methods. Based on current
plans, it is projected to double by about 2020 and will produce about 1 billion barrels per year. If
oil averaged about $100/barrel over this period, the gross revenue in 2020 would be $100 billion
per year. Current and projected investment in the Alberta oil sands is a vast undertaking by any
standard.
The bitumen is extracted from mined oil sands by water-based processes. No other techniques
have been demonstrated to be commercial. Tailings are a necessary outcome of current methods
of extraction and tailings ponds have been used extensively to manage the tailings. At this time,
5
tailings ponds are estimated to have a surface area of 130 square kilometers (50 square miles) with
a volume of 720 billion litres (190 billion gallons). The footprint of the ponds is clearly visible on
current satellite imagery. A common strategy in mine development is to begin operations with an
out-of-pit pond and to subsequently deposit tailings in-pit. Hence, not all ponds are contained by
dams. Nevertheless, there are numerous large dams and ensuring their integrity is of paramount
importance. As is evident from the opening quotation, considerable attention is focused on their
behavior.
The first tailings structure began construction in June, 1968 under the auspices of Great Canadian
Oil Sands, now Suncor. It was initially conceived as a dyke, 12 m high, to contain fluids from tailings
deposited from the top of the escarpment of the Athabasca River. The tailings were expected to take
a slope of 8% and release water sufficiently clarified that it could be re-cycled to the process. This
proved not to be the case and considerable innovation was required in tailings dam construction.
The ultimate dyke constructed was 92 m high, partly on muskeg and normally consolidated clay.
This was a considerable achievement in its time. Morsey et al., 1995 report on several aspects of
the foundation behavior.
The second stage of commercial development was initiated by Syncrude Canada Ltd. The out-
of-pit tailings pond required to support this project was about 18 kms in perimeter and is likely the
largest earth structure in the world in terms of volume of engineered fill. Parts of the foundation
of this structure is comprised of high plasticity clay shales whose strength has been reduced to the
residual state by means of glacial drag process. The observational method was employed throughout
the construction of this structure in order to bring it to final design. Significant deformations
developed in parts of the foundation, even though the overall factor of safety was about 1·3. The
mechanics of this mechanism are now well understood and are discussed by d’Alencar, 1994.
Both soft and pre-sheared clayey foundations have been encountered in a number of the tailings
dams. In other instances it has been necessary to construct tailings ponds over sand channels. Here
a primary focus is on hydrogeological considerations with relief wells required to depressurize the
foundations of the dam and extensive cutoffs and pumped well collection systems utilized to contain
the process-affected water within the lease. The industry currently operates under conditions of
zero release of process-affected water.
To date, all tailings containment structures in the oil sands industry have been managed in a safe
manner and it is of interest to describe and understand the dam safety system that has arisen.
It is the view of the Writer that the dam safety system applied to the Alberta oil sands industry
is the best in the world. It relies on responsibilities of a number of stake holders and it is based on
an intimate understanding and application of the observational method (Peck, 1969).
It has the following components:
• each owner is cognizant of its responsibilities to provide a tailings management system consistent
with the MAC guidelines.
• each owner has staff qualified in the management of tailings dams.
• owners retain consulting engineers for design and construction supervision who are well-known
for their expertise in tailings dam design with special reference to the circumstances associated
with the oil sands industry; the designer acts as the Engineer-of-Record; senior internal review
of design submissions is expected.
• designs are compliant with at least CDA (Canadian Dam Association) Guidelines.
• designs rely on the detailed application of the observational method for risk management.
• designs are reviewed by the Alberta Dam Safety Branch, the regulator, who have staff well-versed
in dam design and construction.
• an annual report is submitted each year to the regulator by the owner, supported by the Engineer-
of-Record, that the dam is behaving as intended; if not actions that have been or need to be taken
are indicated.
• in accordance with CDA Guidelines, approximately every five years the owner retains an
engineer, other than the Engineer-of-Record, to undertake an independent assessment of dam
safety.
• each owner retains an Independent Geotechnical Review Board comprised of senior specialists,
to provide on-going third party review of geotechnical issues of significance to the operation.
One of the major responsibilities of such Boards is to review all aspects related to safety of
tailings dams over the life cycle from design, construction, operation and closure.
6
The success of the dam safety system applied to the Alberta oil sands industry relies on responsi-
bilities shared by the owner, the Engineer-of-Record, the regulator and various levels of independent
review. The Writer is aware that in many jurisdictions, not all of these components will be mature.
Under these circumstances, the remainder of the safety management team should exercise addi-
tional caution to compensate for regional limitations. As many case histories continue to remind
us, a permit to operate is not a guarantee against failure.
6 TAILINGS DAM REVIEW BOARDS
The appointment of an Independent Tailings Dam Review Board (ITRB) to provide third party
advice on design, construction, operation and closure of tailings dams has become increasingly
common and is recognized to provide value.
World Bank and other Lenders Groups are requiring formation of an ITRB. International Finance
Corporation/World Bank guidance and operating principles OP4.01 and OP4.37 establish the
requirement to review the development of tailings dam design, construction and initial dam filling.
Maintaining an ITRB through operations and closure will depend upon the scale of the facility.
Often a single Board will be formed during operations to provide advice on all geotechnically sen-
sitive matters, including slope stability, waste dumps and tailings management to closure. Some
large corporations retain a third party review board for on-going advice on tailings operations to
complement their internal technical audit systems.
Senior review is often invoked by designers and regulators. However for an ITRB to fulfill
its role in an effective manner, it should be retained by the owner. Clear terms of reference
should be established. The process of organizing an ITRB is now sufficiently well-known that
the process of establishing terms of reference is not difficult. A general requirement is to cover
at least the stages from design to first filling and to evoke an international standard of care in its
assessment and review. This does not preclude regionally tested experience provided that the out-
comes are consistent with the appropriate standard of care. Hoek (2001) discuss geotechnical
review boards in mining. The discussion is presented in the context of a review board con-
cerned with mine slope stability issues, but the general guidance is equally applicable to tailings
dams.
Independent Review Boards have a long history in design and construction of water dams for
power, irrigation and water supply. Legislation in a number or countries such as France and the
United Kingdom formalized third party reviews. After several catastrophic dam failures in the
1960’s and early 1970’s regulation of dam safety was strengthened in North America and the role
of Independent Review Boards grew accordingly.
The Writer’s first experience with a review board in the mining industry was as an early member
of the Geotechnical Review Board (GRB) established by Syncrude Canada Ltd. in 1972. The GRB
was originally retained as a Board of Consultants to advise on the choice of mining method for
this large oil sand mining venture. The choice was to either follow previous experience of utilizing
bucket wheel excavators or take advantage of the very large draglines that were coming on stream.
Ultimately draglines were selected and the early years of the GRB were dominated by considerations
of safe and productive mining practice under very challenging conditions. As the mine matured and
after draglines were replaced by truck/shovel operations, the agenda became increasingly focused
on tailings related issues. McKenna (1998) has vividly described the operation of Syncrude’s
GRB over its first twenty-five years (1972-1997). The GRB is still active. It meets twice yearly
and tailings management issues, including reclamation concerns, are major areas of discussion.
All other oil sand mining operations have followed the Syncrude model in establishing review
boards.
While the Writer had been involved in a number of aspects of dam design, including tailings
dams, in the early 1970’s, his first participation in a comprehensive assessment of dam safety was as
a member of the Tar Island Tailings Dyke Design Review Panel, appointed by Alberta Environment,
in 1975. Alberta Environment, the regulator, had at that time strengthened its dam safety regulations
and one of its first actions was to appoint this review panel. While it was commissioned by the
regulator, representatives of the owner and Engineer-of-Record participated in the review (Alberta
Environment, 1977). Matich (1986) has provided a summary of review board practice to the mid
1980’s.
7
In the experience of the Writer, geo-environmental concerns related to water quality and reclaima-
bility were not considered in the design reviews of the 1970’s and for much of the 1980’s. It appears
that the first recognition to improve tailings management in this regard emerged in the United
States with legislation in 1978 leading to control of uranium tailings. ARD and metal-related
awareness began about a decade later, as did the increased control of process-affected discharges
to the environment.
Geo-environmental considerations are now an integral part of the agenda for ITRB activities,
even if closure is perceived to be far off. It is increasingly recognized that mining, consistent with
sustainability objectives, requires ongoing interaction between the mine plan, the processing plan,
the waste management plan and the reclamation plan. Neglect of the interface between these plans
is a common source of unwelcome surprises. The intent of this presentation is to focus on dam
safety and not to address further the geo-environmental design issues. It would be of interest to
document the historical emergence of their recognition.
7 EXPERIENCE
In the following, the Writer offers some observations based on his experience:
i) Perspective – The ITRB should reflect corporate values and international standards of care.
It is not uncommon for the well-meaning Engineer and his client, the well-meaning Project
Manager, both sensitive to the demands of schedule and budget, to make recommendations that
exceed the corporate appetite for risk. The ITRB provides one check against this possibility. It
is also not uncommon for regional practice to lag international practice and accepting regional
practice may also incur extra risk. The ITRB also can assist the Owner in assessing risk when
it is perceived that regulatory requirements are unreasonable. The concept of “a permit at any
price” carries with it risks that require evaluation.
ii) Phasing – An ITRB is best appointed at the conceptual design phase of a Project. Current
experience indicates that one is usually necessary at the “bankable feasibility study” phase and
thereafter if the project proceeds. Following agreement on feasibility design, the next milestone
is final design and documents, issued for construction (IFC).
The Writer finds it increasingly productive for the ITRB to be intimately involved at the
IFC stage and immediately thereafter to ensure that the specifications, QA and QC program
are clear and executable by all parties; the Owner, the Engineer and the Contractor, including
EPCM Contractor, if appropriate.
The Writer finds that additional effort for construction compliance is sometimes needed
when the Owner acts as Contractor. The obligations of the Owner as “Contractor-of-Record”
should not differ from those of a third party “Contractor-of-Record”.
The Writer places a great emphasis on the Construction Report which is intended to doc-
ument that construction proceeded as intended. It is more than just a summary of as builts
drawings, compaction test data, and membrane test data. The Report is the fundamental ref-
erence document for subsequent evaluations of dam safety. In the view of the Writer, it is
best co-ordinated and prepared by the Engineer-of-Record, with inputs as appropriate from the
various Contractors. The significance of these Construction Reports is under-estimated in the
industry.
The ITRB should continue through construction and start-up. Whether it, or some equivalent,
continues through operations and closure will depend upon the practice, scale and needs of the
Owner.
iii) Board Practice – The shelf life of ITRB reports during design, construction, and commissioning
is limited. It is essential for the Board to debrief site and senior management on their findings
at the end of the meeting. Submission of written reports should follow shortly thereafter.
iv) Recurrent Technical Issues – The Writer finds that the following design/QC issues occur
sufficiently frequently that they merit recording here:
• Although there is an adequate consensus on how to establish the seismic hazard at dam-sites,
there is a tendance to underestimate the consequences of failure during operations and adopt
earthquake loading that is too low; this tendancy is accentuated in areas of minor to moderate
seismicity.
8
• There is variable practice in assessing Probable Maximum Precipitation and Floods for
design against extreme events. Corporate risk taking should be cognizant of consequence
assessments and recommendations provided by modern design guides.
• Notwithstanding the understanding and guidance in the literature regarding the need to
address the potential undrained failure of saturated contractant tailings in terms of undrained
resistance, the issue remains poorly understood in much practice (Martin and McRoberts,
1999; Fourie, 2008; Veillette et al., 2008). This is particularly the case where dams are con-
structed by the upstream method, with assistance by sub-aerial drying. Even under these
conditions, it is possible to develop zones of saturated loose tailings in the deposit.
8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Over the last decade or so there has been substantial progress in responding to the issues identified
by the Writer in 1996. Progress has been made in strengthening corporate understanding and
responsibility for tailings management, improving technical tools for the design, enhancing the
capability of regulators and increasing oversight by utilizing more third party reviews. However
failures still occur.
The price for improved safety is consistent review of the safe management protocols applied to
any project to assess whether they are adequately in place, coupled with continued vigilance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writer appreciates discussions with M.A.J. (Fred) Matich, P.Eng., in the preparation of this
paper.
REFERENCES
Alberta Environment, 1977. Report on Great Canadian Oil Sands Tar Island Tailings Dyke, Design Review
Panel.
d’Alencar, J., Morgenstern, N.R. and Chan, D.H., 1994. Analysis of foundation deformations beneath the
Syncrude tailings dyke. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 31, p. 868–884.
Davies, M. and Martin, T., 2009. Mining market cycles and tailings dam incidents. Tailings and Mine Waste ’09,
Proceedings 13th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, p. 3–14, University of Alberta
Geotechnical Centre, Edmonton, Canada.
Fourie, A.B., 2008. Future tailings management strategies – High time we took the high road. Tailings and
Mine Waste ’08. Proceedings 12th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, p. 3–15, CRC
Press/Balkema, The Netherlands.
Fredland, J.W., 2008. Developments in the safety and security of mining industry dams. Tailings and Mine
Waste ’08. Proceedings 12th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, p. 345–354, CRC
Gardiner, E. and Gladwin, D., 2008. Working for responsible management of tailings facilities. Tailings and
Mine Waste ’08. Proceedings 12th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, p. 337–344, CRC
Hoek, E., 2001. Geotechnical review boards in mining. Geotechnical News, March, p. 43–45.
Martin, T.E. and McRoberts, E.C., 1999. Some considerations in the stability analysis of upstream tailings
dams. Tailings and Mine Waste ’09, Proceedings 13th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste,
p. 303–313, University of Alberta Geotechnical Centre, Edmonton, Canada.
Matich, M.A.J., 1986. Design and review boards. Alberta Dam Safety Seminar, Alberta Environment, 11
pages.
McKenna, G., 1998. Celebrating 25 years: Syncrude’s Review Board. Geotechnical News, September,
p. 34–41.
Morgenstern, Norbert R., 1999. Geotechnics and mine waste management – an update. Proceedings of Work-
shop on Risk Assessment and Contingency Planning in Tailings Management Systems, Buenos Aires,
International Council on Metals in the Environment, p. 171–175.
9
Morgenstern, Norbert, R., 1996. Geotechnics and mine waste management. Proceedings, International Sympo-
sium on Seismic and Environmental Aspects of Dam Design: Earth, Concrete, and Tailings Dams. Santiago,
Chile, Vol. 2, p. 5–26, Souidad Chilena de Geotecnica.
Morsey, M., Morgenstern, N.R. and Chan, D.H., 1995. Simulation of creep deformation in the foundation of
Tar Island Dyke. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1995, Vol. 32, p. 1002–1023.
National Research Council, 2002. Coal Waste Impoundments: Risks, Responses and Alternatives. National
Academy Press.
Peck, R.B., 1969. Advantage and limitations of the Observational Method in applied soil mechanics.
Geotechnique, Vol. 19, p. 171–187.
Velillette, M.F., Martin, T.E. and Larreta, S.A., 2008. Stabilized upstream tailings dam and converted into a
filtered tailings facility. Tailings and Mine Waste ’08. Proceedings 12th International Conference on Tailings
and Mine Waste, p. 437–448, CRC Press/Balkema, The Netherlands.
10
History and developments in the treatment of oil sands fine tailings
J.C. Sobkowicz
Thurber Engineering Ltd., Calgary, Canada
ABSTRACT: Oil sand mine operators have encountered many challenges in storing and treating
fine tailings since commercial mining started in 1967. A remarkably broad research and develop-
ment effort has addressed these challenges, finding solutions such as enhanced capture of fines
in beaches, non-segregating tailings and thickened tailings – all intended to improve fines capture
and reduce fluid fine tailings inventories. Recently developed treatment methods, such as in-line
thickening of tailings combined with thin-lift dewatering or with centrifuging, or freeze-thaw con-
solidation of tailings, are in advanced stages of pilot testing. Industry efforts to find effective and
economically responsible solutions to the fine tailings challenge have been focused by the release
of the ERCB Tailings Directive 074 in 2009. This paper reviews the history of oil sands tailings
research, presents recent developments, discusses the value and weaknesses of Directive 074, and
comments on where treatment of fine tailings is likely headed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Operators have been coping with the vagaries of oil sand tailings since the very beginning of
commercial mining of oil sands, at the start-up of the Great Canadian Oil Sands (GCOS; now
Suncor) mine in 1967. The original scheme envisaged the discharge of tailings off the Athabasca
River escarpment, with the sand and fines settling out in a long beach (with an 8% slope), and clean
water being collected behind a 12 m high toe dyke and recycled to the bitumen extraction plant.
The first (of many) painful industry “lessons learned” was that the fines portion of the tailings does
not settle nor consolidate quickly, and thus water and fines must be stored in ponds for a significant
period of time. For GCOS, this required the rapid design and eventual construction of a 92 m high
dyke (the Tar Island Dyke) and a large tailings pond, to continue operations. The dyke design and
construction encountered many geotechnical challenges on its path to completion.
Some newcomers to the industry (young engineers and scientists, staff of new oil sand mining
companies, new regulators, and newly-aware environmentalists), seem to form the opinion that
a) little effort has been made to solve the oil sands fine tailings challenges, b) potentially appli-
cable technologies from mines in other parts of the world have been ignored, and c) progress on
closure and reclamation of tailings ponds is too slow. Use of intentionally inflammatory and mis-
leading statements by some stakeholders does not help matters, but rather perpetuates confusion
and misunderstanding of the real and complex issues.
The author’s opinion, based on 35 years of personal involvement, is that the truth is largely
contrary to the above-stated opinions, and specifically that:
1. A large group of engineers and scientists, working for different companies and research insti-
tutes, has carried out a remarkably broad research and development effort, with the intent of
understanding and solving the many oil sands tailings issues that have arisen since 1967. This
has led to the adoption of helpful technologies, such as the enhanced capture of fines in tail-
ings beaches, non-segregating tailings, and thickened tailings. Research and development effort
has continually increased over the past 43 years and now is at its most intense (with the result
described at the end of point 3).
2. Tailings treatment technologies from existing mines around the world have been considered, pilot
tested, assessed economically, and adapted where possible to oil sands tailings. Considerable
11
effort has also been expended in universities and private research facilities to develop new
technologies or progress existing technologies for tailings treatment.
3. The number of tailings ponds has increased in relationship to an increase in the rate of mining
and with the need to temporarily store fine tailings while effective and economically responsible
solutions are found for their permanent storage in a closure landscape. At times, “dead ends” have
been encountered in finding solutions, but overall there has been impressive progress. Thanks
mainly to their own efforts and partly to encouragement by regulators, industry operators are
close to achieving this objective, with the first tailings ponds at Suncor now capped and reclaimed,
several tailings ponds at Suncor and Syncrude in the process of being capped and reclaimed, and
commercial operations underway at Suncor to curtail the growth of MFT inventories. Develop-
ment work in the final stages of field demonstration will bring similar and additional, affordable
technologies for decreasing MFT inventories into production at the other operating mines within
a few years.
It takes time to find, absorb and appreciate the wealth of existing information on oil sands tailings
treatment methods and technologies – there is a large body of information extending back over
40 years! Any uninformed person would be wise to make that investment, and not to settle for the
abundant misinformation easily available on the Internet. As a guide to both the newcomer and
practicing engineers and scientists, this paper provides a brief (and admittedly incomplete) history
of the research and development work on oil sands tailings treatment, an opinion on where tailings
treatment technologies are headed, and a discussion of the role of the regulator in the overall process.
As background information, a detailed discussion of oil sand tailings challenges, current tailings
disposal practices, and a full suite of tailings treatment methodologies may be found in Sobkowicz
and Morgenstern (2009) and in Hyndman and Sobkowicz (2010). A comprehensive bibliography of
technical papers on these topics will be available soon on the Oil Sands Research and Information
Network (OSRIN) web site – http://www.see.ualberta.ca/OSRIN.cfm. An excellent list of research
carried out over the past 10 years and currently underway at the Oil Sands Technology and Research
Facility (OSTRF) can be found at www.ostrf.com/research.
2 HISTORICAL TAILINGS MANAGEMENT
2.1 Tailings and water storage imperatives

“Bitumen is extracted from mined oil sands by water-based processes. No other techniques have
been demonstrated to be commercial. Tailings are a necessary outcome of current methods of
extraction and tailings ponds have been used extensively to manage the tailings. At this time,
tailings ponds are estimated to have a surface area of 130 square kilometers (50 square miles) with
a volume of 720 billion litres (720 million m3 or 190 billion gallons). The footprint of the ponds
is clearly visible on current satellite imagery. A common strategy in mine development is to begin
operations with an out-of-pit pond and to subsequently deposit tailings in-pit.” (Morgenstern, 2010).
The following points, adapted from Sobkowicz and Morgenstern (2009), highlight some of the
tailings disposal challenges encountered in oil sands mining, and explain why oil sand tailings
ponds are so large and take a long time to bring to closure:
– The mine pits are 100 m or more deep. To develop in-pit storage for tailings, mining must
proceed to the base of ore, expand an area for the pond itself, and then open up a sufficiently
large footprint at the base of the mine to accommodate any in-pit dykes required for containment.
Due to poor foundation conditions, these in-pit dykes can have very flat slopes and thus they
place a high demand on providing footprint at the base of the mine, before dyke construction
commences. Thus, development of the mine pit and construction of containment dykes to provide
in-pit tailings storage can take from 5 to 10 years.
– While in-pit tailings storage space is being developed, the tailings must be stored in a relatively
large, out-of-pit, above ground facility. As mentioned above, this out-of-pit facility must provide
sufficient volume to store 5 to 10 years’ worth of tailings production. Once tailings disposal
moves in-pit, the out-of-pit pond is usually still needed for clarification and recycle of water to
the extraction plant, which further delays the closure and reclamation of the out-of-pit pond (the
containment dykes can be reclaimed during this time).
12
– When tailings disposal does move in-pit, the storage areas are deep and often laterally constrained,
which can result in the accumulation of very thick deposits of relatively soft tailings in a short
period of time.
– Fine tailings settle and consolidate very slowly, and the rate of consolidation is slowest in
quickly accumulated, thick deposits. In the past, ponds containing fine tailings were not ready
for reclamation and closure for tens of years after cessation of operations, depending on the
closure method selected.
– Due to the abundance of ore grade deposits, many of the mine leases are highly constrained in
available surface area on which to dispose of waste. Overburden dumps, tailings ponds, DDAs,
thin lift dewatering areas, and other waste disposal facilities all compete for limited out-of-pit
and in-pit space. This fact complicates tailings operations and often prevents early closure of
tailings ponds.
– The industry is constrained during operation to zero discharge of process-affected water. There-
fore tailings management is intimately related to the site-wide water balance and the provision of
reclaim water to the extraction plant. Efficient water management also delays closure of tailings
ponds.
2.2 Out-of-pit tailings ponds

All operating mines started with an out-of-pit tailings pond (Suncor – Tar Island Dyke / Pond 1 at
their base mine and Pond 8A/8B at the Millennium Mine; Syncrude – the Mildred Lake Settling
Basin [MLSB] for the Base Mine and the Aurora Settling Basin [ASB] for the Aurora North Mine;
Shell – the External Tailings Facility [ETF] for the Muskeg River Mine; CNRL – Pond 1 for the
Horizon Mine).
As discussed in the opening paragraph, experience with Pond 1 at GCOS (Suncor) revealed the
slow settlement behaviour of fine tailings and the need for large external ponds. Syncrude sized
the MLSB accordingly, but after a few years of operation found that their predicted MFT make rate
was a bit high. They accordingly reduced the size of the MLSB footprint and moved the location of
the west dyke on the topographically high side of the pond to the east, prior to its construction. Fine
tailings storage issues during simultaneous operation of Suncor’s three mines (Base, Steepbank and
Millennium) forced construction of an additional external pond – the South Tailings Pond (STP).
There was only a limited ability to optimize fines capture in these external ponds, as there was
a continual pressure to meet basic tailings storage needs, and the construction of the pond dykes
(from either overburden or hydraulically placed sand) was often just ahead of projected pond level
rise (plus freeboard and contingency storage requirements). However, it was recognized that normal
beaching practices often resulted in significant fines capture in the beaches placed sub-aqueously
and sub-MFT (of from 60% to 75% of the fines in the ore and in the WT line).
2.3 In-pit tailings ponds

Early in-pit tailings ponds at Syncrude and Suncor were operated in a similar manner to out-of-
pit ponds, and thus experienced some of the same operational constraints and challenges. The one
advantage of an in-pit pond is that any fluid tailings can be contained below the surrounding ground
surface, and thus poses a much smaller risk of release off-lease.
3 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE TREATMENT OF OIL SAND FINE TAILINGS
3.1 General comments

This section provides a brief discussion of the various research and development efforts made by
many researchers in numerous organizations. The intent has been to emphasize the work done and
its chronology, and to acknowledge the responsible oil sand companies and research institutes. Due
to space and time limitations, credit is not given to the individuals who did the work. The author
apologizes to those involved for this necessary omission.
A chronology of the various research programs and field trials was compiled on a 24 column by
30 row table (time running vertically down the table and each column referring to specific tailings
13
Table 1. Chronology of mine start-up and related events.
Year Mine applications and start-up Other events
1967 GCOS mine start-up (later became Suncor)

1978 Syncrude – Mildred Lake Mine start-up
1989 Fine Tailings Consortium formed
1990
1991
1992 Syncrude revised its Base Mine plan, looking
at the potential for storing non-segregating
tailings in the mined-out pit.
1993 Fine Tailings Symposium sponsored by the
Consortium
1994 CONRAD formed
1995 Book “Advances in Oil Sands Tailings Research”
published
1996
1997 Syncrude Mildred Lake – North Mine start-up.
Shell Muskeg River Mine application approved.
1998 Suncor Millenium Mine application approved
1999 UofA seminar on paste and thickened tailings
2000 Syncrude Aurora North Mine start-up CONRAD oil sands tailings seminar;
UofA seminar on paste and thickened tailings.
2001
2002 Shell – Muskeg River Mine start-up and Jackpine Book “Paste and Thickened Tailings – A Guide”
Mine application; True North Fort Hills Mine
application; CNRL Horizon Mine application
2003
2004 Suncor North Steepbank Mine application CONRAD oil sands tailings seminar;
OSTRF becomes operational.
2005 Total buys Joslyn Lease from Deer Creek Energy
2006
2007
2008 June – ERCB releases draft Tailings Directive;
OSTRF – First International Oil Sands Tailings
Conference in Edmonton
2009 CNRL – Horizon Mine start-up February – ERCB issues Tailings Directive 074
(industry to submit plans to comply by
September 2009); Tailings and Mine Waste
conference in Banff, (focus on Oil Sands)
2010 Shell – Jackpine Mine projected start-up April – ERCB approves Fort Hills and Syncrude
Tailings Plans; June – ERCB approves Suncor
Tailings Plans
2012 Imperial – Kearl Lake Mine – projected startup
treatment methods or related events). It was impossible to fit the full version of the master table
into this paper, so it was sub-divided into the 10 tables included herein, each one dealing with two
treatment methods. A full version of the table can be obtained by contacting the author (e-mail
address given on first page).
3.2 Chronology of mine applications and start-ups, and related events

As a backdrop for the research and development efforts described in the remaining tables, Table 1
contains a listing of associated major events, such as oil sand Mine Applications and start-ups,
early seminars, publication of books, and events related to the ERCB Directive 074.
14
Table 2. Chronology of in-pit and out-of-pit fine tailings storage R&D.
Year Out-of-pit storage of fine tailings In-pit storage of fine tailings
1967 GCOS discovers that fluid fine tailings

does not settle quickly in Tar Island Pond
Late 1960’s
1970’s
1978 Syncrude planning basis is to permanently
store MFT in mined-out pits, below OGS
Early 1980’s Syncrude learns more about consolidation
of MFT and “MFT make rate”, and reduces
size (footprint) of MLSB (1981–82)
Late 1980’s
1990 Trials at Syncrude on mixing lime and
acid-lime with various tailings products,
with the objective of developing higher
strength, sufficient for reclamation.
1991
1992
1993 Syncrude hearings; discussion of the
concept of end-pit lakes with water-capped
MFT
1994 ERCB gives Syncrude approval to build a
water-capped in-pit MFT pond (to store
150 Mm3 of MFT).
1995 Transfer of MFT from MLSB to WIP
at Syncrude
1996
2005 Start of Suncor South Tailings Pond
construction
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012 Projected end of MFT placement in WIP at
Syncrude; start of BML trial.
3.3 Chronology of R&D on in-pit and out-of-pit storage of fine tailings

Table 2 contains some general comments on work directly related to sizing and use of in-pit and
out-of-pit tailings ponds. The lessons learned from out-of-pit ponds have been discussed previously
in Sections 1 and 2.2.
The main research effort on in-pit ponds is associated with the concept of storing some MFT
below original ground level in water-capped “end-pit” lakes. The water in these lakes would cap the
settling MFT and bioremediate the naphthenic acid coming from it (or from off-spec CT) to provide
acceptable water for discharge into the environment. This would also allow flow through of surface
water in the closure landscape. The ERCB gave approval for a full-scale trial of this concept in 1994,
and Syncrude has since been building the trial facility (referred to as the “Base Mine Lake”) and
filling it with MFT and water. The Base Mine Lake is expected to be complete and the trial to start in
2012. A minimum of about 10 years will be needed to demonstrate the viability of the concept, and
certainly lessons will be learned about how the end-pit lake needs to be managed, in its early stages.
3.4 Chronology of R&D on filtration and of spiking of MFT into whole tailings
Table 3 lists research and development of filtration to increase fine (and in one case coarse) tailings
density, and of injecting MFT into WT lines (referred to as “spiking”) to directly increase fines
capture in beaches.
15
Table 3. Chronology of R&D on filtration and MFT spiking to increase fines capture.
Year Filtration Spiking MFT into WT
Late 1960’s GCOS obtains patent for flocculation

and drum filtration of TFT and MFT (1968)
1970’s Extensive study of filtration of WT at
Syncrude in the late 1970’s; determined
to be too slow at fines contents >12%,
to require too much filtration area, and to
be costly for disposal.
1978
Early 1980’s Syncrude (owners) in 1980 obtains a
patent for flocculation and filtration
of oil sands tailings.
Late 1980’s OSLO (now Aurora South) proposed
spiking of MFT into WT
1990 Syncrude studied the mechanisms of fines
capture on beaches, including spiking WT
with MFT
1991 Syncrude conducts a field demonstration
of MFT spiking as “proof of concept”
1992 Syncrude application to ERCB includes
20% volume reduction in MFT by “slurry
densification” and MFT spiking
1993 Prototype scale test of MFT spiking into
WT at Syncrude MLSB
1994 In 1994–95, filtration tests were run on Large scale tests of MFT spiking into WT
the whole tailings stream produced by the on Syncrude SWSS beaches (produced soft
“Bitmin” process (a non-CWHE process). deposits), followed by limited commercial
operations. Operations suspended due to
issues with “soft” beaches.
1995
1996
1997
2004
2005 Total tests filtration of coarse and fine
tailings at bench scale (2005–2007?)
2006 Fort Hills project – pilot of belt filtration
of bitmin whole tailings, with disposal
by dry stacking.
2007
2008 OSTRF research on cross-flow filtration
of various oil sands tailings products
(flow through porous pipe)
2009
2010
2012
Filtration of tailings has been practiced at other mines for many years and had early consider-
ation by oil sand operators. Both GCOS and Syncrude obtained patents on filtration before fully
understanding how it would be implemented. Syncrude conducted an extensive study of filtration
in the late 1970’s, but found the then existing technology to be inadequate to the task (due to the
impact of fines and residual bitumen) and too costly. Later studies by other operators came to
essentially the same conclusions.
More recent research at OSTRF on cross-flow filtration of tailings (as they flow through a porous
pipe) show promising results, but have only been demonstrated at a lab scale and need to be scaled
up to higher flows using the variable tailings typical of an operating environment.
16
Syncrude conducted extensive field testing of MFT spiking of WT in the early 1990’s, which was
sufficiently promising that it was included in a 1992 application to the ERCB and led to prototype
and then limited commercial operation in the mid-1990’s. While successful in capturing additional
fines, issues with safe operation on soft beaches brought an end to the program. Some researchers
were of the opinion that this decision was premature, and fines spiking is still under consideration
for future application at several tailings facilities.
3.5 Chronology of R&D on non-segregating tailings and of the implementation of CT

One of the most intense research and development efforts in oil sand tailings has been on making
a tailings product that captures an optimal amount of fines and does not segregate upon discharge
into a storage facility. The numerous efforts in this regard are listed in Table 4. Early work focused
on making “consolidated tailings” or CT by mixing MFT with WT, and achieving a stable mix by
adding various chemicals, such as acid, lime, gypsum or CO2 . As it became evident that higher
solids contents were also necessary to make a non-segregating mix, the WT were run through a
cyclone and CT was produced by mixing MFT with CUT. Later, as thickeners became part of
the extraction process, non-segregating tailings were made by mixing TT with CUT, which in the
industry was referred to as NST.
The laboratory and pilot scale testing of CT showed a viable technology for increasing fines
capture, and the industry thus adopted it in commercial operations, in about 1996 at Suncor and
2000 at Syncrude. Production issues were still encountered. The first was in producing a CT that
met a prescribed, robust recipe – variable WT feed density, bitumen content and rock content,
and unreliable supply of chemical additive, all posed challenges. It took operators several years to
identify and implement process changes and controls, so that they could reliably produce a CT that
met specifications, but this is now “standard practice” at both Suncor and Syncrude.
The second challenge was to provide a sufficiently low energy environment when CT (or NST)
is discharged to a DDA, so that it does not segregate under high shear stresses. Partial segregation
of CT has been encountered in existing CT ponds. The issue is understood but does not have a
simple solution, due to several challenges associated with winter tailings operations and optimal
tremie operation from a floating platform (not always possible or desired). Oil sand operators are
actively researching and developing discharge techniques to solve this problem.
3.6 Chronology of R&D on TT and on biogenic methods of increasing MFT density

In the mid-1990’s, oil sand operators became interested in using thickeners as part of the bitumen
extraction process – primarily as a means of recovering clean water and heat in the extraction plant.
But they also realized that a thickened tailings product, with a sand to fines ratio of around 1 and a
solids content (by total mass) of 45% to 50%, provided opportunities to achieve higher fines capture
in tailings deposits. From 1995 through to 2002, a considerable amount of field and pilot testing
was carried out as a joint industry effort under the CONRAD umbrella, (with the involvement of
Syncrude, Shell, Suncor and CANMET), as listed in Table 5.
The Shell Muskeg River Mine was the first to implement conventional thickeners in their tailings
process. The thickeners proved effective in meeting their primary objectives (of clean water and
heat recovery) but the actual thickened tailings was quite variable in solids content due to variable
feed input from the extraction plant PSV’s. Shell intensely researched the use of high rate and paste
thickeners at their pilot facility at the Muskeg River Mine from 2007 to 2010. As a result, they
have reliably produced several higher solids content TT and NST deposits and have a more robust
thickener design for their Jackpine Mine. The formation of DDA’s containing high solids content
TT (proposed for Shell’s Jackpine Mine), or NST made from high solids content TT, is a distinct
possibility arising from this research.
Research on various biogenic methods of densifying MFT is also given in Table 5. Two possible
scenarios have been investigated. One is associated with the apparent impact of methane gas
formation, as observed at the MLSB in the mid-1990’s, on increased MFT consolidation rates.
While progress has been made on the science, it is not clear that the “technique” is actually
an effective or viable one. The other scenario is associated with the application of plant root
dewatering on MFT, which has significant implications for establishing accessible crusts on soft
17
Table 4. Chronology of R&D on CT and of implementation at Syncrude & Suncor.
Year CT at Suncor CT at Syncrude
Early 1980’s McGill University researches treating Experimental work at Syncrude

Suncor tailings with various chemicals to indicates that WT can be made
“stabilize” the tailings. non-segregating by adding lime
Late 1980’s Research in the late 1980’s and very early 1990’s at the UofA on producing CT (using various
additives to prevent segregation).
1990 Small field test of CT on MLSB toe
berm. Lime was added to WT to
investigate segregation behaviour.
1991
1992 Samples from 1991 field program
were tested at the UofA
1993 Pilot test of both gypsum-CT and Syncrude conducted comprehensive
acid-lime-CT (UofA involvement) laboratory program on non-segregating
tailings at the UofA
1994 Mine planning and economic screening
studies on non-segregating tailings.
1995 Commercial trials of CT in Pond 5 Medium scale demonstration of CT at
(1995–96; using 30% of extraction tailings) SW corner of MLSB (100K m3).
Small add-on program looking at
discharging CT below MFT.
1996 Development and installation of vertical
tremie barges for CT deposition (1996–97)
1997 Start of commercial operation of CT, 5 M m3 CT Prototype test at Syncrude,
discharging into ponds in the NW corner of MLSB
1998
1999
2000 Syncrude starts commercial production
of CT in EIP
2001
2002
2003 Tests on improving CT density by use of
underdrainage at Syncrude
2004 Development of concept to sub-areally
beach CT
2005
2006 Block model techniques developed for
assessment of CT in Ponds
2007 Process/control improvements to produce CT to a more reliable and robust recipe at both
Suncor and Syncrude. Studies salso underway to assess best methods for discharging
CT in a low energy/low shear environment (these are still ongoing in 2010).
2008
2009 Suncor starts production of CT into Pond 7 Syncrude starts CT production into SWIP
2010 Syncrude essentially completes CT placement
at EIP
2012
2014 Projected start-up of CT production at
Syncrude’s Aurora North Mine
tailings deposits, and could have application in DDA’s if the ERCB’s Directive 074 is revised to
allow capping of soft tailings (see Section 4.4).
3.7 Chronology of R&D on in-line flocculation of WT and of centrifuging MFT

Table 6 lists research and development work on in-line flocculation of WT and centrifuging of
MFT.
18
Table 5. Chronology of R&D on TT and on Biogenic methods of increasing MFT density.
Year TT Biogenic activity
Early 1980’s
Late 1980’s Rumours of gas production and
biogenic activity on Suncor’s
Pond 1
1993
1994 UofA PhD thesis on plant root
dewatering of fine tailings.
1995 Starting in 1995, research on thickening technology has
1996 proceeded under the CONRAD umbrella. The late Significant methane gas bubbles
1997 1990’s work included the following Syncrude/ noted in MFT in Syncrude MLSB
1998 CANMET pilot tests: Field trials on plant root dewatering
Phase 1 bench tests 1995/1996. of fine tailings at Syncrude.
Phase 2 (2 tph unit at Syncrude Research using CHWE
and LEE process) December 1996 to April 1997.
Phase 3 (Mildred Lake Site) Stream 73 (floatation line)
Nov, Dec 1997; CT prototype overflowAug, Sept 1997.
Phase 4 (2 tph unit at Syncrude Research using LEE
process) Nov, Dec 1998.
1999 CONRAD – 10 m diameter conventional thickener built Syncrude noticed significant
at Aurora North mine decrease in MFT make
(1999–2004) – one possible
cause was gas-enhanced drainage
and consolidation of MFT
2000 TT tests at Aurora facility, first on tailings produced from
the LEE process; later in 2001 on tailings produced
from the CHWE process.
2001 Field investigation of gas bubbles
in Syncrude MLSB by UofA
2002 Addition of hydro-cyclones; further tests of TT at Aurora
facility. Start-up of Shell’s Muskeg River mine using
conventional thickeners.
2003 Initial work on paste thickener at Syncrude UofA – significant research effort
on impact of gas bubbles on MFT
consolidation.
2004 Work on a deep bed thickener at Syncrude
2005
2006
2007 Ongoing research and development at Shell (MRM) on
2008 high rate and paste thickeners, on producing NST from
2009 higher solids content TT and CUT, and on the behaviour
2010 of TT and NST deposits.
In-line flocculation of WT was trialed at both Syncrude and Suncor at up to a commercial scale
(one full tailings line). If successful, this method would capture the fines carried in the WT stream,
reducing or preventing segregation on discharge, and thus ultimately increasing fines capture in the
sand beaches. While small scale tests showed some promise, large-scale tests were not successful
in preventing segregation upon discharge over the variable range of WT solids and fines contents.
Centrifuging of fine tailings, particularly MFT, is a viable tailings treatment method that has been
well researched at CANMET and Syncrude, starting with bench scale tests in 2006, progressing to
small and medium scale tests in ensuing years. The 2010 pilot is focused on field testing several
different 600 mm diameter centrifuges, and on various methods of transporting and discharging the
end product to a DDA (including trucking, positive displacement pumping and conveyor stacking).
The 2008 medium scale tests were successful in achieving moderately high solids contents (∼60%),
which would allow deposition without segregation. Post-deposition consolidation or environmental
19
Table 6. Chronology of R&D on in-line flocc and centrifuging to increase MFT density.
Year In-line flocculation of WT Centrifuging MFT
1967
Late 1960’s GCOS obtains patent for flocculation and
centrifuging of oil sand tailings fines (1969).
2001
2002 Syncrude test of In-line flocculation of
“middlings” (fine tailings), with
“in-ground” thickener. High dilution of feed
before addition of polymer for thickening.
2003
2004
2005 In-line flocculation testing of WT at
Syncrude – EIP. Small in-line
flocculation field test of WT at
Suncor – Pond 6.
2006 Bench scale testing of centrifuging fine tailings
at CANMET
2007 Large in-line flocculation field test of Small scale field test at Syncrude, using
WT at Suncor – South Tailings Pond centrifuge for drilling mud
2008 Medium scale field pilot at Syncrude (MLSB)
using larger centrifuges
2009
2010 Medium scale, longer term test at Syncrude
MLSB. Using three × 600 mm diameter
centrifuges. Deposition by trucking, PD
pumping and conveyor stacking.
treatment to further increase solids content and develop sufficient strength for reclamation is still
being studied.
3.8 Chronology of R&D on MFT drying and on thin-lift dewatering to increase MFT density
Research on combined methods for in-line flocculation of MFT followed by thin-lift dewatering
(or “drying”) has been seriously pursued starting in 2003 with bench scale tests at Suncor (Wells
and Riley, 2007; Wells, 2010). As indicated on Table 7, Suncor has consistently pursued this work,
first with inorganic additives (2003 to 2006), and then with organic polymers starting in 2007.
Successful piloting of this technique in 2008 led to a scale up of operations to commercial levels
in 2009, and then expansion of treatment areas and formal adoption of the treatment technique
as Suncor’s Tailings Reduction Operations (TRO) in 2010. The TRO technology was accepted as
meeting the intent of Directive 074 by the ERCB in June of 2010.
Syncrude ran some initial trials of a similar technology in 2009, and has scaled up to a larger
pilot test in 2010 at the MLSB, in conjunction with Total. Similar sized trials are also being run in
2010 at the CNRL Horizon mine and Shell Muskeg River mine sites.
3.9 Chronology of freeze-thaw consolidation of MFT and of Rim ditching

Considerable work has been undertaken on freeze-thaw consolidation of MFT since the late 1980’s.
This is not surprising, given the lengthy, cold winters in Fort McMurray, which the oil sand operators
would hope to use to advantage in dewatering fine tailings. Fundamental testing was conducted
throughout the 1990’s at the University of Alberta. Small (0.3 hectare) to medium (1–2 hectare)
sized field scale tests were carried out at both Syncrude and Suncor in the mid-1990’s, with
additional testing at Suncor (on Pond 1 beaches) in 2006. This work demonstrated the significant
dewatering of MFT that can be accomplished (from a solids content of 30% to a solids content of
45% to 55% after one freeze-thaw cycle) and the beneficial effects of freeze-thaw on improving
20
Table 7. Chronology of R&D on MFT drying and TLD to densify and store MFT.
Year MFT drying and TLD at Syncrude MFT drying and TLD at Suncor
1994
1995 Trials of wind-blown sand control at
Syncrude’s MLSB provides valuable
information on MFT evaporative drying
1996
2003 First bench scale trials of thin lift MFT drying
2004 Field trials on Suncor’s Pond 1 north beach – focus
on use of hydrated lime and gypsum additives.
2005
2006
2007 Published 2004–6 work at 2007 paste conference.
Started lab trials on addition of polymer
flocculant to MFT.
2008 Field pilot of in-line flocculated, thin lift
dewatering of MFT at Pond 1.
2009 Initial trials of TLD at Syncrude MLSB Increasing commercialization of in-line
flocculated, thin-lift drying of MFT at various
locations on Suncor lease. Adoption of
technology by Suncor as TRO. Approval of
TRO technology by ERCB in June 2010.
2010 Major trials of TLD at Syncrude (partnered
with Total), CNRL, and Shell mine sites
Table 8. Chronology of R&D on Rim Ditching and freeze-thaw consolidation of MFT.
Year Rim Ditching Freeze-thaw
Early 1980’s
Late 1980’s Research by AEC on freeze-thaw dewatering of
Syncrude (MLSB) MFT, from 1988–1993.
1990
1991
1992 Initial lab work on freeze-thaw of Suncor fine tailings
by UofA
1993 Freeze-thaw trial at Suncor (two × 1 hectare areas)
1994 Freeze-thaw trial of Syncrude MFT (with additives)
by UofA – multiple layers in a 0.3 hectare area
1995 Large scale freeze-thaw trial of MFT at Syncrude
BML (230K m3 of MFT placed partially on ice and
partially on shoreline).
1996
1997 Ongoing research of freeze-thaw behaviour of fine
tailings at UofA
1998
2005
2006 Freeze-thaw tests on Pond 1 beach at Suncor – added
gypsum (later polymer); run on a sloped surface.
2009 Rim ditching of in-line flocculated
MFT at Syncrude MLSB
2010 Continuation of Rim Ditching trial
at Syncrude
21
Table 9. Chronolgy of R&D on capping of soft tailings deposits.
Year Sand capping of soft tailings deposits and Coke capping of soft tailings deposits
Reclamation
1998 Sand capping of CT protype area in NW corner of

MLSB at Syncrude
1999 Reclamation of CT prototype area in NW corner
of MLSB at Syncrude
2000 “Bearing Capacity” field trials at Syncrude for
sand capping of CT
2002 Trials at Suncor to sand cap CT
2003 Hydraulic placement of coke cap on MFT at
Syncrude’s MLSB, starting about 2003 and
continuing until current time
2004 Pilot for hydraulic capping of CT with coke
at Suncor
2006 Sand capping of CT at Syncrude’s NEIP Pilot of capping CT using various techniques
at Suncor Pond 1
2007
2008 Field trials of Coke capping on Suncor Pond 5
by mechanical placement
2009 At Syncrude: Fen construction in northern
2010 portion of NEIP. Landform construction Commerical scale coke capping by mechanical
(hummocks, swales, marshes, etc.) in southern placement on Suncor Pond 5. Haul roads
portion of NEIP. At Suncor: capping of soft over soft deposits supporting fully loaded
(Plant 4) tailings on Pond 1. 777’s.
MFT permeability and thus rate of consolidation. Freeze-thaw shows promise as a complementary
tailings treatment method, but scale-up effects and area requirements have yet to be assessed.
Rim ditching of thick deposits of in-line flocculated MFT have recently been instigated at
Syncrude (2009). While results so far have been very positive, research on this treatment method
is still in its early stages.
3.10 Chronology of R&D on capping of soft tailings deposits

Table 9 lists research and development on methods for capping soft tailings deposits, which has been
active since the late 1990’s when CT became a viable tailings treatment process. Work has focused
on two types of capping material – sand and coke. The sand or coke can be placed hydraulically
or mechanically, depending on the strength of the material to be capped and the economics of
placement. Both Syncrude and Suncor have demonstrated that a coke cap can be placed on very
soft materials (Syncrude on MFT and Suncor on off-spec CT), with strengths much less than the
value of 5 kPa specified in Directive 074. Once the cap is in place, the deposit can be accessed by
heavy equipment (e.g. loaded 777 haul trucks) for further reclamation activities. Both companies
have also demonstrated construction of closure landscapes (hummocks, swales, etc.) by hydraulic
placement of sand caps.
3.11 Chronology of R&D on other tailings treatment techniques

Other tailings treatment techniques have been researched, as listed in Table 10. Two of these show
some promise and are still being actively investigated. Both promote drainage and consolidation
of fine tailings – one is the use of vertical drains (such as wick drains, installed from the top of
a capped deposit) and the other is electrophoresis (for which significant technical advances have
been made in recent years, resulting in significantly reduced power requirements).
Table 10 also mentions the timing of fundamental studies on the geotechnical behaviour of fine
tailings at the University of Alberta, and other studies focused on reducing the amount of clay
particle dispersion resulting from the bitumen extraction process, which is one of the primary
causes of the slow rate of settlement/consolidation of oil sands fine tailings.
22
Table 10. Chronology of R&D on other tailings treatment techniques and of reclamation and closure efforts
on tailings deposits.
Year Other treatment techniques and related Reclamation and closure of fine tailings
methods deposits
1970’s GCOS obtains a patent to capture MFT in the bottom

of a pond by dispersing a tailings stream across the
surface of the pond and “raining” sand down onto
the MFT layer.
1978
Early Early investigations on electrophoresis and
1980’s electrokinetics in the early 1980’s at Syncrude
1992
1993 Fundamental geotechnical studies on the settlement
and consolidation behaviour of fluid fine tailings
and the UofA.
1994 Considerable research on CHWE and OHWE
processes, as well as other tailings technologies,
in an effort to find an extraction method that had a
1995 lower dispersion of fines and thus a lower
generation of TFT and MFT. A lot of this research
led to the LEE process initially tried at Syncrude’s
Aurora Mine. Work continued until 2000.
1996 Formal closure planning for soft tailings
deposits starts at Syncrude
1997
1998 Large, lab scale work at Syncrude to study the First closure plan completed at Syncrude
effectiveness of wick drains in consolidating MFT
1999
2000 Lab scale work on electrophoresis at Syncrude
2001
2002
2003 Syncrude constructed a cyclo-stacker prototype,
placing several cones of sand to a height of 20 m
over a 1 month period
2004 Second phase cyclo-stacker trial at Syncrude, placing
cones up to 40 m high, with evaluation of
2005 geotechnical properties
2006
2007 Development of methods to displace, recover and
2008 pump high density MFT from Suncor Pond 1
2009 Small field scale electrophoresis tests on Syncrude Work at Suncor to cap Pond 1 and at
MFT (reduced power requirements). Initial trials at Syncrude to construct closure
Suncor on enhanced consolidation of MFT and CT landscapes (fens, marshes, hummocks,
using wick drains. swales) on the NEIP deposit.
2010 Suncor Pond 1 capping (including capping
of soft, fine tailings) and reclamation
completed
3.12 Reclamation and closure of tailings deposits

The final word of this section must be given to the oil sand operators who have successfully
reclaimed large areas of tailings deposits. These include:
– Tens of square kilometers of sand beaches and tailings sand slopes on all active mining leases.
All reclaimed areas have healthy vegetation cover and some have been reclaimed for over 20
years. While these are not “fine tailings”, they are nevertheless challenging to reclaim in a lasting
manner.
23
– 10 hectares of capped CT at the Syncrude prototype – this was reclaimed in 1999/2000, and is
well vegetated and treed. The vegetation and environmental conditions have been monitored on
an ongoing basis at this site since 2000.
– Other small areas of soft tailings that have been capped and reclaimed (MLSB west and east toe
berms; Syncrude Coke Cell 5).
– Syncrude has capped an area of about 5 km2 (500 hectares) on their NEIP pond (containing
CT) and are in the process of constructing a) several fens at the northern end of the NEIP, and
b) hummocks, swales and marshes in the southern part of the NEIP. Final reclamation work is
expected to be complete in 2012 (the fens taking the longest time to establish).
– Suncor has capped about 2 km2 (200 hectares) on their Pond 1 (Tar Island Pond), built a closure
landscape (with all associated surface water drainage), and planted trees and other vegetation.
This brings to final reclamation the first full tailings pond in the industry.
4 ERCB TAILINGS DIRECTIVE 074
4.1 Contents
The ERCB issued a draft Tailings Directive in June of 2008, which after a brief discussion with
industry participants was issued in final form in February of 2009 (ERCB, 2009). The Directive
was developed in response to direction given to ERCB staff in July of 2004.
The Directive requires operators to reduce fluid tailings through fines captured in dedicated
disposal areas (DDAs), and to form and manage DDAs. The operators are further required to
submit tailings plans, pond status reports, DDA plans, and annual compliance reports for DDAs,
which will allow the ERCB to assess overall compliance with the directive.
The Directive was developed as the “. . . first component of a larger initiative to regulate tailings
management. . .” (ERCB, 2009), and contains a list of long-term objectives which presumably will
govern the development of further regulations on tailings management.
Of relevance to this paper are several “technical” requirements contained in the Directive:
– Certain targets are given for fines capture in DDA’s, expressed as a percentage of the mass of
dry fines in the oil sands feed (this target is in addition to the fines captured in hydraulically
placed dykes and beaches). The target is 20% for mid-2010 to mid-2011, 30% for mid-2011 to
mid-2012, and 50% thereafter.
– “DDAs must be formed in a manner that ensures trafficable deposits.” The stated criteria to meet
this objective is a) to achieve a minimum undrained shear strength of 5 kPa for material deposited
in the previous year, b) to be ready for reclamation within five years of end of deposition, and c)
when ready for reclamation, the trafficable surface layer must have a minimum undrained shear
strength of 10 kPa.
– Once the trafficable surface layer has been achieved, the operator is to file an application to
abandon the DDA, (what “abandonment” means is not explicitly stated in the Directive, nor is
the need to establish a closure landscape addressed).
4.2 Impact on industry

All oil sand mine operators were required to submit, by September 2009, a plan explaining how
their tailings management would comply with Directive 074. The ERCB reviewed these plans and
has to date approved those for Fort Hills, Syncrude and Suncor (Table 1).
In the author’s opinion, Directive 074 has (so far) had several impacts on the industry players,
some beneficial and some onerous:
– One of the beneficial impacts is that the industry has had to focus their tailings research and
development efforts to find specific tailings treatment solutions that can be implemented in a
relatively short time period (consistent with their Directive submissions, as approved by the
ERCB). This was no doubt one of the ERCB objectives. However, without the large amount of
research and development work that had already been carried out by the operators (and associated
institutes), the task of implementing tailings technologies that met the Directive would have taken
much longer (ten years or more). This is a fact that many industry detractors chose to ignore.
24
– An associated, less desirable outcome is that, with the rush to meet the Directive timeline,
less than optimal tailings treatment technologies are being chosen. One might argue that opti-
mization of technology and reduction of cost can occur as experience is gained implementing
proposed solutions. However, the ability to do so is limited by the fact that significant (and
at some facilities drastic) changes are being made to mine and tailings plans. As a result, the
ability to implement future changes (to a different tailings treatment technology) will be more
constrained.
– Another beneficial impact of the Directive is that operating companies have renewed a level of
technical cooperation in their research and development efforts that existed in the mid to late
1990’s, again conducting joint field trials on new technology. This has increased the rate at which
important research information is shared and at which new technologies can be implemented.
– One of the onerous consequences is that the Directive requires operators to build facilities and
take actions that are incompatible with aspects of approved mine and tailings plans. For some
mines, the amount of incompatibility is small; for others it is large. This is a complicated and
serious issue, which unfortunately cannot be properly addressed here. The “short story” is that
there is a considerable investment in developing a plant and mine, and similarly a considerable
amount of time and money required to implement major technology changes. The ERCB is
attempting to be flexible in their application of the Directive at each mine site, taking into
consideration “. . . particular mining and tailings plans, facilities, and the status of a project. . .”
(ERCB, 2009). However, one wonders how well ERCB staff actually understand this issue. Time
will tell how flexible the ERCB will be and what perhaps unnecessary cost will be imposed on
the operators. The amount of time that is being required for ERCB approval of company tailings
submissions suggests that they are having a difficult time assessing all the issues and balancing
all the competing objectives and priorities.
– An issue that is being given less attention at the moment, by both the operators and the ERCB,
in the rush to progress tailings treatment methods already under development to the commercial
scale, is the potential water quality impacts of the various tailings additives being proposed. This
issue is not being ignored, and it will be examined fully in due course, but perhaps not in as
orderly a manner as if the research had progressed at its own rational pace. The risk is that the
ERCB will endorse or approve a particular tailings treatment technology before all of the water
quality issues are fully understood.
– One of the main complaints of the operators is that the Directive, with good intentions, is
imposing some conditions that are artificial and unnecessary in meeting stated ERCB objectives,
and that will prevent operators from implementing equally effective but less costly solutions than
those mandated by the Directive. This is discussed further in Section 4.4.
4.3 Roles and responsibilities of the regulator and the operators

It is clear that the Regulator has had and now has an important role to play in overseeing industry
initiatives and efforts to find effective tailings storage solutions. One would like to believe that the
Regulator’s level of involvement has been about right and that the operators have, by and large, been
responsibly pursuing these solutions. The truth may not be quite so rosy – perhaps the industry was
a little under-regulated prior to the mid-2000 time period, and perhaps the operators were being a
little less than fully diligent in pursuing their research and development efforts (or at a minimum,
not entirely coordinated in their efforts).
It is difficult to make a fair assessment of both the Regulator’s and the operator’s roles in the
past, because the technical issues were complex and not easily solved, there were difficult economic
pressures in the industry, and there were difficult challenges in scaling up and integrating apparent
solutions for tailings treatment to a commercial operation. Unforeseen challenges and costs arose
during the implementation of the CT and TT technologies, and these were not always recognized
by the Regulator, nor responded to in a timely manner. However, operators were persistent in
improving problematic technologies and in pursuing new ones – credit for this should be given
both to their own sense of corporate and social responsibility and to the regulatory environment in
which they functioned.
Similar challenges will undoubtedly occur with the newer technologies for dewatering MFT, as
they are implemented, and the Regulator now has in place monitoring and reporting mechanisms
that will allow it (and stakeholders) to see what is happening.
25
It is the author’s opinion that Directive 074 is a useful regulation, responsibly conceived by the
ERCB. It is not perfect, but it is timely and it will have positive impacts on the industry. It also
provides a level of transparency to industry operations that will be welcomed by all shareholders.
There is opportunity and need for the Directive to be improved, so that its objectives can be
met without unnecessary technical (and related cost) constraints, which will be discussed in the
following section.
The challenge for the ERCB will be to revise the Directive in a reasonable manner and to develop
future tailings management regulations that maintain the right balance of encouragement and “room
to move”, that is, to neither under-regulate nor over-regulate the industry. Careful thought will have
to be given to the impacts of economic cycles on the ability of the industry to maintain higher cost
tailings management practices. Current opinion is that the old tailings management practices were
insufficient, but will the new ones be sustainable? And if stakeholders are to take a larger role in
providing useful feedback on industry practices, they need to be more meaningfully engaged in the
process – less rhetoric and more well-informed, rational thinking and discussion is called for.
4.4 Can the directive be improved?

Directive 074 can be improved, particularly if one focuses on its objectives and removes its technical
impediments. The following is a suggested set of objectives for DDAs, both during their operating
life, and then at and after closure. They are taken from Hyndman and Sobkowicz (2010), and are,
in the author’s opinion, equivalent to or compatible with the tailings management objectives given
in Directive 074.
Goals for the operating period of the mine preceding mine closure include, (to the greatest extent
practical):
– Reclaim tailings as mining proceeds, avoiding excessive accumulations of contained fluid fines
that must be remediated at or near the end of mine life.
– Limit the required containment volumes of MFT (in particular, in out-of-pit dam structures) to
that required for effective tailings management.
– Without compromising the essential elements of a closure landform design, conduct as much
remediation as is practical during the active mine life, when there is operating revenue to cover
the costs and while the mine organization and operating infrastructure are in place to efficiently
conduct the activity.
The following are general objectives for returning mine site lands to the public without ongoing
liabilities:
– Avoid DDAs in the reclaimed landscape that require ongoing maintenance for decades following
active mining.
– Attain landforms with geotechnical stability that are resistant to natural processes and are self-
healing after natural erosion, with self-sustaining, native vegetation cover.
– Design productive, self-sustaining land and water features that are integrated into the natural
ecosystem without adverse consequences to downstream watercourses.
Specific to the immediate reclamation of a DDA, tailings should with time meet several important
objectives:
– They should develop strength at a rate sufficient to allow timely capping, in order to meet
reclamation and closure requirements.
– They should develop a low compressibility so as to minimize post-closure settlement and not
disrupt the closure landscape.
The author notes that while most of the tailings management objectives given in Directive 074
are reasonable and achievable, some of them require tempering against operation requirements
and the overall objective of maximizing bitumen recovery. One is the objective on maximizing
intermediate process water recycling, which may be impacted by as yet poorly understood water
chemistry impacts on bitumen extraction efficiency. Another is the objective to eliminate or reduce
containment of fluid tailings in out-of-pit ponds during operations, which is incompatible with
sound tailings planning and water management practices, particularly during the first 10 to 15 years
26
of a new mine’s life. These comments regarding the objectives could be cleared up by relatively
minor wording changes that recognize practical mining constraints.
4.4.1 An alternative to the 5 kPa strength criteria

In the author’s opinion, the strength criteria contained in Directive 074 are too restrictive, given
the number of technical options being considered and under development by oil sands operators to
meet the Directive objectives. A better approach would be to replace the existing strength criteria
by a detailed consideration of the following (Sobkowicz and Morgenstern, 2009):
– What are the anticipated properties of the tailings in the DDA?
– How will they be capped?
– What will be the schedule for capping?
– What are the time-strength trajectory and the associated subsidence of the tailings deposit, and
how is this addressed in the reclamation plan?
This approach is less “formulaic” than the one advocated in Directive 074, and has the flexibility
to adapt tailings management plans to the specifics of each DDA. Application of the approach
requires a proper understanding of the different types of oil sands tailings materials and the appro-
priate reclamation strategy that can be used for each. This is discussed further in Morgenstern and
Sobkowicz, (2010).
In adopting the approach advocated above, one must recognize that trajectory and demonstration
of behaviour is more important than meeting artificial goal posts. For example, what better meets
reclamation objectives – a DDA that is capped soon after completion and demonstratively improves
(following a predicted trajectory) over a period of say 10 or 15 years, to a point where a closure
landscape can be constructed, or a DDA that meets all of the Directive 074 criteria but nevertheless
takes 50 years or 100 years to reach the same point? The latter scenario is quite possible and reflects
the dangers associated with setting the wrong goal posts. Recognizing as well that “consolidation
over time” is usually less costly than forcing accelerated dewatering of soft tailings, one should
question the economic values associated with too rigid a set of tailings management criteria.
4.4.2 Improved performance measures

The ERCB has chosen as their primary measurement of DDA performance the undrained shear
strength of the deposit in various locations and at various times after deposition. This might seem
like a preferable approach as it directly measures the property that is perceived to be the most
relevant to the performance of the deposit. However, there are a number of issues associated with
this approach (Morgenstern and Sobkowicz, 2010):
– Inaccuracy and unreliability of measuring low strength values, (which would be further exac-
erbated in the case where one accepts the use of reclamation strategies at very low surface
strengths).
– Applicability of undrained shear strength measurements in granular materials.
– Difficult access for, and high cost of, the moderately large equipment needed to measure strength.
– Needless restriction of reclamation to terrestrial-based methods (other methods do not require
the same surface conditions).
There are other types of measurements that can be used to monitor the progress of consolidation/
densification in the various DDA deposits, to predict the performance of the deposits at any time,
and to assess the readiness of the deposit to accept any particular reclamation strategy. One type of
measurement that avoids the disadvantages described above is sampling of the deposit combined
with the measurement of solids content and related material index tests, (such as Atterberg Limits).
This method allows:
– Easier access (for lighter equipment) and less costly monitoring campaigns.
– Accurate results.
– Clear indication of improving material state (consolidation in the fines-dominated materials and
densification in the granular materials).
– Direct measurement of, or correlation to, desired geotechnical characteristics of the deposit.
– A basis for projecting long term behaviour, e.g., to forecast the subsidence of the tailings deposit.
27
5 WHERE ARE WE HEADED?
5.1 Promising tailings treatment technologies

The tailings treatment technologies described in Section 3, which historically have been, or currently
are, under consideration and development by industry operators, run the full gamut of identified
possible technologies (Sobkowicz and Morgenstern, 2009). The ones that hold the greatest promise
for meeting Directive 074 objectives may be grouped as follows:
– Methods that are currently in commercial operation (although also still being improved). This
would include CT, TT, and at Suncor, in-line flocculation and thin-lift dewatering of MFT.
– Methods that have seen intensive research and development, and are almost ready for commercial
implementation. This would include in-line flocculation and thin-lift dewatering at all mine sites
except Suncor, centrifugation (combined with some form of environmental assist or accelerated
consolidation), and MFT spiking of WT.
– Methods that have had comprehensive research and development, and while not quite ready for
commercial implementation, show great promise. This would include freeze-thaw consolidation
of fine tailings.
It is likely that any particular operating company will have to adopt several tailings treatment
methods to address all of the fines tailings issues on its lease, as discussed in Sobkowicz and
Morgenstern (2009).
In addition to the treatment methods listed above, there is active research directed at improving
existing oil sand capping technologies, adapting capping technologies for soft deposits from other
industries, and developing new capping technologies.
5.2 The shift in storage/treatment focus from tailings to water

One important (but somewhat subtle) point to note is that the more effective operators become with
dewatering oil sand tailings, the more water will be released from those tailings. That will provide
greater opportunities for water recycle, with perhaps attendant water chemistry issues (e.g. impact
on bitumen extraction). However, it will also shift waste storage challenges from tailings to water,
and in some cases force the need for water treatment and release. This is a separate, complex issue
that only bears mentioning in this paper.
5.3 What is on the horizon?

There are other tailings treatment technologies that have received research attention but are not yet
sufficiently advanced, in the author’s opinion, to be considered “promising”. This does not detract
from the interest shown in them or from the importance of continuing their research efforts, but
is only a statement of how close they might be to implementation. At present, they are “legitimate
possibilities”. These include, listed in order of least to most advanced:
– Electrophoresis.
– The use of plants and plant growth to form stabilized crusts on soft tailings deposits.
– Rim ditching.
– Some kind of tailings filtration (the current favourite being cross-flow filtration).
– Wick drains (to enhance soft tailings consolidation).
– End-of-pit lakes.
The oil sand industry has great hopes for end-of-pit lakes because they will have a tremendous
impact on the overall cost of tailings storage. They are included here as a possible rather than
promising technology because they have not yet been demonstrated. Even if the science proves that
they are technically sound and effective, there are still public perception hurdles to be crossed with
various stakeholders, before they can be implemented on the scale currently envisaged.
Other tailings treatment methods have been proposed, several of them involving the use of
proprietary chemical additives, but insufficient research has been done (to date) to give a sense of
their potential. No doubt these and other yet to be conceived methods will soon make it onto the
“possible” and then the “promising” list.
28
5.4 Is there a perfect tailings management practice?
As a last comment on future tailings management practices, the author states his opinion that the
most cost-effective and technically effective solutions will involve the separation in a pragmatic
way of coarse tailings from fine tailings. With this approach, the higher cost of dealing with the
fine tailings is offset by the lower cost of storing the coarse tailings, and the resulting products are
the most efficient in terms of total required storage space and early release of water.
Past methods of constructing tailings ponds, which efficiently stored sand and captured fines,
and which also efficiently collect MFT, are a robust and sensible tailings management practice. As
reasonable methods of dewatering MFT are demonstrated at the commercial scale (Section 5.1),
the combination of conventional tailings ponds and MFT dewatering may prove to be superior to
methods that rely on combining sand and fines (such as CT and TT). If this proves to be the case,
there are also implications for how long specific tailings ponds are operated. In any case, the jury
is still out, and your crystal ball may be much better than mine!
6 CONCLUSIONS
Oil sand mine operators have encountered many challenges in storing and treating fine tailings
since commercial mining started in 1967. A remarkably broad research and development effort
over many years has addressed these challenges, finding solutions such as enhanced capture of
fines in beaches, non-segregating tailings and thickened tailings – all intended to improve fines
capture and reduce fluid fine tailings inventories. Recently developed treatment methods, such as
in-line thickening of tailings combined with thin-lift dewatering or with centrifuging, or freeze-thaw
consolidation of tailings, are in advanced stages of pilot testing.
Industry efforts to find effective and economically responsible solutions to the fine tailings
challenge have been focused by the release of the ERCB Tailings Directive 074 in 2009. This is a
useful and timely regulation that has had major impacts on the oil sand industry (some beneficial,
some not so). Suggestions are given herein for improvements to the Directive, to make it more
suited to the realities of oil sand mining and tailings operations.
A number of “promising” and “possible” tailings treatment methods have been discussed. Pre-
dictions are given for which ones will “win” and which will be incorporated into a better tailings
management practice. Time will tell how clear our crystal ball is.
7 ACRONYMS
The following acronyms have been used for technical terms in this paper. Other acronyms for
organizations and locations have been defined where they were first used.
BT – Beached Tailings
BAW – Tailings beached sub-aerially
BBW – Tailings beached sub-aqueously
CHWE – Clark Hot Water Extraction Process
CT – “Consolidated” Tailings
CUT – Cyclone Underflow Tailings
COT – Cyclone Overflow Tailings
DDA – Dedicated Disposal Area
LEE – Low Energy Extraction Process
MFT – Mature Fine Tailings
NST – Non-segregated Tailings
OHWE – Oslo Hot Water Extraction Process
PD – Positive Displacement Pumping
PSV – Primary Separation Vessel
TFT – Thin Fine Tailings
TT – Thickened Tailings
WT – Whole Tailings (from extraction plant)
29
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author expresses sincere thanks to the following “old-timers” who provided valuable informa-
tion and insight when compiling the history of tailings research and development: Al Hyndman,
Jonathan Matthews, Nordie Morgenstern and Sean Wells. Bill Shaw, who has been at the center
of most of the research and development work at Syncrude, expended effort far beyond the call
of duty, and deserves special thanks. Gord McKenna, on short notice, provided a very insightful
review of the paper; his comments and thoughts are greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
Energy Resources Conservation Board 2009. Directive 074: Tailings Performance Criteria and Requirements
for Oil Sands Mining Schemes. Province of Alberta.
Hyndman, A. & Sobkowicz, J.C. Oil Sand Tailings: Reclamation Goals & the State of Technology. In Geo2010;
Proc. 63rd Canadian Geotechnical Conf., Calgary, Canada, 12–16 September 2010. Canadian Geotechnical
Society.
Morgenstern, N.R. 2010. Improving the Safety of Mine Waste Impoundments. In Tailings and Mine Waste ‘10;
Proc. Intern. Conf., Vail, Colorado, 17–20 October 2010. Colorado State University.
Morgenstern, N.R. & Sobkowicz, J.C. 2010. Reclamation and Closure of an Oil Sand Tailings Facility. In
International Oil Sands Tailings Conference 2010; Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf., Edmonton, Canada, 5–8
December 2010. OSTRF/CONRAD, University of Alberta.
Sobkowicz, J.C. & Morgenstern, N.R. 2009. A Geotechnical Perspective on Oil Sand Tailings. In Sego,
Alostaz & Beir (eds.), Tailings and Mine Waste ‘09; Proc. Intern. Conf., Banff, Canada, 1–4 November
2009. University of Alberta Geotechnical Center/OSTRF.
Wells, P.S. & Riley, D.A. 2007. MFT Drying – Case Study in the Use of Rheological Modification and
Dewatering of Fine Tailings Through Thin Lift Deposition in the Oil Sands of Alberta. In Fourier & Jewell
(eds.), Paste 2007; Proc. 10th Intern. Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings, Perth, Australia, 2007.
ACG, University of Western Australia.
Wells, P.S. 2010. Oil Sands Pond Closure – Sand, Sun and Soft Tailings. In Mine Closure 2010; Proc. Intern.
Conf., Vina del Mar, Chile, 23–26 November 2010. ACG, University of Western Australia.
Wells, P.S., Caldwell, J. & Fournier, R. 2010. Suncor Pond 5 Cap: The Story of its Conception, Testing, and
Advance to Full-Scale Construction. In Tailings and Mine Waste ‘10; Proc. Intern. Conf., Vail, Colorado,
17–20 October 2010. Colorado State University.
30
Mill tailings
Tailings impoundment failures, black swans, incident avoidance,

and checklists
J. Caldwell & L. Charlebois

Robertson GeoConsultants, Vancouver, BC, Canada
ABSTRACT: The thesis of this paper is that tailings impoundments fail as a result of a string of
incidents, each of which is trivial and within the bounds of normal events, but which, taken together,
constitute an event so unusual that it lies outside of the bound of normal occurrence and experience.
The string of incidents leading to the failure of a tailings impoundment may be understood and
evaluated in the light of the theory of the Black Swan, an event that nobody could have foreseen,
that results in extreme consequences, and which can be explained after its occurrence by all on
the basis of standard knowledge. In this paper we examine current theories and hence methods for
avoiding failure of tailings impoundments. We find them all lacking, and so we proceed to set out
proposed approaches based on incident control, checklists, and Black Swan avoidance to limit and
hopefully eliminate the possibility of failure of tailings dams and the consequent loss of life and
property.
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper is about the philosophy of slimes dam failures. You can call them tailings impoundments,
processed material containment facilities, storage locations, or mine geowaste areas. The fact
remains they are dams that contain slime—thus we prefer the name we grew up with and which we
still think is accurate and descriptive.
You may blame the senior author for the opinions in this paper. You must thank the junior author
for checking the facts and having the courage to be associated with our ideas.
We seek to get to the bottom of an every-pressing issue: why do slimes dams fail? Some
attribute failure to engineering issues; some attribute failure to institutional practices; some blame
the designer or the mine. A favorite reason is Acts-of-God, most often extreme precipitation. The
best theory we know of attributes accidents to a failure to control incidents; the idea is that ten
unattended incidents equal one accident; ten accidents equal one fatality. We believe this is the root
cause; and if not the cause, at least the best way to proceed to eliminate the failure of slimes dams
and the attendant deaths.
We are fascinated by the theory of the so-called Black Swan; the idea that some things are so
unusual that nobody can foresee their occurrence, although after the event everybody can explain
why the event occurred. Thus we examine the role of Black Swans in causing slimes dam failures
and suggest practical ways to hunt and kill Black Swans before they come to kill you by failing
your slimes dams.
2 THE BLACK SWAN
After the economic collapse in late 2008, many sought the fundamental reasons for the economic
collapse. Before the collapse, nobody saw it coming—although some may claim they did, we
have seen no convincing evidence of anybody predicting its occurrence. The event had an extreme
impact; economic edifices came crashing down and many lost their houses, their investments, and
their jobs.
33
After the collapse, we find it very simple to explain why it happened: the collapse is the result
of the granting of mortgages to people who did not have the ability to pay. We all know somebody
who kept buying a bigger and bigger house costing many multiples of their annual salary. We all
know people who kept taking bigger and bigger loans against their house for foreign travel, a new
car, more clothes, or just more plastic or exercise equipment to clutter the garage.
Some ascribe the collapse to the imprudence of banks and finance houses who bundled bad
mortgages into packages to be sold to distant investors rendered incautious by near-dishonest
ratings firms. Behind it all there appears to have been a battalion of overly trained mathematicians
armed with flawed theories of statistics; specifically statistics that said that there was so vanishingly
slim a chance of the mortgages going sour that reasonable people need not be concerned. This was
topped by inattentive managers who seemingly did not know or understand what their underlings
were doing
In the book, The Black Swan – The Impact of the Highly Improbable by Nassim Nicholas Taleb,
the author notes three characteristics of a Black Swan:
• It is an outlier, as it lies outside the realm of regular expectation, because nothing in the past can
convincingly point to its possibility.
• It carries an extreme impact.
• In spite of its outlier status, human nature makes us concoct explanations for its occurrence after
the fact, making it explainable and predictable.
Let us explore the thesis that tailings impoundment failures are generally Black Swan events in
that nothing in the past convincingly points to their occurrence, that they have an extreme impact,
and that after the failure, human natures makes the even explainable and predictable.
3 BAFOKENG
We have previously written about the failure in 1974 of the Impala Mine, Bafokeng slimes dam
that killed thirteen and cost millions to clean up. This is what we wrote:
The mine, like all mines in the area, was perpetually short of water, so they stored as much
water as possible on the top of the impoundment. The day of the failure, the pool was very close to
and some say lapping up against the outer dike thrown up to make a place for the discharge pipes
and the next lift of tailings discharge. Then it rained. The bulldozer driver was sent to shore up a
vulnerable-looking part of the outer dike. Who knows: maybe he vibrated the wet tailings and they
liquefied; maybe he dug too deep or too inexpertly with his bucket as he struggled in the rain to
do something unfamiliar and he just took away the freeboard; maybe some profound geotechnical
occurrence happened deep in the tailings. Regardless, the water and liquid tailings flowed out,
flowed far, and killed miners.
Geoff Blight in his new book writes in detail about possible failure causes. He is forced to
conclude: “It appears at first sight that the dyke did not fail by conventional overtopping. Eyewitness
accounts all point to a failure by piping erosion. However, a satisfactory explanation of how the
initial hole formed in the wall was never reached.”
Professor Jennings, for whom I worked to collect the data to evaluate the failure, was convinced
that piping began between two layers of low permeability slime bordering a zone of higher per-
meability sand tailings. Such zones existed, as I saw too often climbing over the failure zone to
measure things.
Personally I think it is easy: to pinpoint the root cause of the failure of the Bafokeng dam. Nobody
could or did foresee the Black Swan. Those who ran the mine and who operated the impoundment
saw no reason for concern. They had no concept that the dam could or would fail—nothing in the
past pointed to such a failure, and nothing pointed convincingly to the possibility of such a failure.
But the failure occurred, and the failure had great impact.
Now it is clear: the pool was too close to the perimeter dikes, it was raining hard, there was
seepage flow in saturated sand layers between clay layers, and the bulldozer operator induced
liquefaction in the confined sand layer. Thirteen died. Now we know we must avoid all these
factors.
In the years following the failure, the senior author evaluated two more platinum slimes dams
that failed. The causes of failure, as at Bafokeng, included a pool too close to the perimeter dikes
34
and high pore pressures in the outer shell. In addition, it was clear that there was slope failure caused
by sliding along the weak clays that are found throughout the mining district. If you consider that
at that time, there were no more than about ten platinum tailings impoundments in the area, the
probability of failure works out to almost 33 percent.
Some changes were made to the standards of practice in the wake of these three failures, but
they were insufficient to preclude the Merrispruit failure which we now consider.
4 MERRIESPRUIT
Geoff Blight has this to say about the failure of the Merrispruit slimes dam in 1994;
“On the night of February 22, 1994, a 31-m high dyke upslope of the village of Merrispruit,
South Africa, failed with disastrous consequences. The dyke breached a few hours after 30 to
55 mm of rain fell in approximately 30 minutes during a late afternoon thunder storm. The failure
resulted in some 600,000 cubic meters of liquefied tailings flowing through the town causing the
death of 17 people.”
Wikipedia records this—and it sound like the person writing knew what actually happened;
“In March 1993 an inspection noticed seepage along the north wall and it was agreed to stop
deposition into compartment 4A. According to the contractor, the freeboard at this time was an
acceptable 1.0+ m. The division of compartments 4A and 4B was breached some time before the
disaster, resulting in drainage from 4B to 4A. The extra drainage led to a freeboard of 300 mm.
Despite the termination of daywall construction, excess plant water containing tailings continued
to be deposited, with the water decanted by the penstock and the remaining tailings using up the
remaining freeboard.”
One of the authors has chatted informally with some of those who were involved in examining
the area after the failure. They all acknowledged that the mining company had cut to the bone to
reduce costs and as a result the dam was neglected, competent people were not involved, and the
contractor’s staff were overly confident (to the point of negligence) of their abilities. Undoubtedly
there was institutional inertia and over-confidence based on past successes—or at least an absence
of past failure of similar structures in the area. Regulations were in place, but they were inadequate,
not followed, and not enforced. Everybody involved, from top to bottom of the chain of command
and responsibility, failed to foresee the event which we must conclude lay outside the realm of
regular expectation, because nothing in the past convincingly pointed to its possibility.
The failure had an extreme impact. In spite of its outlier status, soon after the event almost
everybody involved was able to concoct explanations for its occurrence and render the failure
explainable and predictable. As Blight points out: “Everybody was to blame and everybody blamed
somebody else and nobody was held responsible. And the man on the ground at the slimes dam did
not conceive of another big storm and what it could, and did do.”
5 INCIDENT CONTROL
On the basis of but these two spectacular slimes dam failures, we submit that they were indeed
manifestations of the arrival of a Black Swan. We believe the Black Swan was able to come and
wreak havoc because of the failure by too many people to control the little incidents that if attended
to would have blocked the path of an oncoming bird of doom.
We need hardly expound on the theory of incident control here. It is well documented in the
literature and in countless sites on the web. Suffice to say that the essence of incident control is
that if you control the little things, the big things do not happen. As we said in the introduction, ten
unattended incidents equal one accident; ten accidents equal one fatality.
One story to illustrate. Many years ago the senior author was digging and profiling test pits in
the cover of a steep (1.4 horizontal to 1.0 vertical) and high (100 m) side of a landfill perched above
the I60 Freeway leading east from Los Angeles. A clod from the pile of soil dug to make the test
pit rolled down the slope, jumped the fence, and hit a passing car, causing a big mud splat on the
door. The driver continued home—we never heard from him.
The company for which the senior author worked had in place an Incident Control Program. So
he reported the incident. The result was a long and high metal and plywood safety fence along the
35
perimeter of the landfill. We proceeded to strip the cover and replace it with a geogrid reinforced
cover. We did over $100 million of work and there were no serious injuries and no fatalities. I
believe the Incident Control Program is to be credited with this success.
We are not aware of any mine that has in place a Tailings Storage Facility Incident Control
Program. No wonder failures occur and will occur.
6 FAILURE CAUSES
The literature and the web are replete with records of slimes dam failures. Common postulated
technical causes of failure include: earthquakes, foundation and/or slope failure, overtopping during
heavy rains, washout pursuant to pipe failures, and piping resulting from the pool being too close
to the perimeter dikes.
Some proceed to blame non-technical factors for slimes dam failures. They say root causes
include:
• Institutional, including cultural and stakeholder attitudes and practices that fail to be aware or
concerned about the presence and/or condition of the tailings impoundment.
• Management, including the absence of knowledgeable managers and/or the failure of those with
the power and responsibility to do so to act.
• Regulatory, including an absence of or inadequate regulations, and/or a failure of those charged
with doing so to enforce existing regulations.
We submit these are but sources of incidents. We concur that, as at Merrispruit and Bafokeng,
there were indeed serious and systematic institutional, management, and regulatory lapses. Each
and every one gave rise to an “incident” that if eliminated would have blocked the path of the deadly
Black Swan.
7 OTHER POSTULATED REASONS FOR FAILURES
An early paper by Edwin Smith (1973) notes that “according to mining folklore, no tailings dam has
ever been completed without at least one failure occurring during the deposition of the particles.”
He lists these causes of failure: foundation failure; slope failure; overtopping by flood waters;
erosion of face; piping; collapse of dewatering conduit; and liquefaction. He recommends the
application of the Observational Method as the best way to build tailings impoundments and keep
them safe.
Over the years, papers in previous Tailings and Mine Waste Conferences have sought to pinpoint
the cause of failure. The most dramatic assignation of responsibility is in the 2003 proceedings
where Allen Gipson blames “owners, engineers, designers, and operators [who] are not performing
their work in accordance with the standards of practice that should be followed.” There is not much
more to say in the face of such an assertion.
Steven G. Vick (2002) also examines reasons for failure of mine geowaste facilities. In his
magnificent book he explores the role of subjective probability and engineering judgment. His
book is so profound that we do no more than note it here and maintain that anybody charged with
keeping mine geowaste facilities safe must read it.
Michael Davies and Todd Martin (2009) present a tantalizing institutional reason for the failure
of tailings dams. They examined the timing of cycles of boom and bust in the mining industry and
the timing of failures. They conclude that between one and two years after a period of depressed
mining activity (poor economic conditions), there is likely to be a slimes dam failure. They ascribe
this to the possibility that during poor economic times, mine management cuts back on the costs
of managing and operating the tailings facilities and inevitably this leads to a failure. They provide
some plausible reasons why the tailings dam could fail after the economic boom:
• Permit haste
• Fast track investigation, design, and construction
• Cost cutting after the boom
• Inexperienced but overconfident designers
36
• Lack of independent third party peer review
• Rapid turnover of mine personnel
• Disconnect between design expectations and operational reality
• Development of deposits that have been left undeveloped for good reason
• “Cookie cutter” designs.
We are not aware of any evidence that the managers ultimately responsible for the failure of the
Bafokeng dam had cut back in any way preceding the failure. In fact, the construction company
operating the dam on behalf of the mine had, some time before the failure, employed their first
qualified civil engineer in an attempt to improve the standard of their service to the mining industry.
In the case of the Merrispruit failure, there are hints that management had cut back on provision
of services related to operation and oversight of the dam. But the slimes dam had always been
operated that way and there was no valid reason to believe it would act any differently in the future.
8 HOW TO AVOID FAILURES OR AVOIDING THE BLACK SWAN
Let us proceed to examine what can be done to stop the Black Swan from coming to induce failure
of slimes dams. Of course the easy answer is: control incidents. We recognize, however, that this
implies positive action. Thus we take a more detailed look at what individuals, companies, and
society as a whole can do to augment a good Incident Control Program.
Taleb says this about incorporating Black Swan thinking into your life: “I am very aggressive
when I can gain exposure to positive Black Swans—when a failure would be of small moment—and
very conservative when I am under threat from a negative Black Swan. I am aggressive when an
error in a model can benefit me, and paranoid when an error can hurt. This may not be interesting
except that it is exactly what other people do not do. In finance, for instance, people use flimsy
theories to manage their risks, and put wild ideas under “rational” scrutiny.”
Clearly the individual charged with some aspect of a slimes dam can hunt the Black Swan by
acting as Taleb does. But this takes a bold, confident, and knowledgeable professional. Too often,
cultural, societal, and even professional practice precludes prudent, individual action that amounts
to Black Swan hunting. In the case of a heap leach pad failure of which we are aware, professional
individuals were pressured to perform fast, were greedy to profit by fast performance, and fell into
the trap of relying on statements by others instead of undertaking the evaluations themselves. They
were too proud to consult with peers or submit to review. Now the lawyers are on their tail and the
country is saddled with a mining mess.
Many, but by no means all, mining companies have taken many steps to prevent a recurrence of
past tailings dam failures. These include:
• Employ experienced professional staff. This is a problem in most times as the perpetual calling
by head-hunters attests.
• Engage reputable consultants. Most consultants are reputable, but most are also susceptible to
lapses if improperly managed and controlled.
• Demand conservative engineering. This is good to do, but nearly impossible if the accountants
have any sway and the project manager is profit and bonus motivated.
• Inspections by regulators. As we write, the US eastern coal mining industry is under a cloud as
a result of a mine accident that killed nearly thirty miners. It appears as thought the regulations
were in place, the inspections were being made by the regulators, and the technology existed to
preclude the accident. The sad fact, however, is that the mine in question had been inspected
the very morning of the accident. The inspector, the miners, and management failed to conceive
of the accident that did occur. It was outside of their field of imagining, although once all the
causes are established, it will seem obvious that they should have known.
• More conservative engineering designs. We note our perennial favorite, namely the UMTRA
Project where we had to design in accordance with U.S. Federal law for a period of stability of
1,000 years. Thus we designed for the maximum probable precipitation, the maximum credible
earthquake, and so on. It can be done as a way to avoid both short-term and long-term Black
Swans, but how many societies have the courage or check-book to demand this of their mines?
37
9 SUGGESTED APPROACH
We suggest the following as the set of actions that should be undertaken if you are an individual, a
consultant, or a mining company charged with the safety of a tailings impoundment and you wish
to go Black Swan hunting.
• Use the Wisdom of the Group. There are many ways to capture the wisdom of the group—as
good a way as we know of to identify potential Black Swans. Some people call the process risk
assessment, but there are many ways of facilitating wise thinking, including: Risk Assessment;
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis; Value Engineering; and Multi Accounts Analysis. The senior
author personally prefers the FMEA approach although he has participated in many other sessions
adopting variants, and they mostly worked.
• Prepare a Risk Assessment Report and Monitoring Plan. The overall objective of using the wis-
dom of the group is to compile a Risk Assessment that is used as the basis of a Monitoring Plan. In
other words for each identified risk of malfunction or failure, put in place an observation routine
(visual and/or instruments) so that you get early warning of potential impending malfunction
and/or failure. Then compile, as we note below, an Observational Method Plan that provides
predetermined courses of action as practical responses to observed (monitored) performance or
deviation from anticipated performance.
• Compile an Observational Method Plan. The Observational Method is well-known in geotech-
nical engineering, so we say no more about the method here other than that it forces you to
establish logical monitoring and observation routines, to identify what may go wrong, and to
establish before you start what you are going to do if things start to go wrong. The Observational
Method, correctly applied, is no more than the construction of look-out forts, their consistent
manning, keeping a look out for an oncoming Black Swan, and the preparation of an arsenal of
weapons to slay the swan as it glides to your project and discredit.
• Implement an Incident Control Program. We know of no tailings facility that is part of an Incident
Control Program. It is a nuisance and sometimes offends the powers that be. Yet we submit that
a comprehensive Incident Control Program will nip in the bud most things that have ultimately
lead to slimes dam failures.
• Compile Checklists of what to do when designing, constructing and operating a tailings facility,
and focus on what to do when things start going wrong. Note the book by Atul Gawande who
proposes that proper use of checklists can improve the practice of medicine and the safety of
airplanes. There are many checklists for tailings impoundments built into the many documents
put out by national organizations. One that violates all the recommendations for a good checklist
is from the Mining Association of Canada (1998). We suspect none of them takes a “kill the
Black Swan” perspective. We submit that all are probably too unconservative. In particular, avoid
any that have sustainable in the title, for by definition this means they avoid the truth, or have
been written by consultants trying to make it easier for cash-strapped clients. They obviously
need to be re-written to be more outlier-event averse, but that is no good reason not to start now.
• Ensure Regular Peer Review. Peer reviewers are easy to fool and mislead. Peer reviewers are
as susceptible as any group to herd-thinking, and blindly following the lead of one dominant
individual who does not fall asleep in peer review meetings. Nevertheless, if carefully chosen
they are at least independent, force the designers and operators to prepare presentations and
argue their case (probably the greatest benefit of the whole process), and they may just notice
something management is too busy to attend to.
10 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
In this paper, we reject simplistic explanations of slimes dam failures predicated on economic cycles,
heavy rains, piping, management inattention, regulator incompetence, and so on. We submit that
every slimes dam failure can be traced to a string of events (positive incidents or failure-to-act
incidents), that in concert or in sequence are the cause of the failure and the attendant deaths.
We submit that the immediate causes of most slimes dam failures are such that the failure
could have been predicted and/or precluded by application of standard engineering practices and
techniques of the time. It would be fair to say that at the time of the Bafokeng failure, the engineering
38
knowledge and techniques were in place to predict failure, if an engineering examination had been
undertaken. Without doubt, at the time of the Merrispruit failure, the engineering knowledge
existed; had it had been brought to bear, failure would not have occurred.
Thus it is not technology or a failure of technology that kills. Lives are lost when a string of
incidents occurs, each in itself relatively trivial, but in concert, deadly. The answer is simple: control
the incidents, technical, engineering, and institutional. It is the graffiti theory: control the graffiti
and you reduce crime.
In this paper, we recommend that for every slimes dam/tailings facility/processed material
containment area there should be:
• Regular facilitated wide person deliberations to think things through.
• Regular peer review to put the spotlight on practices, good and bad.
• A comprehensive Risk Assessment to establish the things that could go wrong and to form the
basis of the instrumentation and monitoring plan, to be implemented in conjunction with an
Observational Method Plan.
• An Observational Method Plan, to guide the monitoring and associated actions.
• An Incident Management Plan, to enable you to deal proactively with the little things that if left
unattended will combine to enable the Black Swan to triumph.
• Simple Checklists on what to do when things start to go wrong.
REFERENCES
Blight, G. “Geotechnical Engineering for Mine Waste Storage Facilities” CRC, 2010.
Blight. G. and Fourie, A. “A review of catastrophic flow failure of deposits of mine waste and municipal refuse.
At this link: http://ww.unina2.it/flows2003/flows2003/articoli/G.E.%20BLIGHT%20&%20A.B.%20FO
URIE.pdf
FMEA Info Centre. At this link http://www.fmeainfocentre.com/
Gawande, Atul “The Checklist Manifesto.” At this link http://gawande.com/the-checklist-manifesto
Gipson, A. H. (2003) “Tailings dam failures – the human factor.” Tailings and Mine Waste ’03, page 451.
Balkema.
Michael Davis, Todd Martin, and Peter Lighthall. “Mine Tailings Dams; When Things Go Wrong.” At this link
http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/Davies2002d.pdf, The Mining Association of Canada (1998)
“A Guide to the Management of Tailngs Facilities.” www.mining.ca
Smith, E.S. (1973) “Tailings Disposal—Failure and Lessons.” Tailings Disposal Today Miller Freeman
Publications. Page 356.
Tailings.info at this link http://www.tailings.info/accidents.htm
Taleb, Nassim Nicholas “The Black Swan – The Impact of the Highly Improbable” Penguin Books 2007.
Vick, Steven G. (2002) “Degrees of Belief – Subjective Probability and Engineering Judgment.” ASCE Press.
39
New directions in tailings management
Clint Strachan
MWHAmericas Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
Jack Caldwell
ABSTRACT: Two Million Tonnes a Day – A Mining Waste Primer issued by MiningWatch Canada
in December 2009 sets out conceivable ills associated with current and possible new tailings disposal
methods. In this paper, we set out to examine current and proposed methods of tailings disposal
and management.
While there have been failures of tailings impoundments, it is possible to design, operate, and
close these facilities safely, and in ways that protect the environment. This paper will establish that
the issues raised in MiningWatch and similar documents posted on other web sites that attack mining
and tailings disposal practices are founded on a lack of technical knowledge; failure to collect,
collate, and understand the facts; and a desire to make statements derived from pre-established
prejudices and perspectives.
This paper summarizes the body of knowledge, new technologies, and practical experience, along
with case histories that substantiate the fact that tailings disposal can be managed in compliance with
international guidelines and standards; local regulations and requirements; in an environmentally
responsible manner; and in a manner that provides employment.
1 BRIEF HISTORY OF TAILINGS DISPOSAL
1.1 Initial operations

Tailings disposal was initially a technique of trial and error. In the early 1900s in South Africa, Fraser
F Alexander pioneered practical and inexpensive methods to construct tailings impoundments
entirely with tailings (slimes dams). He and those who succeeded him, have a long history of
successful impoundment construction and operation. However, this method in South Africa has
had failures. For example, failures of the Bafokeng and Merrispruit slimes dams led to awareness
of the consequences of failures, and changes in the laws.
Similar development in the knowledge and techniques for tailings disposal and impoundment
monitoring occurred in Canada and the United States. Construction of the first embankments with
tailings was by trial and error. The 1960s and 1970s included the beginning of the use of soil
mechanics to assess tailings behavior and tailings impoundment stability. In the mid 1970s we find
the first technical papers by civil and geotechnical engineers on tailings impoundments in North
America. It is interesting to return to these papers and see the use of fundamental principles in
design and operation of tailings impoundments, and to see the first words on vegetated covers as
part of facility closure.
1.2 Use of filtration

In the early 1980s both authors were involved in the Greens Creek Mine in Alaska. This was one
of the first mines to filter their tailings, truck them to a disposal facility, and compact the tailings
as a solid material. This approach was dictated by the wet climate and seismic risk of the area, as
well as limitations in impoundment area. But it showed that filtered tailings disposal is practical
under certain conditions, and is still used at the mine. Filtered and other dewatering treatments of
41
tailings have been in adopted elsewhere in recent years where impoundment space is limited or
water reuse must be optimized.
1.3 Earth and rockfill tailings embankments

In the 1980s, the authors were involved with the Cannon Mine in Washington, which consisted of
a rockfill embankment for containment of tailings, and the McLaughlin Mine in California, which
consisted of an earthfill dam for containment of tailings. Both embankments were designed and
constructed to applicable standards of dam design practice. Other rockfill and earth embankments
have been constructed in a similar fashion. As demonstrated by the successful closure and productive
ongoing use of both sites, mines close to communities and upstream from key water resources can
be operated and closed successfully.
1.4 Impoundment closure

The authors were also involved with the closure of uranium mill tailings impoundments across the
United States. As established by over twenty years of observation, these reclaimed impoundments
are performing as expected (in terms of impoundment stability and cover performance). The per-
formance criteria for these facilities are to be stable for the long-term period of performance (200
to 1,000 years).
Due to the volumes of materials involved and the cost and time associated with earthmoving
and water management, tailings impoundment closure is not a simple or inexpensive exercise. The
lesson learned from the uranium mill tailings impoundment closures is that the technology and
practice exists to achieve safe and stable long-term closure. New tailings impoundments must be
assessed for feasibility and designed and constructed with closure (and its associated time and
cost requirements) as part of the evaluation. Although “design for closure” has been discussed in
tailings impoundment design for over 20 years, this concept still needs to be stressed.
Some mines are using or planning to filter their tailings and so dispose of them as solid or “dry
stack” materials. Mines are also thickening and polymer-amending their tailings in order to create
materials that can be used for mine backfill or enhance the settling characteristics of discharged
tailings to hasten water recycling and tailings consolidation.
The case histories outlined above demonstrate that safe and effective tailings management is
feasible and practical – if the value of the ore body can accommodate the associated tailings
management costs.
2 IMPOUNDMENT FAILURES AND LESSONS
2.1 Information on failures

Although there are significant amounts of publicity and documents on tailings impoundment
failures, the important factors for engineers are the underlying causes of failures and how these
can be prevented. Documents that have examined reported tailings impoundment incidents (from
events requiring repair or mitigation to major failures) include USCOLD (1994), UNEP (1996), and
ICOLD (2001). The major factors that can be drawn from this body of information are listed below.
1. The majority of reported incidents were during the period when larger impoundments were
being constructed and soil mechanics theory was starting to be applied to tailings. The body of
information does not cover unreported incidents prior to this period.
2. The majority of reported incidents were for smaller impoundments (with embankment heights
less than 30 meters).
3. The majority of reported incidents were associated with embankments constructed with or over
tailings using the upstream method (described in Vick, 1983; ANCOLD, 1999).
4. Most of reported incidents were associated with improper water management (overtopping,
seepage and erosion) or seismic effects (liquefaction or excessive embankment deformation).
This information indicates that these incidents could have been prevented with proper design for
site conditions, proper construction and operation, and effective operation and monitoring. While
42
the body of information described above tries to assign one specific cause to an incident, the failure
of a tailings impoundment is often the result of a string of small events that combine in a unique
way to bring about an unanticipated failure.
2.2 Lessons from failures and unanticipated results

As an industry, we need to turn our attention and practice to the failure methods effects analysis
(FMEA) and other systems analysis approaches that have long been used in the nuclear power
generating and other industries. As long as the industry fails to take broad-based, comprehensive
looks at the systems that constitute a tailings impoundment, failures will continue.
We can also simplify our approaches and emulate the way in which the airline industry achieves
an enviable safety record by relying on simple checklists and duplicate oversight of every act. A
similar approach (behavior-based safety procedures) has been successfully used in oil refineries
and other industrial settings.
In addition, we must be bold in recognizing that there are some places where it simply is not
practical to mine and construct impoundments that will be stable and endure in perpetuity. There
are places where mining may not be practical, or the costs of site development, mining, and closure
do not justify the development. In certain areas, the ore body must be rich enough to afford the
expensive engineering works that are required to produce stable structures, maintain perpetual
water treatment, and provide containment and erosion resistance under long-term closure.
3 CODES AND GUIDELINES
3.1 Summary of guidelines and regulations

As the brief history above illustrates, it is possible to design, operate, and close tailings impound-
ments that protect human health and the environment. What is takes is the mandate, effort, and
capital outlay for effective design, operation, monitoring, and closure. The mandate includes
applicable codes, guidelines, and regulations. These range from general guidelines to specific
regulations.
Guidelines outline the accepted methods of tailings impoundment design, construction, oper-
ation, and closure in general terms (such as ICOLD, 1982; ANCOLD, 1999). General guidelines
for embankment stability have been outlined in Wilson and Marsal (1979), U.S. Army Corp of
Engineers (1982), ICOLD (1987), and ICOLD (1996). Guidelines for design storm events and
embankment freeboard depend on the risk classification of the structure, as outlined in FEMA
(2001), ICOLD (1987), and ICOLD (1992). Projects that include International Finance Corporation
financing require compliance with their guidelines (IFC, 2007).
Land management agencies in the US have guidelines and regulations on mining. Some states
have regulations affecting embankment stability administered by dam safety agencies. Other states
have regulations on embankment stability and impoundment containment administered under
groundwater protection regulations (such as ADEQ, 1998; NDEP, 1989). Nevada and other states
require a closure plan and bond before construction of mine facilities.
Projects outside the US have varied regulatory requirements, ranging from specific regulations
on facilities (typically in countries where there has been a mining history), to water protection
standards or water use laws. Where there are not clear regulations, most international mining
companies adopt North American or corporate standards or policies.
The guidelines and regulations are effective as long as there is an appropriate regulatory agency
to administer the regulations in a fair manner (without political or external pressures) or a review
board to check compliance with guidelines and follow-up of recommendations. These guidelines
and regulations are useful only if they are followed to achieve the ultimate goal: design, operate, and
close the impoundment so that it performs as a solid material and becomes a stable geochemical
and geomorphic form in the environment.
3.2 Variations in regulations

There is a significant variation in specificity and practicality of regulations. The uranium mill
tailings reclamation work mentioned above was conducted under the Uranium Mill Tailings
43
Remediation Control Act (UMTRCA) of 1977. The regulations were structured as performance
criteria (Appendix A of 10 CFR 40), stating that tailings will be isolated and impoundments will
be stable to the extent practical for 1,000 years and at any rate for at least 200 years. How this
performance criterion was achieved left room for creative analyses and engineering.
Compare this to the recent Directive 74 from the Alberta Energy Resource Conservation Board,
that states that the tailings shall have a strength of 5 kPa one year after deposition. There is no
indication of how to measure the strength or what kind of strength this is, and no guideline as to
what is supposed to be achieved by this requirement. It is not clear whether this is a requirement
upon discharge or a requirement for trafficability (5 kPa is a bearing capacity that is not sufficient
for foot traffic or vehicle traffic).
The engineer is thus faced with translating these kinds of objectives and goals into practical
engineering criteria: a thousand-year design life translates to design for the probable maximum
precipitation and the maximum credible earthquake.
4 RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 Variations in site conditions

If there is a solution to these issues, we submit it rests in recognition that a set of detailed regulations
does not apply world-wide. Because mineralized deposits occur in all parts of the world, mined
materials vary enormously from country to country, from region to region, and from climate to
climate. Standard practice for the construction and operation of tailings impoundments differs from
place to place for many reasons, including these:
• Ore Host Rock: The host rock in which gold occurs in South Africa is different from the sands
from which oil is extracted at an oil sand mine in Alberta.
• Processing: The crushing, grinding, and milling that may be necessary to make it possible to
extract platinum in the Bushveld is different to what needs be done to liberate diamonds from
kimberlite in the Canadian Northwest Territories.
• Chemicals: The chemicals added to liberate the ores impacts the waste disposal facilities.
Cyanide added to a Nevada heap leach pad imposes vastly different constraints than sulphuric
acid added to liberate copper or the lixiviant in Namibia to liberate uranium.
• Topography: In the steep valleys of British Columbia you have to design and operate the tailings
impoundment and waste rock dump in a completely different way to what you may do in the flat
deserts of Australia.
• Climate (precipitation): If it rains eight meters a year, as is the case in Papua New Guinea, waste
facilities will be different than those at a mine near Tucson, Arizona. Too much water is an issue
in the first case; too little water may be an issue in the second case.
• Climate (temperature): In Northern Canada, planning for snow, ice, winter freeze and spring
thaw is necessary in the design or closure of a mine waste facility. Conversely in the heat of
Northern Chile, sun drying and evaporation may lead to a limited water management approach
or a very different closure cover.
• Laws and Regulations. While there are international guidelines and codes to abide by, the ultimate
reality is the law of the country where the facility is located. In California mine pit backfilling
is required, with the idea being that the mine waste will be used to backfill the pit. In Canada,
it may be allowed to put mine waste in a lake and plan for a long-term water cover.
• Historical Practice and Precedent. In South Africa, Fraser F Alexander is the name of the leading
contractor building and operating slimes dams. .In practice, Fraser F Alexander (who started as
a foreman on a mine’s tailings impoundment, and started his own company when he realized
he could make a profit operating tailings impoundments) succeeded and established precedents
for operation that prevail today. Similar people in all countries have had decisive impacts on
standard practice—many of which have found their way into laws and regulations.
The only common factors from the variables listed above are the principles and practice of
science and engineering, specifically geotechnical and civil engineering. To ensure adherence to
44
these principles, implementation of standard practices include the following steps made in the
stages of the project.
4.2 Initial studies and documents

At the start of the project, information on the site is collected, with information included in the
following documents, as they pertain to the facility:
• Site Selection Report

• Alternatives Evaluation Report
• Conceptual Design Report
• Preliminary Closure Plan
These reports go by many other different names. But the purpose is the same, regardless of the
name: characterize the area, identify and compare potential waste facility sites, compile plans and
cost estimates to build, operate, and close the facilities. In addition, reports on site and facility
information should be produced that include the following information:
• Regional and site geology and geohydrology

• Regional and site seismicity
• Regional and site climate (precipitation, evaporation, temperature, wind)
• Relevant aspects of air and water quality in the region and at the site
• Site characterization information (surface and subsurface)
• Construction materials identification and properties
• Tailings and mine waste geotechnical and geochemical characteristics
This information is used to realistically evaluate the feasibility of the project. If the feasibi-
lity of the project is favorable to proceed, permitting and planning activities proceed. Additional
documents typically produced at this stage include:
• Design Criteria Document

• Regulatory Compliance Plan
• Risk Assessment Evaluation
• Peer Review Reports
4.3 Design studies and documents

With these reports (or the local variants or equivalents) in place, detailed design may proceed,
typically with the following elements:
• Design drawings
• Technical specifications
• Design report, including supporting design calculations and analyses
• Engineer’s cost estimate
Design calculations and analyses are a very important part of the design process, and require
clear documentation for thorough checking. Analyses and calculations that should be prepared
include:
• Foundation seepage and stability analyses

• Slope stability analyses (with deformation analyses as necessary)
• Water and chemical mass balance calculations
• Settlement and consolidation analyses of tailings and other structures
• Hydraulic analyses of channels and other hydraulic structures
• Hydraulic analyses of impoundments for appropriate embankment freeboard or spillway capacity
• Cover performance analyses on final surfaces
45
4.4 Construction and operation documents
After the financing is arranged, the permits are in place, the mining team is assembled, and
contractors are selected, construction and operation may begin. The key documents at this stage
include:
• Management and Operating Manual

• Instrumentation and Monitoring Plan.
• Emergency Response Plan
The Management and Operating Manual should set out in clear and specific language how the
facility will be operated and managed. This includes the personnel involved and their roles and
responsibilities—also their contact details and how often they should be involved and consulted.
The manual should also describe (by way of simple diagrams) the components of the facility and
how they tie together. The level of detail should be such that the field personnel can use the diagram
and text to understand how it all comes together and should work. The manual should include brief
checklists of how to operate each component. Common items include:
• Delivery pipes and valves

• Penstocks and return water barges
• Sediment ponds and runoff control facilities
• Dikes and embankments
A recommended section in the manual is an Incident Management Plan. This consists of docu-
mentation of incidents (or near misses in safety nomenclature), with root causes and mitigation
measures. We believe that ten incidents make for one accident, and ten accidents make for one
serious accident—or worse, a catastrophic failure of the facility and a significant environmental
impact.
The Instrumentation and Monitoring Plan outlines the instrumentation to be installed in the
facility, how it is operated and maintained, how often the readings are taken, and how often the data
is downloaded or collected. There should be precise instructions on frequency of documentation
and sending the results of observations and monitoring up the chain of command to responsible
engineers and managers.
We hardly need go into the contents of an Emergency Response Plan. Suffice it to say it lists
all personnel who need to be informed, called in, or set to work to deal with an emergency. The
challenge to the geotechnical engineer is to make sure all emergencies that may occur are identified.
The most basic items are listed below:
• Embankment slope movement or failure

• Overtoppping of embankment
• Release of tailings or process water
• Fire
An additional document is a plan outlining response to the ever-changing mining conditions

(Observational Method Implementation Plan) that typically evolve as the mine develops. This plan is
different from an emergency response plans, and is a long-range planning document. Recommended
provisions responding to changing conditions include the following:
• Foundation material characteristics and performance

• Construction material properties
• Tailings, waste rock, and/or heap leach material characteristics
• Water balance performance (precipitation, runoff, and too much process water or too little
makeup water)
• Erosion and sediment buildup
• Capacity for tailings, waste rock, process water and other materials
46
Another recommended document during operations is a community relations plan. Many mining
operations have a community relations person or department to address local and regional concerns
and issues. These issues change during mine operation and as the facility transitions into closure.
4.5 Closure documents

As the mine’s end of life approaches, ideally the existing closure plan has been updated during
operations, so that actual closure is consistent with existing plans. Key documents associated with
closure include the following:
• Updated Closure Plan
• Closure Construction Design Documents (drawings, specifications, design calculations and
analyses)
• Post-Closure Monitoring Plan
• Post-Closure Emergency Management Plan
The focus of closure and post-closure becomes water management, including surface water
management and erosion protection, residual process water evaporation or treatment, and tailings
porewater management.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Mining and associated tailings disposal involve relatively large areas and volumes, and consume
significant quantities of water. The changes in topography from mining and disposal of tailings
create landforms that will remain for centuries. This makes mining a visible target for anti-mining
groups and NGOs, even without failures and unanticipated incidents. The efforts of these groups are
seen in pressures placed on legislatures and regulatory agencies, and in challenges in the permitting
process and after permits have been issued. These efforts are despite the fact that development of
natural resources is a key component of a productive society.
There is a credible body of information about tailings impoundments, including failures and their
causes, as well as guidelines for proper design, construction, operation, and closure. Land man-
agement agencies have requirements for mining and tailings disposal on their lands, and individual
states have regulations for embankment safety and tailings containment. Both land management
and state agencies have surety bonding requirements to cover closure and reclamation costs. These
requirements and regulations are effective if the regulatory agencies have support and enforcement
mandates, and the regulated mining companies are serious about quality operations and community
relations.
In addition to these guidelines and regulations, procedures for safety management and documen-
tation used in other high-risk industries should be adopted for operation of tailings impoundments.
Review of operation and closure of impoundments by knowledgeable and experienced regulatory
agency personnel or (if not available) third-party reviewers should be used.
The MiningWatch document, referenced in the abstract of this paper, outlines the failures of
tailings impoundments and problems with mining activity. This is done to stress the point of
limiting where and how tailings can be disposed and recommending recycling of metals to reduce
the need to mine. The MiningWatch document is one of many written products that are founded on
truth, but are created to make a specific point, without independent review or cross examination.
An egregious example of prejudice in engineering analysis that the authors were involved with
was an accusation that a mine was the cause of cracks in houses in the vicinity of the mine. The
logic for this accusation was that there was no other simple explanation for the damage to the
houses. This false engineering conclusion has since been refuted with sound data collection and
interpretation from experts in seismic analyses. But it will take time to undo the publicity created
from the initial false accusation.
This example is not an isolated incident. It may be argued that such people, engineers included,
serve a purpose in prompting the mining industry to act to examine the truth and act proactively
to negate the potential for slander from such people. But, as long as the mining industry does not
operate properly and to the highest standards, mine facilities are fertile stalking ground for bad
publicity and misinformation.
47
REFERENCES
Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ), 1998. Arizona Mining BADCT Guidance Manual,
Aquifer Protectiojn Program, Water Quality Division, September.
Australian National Committee on Large Dams (ANCOLD), 1999. Guidelines on Tailings Dam Design,
Construction, and Operation, October.
California Mining Association (CMA), 1992. Mine Waste Management, Hutchison and Ellison Eds., Lewis
Publishers.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2001. “The National Dam Safety Program, Research Needs
Workshop: Hydrologic Issues for Dams.”
International Commission on Large Dams, Committee on Mine and Industrial Tailings Dams (ICOLD), 1982.
“Manual on Tailings Dams and Dumps,” ICOLD Bulletin 45, ICOLD, Paris.
“Tailings Dam Safety,” ICOLD Bulletin 74, ICOLD, Paris.
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), 1987. “Dam Safety – Guidelines,” ICOLD Bulletin 59,
ICOLD, Paris.
International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), 1992. “Selection of Design Flood, Current Methods,”
Bulletin 82.
“A Guide to Tailings Dams and Impoundments,” ICOLD Bulletin 106, ICOLD, Paris.
International Commission on Large Dams, Committee on Tailings Dams and Waste Lagoons (ICOLD), 2001.
“Tailings Dams – Risk of Dangerous Occurrences,” ICOLD Bulletin 121, ICOLD, Paris.
International Cyanide Management Institute (ICMI), 2005. “Implementation Guidance for the International
Cyanide Management Code,” November.
International Cyanide Management Institute (ICMI), 2008. “The International Cyanide Management Code,”
August.
International Finance Corporation (IFC), 2007. “Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Mining,”
December 10.
Nevada Division of Environmental Protection (NDEP), 1989. “Regulations Governing Design, Construction,
Operation and Closure of Mining Operations.”
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1996. “Environmental and Safety Incidents Concerning
Tailings Dams at Mines,” based on survey conducted by Mining Journal Research Services for UNEP.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1982. “Engineering and Dam Stability for Earth and Rockfill Dams,”
EM-1110-2-1920, U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Committee on Large Dams, Committee on Tailings Dams (USCOLD), 1994. Tailings Dam Incidents,
USCOLD.
Vick, S.G., 1983. Planning, Design, and Analysis of Tailings Dams, John Wiley and Sons, New York; reprinted
1990, BiTech Publishers Ltd., Vancouver.
Wilson S.D, and R.J. Marsal, 1979. “Current Trends in Design and Construction of Embankment Dams.”
American Society of Civil Engineers.
48
Overview: Tailings disposal and dam construction practices

in the 21st century
A.J. Breitenbach
Ausenco Vector, Denver, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: Tailings disposal practices in the mining industry have been changing in the last
10 years from high water content conventional slurry tailings disposal to more water efficient
thickened tailings, paste tailings and dry stack tailings disposal in recent time. These changes are
occurring in part due to more scarce fresh water resources to sustain the mill production operations,
and in part due to more efficient thickener tank designs for removal of excess tailings slurry water
for plant reuse. Tailings disposal storage practices are also changing to co-disposal of tailings in
mine waste piles with the potential for end of operations reprocessing of tailings as backfill disposal
into depleted mine excavations at closure.
This paper discusses the recent changes in tailings disposal and storage practices and their impact
on tailings dam construction in the 21st Century.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mine operations for tailings disposal have been evolving in recent time due to three primary factors
related to water supply at mine sites: 1) the improvement in thickener tank technology within the last
10 years in reducing the solids to water ratio in slurry tailings for less mill plant water demand, 2)
the scarcity of fresh water supplies in dry climate areas of the world, and 3) the general awareness
in the government and private sector to maintain and conserve existing fresh water sources for
sustainability going into the 21st century.
The overall trend in modern day mining is to decrease the water content in tailings disposal
operations and switch from upstream method dam construction to centerline and downstream
method dam construction. In some cases such as paste or dry filter tailings disposal, tailings
co-disposal in mine waste fill, or tailings backfill in depleted mine excavations, the trend goes
even further to limited or no dam construction. This discussion presents an overview of the types
of tailings disposal and storage operations and their impact on tailings dam construction.
2 TAILINGS DISPOSAL AND STORAGE DEVELOPMENT
2.1 General
The four basic types of tailings transport and disposal operations listed in the general order of
decreasing tailings moisture content include conventional, thickened, paste and dry filter tailings.
The 4 categories of tailings disposal storage facilities include co-disposal in mine waste piles,
backfill in depleted underground or open pit mine excavations, backfill in natural water features
including rivers, lakes and deep sea disposal, and the more common practice of land based tailings
dam containment. The different types of tailings disposal operations and storage facilities are
discussed in this section. Photo 1 shows the larger diameter conventional tailings thickeners being
replaced with smaller sized thickeners for thickened or paste tailings at lower water content.
2.2 Conventional tailings disposal

Conventional tailings refer to the most common type of tailings mill waste slurry used in the 20th
century having a relatively low solids to water ratio ranging from about 35 to 50 percent by total
49
Photo 1. Large conventional thickener to smaller high rate (thickened tailings) to high wall and high angle
(paste tailings) thickener, courtesy of Outotec.
weight, depending on various tailings rheology factors such as the whole tailings gradation, specific
gravity, viscosity and hydraulic flow friction loss. The conventional tailings slurry is generally
characterized by turbulent flow and segregation of coarse and fine tailings during transport and at
the final disposal points. The high conventional tailings slurry water content allowed “desanding”
of the more coarse copper tailings grind in classifier boxes since the 1910’s, and enhanced cyclone
centrifugal separation of coarse underflow sands from the more fine overflow “slimes” for building
perimeter tailings sand dams since the 1950’s.
The conventional tailings slurry could be transported long distances away from the mill by gravity
flow in open launder chutes or enclosed pipelines to the impoundment. Energy dissipation drop
boxes or centrifugal pumping were added as needed for discharge from single or multiple spigot
points around the tailings impoundment. The settled tailings density for conventional tailings would
be relatively low with the more coarse tailings forming a flat alluvial fan beach surface at each
disposal point. The finer tailings slimes with low sand content flowed further into the interior
toward the water pool. Rotation of the slurry disposal points from active to inactive areas around
the impoundment perimeter allowed thin layers of the low density beach material to drain and dry
for densification and increased strength. Clear water from the water pool surface would be decanted
by gravity flow in towers and pipelines extending beneath the tailings dam or by lower risk floating
barge pumps in modern times for water return to the plant.
Visually the conventional tailings slurry would appear to have excess water and a low settled
density at the discharge point, although exceptions include non-segregating fine clayey gold and
silver tailings, phosphatic clays and oil sand sludge-like slurries that have their own unique defi-
nition with very low solids to water ratios. The conventional tailings beach slope would generally
be in the range of 0.5 to 1 percent grades and flatter toward the water pool. The cycloned sand
from conventional tailings with a high sand content (typically copper, molybdenum, lead and zinc
tailings) can develop underflow sand pile slopes beneath the cyclone towers steeper than 50 percent
grades (2 horizontal to 1 vertical slope).
2.3 Thickened tailings disposal

Thickened tailings refer to a higher solids to water ratio slurry typically in the range of 50 to 65
percent and characterized by non-segregating laminar slurry flow in the open launder chute or
enclosed pipeline. The more dewatered thickened tailings are developed in high rate and high wall
thickeners at the plant. The high rate “thickener within a thickener” is a recent development in the
last 10 years that can reduce the thickener time and reduce the size of the tank diameter compared to
50
conventional thickeners. The hydraulic friction loss increases with reduction in the tailings slurry
water content, however the friction loss remains in the acceptable range of centrifugal pumps. The
settled density at the discharge point increases with less entrapped water content in the tailings
beach and the water pool return pumping is less to the plant.
Visually the thickened tailings slurry would appear to have a “soupy” non-turbulent discharge
flow with less segregation of coarse and fine tailings in the tailings beach surface materials. The
thickened tailings beach slope surface generally increases with the degree of thickener dewatering
to between 1 to 2 percent grades. As noted earlier for the conventional tailings, there are always
thickened tailings slurry “exceptions to the rule” for beach slopes, including flatter beach slopes
during startup high rate of rise conditions or steeper tailings beach slopes with submerged disposal
into a startup water pool.
The end result of thickened tailings impoundment disposal is a more uniform tailings gradation
from beach to water pool at a higher settled density and whole tailings strength with less water
demand at the plant compared to conventional tailings. There are pros and cons to the use of
thickened tailings, like allowing for a better seal in unlined basins (less disposal water content
minimizes seepage and segregation of tailings sand from the finer slimes materials for a lower
permeability perimeter tailings beach seal), and the opposite of this affect is that cyclone separation
of tailings sands from slimes becomes more difficult with less water content in the thickened tailings.
2.4 Paste tailings disposal

Paste tailings refer to an even higher solids-to-water ratio at 65 to 75 percent typical for the non-
segregating mud-like slurry compared to the more fluid conventional and thickened tailings slurry.
The mud like paste tailings are developed with high wall and high angle thickeners at a slower plant
production rate. The paste tailings have high hydraulic friction losses for pumping and require a
switch from centrifugal to positive displacement pumping for pipeline transport. The paste tailings
settled density is significantly higher and the tailings beach slope increases between 2 to 10 percent
typical for impoundment disposal. Visually the paste tailings discharge slurry would appear to be
a mud flow with a low amount of “bleed” water seeping from the beach slope.
Paste tailings have been used in the backfilling of underground mines since the 1980’s and
rarely used in tailings disposal in above ground impoundments due to the high cost in the plant
thickener, pumping transport and disposal of mud-like tailings (high capital and operating costs).
In recent times a few mine sites have used above ground paste tailings disposal, where water supply
is scarce. The impoundment cost savings in having less tailings dam containment and higher
settled density are offset by high disposal point maintenance costs and loss of interior storage
capacity due to steep beach grades from the interior towers. Other restrictions to adequate paste
tailings containment include liquefaction issues in high seismicity areas and sediment transport
containment from sloping mud tailings surfaces in high rainfall areas.
2.5 Dry filter tailings disposal

Dry filter tailings refer to dewatered tailings that can no longer be pumped and require mechanical
transport by trucks or conveyors for disposal in the tailings impoundment. The dry filter tailings
solids to water ratio at 75 to 85 percent typical allows the material to be stacked at a relatively
high density and strength compared to the pipeline transported tailing slurry. The dry filter tailings
capital and operating costs are higher than pipeline transport; however, the higher costs are offset
by the low risk of tailings spills (no water pool and retention dams), order of magnitude reduction
in the tailings area with stacked tailings fill lifts, and the lowest water demand at the plant.
A few gold and silver operations have used dry stack tailings since the 1980’s and a secondary
benefit of the dry filter water recovery at the plant includes capturing the majority of the cyanide
water for reuse in operations in addition to lower cyanide destruction costs. The stacked tailings
piles also allow for early reclamation of the final exterior slopes during operations for less end of
mine closure costs.
2.6 Co-disposal in mine waste fill

Co-disposal of tailings in mine waste fill started in the 1990’s with construction of lined and
unlined impoundments contained by perimeter mine waste piles. The importance of engineered
51
Photo 2. Depleted mine pit lined and backfilled with conventional or thickened tailings disposal.
compaction and filter control containment in mine dump fills was demonstrated by the loss of the
tailings impoundment water pool through a clay core soil liner in 1996 at the Omai gold project in
Guyana. Mixing of tailings within mine waste rock fill is a new development and likely will not
replace the more practical concept of using perimeter mine waste piles with interior filter drainage
control, and in particular the use of geomembrane liners where the water pool may be located near
the waste dump loose lift fill slopes.
2.7 Depleted mine excavation disposal

Numerous underground mines have been backfilled with paste or treated thickened tailings backfill
since the 1980’s for safety or mine closure reasons. Tailings backfill in completed underground mine
workings included paste or thickened tailings materials mixed with cement and other stabilizing
additives, which reduce the required amount of tailings to be stored in above ground impoundment
facilities.
Open pit mines have historically been left in an open condition during operations to closure,
unless unstable wall conditions warranted partial backfilling with mine waste fill to complete the
pit ore excavations. Most open pit walls are constructed to a safety factor of 1 to extract as much
ore from the ground with the least amount of stripping to expose the ore body.
The backfilling of depleted mine pits with lined landfills, tailings impoundments and heap leach
pads is a recent development at several mines (Breitenbach 2008). Lined or unlined tailings backfill
in underground and open pit mine excavations, where practical, would significantly reduce the mine
disturbance area and related reclamation closure costs, in addition to minimizing construction of
above ground tailings containment dams. Photo 2 shows a lined tailings impoundment at startup
within a depleted mine pit in 2004 at the El Valle mine in Northern Spain.
Re-milling of existing tailings piles for removal of residual ore metals started in the late 1980’s
and is becoming more economic in recent time due to the increase in metal prices and the desire
for sustainability of the mine. Re-slurrying of existing tailings piles back through the mill plant at
the end of mine operations provides an excellent opportunity to backfill the mine pit excavations
with reprocessed tailings to reduce the above ground tailings pile and any pit lake issues at closure
with the recovered metals paying for the end of mine life low cost operations.
2.8 Rivers, lakes, and deep-sea disposal

Disposal of tailings into the natural rivers, lakes and the deep sea environment is a practice that
occurs to the present day. The environmental impact of direct tailings disposal into rivers and lakes
is significant with destruction of habitat life and fresh water sources, and therefore on-going mining
52
Photo 3. Deep water disposal of copper tailings on Vancouver Island courtesy of Amazon web site.
operations like in Papua New Guinea are becoming a less acceptable practice in the 21st century.
The environmental impact of deep sea disposal can be argued to have less of an impact compared
to containment on land, particularly for acid generating tailings and waste rock. Photo 3 shows a
Vancouver Island copper mine in 1999 with nearby deep water disposal before the depleted mine
pit was flooded with sea water at the end of operations.
2.9 Land based tailings impoundment disposal

The most common type of tailings disposal involves construction of a dam or perimeter dike
system for lined or unlined containment of conventional, thickened or paste tailings. More mines
are adopting the use of compacted earth and rock fill dams with geomembrane liner systems in
modern times for tailings disposal with long term containment stability and improved protection
of baseline groundwater conditions. The primary purpose of the tailings dam containment is to
minimize environmental risks with safe disposal of the tailings without spills to closure. One of the
earliest geomembrane lined tailings impoundments was the Sweetwater Dam in 1976 for a uranium
mine in Wyoming, USA.
3 TAILINGS DAM CONSTRUCTION
3.1 General
Tailings dam construction generally involves a starter dam for initial low capital cost tailings
disposal containment and for development of a stable tailings beach sloping toward an interior
water pool. A gravity flow pipeline or barge pump decant water return system would route the
impoundment water back to the plant for reuse in operations. Raises above the starter dam crest
level included three basic types of dam construction including upstream method, centerline, and
downstream method construction discussed in this section. Photo 4 shows an upstream method
dam raise in 1971 using cycloned tailings towers elevated onto the existing tailings beach fill in
New Mexico, USA. Photo 5 shows a centerline method dam raise in 2001 using vertical cyclone
towers to develop tailings sand dam materials for compacted fill placement at the Quebrada Honda
Dam in Southern Peru. Photo 6 shows a downstream method dam raise using earth and rock fill
materials for compacted fill containment at the Marlin Dam in Guatemala.
Conventional tailings disposal is associated with the cycloned upstream and centerline method
tailings dams for producing a clean sand perimeter for drainage and high strength containment.
Thickened and paste tailings disposal would generally apply to non-cycloned tailings dam con-
struction and co-disposal filter control in waste rock piles. Dry filter tailings stacks, depleted pit
53
Photo 4. Upstream method raise with cyclone towers on the tailings beach surface
Photo 5. Centerline method raise with vertical hydro-cyclone towers and compacted lifts.
backfill, and deep sea disposal would eliminate the need for land based containment dams. Fresh
water lake and river disposal hopefully will end world wide as a tailings disposal option.
3.2 Upstream method dam raises

Upstream method tailings dams have been used extensively in the mining industry in the 20th
century with less frequent use in the 21st century due to the higher risk of instability compared to
other types of dams. The single most important factor in upstream method dam stability is adequate
tailings beach drainage, which requires the ability to deposit settled tailings above the impoundment
water pool level (prevent submerged tailings disposal with related low density, strength, and poor
drainage issues). Therefore the lowest risk upstream method dams have the water pool located away
from the dam as much as practical after startup operations. In addition, the perimeter tailings beach
54
Photo 6. Downstream method raise with conventional compacted earth and rock fill.
surface should be allowed to dry by rotation of active disposal areas for densification and reduction
of pore pressures in controlled and relatively thin hydraulic fill layers.
The upstream method tailings dam construction typically consists of building a berm raise
above a starter dam on the existing tailings surface in an upstream fashion. This can be done
with several construction techniques including hydraulic slurry disposal at multiple spigot loca-
tions from incremental berm raises, placement, flooding, and drainage of multiple paddock cell
walls, or hydro-cyclone peripheral deposition of tailings sand beach material to develop an exterior
embankment berm fill with drained cyclone underflow sand strength sloping to an interior water
pool.
The most predominant type of upstream method raise construction included excavating the
dried inactive perimeter tailings beach fill surface with an excavator and dozer to create a low level
perimeter berm raise in segments around the impoundment. Construction of the perimeter berms
with earth and rock fill materials added additional strength and early reclamation of the exterior
slopes during operations. Tailings cells or multiple impoundments were generally created to allow
a portion of the impoundment to remain inactive for the segmental berm raises. As each segment
of berm raise is completed, the tailings delivery pipeline is reset on the new berm crest level for
continued disposal operations. The paddock wall construction is labor intensive and requires more
time to construct in small raises. The flooded walls are allowed to drain and dry for the next wall
construction and animal traffic was sometimes used for compaction within each wall cell.
The cyclone sand dam construction with conventional tailings disposal has been more common
for copper tailings dams, due to the more coarse mill grind sand size and content available in the
copper tailings compared to finer grind gold and silver tailings to form a perimeter sand dam fill.
The cyclones provide a more efficient way to separate the larger sand sized particles from the finer
sized slurry sands, silts and clays by the use of centrifugal force. The tailings slurry is pumped
into the cyclones under low pressures to minimize pump, pipeline and cyclone wear maintenance.
The spinning slurry motion in the cyclones forces the larger sand particles to spiral to the outside
toward the apex end as underflow sand, while the finer slurry materials are forced to the center of
the cyclone into an attached overflow pipeline to the impoundment.
The upstream method tailings dams are the most economic to construct for dam raises, unless
large quantities of excavated mine overburden waste rock materials are locally available for other
types of dam construction. The upstream method dam construction was common into the 1980’s
and 1990’s, however studies of world-wide dam failures indicate hydraulic fills are susceptible to
seismic (earthquake) liquefaction, overtopping, and tailings delivery or water return gravity decant
pipe break instability compared to all other types of dam construction (USCOLD 1994). A fast
rate of rise in hydraulic fill tailings disposal operations can also increase the potential risk of static
liquefaction failure (Martin and McRoberts 1999).
55
Therefore upstream method tailings dams have seen less frequent use in recent times in high
seismic zones of the world, as well as any areas where the tailings dam can be classified as a
high hazard structure. Earthquake prone countries like Peru and Chile have discontinued the use
of upstream method dam construction by law since the 1990’s.
Compacted rock fill shells have been used to improve the stability of existing upstream method
hydraulic fill tailings dams in high seismic zones since the 1970’s, starting with the Codelco
Barahona copper tailings dams in central Chile. Essentially the upstream method dams can be
converted to a more stable structure with the use of compacted mine waste rock fills in the exterior
shell of the dam.
3.3 Centerline method dam raises

Centerline method dams rarely have been used in past construction for various reasons mainly
related to the popularity of upstream method dams into the 1980’s, as well as the need for a wide
two way traffic downstream fill zone with each raise to accommodate large haul trucks loaded with
low cost mine waste rock fill. However, more centerline raises are being constructed in modern
times due to cyclone “sand dam” construction primarily in the copper industry. The concept of
tailings sand beach centerline raise construction above the starter dam crest began in the 1910’s
with the use of sand declassifier boxes that appear to be first used by Kennecott on the Barahona
copper tailings dams at the El Teniente mine in Chile. The declassifier boxes allowed the heavier
and larger particle sizes of wet underflow sands to drop down from the towers in the downhill
direction, while the overflow finer tailings slurry particles were routed in open channel launder
chutes and deposited toward the interior impoundment limits. The concept of better drained and
higher quality cycloned tailings sand for more efficient upstream and centerline method dam raise
construction started in the 1950’s and continues to the present day. Some modern day sand dams
are using elevated tailings delivery pipelines along a series of vertical steel pipeline towers, which
allows the tailings slurry pipeline disposal to continue without stopping and relocating the pipeline
for each centerline dam raise.
The centerline dam raise essentially maintains a vertical crest raise above the starter dam crest
to the ultimate dam height utilizing the peripheral tailings beach fill as the buttressing support to
the upstream section of the dam. The disposal of slurry tailings in thin beach fill lifts stabilizes the
upstream slope of the crest berm at 4 to 6 m typical berm raises, while the crest and downstream
sections are constructed with earth and rock fill or cyclone sand fill. Controlled lift placement
and compaction are added in the downstream dam zone for stable conditions in high seismicity
locations. Earthen dams may include vertical drains and filter control in the crest fill raises with
connection to the starter dam drain system for the option of operating water pools or design
storm storage near the dam limits. Water pools next to sand dams would have a higher risk of
instability.
Some earlier centerline method dams typically included earth and rock fill materials at the
crest and in downstream zones of the dam. A variation to the earth and rock fill centerline raise
includes steep upstream slopes with compacted rock fill for subsequent buttressing by the hydrauli-
cally placed tailings beach fill. An example of this type of dam includes the Cannon Mine Dam
in Washington, USA with a steepened upstream slope raise of 20 m that allowed the existing
dam crest to be raised another 5 m vertically to the ultimate dam height of 146 m above the
downstream toe.
Examples of mobile centerline method cyclone sand dam raises include the Doe Run Dam in
Missouri, USA). The mobile cyclone unit deposits a new layer of sand fill along the crest with the
underflow sands from the cyclone forming an approximate 3H:1V downstream slope assisted by a
dozer. The solids to water ratio, coarse tailings sand underflow to fine tailings slime overflow ratio
and slurry pressure to the cyclone are controlled with each pass of the mobile unit for continuous
centerline dam crest raises.
An example of a stationary centerline method cyclone sand dam raise with vertical hydro cyclones
includes the Quebrada Honda Dam in Southern Peru shown in Photo 5. The dam crest is raised ver-
tically by mega cyclone stations or multiple cyclone clusters along the inside crest, with underflow
sands excavated by draglines and placed in controlled lifts by dozer for compaction. The dam was
approximately 85 m high at a crest length of 3.9 km, when it was subjected to the June 2001 8.4 M
earthquake. The tailings beach slope liquefied according to mine personnel and minor cracks were
56
observed along the upstream dam crest (GEES web site 2008). The sand dam crest and downstream
slope remained stable.
3.4 Downstream method dam raises

Downstream method dams have the best historic record for stability and are commonly used for
water storage dam raises with adequate filter and drain control. A bench is provided at the upstream
slope for continued tailings disposal while the downstream section of the dam is raised in phases
to the ultimate dam height. Drain and filter systems in the starter dam can be extended in the
downstream raises as needed, as well as transition zones from lower to higher strength downstream
shell materials. The downstream raises allow geomembrane liners to be placed on the upstream
slope for lined impoundment facilities. An example of a downstream raise to an existing tailings
dam with the water pool located in the dam area is shown in Photo 6.
4 CONCLUSIONS
An overview of the tailings disposal operations into the 21st century indicate a transition from
conventional high water content tailings disposal to lower water content thickened tailings dis-
posal. Where fresh water supply is scarce, paste or dry filter tailings disposal have been used at a
significantly higher tailings disposal costs for sustainability of the fresh water supply sources.
Tailings disposal facilities include co-disposal in mine waste fill, backfill disposal in depleted
mine excavations, disposal in lakes, rivers and deep sea environments, and disposal in land based
lined and unlined tailings impoundments. More mines are adopting the use of compacted earth and
rock fill dams with geomembrane liner systems in modern times for tailings disposal with long
term containment stability and improved protection of baseline groundwater conditions.
A transition from upstream method dam construction to centerline and downstream method
construction has occurred since the 1980’s related to the higher risk of upstream method dam
instability, especially in seismic (earthquake) active areas of the world.
A transition from tailings dams to other options for lesser dam storage or “no dams” will likely
occur more often in the 21st century including small containment berms for paste and dry filter
tailings containment, and co-disposal in waste rock piles or tailings backfill in depleted mine pit
excavations. Re-mining of existing above ground tailings piles at the end of mine operations for
residual metal recovery and pit backfill may become the best sustainable option for mines at closure
that benefit the owner (post-mining operation pays for itself), the dam engineers (less long term
containment risks) and the environment (less above ground dam and backfilled pit issues).
REFERENCES
Breitenbach, A.J. (2008), “Backfilling Depleted Open Pit Mines with Lined Landfills, Tailings Impound-
ments and Ore Heap Leach Pads for Reduced Closure Costs”, GeoAmericas 2008 Conference Proceedings,
Geosynthetics in Mining Session, IFAI, Cancun, Mexico.
GEES.usc.edu/GEER/peru_earthquake (August 2008), “Geotechnical Aspects of Mine Facility Performance”,
Quebrada Honda Tailings Dam.
Martin, T.E. and McRoberts, E.C. (1999), “Some Considerations in the Stability Analysis of Upstream Method
Tailings Dams”, Tailings and Mine Waste Conference, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado.
USCOLD (1994), “Tailings Dam Incidents”, United States Committee on Large Dams, p. 82.
57
A history of South African slimes dams engineers
J. Caldwell
G. McPhail
Metago Environmental Engineers (Australia) Pty Ltd, Perth, Australia
ABSTRACT: Geoffrey Blight, retired Professor at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johan-
nesburg, South Africa has just published a new book Geotechnical Engineering for Mine Waste
Storage Facilities. In this book he comprehensively describes the history and current state-of-the-art
of South African tailings disposal. Go to almost any other country where there are mines, and you
find the offices of consulting practices that started in South Africa and that have expanded globally
on the strength of their tailings expertise: SRK and Knight Piesold are but two examples. This paper
is a short history of tailings disposal design and construction starting in South Africa with Fraser F.
Alexander and the ring dike system and thin lift subaerial deposition; then progressing through the
years of emigration from South Africa of engineers and companies to most other mining countries.
We tell the story of how South African engineers and consultants have become so integral a part of
current international tailings practice by adapting South African practice to international needs and
by adopting and integrating practices pioneered by the great North American engineers faced with
earthquakes, cold climates, dry deserts, and social & environmental concerns not initially part of
early South African practice.
1 INTRODUCTION
Geoff Blight’s new book on tailings impoundments, or mine waste storage facilities as he calls them,
is destined to become a classic. While we disagree with his term, storage facilities, we acknowledge
that he has written a great book that documents the technical aspects of South African “slimes dams”
and waste dumps, as we used to call them—harkening back to the days before political correctness
forced us into verbal acrobatics.
Geoff’s book tells nothing of the people of the South African slimes dam history and achieve-
ments. Thus we write this paper to record what we remember of them. We tell their tales from
memory and personal recollections; we make no attempt at documented research. All we hope is
that this paper stimulates others to more closely research and document a fascinating history that
is in danger of disappearing into the mists as memories fade and colleagues die.
Some may say this paper is advertising for ourselves and the friends and colleagues of whom
we write. That is simply wrong. This is a personal history based on recollections. If it helps those
of whom we write, so be it. If it hurts, that is what we recall. We hope only that others take up their
pens to document the history of the people of tailings impoundments worldwide—a story too big
for one paper.
2 FRASER F ALEXANDER
Gary Rae who managed Fraser Alexander, or Frasers as we called them, told that the company had
been started by Fraser F Alexander near the turn of the last century.
The story goes thus: Fraser F Alexander was a foreman on a mine. He was in charge of building
the slimes dam. He did this mostly by experience and native skill. He was bedeviled by the fact that
59
the slimes never came at a consistent rate of consistent water content. Sometimes he could build
wall with the slimes; but too often the slimes were nearly pure water and he could not build walls
with the slimes. One day he went to the mine manager to complain. The response was predictable;
he was fired. He went home to sit on the stoep and relax.
But things at the slimes dam went from bad to worse. Those left behind could not build the dam
and fell behind and threatened to shut down the mill as they could not keep up with the slimes. In
desperation, the mine manager set a delegation to Fraser F Alexander to ask him to return to his
old job. He declined. Things got worse and worse at the slimes dam, so the delegation returned.
He offered to return, not as an employee, but as a contractor and he demanded he be paid a penny
a ton of tailings. His offer was accepted, he returned, and the slimes dam was back in operation.
He never complained again.
Many mines bought into his concept for he had a simple way of building dams: dig a trench;
deposit some slime; let it dry; and then using the abundant labor of the times, build a small dike;
place more slime and proceed. The process as it developed and became a subject of academic
interest is well described by Blight.
Gary told me that the company struggled as there were always failures and fights with mine
management. Then one day, the Daly brothers took control of the company. Gary married June
Daly, and we remember her as a beautiful and vital woman, who loved luxury but was so nice that
you could not but love her and enjoy every minute in her company.
Fred Daly, June’s father, owned Fraser F Alexander when we worked on slimes dams in South
Africa. He was small and round. He had skin cancer and had been told to avoid the sun. He would
scurry from a car with darkened windows to an office of drawn blinds. He was tough and demanded
results of Gary, who was an ebullient and energetic fellow with a constant smile and an almost
instinctive understanding of slimes dams.
3 JERE JENNINGS
Jere Jennings was the father of soil mechanics in South Africa. The majority of the engineers listed
in this paper went through undergraduate and many of them, postgraduate, teaching by “the Prof ”
as he was affectionately known at the University of the Witwatersrand where he was for many years
the head of the Department of Civil Engineering. Jere was the first engineer in South Africa to
put a filter drain into a slimes dam. This was at St Helena Gold Mine in the Welkom Goldfields
of South Africa. The second author of this paper had the privilege of not only studying under “the
Prof” but also of carrying out a seepage and stability assessment of the St Helena slimes dam in the
late 1970’s approximately 10 years after the drain had been installed. This facility is still operating
well and keeping the phreatic surface under control.
When the now infamous Bafokeng dam failed in 1974 it was Jere Jennings that the mining
company turned to for help in establishing the cause of the failure in which 3 million cubic meters
of liquefied tailings flowed down a shaft and underground, killing 13 miners, and, at surface
continued to flow 40km to the Vaalkop dam where the flow stream was arrested. His explanation of
a “flukey” piping failure caused by layering of fine and coarse tailings is still oft disputed by rivals
and doubters but the fact remains that he convinced a Judge of the unforeseeability of the failure.
4 OSKAR STEFFEN
When it came to time to fix up the failed dam and bring it back into operation Jere turned to Oskar
Steffen saying to him words to the effect “you need to get involved in these blasted things because
if you don’t who knows what will eventuate”. So it was that Jere brought geotechnical thinking and
analysis to slimes dams in South Africa and Oskar took it all to the next level.
Oskar oversaw the re-commissioning of the Bafokeng facility and brought on board a num-
ber of the names mentioned in this paper to carry out what Jere had charged him with – to get
involved. Even today Oskar is still involved with the tailings facilities at Bafokeng where the current
operational facility will be taken to a height of 150m as an upstream-constructed structure.
The second author has fond memories of being the gofer for Oskar as a young engineer and
accompanying him on the “Quarterly Inspections” at Bafokeng. These were comprehensive affairs
60
involving aerial inspections using a helicopter followed by a presentation of the quarterly report by
this author to a group of some 20 people who included everyone from the General Manager down
to the Fraser Alexander slimes dam operator. After the presentation and discussions there was the
ground inspection of issues identified while in the air, such as wet spots and gullys and any issues
from the meeting. At the meeting, after the welcome, the first item on the agenda was “the report
on the aerial inspection by Doctor Steffen”. Oskar would have them spell bound with his uncanny
and astute observations and insights on what he had observed. For a young engineer, this was the
stuff of heroes and a jolly good show for the day.
5 FRITZ WAGENER
Just around the time that Jere Jennings was twisting Oskar Steffen’s arm about taking on the Bafo-
keng work Fritz Wagener of the firm Jones and Wagener began taking an interest in slimes dams.
Fritz went on to do very important and challenging work in the West Rand Goldfields where the
geology comprises dolomites compartmentalized by dolerite dykes at 3 to 5km intervals. The dykes
enabled individual mines to dewater the dolomites within a compartment so that deep underground
mining could proceed. This dewatering of a compartment inevitably led to the development of
sinkholes some large enough to engulf entire gold processing plants or large segments of slimes
dams. Fritz went on to become the pre-eminent authority on the construction of slimes dams over
the dolomites and ultimately completed his PhD on this subject. Today Fritz is still called upon to
provide invaluable specialist input on the issue of sinkholes, finding developing cavities and then
dealing with them.
6 JOHN WATES
John was a protégé of Fritz in his earlier years and became proficient in slimes dam design and
management in the goldfields of South Africa. John went on to develop his own consulting practice
and was instrumental not only in furthering the engineering of slimes dams but also of incorporating
environmental engineering considerations into slimes dam planning, design, operation and closure.
Today John has moved into the contracting arena and heads up the Strategic Projects group of Fraser
Alexander.
7 MIKE SMITH AND JOHN ROBBERTZE
Gary Rae started calling Oscar Steffen, one of the founders of what is now called SRK, for advice
on the design and operation of slimes dams. More-so after the failure of the Bafokeng slimes dam,
one of the many that Frasers constructed. Oscar could not do all the work and so he passed the task
on to Mike Smith and John Robbertze, at that time juniors in SRK. They grew wise in the ways of
slimes dam design and operation, and so they left SRK, founded their own slimes dam design and
operating company and grew rich. Along the way they fought many battles with Frasers, but they
overcame. Sadly John passed away a few years ago. Mike sold out to Stefanuti Construction but
still works each day with humor and laughter.
With Mike is Dave Jansen, one of the originals from Fraser F Alexander. He too has an instinctive
understanding of the way slimes flow and how best to build a dam of them. The first author of this
paper first met him when designing the Richards Bay gypsum slimes dam. He taught us much that
we have carried with us in our daily practice. When we last met him he was silver gray and still as
calm and humane as always, with a profound insight into the practicalities of slimes dams.
8 MIKE GOWAN
Gary Rae decided that Frasers needed a civil engineer. Somehow Gary persuaded Mike Gowan,
an old friend from the University, to join Frasers. Mike loved the fast cars the company provided
him, and delighted in driving around the Witwatersrand, and then calling me on his car-phone (a
61
rarity in those days) as he drove home. We would spend an hour or two discussing what he had
seen that day and what he wanted me to do the next day: usually run a stability analysis; revise a
layout drawing; or compose a memo to set things aright.
Today Mike is in Brisbane working with Golder Associates and traveling the world consulting
on tailings impoundments. He is the specialist in co-disposal of waste rock and tailings and an
expert in the reworking of slimes dams, which are so often reprocessed to recover yet more gold
and uranium.
9 WLPU
The dominant consulting company in the 1960s and 1970s in Johannesburg was Watermeyer,
Legge, Piesold, and Uhlman, more commonly referred to as WLPU. The company started as F. E.
Kanthack and Partners. Dr Kanthack had worked for the Department of Water Affairs. He founded
the company and when he retired, his partners put their names to the letterhead.
Time passed and WLPU changed their name again to Knight Piesold. They moved into the design
of tailings dams. Rob Williamson and Ronnie Schurenberg have, for many years spearheaded their
work in tailings within South Africa with a strong focus on Palabora Copper Mine in the western
part of the country.
WLPU expanded their operations to North America. Don East came to start the Denver opera-
tions. I met him at a conference in Fort Collins and he impressed me with his verve and drive. He
told me that he was determined to succeed, and determined to outdo Andy Robertson and SRK.
Don secured a tailings dam project in Peru. He expanded the Knight Piesold operations to
South America at a time when we only dreamed of those horizons and was later joined by Ronnie
Schurenberg. Don has since left the company, and I am told he is married to a Peruvian woman
and happy in Lima.
Today Knight Piesold says this about their practice; note the change from the company’s initial
focus on Dr. Kanthack’s water practices, through the power stations, to freeway construction:
“Our largest area of business is providing geotechnical and environmental services to the global
mining industry. We are committed to sustainable mining that recognizes social, environmental and
economic responsibilities. Our specialized expertise related to tailings and mine waste management,
waste characterization, heap leach pads, rock mechanics, water management and environmental
services is directly relevant to upholding these principles.”
10 SRK
The story of SRK is large. Here we can only pause to recall that SRK was the breeding ground of
much slimes dam engineering with Oskar Steffen as the godfather of the group.
11 THE POLITICAL CLIMATE
In the early days, the clients for consultants providing slimes dam design services were the Johannes-
burg mining companies. The five major South African mining companies were housed in buildings
that clustered in the south-west part of the city; the second suite of SRK offices were but a short
walk from all. It was thrill to walk fast as could be to keep up with Oscar Steffen as we marched
off to yet another meeting with the mining group’s head-office chief consulting engineer.
But before you could enter, you had to pass through security. Those were the days of extreme
security fear in South Africa and the mining houses were well equipped to control security. Names
and affiliations taken slowly and solemnly recorded in a black book; drawings would be unrolled
for inspection; we never bothered with brief cases, for they would be inspected via a complete
unpacking; and then the fateful call to the person you had come to see. They had to come down to
the foyer to collect you and march you up to the allotted conference room.
This pervasive atmosphere of fear and insecurity borne of politics and segregationism induced
many of South Africa’s slimes dam’s engineers to emigrate and spread their skill through the world.
Here follows sketches of some of them.
62
12 ANDY ROBERTSON
Andy Robertson was also one of the founders of SRK. His expertise was rock slope stability and
foundations. When he decided, at the insistence of his wife, to go to Vancouver, he decided to
become an expert in slimes dams, shrewdly judging that he could use that discipline as an entre to
the NorthAmerican market. He arranged a Saturday flight for Jack Caldwell and Professor Jennings.
We flew for hour after hour over the slimes dams of the Witwatersrand as Andy questioned and Prof
Jennings and Jack answered, explained, elucidated, and in a day taught Andy all we jointly knew
of slimes dams. That we taught well is attested to by the fact that today Andy is never at home—he
always somewhere else sitting on yet another peer review group looking at yet another slimes dam
from Canada to South America.
13 METAGO
Metago is now a successful consulting company with offices in Perth and Johannesburg. Its guiding
light is Gordon McPhail, one of the authors of this paper. Gordon joined SRK at the urging of Jack
Caldwell, also an author of this paper. We worked together until Jack left to go to Tucson at Andy
Robertson behest. Gordon took over and flourished on the platinum and gypsum slimes dams that
were a mainstay of SRK work. Growing professionally powerful, he left SRK and started Metago
with partners. But he too grew weary of the South African political scene and, when business
opportunities that enabled the expansion of Metago into Australia emerged, he relocated to Perth to
get those operations going. Now he travels far and wide and most often to Namibia to the uranium
slimes dams that he has looked after for the last 25 years.
14 IAN HUTCHINSON
Today Ian Hutchinson runs Strategic Engineering and Science (SES) from luxurious offices in
Irvine, California. Ian got his start in South Africa dealing with hydrology. But soon he left for
Toronto. Andy Robertson pulled him from Acres, an international consulting company, to run the
Denver offices of SRK. It was there that he and Jack Caldwell got involved designing a new tailings
impoundment for the McLoughlin mine in California. We walked the golden hills and reveled in
the blue lake. Ian fell in love with California and moved to Laguna Niguel where he wrote another
of those great works on mine waste disposal facilities, namely Mine Waste Management. It is still
on our shelves and we still consult it, particularly when we work with Ian on the closure of the
Royal Mountain King mine and its waste disposal facilities in central California.
15 ROB DOREY
Rob Dorey now runs Dorey Associates. He started in SRK in Johannesburg as a young and brilliant
young engineer from Imperial College. He lectured us on evaporation from the surface of tailings
surfaces. Then he moved to Vancouver, and hence to Denver where for many years, he managed
SRK. The call of independence took him to his own company and he still does great work.
16 TONY CREWS
Tony Crews started in South Africa in slimes dams as a young man straight out of the university.
He grew bored and went sailing the world for so many years we lost track of him and forgot about
him. One day out of the blue he arrived at the door of our house in Levenworth, Washington,
where we (the first author of this paper) lived as we designed-as-we-built the Cannon Mine tailings
impoundment. Tony needed a job, for all he had was two changes of clothing. He took a job, worked
for two years, and took off sailing again. But he returned, married, divorced, and now runs his own
consulting company from Reno, Nevada, servicing mining clients in the United States and South
America,
63
17 BRIAN WRENCH
Also in Australia is Brian Wrench. He started in South African tailings when he took over the
Richards Bay gypsum dam for SRK. He completed a PhD thesis on the properties of those tailings
and how to close the dam for possible use as an industrial area. This has never been done, although
we remain convinced it can be using the technologies developed worldwide. Time and economics
will find a way yet.
18 THURBERS
Thurbers is one of the old, respected geotechnical consulting companies. In its office in Calgary
is Jeremy Boswell. He learnt the trade of tailings with Fraser F Alexander in South Africa. Now
he is consulting to the oil sands industry helping them solve the myriad problems that characterize
tailings deposition in cold climates. He relies on the skills and knowledge gained in the hot, dry
climes of South Africa.
19 GEOFF BLIGHT
Finally we must pay our respects to Geoff Blight whose book started this paper. He supervised
Gordon McPhail and his PhD thesis on beach formation on tailings dams, and encouraged him
when the going was bleak. He helped Jack Caldwell on projects ranging from control of erosion
on slimes dams around Johannesburg to the design of a 1,000-ft high embankment in northeast
Washington, never built because the market for molybdenum crashed. He has been a guide and
help and inspiration to both of us. We revere him and know him as the most brilliant of all South
African engineers who have turned their minds and attention to slimes dams. He has led the way,
and we are proud to own his new book.
20 CONCLUSIONS
We write of but a few of the many South African people who have done the work that is distilled
into technical and engineering advances in South African slimes dams, tailings impoundments, or
mine waste storage facilities, as you may choose to term them. We have written of only those we
know and recall. But we acknowledge them all. Theirs was and is a singular challenge and success.
There have been spectacular failures. There are spectacular successes. They have changed slimes
dam design and operation from the instinctive genius of Fraser Alexander to a discipline based on
the strictest scientific principles. We wish only that we could celebrate all of them and all their
struggles and achievements. We cannot. So we encourage other to follow this stumbling start and
fully document their histories.
64
Unique geosynthetic liner system for uranium mill tailings disposal
G.T. Corcoran
Geosyntec Consultants, San Diego, California, USA
H.R. Roberts
Denison Mines (USA) Corp., Denver, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: The design and construction of the Cell 4A and 4B tailings disposal cells at the
Denison Mines (USA) Corp. (DMC) White Mesa Mill facility in Blanding, Utah includes the use
of a double liner system to contain process liquids and ultimately uranium/vanadium mill tailings
waste materials. The double liner system is comprised of two high density polyethylene (HDPE)
geomembranes and a Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL). The effectiveness of the composite liner
system was demonstrated through laboratory testing of the hydraulic conductivity properties of
the GCL materials when permeated with very low pH liquids. In addition, a geosynthetic strip
drainage material was used for the slimes drain installed overlying the primary geomembrane to
provide drainage of the hydraulically placed tailings.
This paper provides a description of the waste materials, design of the liner and slimes drain
systems, and construction of the Cell containment system elements.
1 INTRODUCTION
The White Mesa Mill is the only actively operating uranium and vanadium mill in the United
States and has been maintained in an operational state for over 30 years. The mill processes ores
mined in Utah, Colorado, and Arizona using an acid leach process to extract uranium, and in some
cases vanadium, from the ore. Lined cells at the facility accept process liquids, waste tailings, and
by-products associated with the processing operations. Process liquids are typically acidic with a pH
generally between 1 and 2. Waste tailings are comprised of ore that is ground to a maximum grain
size of approximately 28 Mesh (US #30 Sieve) (0.6 millimeters (mm) (0.023 inches)), resulting in
a fine sand and silt material.
Cells 4A and 4B are approximately 16 hectares (40 acres) with a maximum depth of 12 meters
(40 feet) with side slopes as steep as 2H:1V (Horizontal to Vertical). Cells are initially utilized
for storage and evaporation of process liquids. Waste tailings are hydraulically placed in the cells,
below process liquid levels, until a beach is developed, at which time the placement piping is moved
to a new location within the cell. Once the cell is full of waste solids (i.e. no higher than the exterior
berm height), the free solution is evaporated or pumped to another cell, and the slimes drain system
is actively pumped to remove free liquids from the tailings solids prior to reclamation.
2 LINER SYSTEM DESIGN
The liner system for Cells 4A and 4B was designed to provide a Cell for disposal of by-products
from the onsite processing operations while protecting the groundwater beneath the site. The liner
system was designed to meet the BestAvailableTechnology requirements of the UAC R317-6, which
requires that the facility be designed to achieve the maximum reduction of a pollutant achievable
by available processes and methods taking into account energy, public health, environmental and
economic impacts, and other costs. The liner system includes the following primary components,
from top to bottom:
• Slimes drain system;
• Primary geomembrane liner;
65
Figure 1. Slimes drain header section.
• Leak detection system;

• Secondary geomembrane liner; and
• Geosynthetic clay liner.
2.1 Liner system

A double liner system was designed and constructed for Cell 4A and 4B. The liner system, for both
the bottom area and side slopes, consists of (from top to bottom):
• Slimes drain system (Cell bottom only);
• 1.5 mm (60 mil) thick smooth high density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane (Primary Liner);
• 7.5 mm (300 mil) thick geonet drainage layer (Leak Detection System);
• 1.5 mm (60 mil) thick smooth HDPE geomembrane (Secondary Composite Liner);
• Geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) (Secondary Composite Liner); and
• Prepared subgrade.
2.2 Slimes drain system

A slimes drain system was constructed on top of the primary geomembrane liner in the bottom of
the cell to facilitate dewatering of the tailings prior to final reclamation of the cell. The slimes drain
system is not a continuous blanket drainage system, rather a system of discreet collection headers
and laterals. The slimes drain system consists of a single perforated 102 mm (4 inch) diameter
schedule 40 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) header pipe, drainage aggregate, cushion geotextile, and
filter geotextile as shown in Figure 1.
In addition, a strip composite consisting of a 25 mm (1 inch) thick by 305 mm (12 inch) wide
HDPE core and polypropylene geotextile filter wrap was used as slimes drain laterals. Since the
cell will initially be filled with process liquids, the strip composite is continuously covered with
concrete sand filled sand bags as ballast and to act as additional filtration between the waste tailings
material and the strip composite core so as to minimize the potential for clogging. Given the acidic
nature of the process liquids that will contact the slimes drain components, aggregate and sand
materials are comprised of natural materials exhibiting a carbonate content loss of no more than
10 percent by weight, and manufactured materials are comprised of polymers that will withstand
the acidic environment. The laterals convey liquids to the header pipe and on to the sump for
removal from the cell. The laterals are spaced at 15 m (50 ft) intervals and are a unique use of strip
composite, more commonly known as edge drain, that is more cost effective than the use of more
traditional pipe, aggregate, and filter geotextile components. The strip composite is provided in
50 m (165 ft) long rolls that are easily installed and joined to create the slimes drain laterals. The
slimes drain lateral design is shown in Figure 2.
66
Figure 2. Slimes drain lateral section.
The Slimes Drain sump includes a side slope riser pipe to allow installation of a submersible
pump for removal of liquids in the sump.
2.3 Primary liner

The primary liner consists of an exposed smooth 1.5 mm (60-mil) thick HDPE geomembrane with
a white surface that limits geomembrane movement and the creation of wrinkles due to thermal
expansion and contraction from temperature variations. HDPE geomembrane was selected due to
its high resistance to chemical degradation and ability to retain durability in an acidic environment.
Splash pads were installed at several locations that allow for operations personnel to place
temporary pipes for filling of the cells. Splash pads consist of a separate textured 1.5 mm (60-mil)
thick HDPE geomembrane, black side up, installed on top of the primary geomembrane liner at
specific locations.
2.4 Leak detection system

The leak detection system (LDS) underlies the primary liner and is designed to collect potential
leakage through the primary liner and convey the liquid to the sump for manual detection through
monitoring of sump levels. The LDS consists of a 7.5 mm (300-mil) thick geonet and a network of
gravel trenches throughout the bottom of Cell 4B. The trenches contain a 102 mm (4-inch) diameter
perforated schedule 40 PVC pipe, drainage aggregate, and a cushion geotextile, which drain to a
sump for detection and removal.
The Action Leakage Rate (ALR) was calculated for the LDS in accordance with Part 254.302
of the USEPA Code of Federal Regulations. Based on the ALR calculation, the liquid head on the
secondary liner does not exceed 0.15 mm (0.006 inches), well below the required maximum limit
of 305 mm (12 inches).
The LDS sump includes a side slope riser pipe and submersible pump to allow for removal of
liquids in the LDS sump. Flows into the LDS are monitored on a continuous, real time basis, and
recorded for regulatory compliance purposes.
2.5 Secondary composite liner system

The primary purpose of the secondary liner is to provide a flow barrier so that potential leakage
through the primary liner will collect on top of the secondary liner, then flow through the LDS to
67
the LDS sump for removal. The secondary liner also provides an added hydraulic barrier against
leakage to the subsurface soils and groundwater. The secondary liner consists of a composite liner
that is comprised of a 1.5 mm (60-mil) thick HDPE geomembrane overlying a GCL.
2.5.1 Secondary geomembrane liner

The geomembrane component of the secondary composite liner system consists of a smooth 1.5 mm
(60-mil) thick HDPE geomembrane that meets the same criteria as the primary liner geomembrane.
2.5.2 Secondary GCL liner

The GCL component of the secondary composite liner system consists of bentonite sandwiched
between two geotextile layers that are subsequently needle-punched together to form a single
composite hydraulic barrier material. Although the GCL is used as an element of the secondary
composite liner system and is not expected to be in contact with process liquids (i.e., the process
liquids have to migrate through defects, if any, in the primary liner and then build up enough head to
drive the process liquids through the secondary liner into the GCL), a testing program was devised to
demonstrate that the GCL would exhibit low hydraulic conductivity (permeability) when permeated
with a low pH liquid similar to the process liquids anticipated to be contained by the liner system.
Testing of the GCL consisted of permeating GCL samples with varying degrees of initial moisture
content. Moisture content was established in the laboratory using deionized water to achieve 50%,
75%, 100%, and 140% moisture content. Each specimen was then immediately permeated with a
liquid with a pH of 1.0 (pH established using hydrochloric acid) under a normal stress of 34.5 kPa
(5psi). Testing was performed in accordance with ASTM D 6766, Scenario 1.
The results of the hydraulic conductivity testing are as follows:
Approximate Approximate Approximate

Approximate permeability permeability permeability
Percent initial after one half after one after two
hydration of permeability pore volume pore volume pore volumes
GCL sample (cm/sec) (cm/sec) (cm/sec) (cm/sec)
50% 1.0 × 10−9 2.0 × 10−9 1.2 × 10−8 3.0 × 10−8

75% 6.0 × 10−10 3.0 × 10−9 9.0 × 10−9 2.5 × 10−8
100% 1.2 × 10−9 4.5 × 10−9 1.0 × 10−8 3.5 × 10−8
140% 8.0 × 10−10 4.0 × 10−9 1.2 × 10−8 4.5 × 10−8
Based on the test results and the ALR calculation of the head on the secondary liner, pore volume
travel time through a GCL pre-hydrated to a moisture content of 50% was estimated to be more
than 150 years for the first pore volume of permeant, which is well beyond the time when the cell
will be drained of free liquids. Based on this analysis, the regulatory agency agreed that a minimum
moisture content of 50% should be achieved in the GCL installed for this project.
Initially, a test pad was constructed to demonstrate that the GCL would hydroscopically adsorb
water from the underlying subgrade, which exhibited a moisture content of 12.3%. The test pad
was comprised of a 3 m (10 ft) by 4.6 m (15 ft) GCL panel overlain by a single layer of 1.5 mm
HDPE geomembrane, white side facing up, anchored on all four sides with a 150 mm (6 inch)
deep anchor trench. The initial GCL moisture content was tested and found to be approximately
14.0% (very low relative humidity and high temperatures at the site reduced the as-delivered GCL
moisture content while stored on-site). After one week of installation in the test pad the GCL
moisture content increased to 22.8% moisture content, and after two weeks the GCL moisture
content had increased to 26.3%. Literature suggests that in most cases, soils adjacent to GCLs
will readily give up moisture to the stronger suction characteristics of the bentonite component of
the GCL, resulting in more than 100% moisture content in approximately 2 weeks. In this case,
the test pad size and site weather conditions likely contributed to much lower moisture content
development in the GCL. Based on the failure of the demonstration, field hydration of the GCL
prior to installing the overlying secondary liner was determined to be the best approach to achieving
the project design goals.
68
Figure 3. Water cannons being used to hydrate GCL.
3 CONSTRUCTION
Construction of Cells 4A and 4B involved standard construction methods for earthwork, including
soil and rock excavation, engineered fill, and subgrade preparation. Subgrade preparation included
moisture conditioning of the soil surface in addition to compaction and elimination of protrusions
over 12 mm (1/2 inch).
Geosynthetic material installation was complicated by the need to hydrate the GCL prior to
installation of the overlying secondary liner. Hydration was performed using water cannons and
hand held hoses to distribute water on the surface of the GCL (Figure 3). Initial hydration activ-
ities were closely monitored, and frequent field testing of moisture and application rates were
performed to ensure that the minimum moisture content of 50% was being achieved in the GCL
prior to deployment of the secondary liner. Shallow pans were used to capture spray application of
water, which was then compared to calculated values of water theoretically needed to achieve the
appropriate moisture content from the installed dry moisture content. In addition, moisture content
was monitored in the field in accordance with ASTM D 4643 (Microwave method of determining
moisture content) to quickly evaluate the moisture condition of the GCL prior to installation of the
secondary liner. Field moisture conditioning of the GCL typically took over 2 hours to allow the
water to adsorb, and in the case of side slopes, two applications of water were often required to
attain the minimum moisture content.
Once the moisture content in the GCL exceeded 50%, secondary geomembrane was deployed and
seamed using dual track fusion welding equipment. It was found that standard HDPE geomembrane
seaming methods could be employed to achieve acceptable seams, even with the underlying hydrated
GCL. Seams were tested at a frequency of one per 152 m (500 ft) with no failures (Figure 4).
Installation of the leak detection system geonet and primary geomembrane followed standard
industry practice.
Slimes drain installation involved the placement of over 30,000 sand bags overlying the strip
composite in each cell. Slimes drain header pipe and aggregate were installed using conventional
methods; however, getting the construction materials out to the header location involved use of low
ground pressure equipment operating on top of the primary geomembrane, which resulted in the
need for some minor repairs.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The unique application of geosynthetic materials for the design and construction of the White Mesa
Mill Cell 4A and 4B liner and slimes drain systems resulted in an effective and protective liner
69
Figure 4. Secondary geomembrane destructive and GCL hydration sampling.
Figure 5. Cell 4A in use. Waste tailings beach in foreground, process liquids in background. Black patches on
far slope are splash pads comprised of a sacrificial HDPE geomembrane installed black side up for protection
of the primary liner and to allow operational access.
system that complies with the regulatory requirements while being very cost effective. Since the
start of filling of Cell 4A, the liner system has performed well with minimal leakage (significantly
below the ALR) detected in the leak detection system. Figure 5 shows the completed Cell 4A in
use with a waste tailings beach above the level of the process liquids. Cell 4B is currently under
construction and is expected to be in service during the first quarter of 2011.
70
Optimizing tailings deposition concentration at Minera

Yanacocha, Peru
M. Keevy & R. Cooke

Paterson & Cooke, Denver, USA
ABSTRACT: Minera Yanacocha commissioned a new gold mill and processing plant in 2008.
The new facilities included a tailings pumping system from the plant to a tailings storage facility
(TSF) located within a heap leach facility. The location of the TSF resulted in a requirement for
reducing the amount of water sent to the facility, to reduce the infiltration of water from the tailings
into the leach pad.
Preliminary designs for the tailings pumping system included piston diaphragm pumps for
delivering high solids concentration tailings to the facility. Paterson & Cooke were contracted to
carry out the detailed design of the pumping system. The initial step was the evaluation of the
design concentration and pumping requirements, with respect to the requirements at the TSF, to
evaluate the optimum pumping concentration.
This paper presents the trade-off analysis carried out in the design of the Yanacocha pumping
system, as well as providing details of the subsequent design and implementation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Minera Yanacocha, located in Peru, is one of the world’s largest gold mines. In 2008 a new gold
mill and processing plant was commissioned for the treatment of high grade ores. Prior to this the
operation was a heap leach operation. Part of this new plant is the tailings pumping system that
transfers processed slurry from the plant to the deposition site.
The deposition site is an impoundment facility constructed within an active heap leach pad. To
maintain the integrity of the facility it is important that the deposit does not significantly increase
the saturated zones within the heap leach pad. The design was therefore focused initially focused
on the deposition of thickened tailings at the storage facility.
Preliminary designs for the system were based on operating the tailings stream at a concentration
of 75%m. This system would require piston diaphragm pumps to accommodate the high pressures
and have a high power consumption.
The impoundment facility design was carried out by Knight Piésold. During the design of
the impoundment facility, Knight Piésold determined that the facility could be operated at lower
concentrations than the original 75% without impacting the leach pad stability, due to the water
removal systems incorporated into the design. Paterson & Cooke’s aim was therefore to determine
the optimum operating concentration for the system.
The geotechnical aspects of this design will not be discussed in this paper, but can be found in
Kerr et al., 2007.
2 DESIGN BASIS
2.1 Test work results

The tailings particle size distribution is illustrated in Figure 1.
Rheology test work was carried out on a sample of the mine tailings. As shown in Figure 2, the
results indicated that the tailings rheology starts to increase at a concentration of approximately
60%m and exhibits a sharp upswing between 70%m and 72%m.
71
Figure 1. Tailings particle size distribution.
Figure 2. Slurry rheology.
The material properties were used to estimate the settling velocity and pipeline transporta-
tion requirements. The slurry remains a heterogeneous settling mixture even at concentra-
tions above 70%m. If the material does settle it forms a compact bed that is difficult to
re-suspend.
72
Figure 3. Absorbed power for varying slurry concentration.
2.2 Pump types

The preliminary design made use of piston diaphragm pumps due to the high pumping pressure
requirements. Due to the project schedule there was a desire to use centrifugal pumps instead to
reduce the equipment lead time and avoid potentially delaying the plant start-up date. The lower
capital cost of a centrifugal pump system was also attractive.
The desire to use centrifugal pumps further increased the drive to find an optimum concentration
with potentially lower pumping pressures, as typical centrifugal pumps are limited to a maximum
discharge pressure of 4 MPa.
3 SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ANALYSIS
To facilitate the selection of an appropriate solids concentration, the system absorbed power was
selected as the comparison basis. The pump station capital, energy and maintenance costs are
related to the installed power.
3.1 Theoretical analysis

The minimum pressure and hence the power absorbed in any slurry system can be calculated if
the rheological and transport properties are known. To achieve the lowest power consumption the
system must operate at the lowest velocity that satisfies the transportation velocity requirements.
To determine the shape of the curve the calculations can be performed with an ideal combination
of pipeline size and concentration (i.e. the concentration is selected and a non standard pipe internal
diameter calculated to meet the transportation velocity requirements).
The typical shape of the absorbed power graph is shown in Figure 3. As the concentration
increases the power requirements decrease. In this low concentration range the increase in rheology
does not significantly affect the friction losses, but the increase in concentration reduces the flow
rate and hence the absorbed power.
As the concentration increases further it reaches the point where the impact of changing rheology
balances the reduction in flow rate and the power consumption starts to increase at an accelerating
rate due to the exponential relationship between concentration and rheological properties.
73
Figure 4. Yanacocha absorbed power for varying slurry concentration.
The shape of this curve is dependent on the tonnage, slurry rheology and the pipeline
configuration for the system.
3.2 Detailed analysis

The analysis was carried out for Yanacocha using the basis described above. In addition, standard
pipe sizes and wall thicknesses where selected to relate the calculations to a real world system. The
results are shown Figure 4. The use of standard pipe sizes results in a saw tooth pattern, due to the
changing velocity from one pipe size to another, but the overall trend is still visible.
The analysis indicates that the lowest power consumption can be achieved using either a 350 NB
(14 ) pipeline at a concentration of 60%m, or a 300 NB (12 ) pipeline at a concentration of 69%m.
Additionally operating at 69%m results in 72 m3 /h of additional water reporting to the impoundment
facility compared to 75%m, while operating at 60%m results in 207 m3 /h of additional water.
3.3 Pump selection

A similar analysis was carried out to determine the pump discharge pressure for the system. The
results are shown in Figure 5. In addition to the nominal tonnage used in determining the normal
power consumption and velocity, the pressure calculation also includes the peak design tonnage
for the system. There is a wide operating range for the system, resulting in a significant increase
in pressure from the nominal to the peak duty.
Centrifugal pumps can be used up to a concentration of 71%m for the nominal case, but once
the peak tonnage is considered it can be seen that operation should be limited to 69%m; beyond
that piston diaphragm pumps will be required.
3.4 Discussion
For this project a design concentration of 69% was selected. The additional volume of water sent
to the impoundment facility was discussed with Knight Piésold and found to have no significant
impact on the impoundment stability.
The selection of this design concentration also enables the use of centrifugal pumps.
74
Figure 5. Yanacocha pump discharge pressure for varying slurry concentration.
The drive for high concentrations for this system initially lead to high pumping system capital
and operating costs. Further analysis of the impoundment facility indicated that additional water
could be tolerated. This provided to opportunity to reduce costs without negatively impacting
performance.
4 IMPLEMENTATION
The system has been operating successfully since commissioning during 2008.
4.1 Pump selection

Two trains of four Warman 8/6 AHP pumps were installed for the system, each with a 250 kW
motor with a variable frequency drive. More detailed on the specifics of the pump selection have
been presented in Keevy & Hackney, 2007.
4.2 Density control

To ensure reliable operation within the concentration range the system includes two density control
loops. The thickener underflow fed to the system feed tank is measured and dilution water added to
achieve a concentration of 69%m in the tank. However, this system does not give direct adjustment
to the pump station discharge as it monitors the feed and adjusting the water into the tank will also
have a slow response time.
A second density measurement is taken at the pump station discharge. If this density is too high
dilution water is injected into the suction of the pump train to correct it. This system provides
immediate correction if the density in the tank is too high and also alerts the operator to check the
calibration of the density meters.
Finally, a flushing system is included with a water booster pump feeding the inlet of the first
stage pump. Flush is required after each shut down to prevent a bed forming in the pipeline, but
can also be used to pump slurry out the pipeline in sections, initially to a drain area located at the
pipeline low point, and then to the first discharge point on the storage facility.
75
Figure 6. Yanacocha pump station.
5 CONCLUSIONS
By investigating the absorbed power of the system P&C were able to optimize the operating
concentration for the system, resulting in capital and operating cost savings. The system delivers
thickened tailings to achieve the reduced water delivery required, while avoiding excessive cost
premiums for achieving this.
The pumping system is designed for the optimized concentration and the design includes control
measures to ensure that these limits are not exceeded.
REFERENCES
Keevy, M.B. & Hackney, K. 2007. Pump station drive selection case study. Hydrotransport 17, The 17th
International Conference on the Hydraulic Transport of Solids, Cape Town, 7–11 May 2007. Johannesburg:
The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Kerr, T.F., Duryea, P.D., Grobbelaar, W. & Hackney, K. 2007. Design of a thickened mill sands management
system within a heap leach pad. Paste 2007, Tenth International Seminar on Paste and Thickened Tailings,
Perth, 13–15 March 2007, Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
76
Geotechnical considerations
Peak and critical-state shear strength of mine waste rock
Z. Fox & J. Antonio H. Carraro

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University,
Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: Proper characterization of the peak and critical-state shear strength parameters
required for geotechnical analyses involving geomaterials with large particle sizes such as mine
waste rock, rockfill and coarse aggregates is challenging. This paper summarizes the results of
previous studies related to large-scale triaxial testing and analysis of such geomaterials. Relevant
experimental issues such as appropriate sample-size ratio selection, membrane penetration and
particle breakage are discussed. The main steps required to perform a rigorous analysis of triaxial
test results are outlined that avoid usual misinterpretations associated with conventional analysis of
triaxial tests. A methodology integrating a robust experimental protocol with a rigorous theoretical
framework is presented. The proposed methodology can be used to predict the shear strength of
mine waste rock, rockfill, coarse aggregates and other types of uncemented geomaterials with
large particle sizes under combinations of density and mean effective stress that are relevant to
most geotechnical and mining applications.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Sample-size ratio

The triaxial apparatus is one of the most widely used devices to evaluate the shear strength and
stiffness of geomaterials. However, geomaterials used in a wide range of geotechnical and mining
applications have particle sizes much larger than the maximum particle size (Dmax ) tested in a
conventional triaxial apparatus with specimen diameter (d) ranging from 50–70 mm. In triaxial
testing, the sample-size ratio can be defined as the ratio (d/Dmax ) of specimen diameter to maximum
particle size (Vallerga et al., 1957, Marachi 1969, Indraratna 1993). The use of sample-size ratios
smaller than five has been shown to introduce testing errors due to particle size effects (Marsal
1969, Leslie 1969, Nitchiporovitch et al., 1969) especially when more than 30% of the sample is
retained on the largest sieve size (Marachi 1969). Use of a minimum sample-size ratio of six, as
recommended by ASTM D4767, leads to a maximum particle size of 12 mm for a 70-mm-diameter
specimen. A maximum particle size of 12 mm may represent a small portion of geomaterials
with large particle sizes such as mine waste rock, rockfill, and coarse aggregates. This leads to
uncertainties associated with the assignment of shear strength and stiffness parameters for such
materials during modeling and design.
Limitations of the conventional triaxial apparatus with regard to maximum particle size were
first addressed by Holtz and Gibbs (1956) who used a large-scale triaxial (LSTX) apparatus to
test gravelly soils containing particle sizes up to 75 mm. Results of 183 tests indicated that friction
angles increased with increasing particle size and angularity as well as with increasing gravel
content up to around 50–60%. Above this threshold gravel content, the shear strength and density
of the specimens decreased with increasing gravel content.
Marachi et al. (1972) investigated particle-size effects on shear strength by testing parallel gra-
dations of materials of similar mineralogical composition and geologic history with specimen
diameters equal to 70, 305 and 914 mm using a constant sample-size ratio of six. As both specimen
diameter and maximum particle size decreased, the measured friction angles increased and volumet-
ric strains became more dilative (or less contractive) in triaxial compression (Fig. 1). All tests shown
in Figure 1 were isotropically consolidated to the same mean effective stress [p = (σ1 + 2σ3 )/3]
79
Figure 1. Effect of specimen diameter and maximum particle size on the drained triaxial compression response
of quarried argillite materials with parallel grain size distributions used in the Oroville Dam (modified after
Marachi et al., 1972).
equal to 210 kPa, where σ1 and σ3 are the effective major and minor principal stresses, respec-
tively. The corresponding volumetric strain [εp = ε1 + 2ε3 ] in triaxial (or, perhaps more rigorously,
axi-symmetric) compression shown in Figure 1 can then be consistently defined and associated
with changes of the octahedral mean stress invariant p , where ε1 and ε3 are the major and minor
principal strains, respectively. Marachi et al. (1972) also noted relatively minor effects of specimen
size on volumetric strains during isotropic compression for constant initial relative densities. Use
of conventional triaxial testing equipment with a specimen diameter of 70 mm led to an overesti-
mation of the peak friction angle (φp ) of about 3–4◦ (6–8%), as it might be deduced from the data
shown in Figure 1.
Differences in the φp of geomaterials with large particle sizes, relative to the corresponding φp
of similar geomaterials with smaller particle sizes, may be pronounced (Fig. 2). These differences
make the LSTX apparatus an important and necessary tool to characterize the shear strength and
stiffness parameters of geomaterials with large particle sizes such as those used to construct dams
and other geotechnical structures.
In many cases, characterization of the true field-scale shear strength parameters may not be
possible, even when using the largest triaxial apparatus available, due to the limited specimen
diameters and maximum particle sizes that can be practically used during testing. In order to
assess this limitation, the three different geomaterials with parallel grain-size distributions tested
by Marachi et al. (1972) may be used to estimate the potential variation in φp values resulting
from testing samples with maximum particle sizes of at least 12 mm taken from original field-
scale samples with maximum particle sizes equal to 150 mm (Fig. 2). It should be noted that
parallel grain-size distributions are identical in shape, but shift along the grain size axis in a
conventional grain-size distribution diagram. As shown in Figure 2, the difference in φp values
measured using conventional 70-mm-diameter specimens with 12-mm maximum particle sizes or
914-mm-diameter specimens with 150-mm maximum particle sizes may be as large as 5◦ (∼11%).
If 150-mm-diameter specimens with 25-mm maximum particle sizes were prepared using the same
parallel gradation criterion and tested at the same p = 210 kPa and sample-size ratio of six used
by Marachi et al. (1972), this error would be reduced to about 2–3◦ (∼5%).
80
Figure 2. Effect of maximum particle size on the peak friction angle of three different geomaterials with
parallel gradations (modified after Marachi et al., 1972).
1.2 Membrane penetration

Another aspect making LSTX testing more challenging than conventional triaxial testing involves
properly accounting for penetration of the rubber membrane into the specimen during consolidation
and shearing. Large void spaces between particles commonly exist at the lateral boundary of
specimens containing large particle sizes, regardless of their density. Drainage of the pore water
originally filling these voids due to the deformation of the membrane into the specimen voids
with increasing p during consolidation may result in measurement of artificially large εp values.
Results of numerous studies on this topic have identified particle size, specimen size, confining
pressure, and membrane characteristics as significant factors associated with membrane penetration
(Sivathayalan and Vaid 1998, Ansal and Erken 1996, Nicholson et al., 1992, Choi and Ishibashi
1992, Kramer et al., 1990, Dendani et al., 1988, Baldi and Nova 1982, Molenkamp and Luger
1981, Frydman et al., 1973).
Failure to correct for these artificially high εp values may lead to additional errors. For example,
effective axial stress (σa ) errors may arise due to uncorrected εp values as the specimen cross
sectional area during consolidation and drained triaxial compression is conventionally updated
based on the current level of radial strain (εr ), which, in turn, may be deduced from current values
of εp and axial strain (εa ) if local axial and radial strain transducers are not used. During drained
triaxial compression, the effective radial stress (σr ) remains constant, which helps keep the amount
of membrane penetration relatively constant once consolidation is finished. However, significant
errors remain in undrained triaxial compression (when σr may not be negligible) as pore pressure
measurements during this stage will be affected by membrane penetration (Ansal and Erken 1996,
Molenkamp and Luger 1981).
The total volume of pore water drained out of the specimen due to membrane penetration nor-
malized by the initial contact area between the membrane and the lateral surface of the specimen
is defined as the unit membrane penetration or unit normalized penetration (Choi and Ishibashi
1992, Kramer 1989, Dendani et al. 1988, Baldi and Nova 1984, Frydman et al., 1973). Early
experimental methods attempting to quantify this error invoked many assumptions regarding true
specimen deformation relative to the measured volume changes in the triaxial apparatus. While the
magnitude of unit membrane penetration estimated by different early studies may be pronounced
81
Figure 3. Effects of maximum particle size and mean effective stress during consolidation on unit membrane
penetration for five materials with different maximum particle sizes (modified after Dendani et al., 1988).
(Choi and Ishibashi 1992), many studies observed a linear relationship between the logarithm of
p and unit membrane penetration (Dendani et al., 1988, Frydman et al., 1973).
Dendani et al. (1988) discussed the major effect of particle size on unit membrane penetration
(Fig. 3) as well as inaccuracies associated with assumptions of linear relationships between unit
membrane penetration and logarithmic changes in p during consolidation with increased particle
size and/or confining pressure.
Other analytical methods have represented the lateral surface of a triaxial specimen as an array
of spheres of varying diameters related to the grain size distribution of an actual soil (Sivathayalan
and Vaid 1998, Ansal and Erken 1996, Nicholson et al., 1992, Kramer et al., 1990, Molenkamp
1981, Baldi and Nova 1982). These studies showed similar observations of linear semi-logarithmic
plots of unit membrane penetration with the logarithm of effective stress for sands and glass beads
alike. Various empirical relations have been presented to predict membrane penetration based on
experiments taking these more influential factors into account. However, large differences in the
proposed corrections remained, especially for grain sizes larger than 3 mm, until Nicholson et al.
(1993) showed the nominal particle size D20 (in mm) is the most accurate parameter to estimate
the stress-normalized unit membrane penetration (Sσ 3 ) after isotropic compression (which is, in
this format, normalized by the log of σ3 ). Based on experimental data including specimens tested
in a 300-mm-diameter LSTX apparatus equipped with internal radial transducers, Nicholson et al.
(1993) proposed Sσ 3 be estimated according to:
The LSTX specimens tested by Nicholson et al. (1993) were subjected to isotropic compression
p levels as high as 1200 kPa to encompass the usual testing ranges for which membrane-compliance
effects may be of concern. Data used to develop Eq. 1 is shown in Figure 4.
The preferred method to evaluate membrane penetration relies upon direct measurement of the
true radial strain in the specimen. In the absence of local strain transducers, Eq.1 is superior to all
other methods presented in the literature to evaluate membrane penetration during LSTX testing
of geomaterials with large particle sizes.
82
Figure 4. Effect of nominal particle size D20 on the stress-normalized unit membrane penetration (modified
after Nicholson et al., 1993).
1.3 Dilatancy and critical state

Reynolds (1885) coined the term dilatancy after observing the effect of density on the volumetric
response of sands during shearing. For p levels associated with most typical geotechnical appli-
cations (10 to 500 kPa), loose sands contract with increasing shear deformation until critical state
is reached at constant shear stress and constant volume (Schofield and Wroth 1968). On the other
hand, dense sands dilate and mobilize peak shear stress before critical state is reached at large
strains. Dilation, which is primarily affected by the soil state (density and effective stress), is the
main factor responsible for the curvature of the failure envelope of uncemented geomaterials used
in most geotechnical applications.
Leps (1970) reviewed the literature regarding the shear strength of rockfill and compiled a large
amount of LSTX results to show the linear dependence of φp on the logarithm of the “normal stress
across the failure plane” for sands and rockfill materials (Fig. 5). From a more rigorous, conceptual
standpoint, φp determined from triaxial tests should be actually related to the peak mean effective
stress pp (Bolton 1986).
For Ottawa sand, for example, additional lower and upper bounds with different slopes could be
identified and superimposed to the data shown in Figure 5 for relative density (DR ) levels equal to
0 and 100%, respectively, as φp depends not only on pp but also on density. Likewise, additional
upper and lower bounds can be defined for density states varying between the loosest and densest
states possible to be achieved for each material shown in Figure 5.
Unlike dilatancy, the critical state of a geomaterial is conventionally and uniquely related to its
intrinsic characteristics such as particle shape, mineralogy and grain size distribution (Schofield
and Wroth 1968).
1.4 Particle breakage

In the absence of particle breakage, increases in p suppress dilation for geomaterials with rela-
tively high grain strength. However, particle breakage may also occur during triaxial testing of
83
Figure 5. Typical linear relationship between the peak friction angle and the logarithm of normal stress across
the failure plane for various uncemented geomaterials (modified after Leps 1970).
geomaterials, which can further influence their dilatancy response. Marsal (1967) and co-workers
designed an LSTX apparatus capable of testing cylindrical specimens with diameter and height
equal to 1100 and 2500 mm, respectively, to characterize the material used in the construction of
the 148-m-high “El Infiernillo” Dam in Mexico. He noted “the most important factor affecting both
shear strength and compressibility is the phenomenon of fragmentation undergone both during uni-
form consolidation and during deviator load application.” Marsal also observed increasing particle
breakage with increasing uniformity of the materials. Reduced particle breakage was observed for
more well-graded materials upon shearing.
Lee and Farmoohand (1967) used a 70-mm-diameter triaxial apparatus to demonstrate particle
breakage increases with increasing particle size for specimens sheared at the same initial p = 8 MPa
(Fig. 6). The after-test particle size distributions of samples with larger particle size shown in
Figure 6 approach the maximum-density particle size distribution proposed by Fuller andThompson
(1907). Particle breakage also increases with increasing p and increasing particle angularity for
materials with the same initial particle size distribution (Fig. 7). While the p levels shown in
Figures 6 and 7 may be too high for most geotechnical applications, these results still provide
useful insights into the effects of particle size, particle angularity and p on particle breakage.
Lee (1992) suggested that the reduction of the dilation component of φp with the logarithm of p
should be further normalized by grain tensile strength to take particle crushing into consideration.
Using a theory of successive fractal failure of the smallest grain sizes due to the macroscopic stress
applied to the surface of the grain, McDowell et al. (1998) developed a numerical model of crush-
able aggregates and compared results of the model with previously completed experimental data.
Isotropic compression results show particle size distributions approaching a constant uniformity
coefficient and illustrate the effect of grain strength on the linear semi-logarithmic relationship
between φp and p normalized by grain tensile strength.
Ueng and Chen (2000) separated the components of φp for two different sands (Fulung River
and Tamsui River sands) and a decomposed granite previously tested by Miura and O-hara (1979)
into the friction angle excluding both particle breakage and dilatancy (φf ), thus equivalent to the
critical-state friction angle (φc ), and the friction angle excluding dilatancy and including particle
84
Figure 6. Changes in particle size distribution due to particle breakage of various samples determined before
and after triaxial testing (modified after Lee and Farhoomand 1967).
Figure 7. Effects of the (a) mean effective stress after consolidation and (b) particle shape on particle breakage
for isotropic and anisotropic conditions (modified after Lee and Farhoomand 1967).
breakage (φfb ), to determine the actual contribution of particle breakage (i.e., φfb − φc ) on φp .
The relative effect of particle breakage on the φp values of the three different materials studied by
Ueng and Chen always increased with increasing initial p (after isotropic compression) used in the
tests (Fulung sand results are shown in Fig. 8), whereas the magnitude of particle breakage was
inversely proportional to the grain strength of the material (Ueng and Chen 2000). Indraratna and
Salim (2002) followed a procedure similar to that outlined by Ueng and Chen (2000) to evaluate
the amount of particle breakage of latite basalt with maximum particle size of 53 mm using a
300-mm-diameter LSTX apparatus. The relative effect of particle breakage on the φp values of the
latite basalt with large particle sizes was of the same order of magnitude as that reported by Ueng
and Chen (2000) for the Fulung sand, which had strong grains. This effect may be quantified by
evaluating the (φfb − φc )/φp ratio for some of the highest p levels used in the tests for both the
Fulung sand and the latite basalt (p ≈ 300 to 383 kPa), which yields a (φfb − φc )/φp ratio of about
8–9% for both materials. This value is much lower than the typical (φfb − φc )/φp ratio of about
16–21% observed for the other two materials with weak grains (Tamsui River sand and dense
decomposed granite) studied by Ueng and Chen.
Results from these previous studies suggest the effect of particle breakage on φp is not significant
for typical geomaterials with strong particles tested under density and stress states associated with
85
Figure 8. Effect of mean effective stress (after isotropic compression) on the peak friction angle and particle
breakage of Fulung sand (Ueng and Chen 2000) and Latite basalt (Indraratna and Salim 2002).
typical geotechnical applications (p < 300–500 kPa). For geomaterials with low grain strength
and/or subjected to higher p levels, the procedure outlined by Ueng and Chen (2000) can be used
to systematically quantify the impact of particle breakage on their shear strength.
2 PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
2.1 Conceptual framework

A rigorous conceptual framework is needed to properly evaluate the shear strength of uncemented
geomaterials with or without large particle sizes. Such analyses should be based on careful consid-
eration of both state variables and intrinsic parameters known to significantly affect the mechanical
behavior of geomaterials. Intrinsic parameters are uniquely defined for a specific geomaterial and
remain independent of its current state. On the other hand, stress, density, and fabric represent
typical examples of state variables that fundamentally affect geomaterial behavior (Salgado 2008).
For axi-symmetric conditions, such as those associated with triaxial testing, the friction angle
of an uncemented geomaterial may be deduced from the Mohr’s circle of stress through:
where σ1 /σ3 = N = flow number, stress obliquity, or effective principal stress ratio.
A stress-dilatancy relationship for plane-strain based on minimum energy assumptions (Rowe
1962, De Josselin de Jong 1976) can be expressed for geomaterials with high grain strength as:
86
Figure 9. Schematic representation of the critical state line and various peak failure envelopes for a hypo-
thetical geomaterial (with Q = 10, R = 1 and φc = 30◦ ) for various combinations of relative density and mean
effective stress.
where Nc = flow number at critical state; M = dilatancy number = 1 − dεp /dε1 , with dε1 and
dεp = major principal strain and volumetric strain increments, respectively; Nc and M can be
expressed in terms of φc and the dilatancy angle (ψ) according to:
The value of ψ approaches a maximum at the maximum dilatancy rate (Schofield and Wroth
1968) and can be deduced for axisymmetric conditions from the Mohr’s circle of strain as:
where dε3 = minor principal strain increment.

Dilatancy is suppressed with increasing p (Leps 1970, Bolton 1986), as discussed earlier (Fig. 5).
Conversely, dilatancy increases with increasing density. Bolton (1986) accounted for the effects of
state variables (DR and pp ) and intrinsic parameters (Q, R and φc ) on the dilatancy of uncemented
sands in axi-symmetric (triaxial) compression through:
87
Figure 10. New large-scale triaxial apparatus at Colorado State University for testing of geomaterials with
large particle sizes (specimen diameter and height equal to 150 and 300 mm, respectively).
Figure 11. Area, membrane and shear failure mechanism corrections for triaxial testing (after La Rochelle
et al.).
where pA = reference stress (=100 kPa, for pp values given in kPa); Q, R and φc are intrinsic
parameters that can be determined for various geomaterials such as clean sands (Bolton 1986),
nonplastic silty sands (Salgado et al., 2000), and mixtures of sands with either plastic or nonplastic
fines (Carraro et al., 2009). By performing a series of LSTX tests in a systematic manner and
under controlled levels of state variables, these intrinsic parameters can also be determined for any
uncemented geomaterial with large particle sizes to allow prediction of the peak shear strength (or
φp ) of the material under any state. Figure 9 schematically illustrates this point for a hypothetical
◦
geomaterial with Q, R and φc equal to 10, 1 and 30 , respectively, where the axi-symmetric (or
triaxial) deviator stress invariant is defined as q = σ1 − σ3 . The critical state line (CSL) and the
peak failure envelopes were determined using this procedure, which is outlined in detail by Salgado
(2008), for various combinations of DR and p (Fig. 9).
88
2.2 Experimental protocol
In order to properly characterize the intrinsic parameters of a geomaterial in such a way that general
predictions of its shear strength can be made, a systematic experimental protocol must be followed
as well. This protocol would systematically account for the effects of the state variables on the
mechanical behavior of the geomaterial by following an experimental testing program that would
take into account at least three different levels for each state variable (DR and p ). In the case of
geomaterials with large particle sizes such as mine waste rock, rockfll, and coarse aggregates, the
experimental program should also be designed to address the issues of sample-size ratio, membrane
penetration and particle breakage discussed above. A new large-scale triaxial testing apparatus has
been developed at Colorado State University to allow testing of specimens with diameter and height
equal to 150 and 300 mm, respectively (Fig. 10). Finally, systematic correction and calibration
triaxial protocols should be followed to properly address the usual issues associated with area,
membrane and shear failure mechanisms (Fig. 11), as outlined by La Rochelle et al. (1988).
3 CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions derived from a comprehensive literature review on the large-scale triaxial
testing and shear strength of geomaterials with large particle sizes can be summarized as follows:
1) Adoption of a minimum sample size ratio of six and specimen diameters of at least 150 mm,
along with the use of parallel gradations allow reasonable estimation of the peak friction angle of
mine waste rock, rockfill, coarse aggregates and other geomaterials with large particle sizes. The
difference between the peak friction angle of the material measured in the laboratory following
the above criteria and the peak friction angle of the actual material in the field might be expected
to be less than about 5%.
2) Critical state and dilatancy are the two most fundamental aspects associated with the proper
evaluation of the shear strength of geomaterials. Proper evaluation of these important aspects of
geomaterial behavior can be carried out by systematically taking into account the effects of the
main state variables (density and mean effective stress) during characterization of the intrinsic
parameters (e.g., critical-state friction angle, Bolton’s correlation parameters Q and R for the
peak friction angle, and the maximum and minimum void ratios) of the material.
3) Determination of the intrinsic parameters mentioned above requires the use of an appropriate
large-scale triaxial protocol. In turn, this more rigorous and fundamental approach would allow
robust and more comprehensive predictions of the shear strength of mine waste rock, rockfill,
coarse aggregates and other geomaterials with large particle sizes to be made for the most
relevant combinations of density and mean effective stress encountered in geotechnical and
mining applications.
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90
Ore geotechnical testing for heap leach pad design
J. Lupo & A. Dolezal

AMEC Earth and Environmental, Englewood, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: Heap leach pad design requires input from several disciplines, including
hydro-metallurgy, process engineering, unsaturated hydrology, civil engineering, geochemistry,
hydraulics, geosynthetics design, and geotechnical engineering. One of the many important aspects
of heap leach pad design is characterization of the ore to define its mechanical and hydraulic behav-
ior during stacking and leaching conditions. This has become more important in recent years, as
the size of leach pads has increased, both laterally and in ore height. Some leach pads in North and
South America currently have ore heights exceeding 150 meters (m), with design ore heights over
240 m. Under these conditions, ore compression, permeability, and shear strength become very
important factors for heap stability as well as recovery.
In addition, weak compressible ores, such as those encountered for some copper, nickel, gold,
and uranium operations are being stacked and leached in pads. While these ore materials are being
stacked at low ore heights (6 to 10 m), ore compression, permeability, and shear strength are still
critical for heap stability and recovery. To understand the behavior of ore materials under load and
leaching conditions, geotechnical laboratory tests are required. These tests are used to define the
range of potential behavior under anticipated conditions within the ore heap. This paper presents a
discussion on common and some unique geotechnical tests that are used to support modern heap
leach pad design. The paper highlights the importance of testing and discusses how the test results
are integrated into pad design.
1 INTRODUCTION
Geotechnical laboratory tests are required for the design of heap leach pads to develop the proper
design parameters. Laboratory and field tests are typically conducted on various components of the
leach pad design, such as the liner system (e.g. underliner, overliner, and geomembrane liner) as
well as the ore materials to characterize the mechanical and hydraulic properties of the materials,
which are then integrated into the leach pad design. The results from laboratory tests are also used
to guide the selection of suitable construction materials, define what type of processing may be
required for the materials, and to develop construction specifications.
Laboratory testing programs conducted for heap leach pad design primarily consist of tests
that are based on accepted standards put forth by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), while other tests do not have any recognized standard, yet are important for design. The
most common laboratory tests used in the design of leach pads include the following:
• Sieve analysis;
• Hydrometer analysis;
• Atterberg limits;
• Natural moisture content;
• Specific gravity;
• Moisture/Density relationships;
• Consolidated-undrained triaxial compression;
• One-dimensional consolidation;
• Modified one-dimensional compression;
• Permeability testing;
• Load-Percolation Testing;
91
Table 1. Geotechnical testing summary table.
Level of design
Detailed
Material Geotechnical tests Scoping Prefeasibility Feasibility design
Underliner – Particle size distribution X X X X

Liner System Atterberg limits X X X X
Specific gravity X X
Moisture-density relationship X X X
Saturated hydraulic conductivity X X
Direct shear/triaxial shear strength X X
Interface shear strength X X
with geomembrane
Overliner – Particle size distribution X X X X
Liner System Atterberg limits X X X X
Air permeability (for pads with X
internal aeration)
Interface shear strength X X
with geomembrane
Ore Particle size distribution X X X X
Atterberg limits X X X X
One-dimensional compression X
(under load)
Load-percolation X x
Soil-Water characteristic curve X
Geomembrane – Liner load test X X
Liner System Interface shear testing X X
• Liner Load Testing;

• Soil-Water Characteristic Curve.
The testing requirements vary depending on the type of material under consideration (underliner,
overliner, ore, etc) and what stage of design is being considered (scoping, pre-feasibillity, feasibility,
or detailed engineering). A summary of the typical tests conducted for various materials in a heap
leach pad at different stages of design is presented in Table 1.
The focus of this paper is on the geotechnical testing on ore materials to be placed in the leach
pad. The reader is referred to Lupo (2009) for the testing requirements to support leach pad liner
systems.
2 ORE GEOTECNICAL TESTING
Geotechnical testing of ore materials is required to assess the mechanical and hydraulic behavior of
the ore under the anticipated loading conditions within the leach pad. This is a critical component
to leach pad design, as inadequate or improper testing can result in instability of the leach pad
and/or poor recovery from the ore.
Prior to development of a testing program, it is important to recognize that the character of ore
materials may change during the leaching process. For example, significant degradation of ore
materials may occur when subjected to acidic leaching solutions or biological activity (Theil and
92
Figure 1. One-dimensional compression test frame.
Smith, 2004). Ore degradation can result in instability of the ore heap, increased internal inventory,
decreased recovery and/or lengthened leaching time. The potential degradation of the ore can be
assessed by testing leach column residues, which have already been aged by leaching solutions.
The recommended approach in developing a geotechnical testing program for ore materials is
to consider the properties of the ore as it is placed in the heap (e.g. agglomeration, pre-treatment,
etc), and after leaching. The as-placed ore mechanical and hydraulic properties will influence the
method of ore placement (truck haulage versus conveyor stacking), the type of leach pad to be
designed (dedicated, valley fill, on/off, hybrid), and initial leaching rates. While the properties of
the leached ore will affect the ore stacking configuration for stability, leach solution application
rates of stacked ore, and solution management during operations and closure. From a recovery
stand-point, the properties of the leached ore will also affect in-heap inventory and methods to
recover the inventory.
As presented in Table 1, ore materials are often subject to the following laboratory tests:
– Particle size distribution
– Atterberg limits
– Specific gravity
– Modified one-dimensional compression
– Saturated hydraulic conductivity (under load)
– Load-percolation
– Soil-Water characteristic curve
– Direct shear/triaxial shear strength
Particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, and Specific gravity are commonly used to characterize
the ore materials in terms of geotechnical analogs. For example, an ore with high fines content and
plasticity (derived from Atterberg limits) would be expected to have similar attributes to a clayey
soil; while a coarse grained ore with little fines would be expected to behave in a similar fashion
as a gravel or coarse sand. While these tests do not provide numerical values that are used directly
in the design of leach pads, the information they provide are useful for correlating the observed
behavior of the ore from the other tests.
2.1 Modified one-dimensional compression

The modified one-dimensional compression test is conducted by placing the ore (fresh or leached)
into rigid-wall test vessel (see Figure 1). A load is applied to the ore through a steel platen and
hydraulic jack. The change in the height of the ore is measured with a micrometer or other instru-
mentation. The measured compression of the ore can then be used to calculate the increase in ore
density and decrease in ore porosity as a function of the applied load. The applied load can be
converted to equivalent ore height using the calculated ore density.
93
Figure 2. Ore compression test results.
One-dimensional compression tests are used to assess the response of the ore under load. As
shown in Figure 2, ore can undergo significant compression and volume reduction with increasing
height of ore on the leach pad (e.g. the lower ore lifts are compressed by the self-weight of the
upper ore lifts). The decrease in volume can affect both the hydraulic and mechanical properties of
the ore.
The durable ore sample lost approximately 50 percent of its original porosity, while the com-
pressible ore material lost approximately 90 percent of its original porosity. These changes in
porosity can have a profound affect on the ore mechanical and hydraulic response, as discussed in
the following sections.
2.2 Saturated hydraulic conductivity tests

Saturated hydraulic conductivity tests (often referred as permeability tests) are used to measure the
hydraulic characteristics of the ore under fully saturated conditions. While ore materials are most
commonly leached under unsaturated conditions, the saturated ore hydraulic conductivity provides
two useful measurements:
1. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the ore represents the maximum solution application rate
for the ore. In other words, if the solution application rate exceeds the saturated ore hydraulic
conductivity, not only will the ore heap become saturated, but it may become unstable due to
the high phreatic surface within the heap. Therefore, the solution application rate should be
maintained well-below the conditions that could saturate the ore; and
2. By measuring the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the ore under load, the heap leach pad
designer can assess whether the ore heap is likely to become saturated under future conditions,
as more ore is stacked higher onto the leach pad. This information may be used in the design of
stacking plans to avoid or minimize saturation and enhance stability.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity tests under load can be conducted using either flexible or rigid
wall permeameters. Flexible wall permeameters are used on fine-grained ore materials, while rigid
wall permeameters are typically used for coarse-grained ore materials.
Figure 3 presents results from saturated hydraulic conductivity tests conducted under load. The
tests shown on Figure 3 are for a strong, durable ore and weak, compressible ore material. As
expected, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the ore decreases with increased ore load (i.e. ore
height). The decrease in hydraulic conductivity is less than an order of magnitude for the durable
ore, while the compressible ore exhibits a loss of almost three orders of magnitude, reflecting a
significant change in the ore hydraulic properties.
94
Figure 3. Saturated hydraulic conductivity under load.
Figure 4. Equivalent application rate under load.
Figure 4 presents saturated hydraulic conductivity test data for a compressible copper ore. In this
figure, the data are presented in terms of equivalent solution application rate, in liters per hour per
square meter (L/hr/m2 ). By plotting the data in this form, it is possible to estimate the maximum
ore height under which the ore will become saturated under leaching conditions. For example, the
design solution application rate for this leach pad is 7.8 L/hr/m2 . Under this application rate, Ore
Type #1 and #2 are anticipated to become saturated under an ore height of 5 to 8 meters, while Ore
Type #3 and #4 will not become saturated until an ore height of 40 to 45 meters is achieved.
Presenting the data in this format provides a useful tool for the heap leach pad designer and the
operator. The data presented in Figure 4 suggests that if ore is to be stacked greater than 8 meters
on the leach pad, then the following leach pad design options are available:
1. Delay stacking Ore Type #1 and #2 on the leach pad until the last 8 meters at the top of the heap;
2. Blend all of the ore together, resulting in a composite ore that can be stacked higher than 8 meters.
The ore blend would have to be tested to determine the blend ratio;
95
Figure 5. Load percolation test frame schematic.
3. Design the leach pad to accommodate low ore stacking for Ore Type #1 and #2, and high ore
stacking for Ore Type #3 and #4; or
4. Consider using an interlift liner for Ore Type #1 and #2. The benefits and costs for an interlift
liner would need to be carefully evaluated before selecting this option.
2.3 Load-percolation tests

Load-percolation tests are an alternate method for assessing the hydraulic characteristics of ore
under load, however the focus of the test is to determine what conditions are required to maintain
unsaturated ore percolation (applied load and/or applied solution rate).
Load-percolation tests are typically conducted using a modified rigid wall permeameter, as
shown in Figure 5. The tests are conducted by placing an ore sample within test vessel, between
porous plates and perforated load/bearing plates. Leach solution is introduced at the top of the ore
sample at the design application rate and the effluent is collected at the bottom of the vessel. As
the leach solution is applied, the load on the ore sample is increased incrementally to the desired
maximum load. During loading, the ore compression is measured based on the change in height
of the sample. These data are used to calculate bulk density and porosity of the ore sample during
leaching. The volume difference between the applied solution and effluent can be used to estimate
ore moisture content under leach and moisture up-take prior to leaching. These moisture content
values are important as they are used directly in solution management (water balance) calculations.
If, during loading, the applied solution pools on top of the ore sample (above the perforated
loading plate), this would be an indication that the ore sample has become saturated and further
percolation is occurring under saturated conditions. The load at which the ore becomes saturated
can be converted to an equivalent ore height and used to guide the design of maximum ore height
for the heap leach pad.
For both the saturated hydraulic conductivity and load percolation tests, it is recommended to
use actual leach solution, rather than water. Depending on the mineralogy of the ore, the hydraulic
response may vary considerably on the leach solution chemistry.
2.4 Soil-water characteristic curve

In recent years, some projects have conducted tests to define the soil-water characteristic curve
(SWCC) for ore materials. A SWCC relates the soil (ore) moisture content with the soil (ore)
suction pressure. This relationship is unique to each ore type and can be used to relate ore moisture
content to unsaturated and saturated hydraulic conductivity, which is used for percolation and
airflow studies within ore heaps. A full discussion of SWCC’s in heap studies is outside the scope
of this paper. However, when considering tests to define the SWCC for ore materials, it is important
96
to note that most SWCC tests are generally conducted on small samples with small particle sizes
(minus 25 mm), although some tests have been conducted on larger particles. In addition, the
SWCC parameters are likely to vary with ore depth and with ore degradation.
2.5 Triaxial compression/direct shear tests

An integral part of leach pad design is defining the shear strength of the ore materials. Ore materials
are often tested under triaxial compression and/or direct shear tests to evaluate the shear strength
under the anticipated loading conditions. The decision on whether to use triaxial compression
or direct shear, or both types of testing is generally based on the ore characteristics (fresh and
leached) and the anticipated loading conditions (static and seismic loads, ore loading rates, and ore
placement method).
Triaxial compression tests are commonly used to evaluate the shear strength of rock and soil
materials. There are several types of triaxial compression tests that may be conducted, depending
on the type of loading and drainage conditions that may occur within the ore heap. The general
types include:
– Consolidated – Undrained (CU)
– Consolidated – Drained (CD)
– Unconsolidated – Undrained (UU)
CU tests are conducted whereby the ore is first saturated then consolidated (under drained
conditions) to an effective mean stress that is equivalent to desired ore depth. Once the ore has
been consolidated under the effective mean stress, the sample is then sheared under undrained
conditions. CD tests are typically conducted on ore samples that have been prepared at/or near the
leaching moisture content of the ore. The sample is consolidated to an effective mean stress that is
equivalent to desired ore depth, and then sheared under fully drained conditions. It is important to
run CD tests at a strain rate that is slow enough to prevent development of excess pore pressures
within the sample. Finally, UU tests may be conducted on either saturated ore or an ore sample
at/or near the leaching moisture content. For UU tests, the sample is confined to an effective mean
stress that is equivalent to the desired ore depth, and sheared under undrained conditions.
CU tests are the most common test used for ore shear strength testing. At first, testing the ore
under CU conditions may not seem compatible with the concept of leaching under unsaturated
conditions; however in the lower portions of the heap (particularly next to the liner) the ore can
become saturated. It is these lower portions of the heap that can have a significant impact on
the overall stability of the ore heap. In addition, if excess pore pressures are measured, CU tests
can provide both effective and total stress parameters, which allow stability of the ore heap to be
assessed under different drainage conditions. CD tests may also be used for coarse, well-drained
ore materials that are not anticipated to generate excess pore pressures under load. UU tests may
be used to assess the shear strength of fine-grained ore, with very poor drainage properties that
are to be loaded rapidly (e.g. loading under haul truck traffic). Direct shear tests can also be used
for leach pad design. These tests should be conducted on saturated or nearly saturated ore and
sheared at a strain rate that will not generate excess pore pressures (generally between 0.0025 and
1 millimeter per minute).
The results from triaxial compression and/or direct shear tests can be plotted in various formats.
One useful format is to plot the data in stress path space, by plotting the mean and deviatoric
stresses [mean effective stress [p ] = (σ1 + σ3 )/2 and deviatoric stress [q] = (σ1 − σ3 )/2].
Plotting the data in stress path space, allows the designer to observe the behavior of ore under
shear. If the ore exhibits dilatant behavior, the ore may gain shear strength under strain (e.g. strain
hardening), which is beneficial to heap stability. The opposite of dilatant ore is strain softening
(contractive) ore, which rapidly loses shear strength under strain. Under certain conditions, a
contractive ore can lead to abrupt failure of the ore heap in a leach pad. A general stress path plot
of strain hardening and strain softening ore is presented in Figure 6.
Using the results from triaxial compression tests, the designer can identify if the ore will behave
in a contractive or dilatant sense, and make appropriate changes in the heap leach pad design to
accommodate for this behavior. It is important to note that the behavior of the ore under strain
can change, depending on the stress level. Figure 7 presents a graph showing ore behaving as a
contractive material at low stresses, while transitioning to a dilatant material at higher stresses.
97
Figure 6. Stress path plot (undrained loading).
Figure 7. Transition in ore behavior.
These types of transitions in behavior are important to identify in the design stage, before ore is
being stacked and leached.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Geotechnical testing to define the mechanical and hydraulic characteristics of ore materials is
critical to the design of heap leach pads. Often the focus on geotechnical testing of the leach pad
components (liner system, drainage layers, etc), but the testing of ore is also critical to the design.
The hydraulic and mechanical properties of the ore will influence:
• Ore stacking (height and placement methods)
• Leaching rates
98
• Stability
• Recovery
• Internal inventory (dissolved).
When developing the geotechnical testing program for ore materials, it is important to consider the
potential changes to the ore characteristics due to ore loading (depth of ore), stacking methods, and
degradation from leach solutions. The geotechnical testing program should be designed to capture
these potential changes so they can be incorporated into the design of the overall leach pad.
REFERENCES
Lupo, J. 2009. Liner System Design For Heap Leach Pads, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, No. 9.
Theil, R. and M. Smith, 2004. State of the practice review of heap leach pad design issues, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 22, pp 555–568.
99
Critical state liquefaction assessment of an upstream constructed

tailings sand dam
C.D. Anderson
Golder Associates Ltd., Burnaby, Canada
T.L. Eldridge
Golder Associates, S.A, Santiago, Chile
ABSTRACT: The stability of an upstream constructed tailings sand dam is highly dependent on
the strength of the existing tailings to form the foundation of the subsequent raise. Dams that are
raised above the original design height or are constructed with a narrow zone of coarse sand on
the upstream face may have portions of the dam constructed over potentially liquefiable tailings.
Whereas silts (e.g. fine tailings) have in the past been viewed as non-liquefiable, that view is
now changing such that sufficient ‘fines content’ is no longer regarded as sufficient protection
from liquefaction and alternative means of assessment are required. The paper will present an
example where the liquefaction potential of silt-sized tailings was assessed as part of the stability
assessment for a raise of an existing upstream constructed tailings sand dam. The liquefaction
assessment was based on the critical state concept, and used two approaches. First, the liquefaction
potential was assessed using disturbed and undisturbed samples to define the void ratio profile
of the tailings with depth, which was then compared to the critical state locus (CSL) determined
from a suite of laboratory tests on the tailings. Second, the liquefaction potential was assessed
in-situ using piezocone (CPTu) measurements and soil-specific calibrations. The estimated in-situ
state parameter from the two methods was remarkably similar, giving confidence to the overall
approach. The calibrated CPTu data was then adopted for assessment of the dam as a whole. With
the in-situ state parameter profile defined, estimation of liquefaction potential is straightforward,
and independent of ‘fines content’, as described in the paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
The ability to adequately manage the risks associated with operating an upstream constructed
tailings sand dam relies on the ability to understand and account for the behaviour of the materials
involved. Reasonable identification of potential consequences of constructing on tailings requires
the ability to adequately assess how the soil behaviours such as soil strength and liquefaction will
control the dam geometry and raising sequence.
Upstream constructed tailings sand dams are higher risk structures than downstream constructed
sand dams because of the high degree of operator attention that must be applied to depositing the
tailings in a manner to maximize future stability, maintain the pond in a position to allow sufficient
segregation of coarse particles along the beach in the area of future raises and maintain a low phreatic
surface within the dam shell. The use of hydrocyclones to separate the coarse fraction of the tailings
for dam construction can improve the operation by eliminating the reliance on particle segregation
on the beach to produce the dam shell material. Regardless of the method of segregation of the
coarse fraction, the finest and lowest specific gravity silt particles (often called slimes) deposit
within the tailing pond. If the pond is maintained in a single location, thick layers of these soft
silts can develop, and as the dam is raised, the crest may progress over these slimes, as shown on
Figure 1. An understanding of the shear strength, consolidation behaviour, hydraulic conductivity
and liquefaction potential of these slimes is required in order to predict the performance of the dam
with reasonable confidence.
101
Figure 1. Typical configuration of upstream constructed tailings sand dam.
While the prediction of the behaviour of the coarse tailings shell is relatively straightforward, the
prediction of the behaviour of the silt tailings is considerably more challenging. While sufficiently
coarse-grained materials and sufficiently fine-grained materials occupy either of the relatively well
understood ends of the spectrum of soil behaviour, soils with a high percentage of silt-size particles
occupy a relatively broad band of the spectrum, where grain size is an insufficient indicator of
anticipated behaviour. Complicating matters, tailings slimes are man-made materials, a product of
a series of crushing, grinding and chemical processes that produce a “soil” that has not experienced
weathering, aging, or other natural processes to which natural soils are subjected. Where standard
liquefaction evaluation techniques have been developed based on natural soils, typically clean sands
(e.g. Youd et al. 2001, Bray & Sancio 2006, Boulanger & Idriss 2007), such techniques must be
used with caution in evaluation of tailings slimes.
To characterize the tailings slimes recently encountered during the investigations for an upstream
raise of a tailings dam, a critical state approach was adopted, which utilizes fundamental physical
principles to predict the strength and liquefaction resistance of the tailings slimes (Shuttle &
Cunning, 2007). Once the tailings slimes were characterized within the critical state framework, site
specific correlations were developed for the tailings slimes in order to demonstrate the deviation of
the behaviour of the tailings slimes from that predicted using the standard techniques. In particular,
the extent of potentially liquefiable materials was significantly under-predicted using the standard
techniques, which would lead to unconservative estimates of potential liquefaction.
1.1 Background
The assessment of liquefaction susceptibility of silt tailings was required as part of an evaluation
of the stability of a proposed 25 m raise of an upstream constructed sand dam. At the time of the
proposed expansion the tailings impoundment had been in nearly continuous operation for about
40 years, and had a maximum crest height of about 70 m. The sand dam provides containment on
three sides of the impoundment, with a total crest length of about 3500 m. The dam is raised during
operations using lifts of about 1.5 m constructed from coarse sand reclaimed from the tailings
beach. The proposed raise would advance the crest about 125 m upstream, resulting in a face slope
of 5 horizontal to 1 vertical.
Two types of tailings were encountered during the investigation along the final crest alignment
of the 25 m dam raise. “Coarse” tailings were found in the upper portion of the borehole and CPTu
soundings, consisting of sand and silty sand to depths of up to about 25 m. Below the coarse tailings
very soft “fine” silt tailings interlayered with coarse tailings were encountered. The thickness of
the layers of these very soft silt tailings ranged from 1 m up to 20 m, and the interlayered sequence
extended to depths of up to 70 m. A typical CPTu sounding is shown in Figure 2. The particle size
distribution of the bulk tailings discharged from the mill along with the coarse and fine fractions
resulting from segregation after deposition are shown in Figure 3.
The coarse tailings encountered during this investigation were generally consistent with previ-
ous investigations and assessments at the site, and are generally well understood from thorough
laboratory and in-situ testing. The coarse tailings behave as a typical loose to compact sand with
relatively high permeability.
The silt tailings that were encountered in this investigation had not been previously encountered in
the investigations carried out in this tailings dam. These silt tailings are soft, and have a relatively
high plasticity, as shown on the plasticity chart in Figure 4. In general, these silt tailings were
expected to behave in an undrained manner as a soft, cohesive material with very low permeability.
102
Figure 2. Typical CPTu data showing upper zone of coarse tailings and lower zone of soft silt tailings.
Figure 3. Particle size distributions of bulk tailings, coarse fraction and fine fraction resulting from
segregation.
103
Figure 4. Plasticity chart showing plasticity of tailings slimes ranging from low to high.
However, the susceptibility of these soft tailings to liquefaction, either through earthquake loading
or other triggering mechanisms such as rapid loading was not well understood.
The presence and significant thickness of very soft silt tailings required that the behaviour of
these materials be characterized in some detail to determine their in-situ strength, susceptibility
to liquefaction or softening under dynamic or static loading, and subsequently their critical state
(residual) strengths for use in the stability assessment of the dam raise.
2 SILT TAILINGS BEHAVIOUR
2.1 Behaviour of silt tailings

The potential for silts to liquefy has in the past been assumed to be very low, particularly for natural
silts with some plasticity (Robertson & Wride 1998). In effect, it was assumed that either soils
with a certain fines content did not have sufficient void space to allow collapse of the soil structure
during loading, or that the plasticity was indicative of some tendency for the soil structure to hold
together under loading.
More recently, case studies and research (Bray & Sancio 2006, Wijewickreme et al. 2005) have
shown that soils with high fines content (greater than about 40% passing the #200 sieve) can and
will liquefy under loading, as void ratios can in certain situations be very high, and the ability of
plasticity to resist soil structure collapse is limited. For silt-size tailings in particular, the relatively
young age of the deposit results in an unconsolidated or consolidating mass consisting of angular
crushed particles with high void ratios and potential for collapse of the soil structure. Although
tailings are often assumed to have low to no plasticity because they result from crushing of rock,
the geology and mineralogy of the ore and host rock, and particularly the alterations that are often
associated with the ore, coupled with segregation of the finest and lightest particles of the tailings
to the pond can result in layers of tailings with plasticity.
2.2 Correlations for classification of liquefaction potential

The existing methods for classification of liquefaction potential fall into two categories. The first
category of methods requires some measurable soil property to be correlated to observed lique-
faction or non-liquefaction, either through observations made following natural events such as
earthquakes or other failures, or through laboratory testing carried out in controlled conditions.
Recent research (Bray & Sancio 2006, Boulanger & Idriss 2007) has focused on the relatively easily
measured soil index properties of plasticity index (PI), liquid limit (LL) and natural water content
104
Figure 5. Criteria for evaluating liquefaction potential based on soil index testing.
(wc ). Using the soil index tests, PI is plotted against either the ratio of wc /LL (Bray & Sancio
2006), or against LL (Boulanger and Idriss 2007), with zones of “non-susceptible”, “moderately
susceptible” and “susceptible” identified based on the observations of samples that did or did not
experience liquefaction, as shown in Figure 5. A wc /LL ratio of between 0.65 and 0.8 is identified
as the threshold below which the soil will not liquefy.
The second category of methods are those that utilize cone penetration testing (CPTu) data to
correlate soil behaviour during CPTu sounding to observed liquefaction, also observed from natural
events or laboratory testing. Research in this area has focused on a modified soil behaviour type
plot, which uses state parameter ψ and soil classification index Ic limiting values to delineate
various zones of strain softening or non-strain softening soils (Robertson 2008, Shuttle & Cunning
2008), as shown in Figure 6.
2.3 Critical state concepts for behaviour of silt tailings

To provide a consistent framework for prediction of soil behaviour the critical state soil mechanics
(CSSM) approach has been widely adopted. CSSM forms the basis of several methods of evaluation
of liquefaction potential (Been et al. 1991, Plewes et al 1992, Boulanger 2003, Jefferies & Been
2006). An overview of the CSSM theory is illustrated on Figure 7. Any soil with a mean effective
stress, p , and void ratio, e, that plots above the critical state line (or locus), CSL, will contract during
drained loading, or generate excess pore pressure, reducing the effective stress during undrained
loading, until it reaches the CSL. Conversely, soil with a p and e below the CSL will dilate during
drained loading, or decrease pore pressure, increasing the effective stress during undrained loading,
until it reaches the CSL. Once the CSL is reached a soil continues shearing with no change in e or p .
The strength and behaviour of in situ soils depends on the state parameter, ψ, defined as the
vertical difference between the in-situ void ratio and the void ratio at the critical state at the same p
(see Figure 7). Loose or normally consolidated soils have a void ratio above the CSL (positive ψ)
which will subsequently exhibit contractive behaviour during shearing (leading to change in void
ratio, or excess pore pressure), while dense and over-consolidated soils have void ratios below the
CSL (negative ψ) and will exhibit dilative behaviour during shearing (leading to change in void
ratio or decreased pore pressures). Depending on the drainage conditions present within the soil,
the contractive or dilative behaviour will result in either a change in volume of the soil (drained
behaviour), or a change in effective stress at constant volume (undrained behaviour). When there
is a substantial loss of strength resulting from the reduction in effective stress during undrained
shearing (strain softening), liquefaction is said to have occurred.
The CSL is associated with large strains (i.e. once initial fabric has been destroyed), hence the
CSL may be determined using laboratory testing on reconstituted samples. This is advantageous
for silts which are difficult to sample in an undisturbed manner and differs from other laboratory
105
Figure 6. Criteria for evaluating liquefaction potential based on CPTu.
Figure 7. Critical state soil mechanics concepts.
106
Figure 8. Critical State Line determination from triaxial tests.
based evaluation procedures which require undisturbed samples. With the CSL known the in-situ
state of the soils can be easily assessed using measurements of water content to calculate in-situ
void ratios and an estimate of in-situ effective stress.
3 CHARACTERIZATION OF TAILINGS
3.1 Laboratory testing results

The laboratory testing of the tailings focused on samples from the middle and lower depths con-
sidered to be representative of the soft silt tailings. The objective of collecting and testing these
samples was to measure the parameters of the silt tailings, of tailings at greater depths than have
previously been tested, and of the softest observed samples in order to establish the degree of
variation in tailings properties throughout the tailings impoundment.
A series of triaxial tests on reconstituted and undisturbed samples from thin-walled piston-tube
sampling was undertaken to determine the strength properties of the silt tailings and to establish the
CSL. Since the soil properties at the critical state are unaffected by either initial fabric or density,
the choice of test conditions was based on obtaining the clearest possible determination of the
CSL. Samples were consolidated to a range of confining pressures and sheared in both drained and
undrained conditions. The derived CSL is shown in Figure 8.
The CSL is defined by the following equation:
where, for these silt tailings, = 2.063 is the void ratio of the CSL at a reference pressure of 1 kPa,
and λ10 = 0.541 is the slope of the CSL in the plot of e against log(p ).
3.2 In-situ testing results

The state and strength of the soft silt within the interbedded stratum was the principal focus as these
layers contain the weakest and softest soils in the profile, and are therefore possibly a controlling
aspect from a stability perspective. As can be seen from the processed CPTu data in Figure 9, both
the normalized pore pressure response during penetration Bq , as defined in Equation 3, and the soil
behaviour type index Ic , as defined by Jefferies & Been (2006) in Equation 3 are about constant
within the various soft silt interbeds, and thus the silt can be treated as essentially the same material
throughout the interbedded unit.
107
Figure 9. Characterization of silt tailings from CPTu data.
When the CPTu data are plotted on a modified soil behaviour plot, the silt tailings plot well
below the demarcation line between strain hardening and strain softening, and in a similar location
as other silt tailings (Shuttle & Cunning 2008), as shown on Figure 10.
In order to calibrate the CPTu for use in the assessment of liquefaction susceptibility, the labora-
tory testing results were used to provide a site-specific calibration of the CPTu behaviour using the
procedure established by Shuttle & Cunning (2007). Such site specific calibration was necessary
because the tailings were much softer and higher in plasticity than the natural soils from which the
standard correlations were developed.
3.3 Numerical modelling for site specific correlation

Finite element simulations were carried out to determine the relationship between normalized CPT
resistance and the state parameter, ψ, of the soft silts. These simulations used the soil proper-
ties determined from the laboratory testing. The simulations used the methodology presented in
Shuttle & Cunning (2007), which was an extension of the earlier work on drained penetration by
Shuttle & Jefferies (1998). This finite element code has been calibrated to CPT chamber tests
and has an accuracy between the calibration data and the finite element simulations of about
ψ = ±0.03 (about 5% of the range in ψ for a soil) when the shear modulus has been measured.
When dealing with undrained CPT soundings, the trends are simplified into a near-unique rela-
tionship if presented in terms of the parameter group Qp (1 − Bq ) + 1, as discussed in Shuttle &
Cunning (2007).
Figure 11 shows the computed relationship between this parameter group and ψ0 for the silts
for a range of reasonable in-situ stiffness and NorSand fitting parameters. The effect of stress
level has been included. There is a simple trend essentially independent of uncertainty in the input
parameters. This plot forms the basis for the calibration of the in-situ state parameter of the silt
within the interbedded unit using the CPT data.
108
Figure 10. Soil behaviour plot showing the boundary between strain softening and strain hardening behaviour.
Figure 11. Computed relationship between normalized CPTu resistance and initial state parameter for
tailings slimes.
109
Figure 12. Susceptibility to liquefaction based on PI and wc/LL.
The relationship between the state parameter, ψ, and the CPT measurements for these tailings
is thus:
where the coefficients k = 3.84 and m = 4.26 are the curve fit parameters determined during the
calibration process.
Based on Figure 10, a reasonable ‘characteristic’ normalized penetration resistance for the silt
is about Qp (1 − Bq ) + 1 ≈ 1.3. This value applies throughout the depth range of the deposit, as
the CPT data shows reasonably constant silt state with depth. Taking the central trend through the
finite element results in Figure 11, the corresponding range for the state parameter of the “slimes”
is +0.18 < ψ0 < +0.23, which is a very good match to the measured state parameter from water
contents shown in Figure 9.
4 LIQUEFACTION ASSESSMENT
Based on the characterization of the silt tailings discussed above, the silts may potentially weaken
during and shortly after an earthquake. Any such reductions in strength are conventionally included
in the definition of ‘liquefaction’, and in the following discussion the term ‘liquefaction’ will be
used to include all seismically induced reductions of strength, such as ‘cyclic mobility’.
Within the critical state framework, it has been shown in previous studies (Shuttle & Cunning,
2007, 2008) that for tailings at an in-situ state less than −0.05, the response to shearing will be strain
hardening (dilative), resulting in low or no susceptibility to liquefaction. For soils at in-situ state,
ψ, greater than −0.05, the response to shearing will be strain-softening (contractive), resulting in
potential susceptibility to liquefaction. This demarcation line of ψ = −0.05 is shown on Figure 10,
and the silt tailings plot well below this line indicating substantial susceptibility to strain softening
and subsequent liquefaction.
The second approach to liquefaction assessment discussed above, using correlations based on
a threshold PI and minimum ratio of wc/LL, is illustrated in the plot of the silt tailings data in
Figure 12, showing a range in anticipated susceptibility to liquefaction due to the range in PI,
which is not indicated when using the CSSM approach.
When using the CPT as an investigation tool, this concept of threshold plasticity has effectively
been extended to the use of Ic as a proxy for PI as an indicator of susceptibility to liquefaction.
Threshold Ic values for natural soils have been established by Jefferies and Been (2006), where Ic
values greater than 2.4 indicate non-susceptible to liquefaction.
Subsequently, in order to include a PI threshold in the assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility
directly from the CPT profile, a site specific correlation between Plasticity Index and Ic was
developed. In the absence of sufficient laboratory testing to confirm the zones of liquefaction
susceptibility proposed by Bray & Sancio (2006), a conservative PI threshold of 20 was adopted.
110
Figure 13. Correlation between PI and Ic to develop threshold Ic for liquefaction susceptibility of silt tailings.
The correlation between Ic and PI for the silt tailings is shown in Figure 13, which shows a very
strong linear trend. Based on the correlation between Ic and PI the threshold Ic values to consider
the soft silt tailings as non-liquefiable was considered to be 3.3.
5 SUMMARY
While it is commonly perceived to be conservative to assume tailings are susceptible to liquefaction

with an Ic or PI below a certain threshold value, the foregoing assessment using a systematic
critical state framework and site specific correlations illustrates that this assumption may not be as
conservative as previously thought.
The characterization of the tailings using laboratory testing and CPTu soundings provided the
necessary information to calibrate the CPT soundings using numerical modelling techniques, result-
ing in a refined estimate of the state parameter ψ which had impressive agreement with estimates
of ψ from water content and laboratory determined CSL. This refined estimate of the state para-
meter could then be applied to the CPT soundings to provide a continuous profile of liquefaction
susceptibility, rather than snapshots from specific sampling locations. Using the CPTu profiles
within the critical state framework and plotting data on a modified soil behaviour plot indicated
that the silt tailings are expected to behave in a highly strain softening manner which is likely to
result in liquefaction of the silt tailings from an applied seismic load of sufficient magnitude.
Using the simplified approach of correlations of liquefaction susceptibility based on PI and
wc/LL, and the extension to relating PI to Ic , site specific values for a liquefaction threshold Ic for the
silt tailings were found to be 3.3 and 3.45 in place of 2.4 and 2.6 for determinations of Ic by Jefferies
and Been (2006) or Robertson and Wride (1998), respectively. This higher value of a threshold Ic
effectively increases the extent of tailings that would be identified as potentially liquefiable.
Subsequently, determinations of the anticipated extent of potential liquefaction using the stan-
dard approaches could significantly underestimate the size of the liquefied zone. If subsequent
engineering decisions are based on the anticipated extent of liquefaction, these decisions may not
in fact be achieving the intended level of performance.
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Geoenvironmental Engineering 129(8): 770–773.
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and Geoenvironmental Engineering 133(6): 641–652.
Bray, J.D. & Sancio, R.B. 2006. Assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. Journal of
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paper GL-84-13 US Army Corps of Engineers Waterway Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Ishihara, K. 1993. Liquefaction and flow failure during earthquakes. Géotechnique 43(3): 351–415.
Jefferies, M.G. & Been, K. 2006. Soil liquefaction, a critical state approach. Taylor and Francis.
Marcuson, W.F., Hynes, M.E. & Franklin, A.G. 2007. Seismic design and analysis of embankment dams: The
state of practice. 4th Civil Engineering Conference in the Asian Region, Proc., Taipei, 25–28 June 2007.
Olson, S.M. & Stark, T.D. 2002. Liquefied strength ratio from liquefaction flow case histories. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 39(3): 629–647.
Plewes, H.D., Davies, M.P., & Jefferies, M.G. 1992. CPT based screening procedure for evaluating liquefaction
susceptibility. 45th Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Proc., Toronto, Ont. 26–28 October 1992.
Robertson, P.K. 2008. Discussion of “Liquefaction potential of silts from CPTu”. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal 45(1): 140–141.
Robertson, P.K., & Wride (Fear), C.E. 1998. Evaluating cyclic liquefaction potential using the cone penetration
test. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 35(3): 442–459.
Robertson, P.K. 2010. Evaluation of flow liquefaction and liquefied strength using the cone penetration test.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 136(6): 842–853.
Seed, H.B., Cetin, K.O., Moss, R.E.S., Kammerer, A., Wu, J., Pestana, J., Reimer, M., Sancio, R.B., Bray, J.D.,
Kayen, R.E., & Faris, A. 2003. Recent advances in soil liquefaction engineering: A unified and consistent
framework. 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, Keynote presentation, Long
Beach, CA 30 April 2003.
Shuttle, D.A. and Cunning, J. 2007. Liquefaction potential of silts from CPTU. Canadian Geotechnical Journal
44(1): 1–19.
Shuttle, D.A. and Cunning, J. 2008. Reply to the discussion by Robertson on “Liquefaction potential of silts
from CPTu”. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 45(1): 142–145.
Shuttle, D.A., and Jefferies, M.G. 1998. Dimensionless and unbiased CPT interpretation in sand. International
Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 22(5): 351–391.
Wijewickreme, D., Sanin, M.V., and Greenaway, G.R. 2005. Cyclic shear response of fine-grained mine
tailings. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42(5): 1408–1421.
Youd, T.L., Idriss, I.M., Andrus, R., Arango, I., Castro, G., Christian, J., et al. 2001. Liquefaction resis-
tance of soils: Summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation
of liquefaction resistance of soils. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 127(10):
817–833.
112
Heap leach pad cover design analyses Salmon, Idaho
I. Hutchison
Strategic Engineering & Science, Inc., Irvine, California, USA
A. Whitman
Meridian Beartrack Company, Reno, Nevada, USA
J. Juliani & Tarik Hadj-Hamou

Strategic Engineering and Science Inc., Irvine, California, USA
ABSTRACT: In accordance with Federal and State laws a former gold mine in Idaho is undergoing
final closure. The closure criteria for the Heap Leach Pile (HLP) which contains 23 million tons
(21 millions metric tons) of gold ore residues from cyanide leaching operations are the flow and
quality of leachate released. Flows meeting the established chemical load criterion can be released to
infiltrate without treatment. Combinations of soil and geosynthetic covers and long term treatment
were evaluated. Financial life cycle costs analyses including consideration of risk and long term
maintenance costs were performed to determine the least cost cover/treatment plant combination
and assess the incremental costs of the other alternatives. Decision analyses were performed to
evaluate which alternatives would best meet a set of closure objectives. The results were utilized
by the Mining Company to select the cover type that best fit its financial goals, internal risk
management approach and criteria for minimizing liability.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Heap Leach Pad (HLP) covers approximately 119 acres (47.6 acres) and contains approximately
23 million tons (21 millions metric tons) of crushed ore residues (Figure 1). The crushed ore residue
is characterized as silty gravel with sand, and is generally sized less than 3 inches (75 mm) in
diameter. The crushed ore residue originated from the pits that were exploited during the active
life of the mine. The crushed ore residue is relatively nutrient poor and consequently the slopes are
sparsely vegetated.
The HLP was located against an existing hill side and presents two fill slope faces, referred to
at the East side slope and the West side slope, respectively. The major characteristics of the slopes
are as follows:
– East Side Slope: varies in height from (34 to 55 m), is approximately 1,880 ft (565 m) long,
and covers approximately 25 acres (10 ha). The slope inclination ranges from about 27 to 29
per cent (i.e., 3.44 horizontal to 1 vertical).
– West Side Slope: varies in height from about 50 to 170 ft (15 to 21 m), is approximately 1,570 ft
(479 m) long, and covers approximately 18 acres (7.2 ha). Inclination of the slope varies from
21 to 28 per cent.
The top deck covers approximately 76 acres (30.4 ha) and was closed with a geomembrane based
cover in 2007. Selection and implementation of the closure approach for the slope is discussed in
the balance of this paper.
Sources of leachate from the HLP are the remnant of the cyanide-base solution used to leach out
the gold from the ore and water from infiltrating precipitation (rain and snow melt). The volume of
leaching solution in the HP is diminishing annually as it drains out of the HLP whereas the volume
of infiltration form precipitation is continues and varies seasonally depending on the total amount
of precipitation that falls on the HLP. The average annual precipitation at the site is on the order
113
Figure 1. Heap Leach Pad in background.
of 24 in. (61 cm), with the greatest amount of precipitation occurring between the months of May
and June. Measurements of the snow-pack at several locations on the site between February 1997
and March 1999 indicated that the typical late winter snow-pack has been 28.8 in. (71 cm) (i.e., 3
to 5 in. (7.5 to 12.75 cm) water equivalent). The major accumulations of snow occur in December
through February. The annual average potential evaporation is about 32 in. (81 cm).
Leachate and a portion of the runoff from the HLP are collected in a lined ditch located along
the western boundary. The lined ditch conveys the collected liquids to the Operating Pond. Recent
reclamation activities have resulted in diversion of a significant quantity of the runoff from the
heap into the stormwater management system so it does not report to the Operating Pond.
2 HLP CLOSURE
2.1 Objectives and alternatives

The basic design objectives for the HLP side slope cover include infiltration reduction, long term
durability, cost effectiveness, and sustainability
To achieve these objectives a series of side slope cover alternatives were considered for the slopes
of the HLP.
• Alternative 1 – Composite Soil/Geosynthetics cover, consisting of a vegetated cover soil, under-
lain by a drainage geocomposite and a flexible geomembrane, with either a thin soil cover (2 ft
(0.61 m)) or a thick soil cover (4 ft (1.2 m)).
• Alternative 2 – A capillary break soil cover consisting of a vegetated soil cover underlain by a
capillary break consisting of a drainage geocomposite or coarse layer of soil.
• Alternative 3 – Evapotranspirative soil cover, consisting of either a thin (2 ft (0.61 m)) or a thick
soil cover (4 ft (1.2 m)).
• Alternative 4 – Hybrid cover, consisting of a composite (Alternative 1) cover on a portion of
the slopes and a capillary break soil cover (Alternative 2) or an evapotranspirative soil cover
(Alternative 3) on the remaining slopes. The composite (Alternative 1) cover would be placed
on those portions of the HLP that yielded the highest constituent concentrations.
Because of the location of the mine at near 7,000 ft (2,130 m) elevation in northern Idaho, the
construction season is limited to four months, and therefore construction of the final cover will
take place over two years.
114
Table 1. Key parameters associated with closure of the HLP.
Side slope cover type
Parameters Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3 Alternative 4
Long-Term Residual Infiltration <1 [3.8] 12 [45.6] 10 [38] 5 [19]

(Calculated – gpm [liters per day])
Long-Term Residual Chemical Leachate
Loads (lb/year[gpm/year])
Cadmium: 0.03 [14] 0.5 [230] 0.4 [180] 0.4 [180]
Mercury: 0.10 [45] 1.9 [860] 1.6 [730] 0.2 [90]
Approximate Cover Capital Cost $8.3 $6.6 $4.4 $5.8
($ Million)
Potential Leachate Treatment Costs $1.2 $2.4 $2.6 $1.8
(NPV $ Million)
Period of Treatment (Years)1 5 years >30 years >30 years 10 years
Approximate Total Cost ($ Million) $9.5 $9.0 $7.0 $7.6
1 Thereafter leachate metals loads are low enough for land application.
Key parameters, including infiltration rates, leachate metal loadings and costs associated with
the alternatives are provided in Table 1. Initial analyses had indicated that a soil cover over the
entire HLP would not result in enough reduction of infiltration and therefore reduction in leachate
production to meet the NPDES requirements. Consequently it was decided to construct a composite
soil/geosynthetics cover on the top deck (Alternative 1) and evaluate the above four alternatives
for the slope cover. Even with he geosynthetic on the top deck the projected long-term leachate
loadings for some of the side slope cover alternatives, may not reduce leachate mercury loading,
for example low enough for discharge (See Table 1). In the pond National Pollution Elimination
Discharge System (NPDES) limits for mercury have been as low as 0.1 lb/year.
2.2 Top deck

The final cover for the deck (TRC, 2007) and was constructed in 2007. The final cover for the deck
consists of the following from bottom to top:
– Foundation: graded crushed ore residue.
– Geosynthetic Barrier: 60-mil (1.5 mm) double textured LLDPE geomembrane.
– Geosynthetic Cushion: 16-oz/sq. yd. (540 g/m2) nonwoven geotextile.
– Select Protective Soil: 1-ft (0.30 m) thick glacial till layer processed with a maximum opening
size of 4 in. (10 cm).
– Vegetative Soil: 1-ft (0.30 m) thick soil layer.
– Final Cover Surface: fine graded and seeded.
The deck is approximately 76 acres 930.4 ha) and therefore represents 64 percent of the watershed
of the HLP. By eliminating infiltration into the HLP through the top deck the toal infiltration and
hence leachate production has been significantly reduced.
2.3 Alternative covers for the slopes

2.3.1 Alternative 1 – composite soil/geosynthetics cover
The advantages of Alternative 1 include:
– Optimum performance. Best practically achievable cover performance infiltration control, hence
least long-term treatment costs.
115
Disadvantages associated with Alternative 1 include:
– Durability/Potential Long-Term Maintenance Required. Frost, seepage etc. considerations min-
imized by intermediate anchor trenches, drainage outlets and benching Potential stability
concerns regarding the creep and large-scale movement of the side slope covers because lack of
drainage to minimize seepage parallel to slope.
– Highest Cost: Higher Capital Cost and Construction Cost than other alternatives.
– Schedule – not feasible for completion in single season.
Risks associated with Alternative 1:
The most significant risk associated with Alternative 1 is potential instability of the soil
cover veneer and geosynthetic cover components on the sideslopes. To minimize the risk of
downslope creep and mass movement of the composite cover, the CCM incorporates additional
grading/benching, drainage outlet and anchor trench elements and costs for anticipated required
routine maintenance and repair costs. The need to significantly repair or replace the cover more
frequently would drive up the net present value of this alternative. On the other hand, the risk of
long term treatment and discharge of a significant flow of leachate (i.e., dependence on maintaining
the NPDES permit) is mitigated.
2.3.2 Alternative 2 – soil/capillary breach cover

– Constructability – equipment can place in horizontal lifts, with little to no material processing
required.
– Performance – Next best practically achievable cover performance infiltration control, hence
least long-term treatment costs.
– Schedule – feasible in one season.
Disadvantages associated with Alternative 2 include:
– Cost: Higher capital cost & construction cost.
Risks associated with Alternatives 2:
The most significant risks associated with Alternative 2 are the possibility that the proposed
soil cover would not be as effective as anticipated in reducing infiltration and that the period of
transient drainage would be longer than assumed. If the soil cover is not as effective as assumed,
a soil/geocomposite cover could easily be installed at a later stage, in effect deferring a portion of
the capital cost of implementing Alternative 1 (with some increase due to required some additional
regrading). Slower transient drainage would require longer active treatment and hence higher
operating costs and net present value. This alternative also balances the risk of long-term treatment
and discharge by reducing the flow of leachate (i.e., mass loads would be reduced, although not to
the extent of Alternative 1, a treatment and discharge would still likely be required).
2.3.3 Alternative 3 – evapotranspirative (soil) only cover

– Constructability – equipment can place in horizontal lifts, with little to no material processing
required.
– Schedule – Construction expedited. Single construction season. Reasonable and practical
amount of construction in 2010.
– Least cost reduced capital expenditure and net present value commensurate with project
objectives.
The disadvantages with Alternative 3 include:
– Infiltration control.
– Ongoing transient drainage. The possibility that transient drainage quantities are not reduced
enough may necessitate subsequent implementation of Alternative 1 or other improvements in
the future.
The risks associated with Alternative 3 are the same as those presented for Alternative 2:
116
2.3.4 Alternative 4 – hybrid
– Infiltration control.
The disadvantages associated with Alternative 4 include:
– Cost.
– Ongoing transient drainage. The possibility that transient drainage quantities may still not
be reduced enough may necessitate subsequent implementation of Alternative 1 or other
improvements in the areas that were closed with a soil cover only.
The risks associated with Alternative 4 are a combination of those identified for the individual
alternatives but to a reduced scale.
2.4 Evaluation parameters for slope cover

Based on costs alone (Tables 1 and 2) the soil/evapotranspiration cover (Alternative 3) ranks the
highest, even though it will require leachate treatment in the very long-term. This result in largely
due to the fact that all the alternative covers require treatment for at least 5 years and because net
present values are used to represent these long-term costs. To further analyze the cover alterna-
tives a multi-parameter analysis was completed using parameters such as performance, long term
durability, cost effectiveness, and sustainability. The criteria for each objective are detailed in the
following subsections.
2.4.1 Performance:
– Reduction of infiltration: Cover types that maximize infiltration reduction are considered more
highly. This is a qualitative evaluation parameter which addresses the ease of leachate manage-
ment. The actual approach to managing the leachate (i.e. collection, treatment and disposal) is
accommodated under the cost parameter described below.
– Constructability: This parameter considers the complexity associated with the cover construction
and the availability of local materials.
2.4.2 Cost:
Net present values costs including capital and long-term leachate management.
Capital cost includes:
– Design, construction management and quality assurance
– Contractor mobilization and demobilization
– Existing slope grading and surface preparation
– Preparation of soil cover fill material
– Construction of cover
– Vegetation of cover
Treatment costs include:
– Operation of leachate management system.
2.4.3 Sustainability
Need for leachate treatment:
– The need for leachate treatment, an administrative support system is considered a negative.
Therefore Alternatives requiring treatment for longer periods are rated lower than those which
may only require it for a short period of time.
Risk of future treatment:
As future NPDES discharge permit limits are unknown, the higher the long-term residual leachate
flow is, the higher the risk of requiring treatment, even if no treatment was required before.
117
Figure 2. Decision tree.
2.4.4 Long-term durability

In order to evaluate performance, the following sub-parameters were considered:
Healthy vegetation:
– This parameter considers the type and durability of the vegetation that can be supported by the
cover alternatives and also the extent to which the cover’s performance can be adversely affected
or damaged by vegetation; e.g. reduced compaction caused by root penetration.
Susceptibility to erosion during storm conditions:
– This parameter evaluates the ability of the alternative cover types to minimize surface erosion
and soil loss. As all of the alternatives will have similar soil cover and surface drainage features,
this is not a distinguishing feature and is not considered further in these evaluations.
Susceptibility to damage during snowmelts conditions:
– Frozen soil will thaw from the top down creating a saturated soil mass over the still frozen soil.
There is a risk for some sloughing or localized failure of this saturated soil mass.
Susceptibility to tree damage:
– Thinner covers or soil covers overlying geosynthetics are considered a higher risk to tree damage,
particularly in the event trees topple over.
3 EVALUATION OF THE ALTERNATIVES
3.1 Method of analyses

To compare the four alternatives decision analysis software was utilized using the following
approach:
– A “decision tree” was constructed to provide for a multi-parameter analyses (See Figure 2)
– The relative weights of the various levels of decision parameter were determined using input
from a multi-disciplinary team and the owner.
– The alternatives were scored according to the parameters.
118
Table 2. Multi-parameters decision analyses results.
Multi-parameter analysis Cost only analysis
Alternative Score Rank Score Rank
1. Soil/Geosynthetics 57.5 2 37.0 4

2. Soil/Capillary Break 45.7 3 48.1 3
3. Soil/Evapotranspiration 41.5 4 60.4 1
4. Hybrid (Alternatives 1 and 2 or 3) 67.8 1 48.9 2
The decision analysis software utilized calculates an overall score for each of the alternatives.
For comparative purposes, the decision analysis was run for the weighted parameters shown on
Figure 2, as well as for the cost only parameters.
3.2 Results
The results are provided in Table 2 and illustrated:
– For the multi-parameter analysis the hybrid alternative (No. 4) ranked first, as if combined the
benefits of the reduced metal loading from the geosynthetic cover over portion of the slopes and
still retained some of the durability and ease of construction of a soil only cover on the remain-
ing slopes. The soil/geosynthetic (Alternative 1) ranked second, mainly because it minimizes
infiltration and the risks of future treatment should NPDES permit conditions change.
– For the cost-only analysis, the soil/evapotranspiration (Alternative 3) cover ranked first with the
hybrid (Alternative 4) again ranking fairly high at second.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Selection of a final cover for the HLP at the mine in Salmon, Idaho was based on a multi-criteria
analysis. Identification of the objectives and criteria that need to be considered was paramount to
the process. Often taken as the dominant criterion in the selection process of engineering option,
cost was not so in this case. Issues such as sustainability and maintenance for instance were also
critical in the selection of the final cover.
The analyses could be expanded to incorporate other parameters such as those related to soil
mass wasted during exploitation of the borrow sources to compare the cost of importing soil versus
exploiting that on site, the susceptibility for failure of the cover drainage systems an consequences
on the overall management of the stormwater system.
The analysis presented here has been simplified. However the overall approach followed at
this site can be implemented at other sites considering final closure especially remote sites when
access may be difficult at certain period of the year and where maintenance may be difficult.
The systematic approach followed allows the designer to include in the decision and selection
process criteria sometimes overlooked. The assignment of weight allows the designer to assess the
importance of those criteria.
119
The effect of tailings characteristics on cover system success
J. Keller
GeoSystems Analysis, Inc, Hood River, OR, USA
M. Milczarek, T.M. Yao & M. Buchanan

GeoSystems Analysis, Inc, Tucson, AZ, USA
ABSTRACT: Mine tailing properties significantly differ from other mine waste (e.g. waste rock
and heap leach material) such that cover system design criteria for cover success and post-closure
monitoring should require different approaches. Tailings can generally be classified into three
material types corresponding to location within the impoundment, with each material type pos-
sessing distinct physical and hydraulic properties. Finding from tailings reclamation research and
performance monitoring at five tailings facilities in the southwestern United States indicate that:
(1) alternative cover system designs based on location within the impoundment can maximize per-
formance (and reduce costs), (2) tailings underlying shallow evapotranspirative cover systems play
a significant role in reducing net percolation, whether they are non-acid or acid, and (3) depending
on the cover material properties and climate, monolayer covers over acid tailings may show limited
acidification and salinization. Consequently, tailings cover system design should consider potential
interactions between the tailings, cover material and vegetation.
1 INTRODUCTION
Closure and reclamation of mine tailings facilities are guided by three general goals. The first
goal is to develop a sustainable reclaimed land which is stabilized against wind and water erosion,
revegetated, and in the long-term the reclaimed surface is a soil material that has structure and
nutrients of a typical soil for the area. These components are inherently related such that non-
acidic tailings stabilization can be achieved if the tailings material has a nutrient composition and
hydraulic properties that will support vegetation. In cases where the tailings material is too acidic
or saline to support vegetation, cover material may be utilized which provides a growth medium
and protects the tailings material from erosion.
A second goal is to minimize deep percolation and drainage from the tailings material, which
can serve as a long-term pollution source to surface and groundwater. In arid and semi-arid envi-
ronments, deep percolation can be reduced by placing an appropriately designed cover system that
acts to store water within the cover material where it is available for evaporation and transpiration
(Dwyer, 2003; Albright et al., 2004; Milczarek et al., 2009). An appropriately designed store and
release cover system will use cover material with adequate structure and nutrient composition to
support vegetation, and with hydraulic properties that allow for sufficient soil-water storage to
retain infiltrated water from rainfall or snowmelt events.
The final goal is to develop a closure and reclamation plan that optimizes performance while
limiting capital, operation and maintenance expenses. This requires developing site-specific clo-
sure and reclamation plans that account for conditions (e.g. climate, tailings properties, borrow
material properties, area vegetation) specific to that site. Applying a “one size fits all” closure and
reclamation plan may fall short of meeting the needs or may result in unnecessary work, both of
which increase either short-term and long-term costs.
This paper presents a general summary of findings from over a decade of copper tailings recla-
mation research and performance monitoring at five copper tailings facilities in the southwestern
United States. These copper tailing facilities are located in the Sonoran or Chihuahuan deserts and
121
Figure 1. Example particle size distributions for beach sand and slimes tailings material.
are characterized by average annual precipitation that range from 300 to 450 mm and reference
evaporation conditions exceeding 1700 mm per year. The findings are presented within the context
of the three closure and reclamation goals.
2 IMPORTANT TAILINGS CHARACTERISTICS
Mine tailing properties differ significantly from other types of mine waste, such that reclama-
tion design, the criteria for reclamation success, and post-closure monitoring require different
approaches from the standard methods used for waste rock and heap leach material. Tailings lack
organic matter, soil microbes, soil structure, and plant nutrients which complicate reclamation
activities. In addition, tailings can have a low hydraulic conductivity and high moisture retention
such that drainage from saturated tailings material may take decades to centuries.
2.1 Physical characteristics

Tailings are poorly graded material primarily made up of mostly silt sized particles and lack soil
structure. Due to fluvial deposition processes, significant sorting and layering of the tailings mate-
rial typically occurs within an impoundment regardless of the deposition method. In general, three
textural areas are created: (1) beach sands which represent coarser textured material that settled
out first, (2) the slimes which represent finer textured material that settled out last, and (3) a mixed
area between the slimes and beach sands. Figure 1 provides an example of particle size distribution
for beach sand and slimes material.
2.2 Hydraulic characteristics

The soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) which describes the soil-water content versus pressure
head, and the hydraulic conductivity function which describes the hydraulic conductivity versus
soil-water content or pressure head, varies significantly by the different impoundment textural
areas. Figure 2 shows an example SWCC and hydraulic conductivity function for beach sand and
slimes material. Slimes material has greater soil water retention capacity and hence greater plant
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Figure 2. Example moisture retention curve and hydraulic conductivity function for beach sand and slimes
tailing material.
available water than the sand material. However, the slimes material is less conductive than the
beach material at wetter (less negative) pressure heads. Under these pressure head conditions (i.e.
during and after tailings deposition) the slimes material impede downward flow more than the
beach material and will result in significantly increased drainage times of tailings water compared
to that from the beach area material. As an example, assuming initial capillary pressures of −10 cm
and a tailings impoundment thickness of 100 ft, it would take approximately 500 years for the
slimes material to drain free water, whereas the beach material would only take 0.5 years. The
result is drain down of the slimes material can take decades to centuries, albeit at very low rates
(i.e. 1 gpm/acre of impoundment). Depending on the size and height of the impoundment, variable
saturation and drainage conditions can be expected within the different tailing textural areas.
2.3 Geochemical characteristics

Tailings are typically plant nutrient limited, have minor levels of organic carbon and a functioning
microbial community, and can be saline to hyper-saline. All of these factors limit the potential for
direct revegetation of tailings material. Additionally, the ore body mineralogy can result in high
acid generation potential, acidity and high plant available metals. Nonetheless, circumneutral to
moderately acid tailings have been successfully revegetated in a variety of climatic environments
using organic matter addition and lime amendments as needed (i.e. Brown et al., 2005; Sauer,
et al., 2002; Bengson, 2000; Munshower et al., 1995). In general, the effect of tailing geochemical
characteristics on potential revegetation and whether a cover system is needed can be classified as
shown in Figure 3.
3 REVEGETATION
General observations regarding vegetation success on reclaimed copper tailings in the southwestern
United States are as follows. Organic amendments can be successfully used to reclaim circumneutral
tailings, however, low to moderate amendment rates should be used to limit high-nutrient conditions
that favor for undesirable non-native species. Volunteer revegetation on copper tailings has been
observed on circumneutral tailings, though vegetation is generally limited to the slimes area and
halophyte species (Milczarek, 2006). Greenhouse and field experiments with raw tailings treated
with biosolids and green waste showed significant vegetative cover with native species which
outperformed untreated plots over at least eight years (Thompson et al., 2001; Milczarek et al.,
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Figure 3. Tailings geochemical characteristics and influence on relative cover system depth potentially
required to support revegetation.
Figure 4. Mean vegetation groundcover for amended and non amended plots.
2006). These tailings also showed no significant changes in geochemical weathering and nitrate
leaching (Pond et al., 2005).
Other long-term experiments with organic amendments added to 30 cm and 60 cm cover depths
over acid tailings have shown that significant differences in vegetation density were sustained after
10 years of reseeding (Milczarek et al., 2009). Figure 4 shows that the addition of biosolids at
two different levels resulted in significantly greater mean native and non-native vegetation ground
cover, grass, and forb and shrub groundcover than in unamended plots. However, unamended plots
generally showed greater native species diversity, but lower overall frequency and biomass. The
influence of organic amendments on vegetation ground cover was observed to persist over 10 years
after application relative to the unamended plots.
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Figure 5. Mean vegetation groundcover for 30 cm and 60 cm cover plots.
Figure 6. Vegetation on circumneutral (left) and moderately acidic (right) tailings plot with 15 cm cover
material.
In this same study, there were no significant differences over ten years in observed vegetative
ground cover between 30 cm and 60 cm cover depth test plots over acid tailings (Figure 5). This
effect may be due to the endemic presence of South African grasses in the southwestern United
States. In general, the South African grasses did well in all test plots, but, greater native species
success was observed on the 60 cm cover depths (Milczarek et al., 2009).
High salinity and/or acid tailings has been shown to restrict vegetation success in shallow covers
(e.g. less than 15 cm) most likely due to root contact with high salinity and acidity levels. Virtually
all semi-arid plant species are acid intolerant with soil pH levels below 5 considered to adversely
affect vegetative growth (i.e. Borden et al., 2005; Barth, 1986; Shafer, 1979). Salt-tolerant plants
can withstand higher salinity levels, however, vegetative density and the ability to extract water
efficiently may diminish with increasing salinity. Examples of reclaimed copper tailings with a
15 cm cover overlying circumneutral tailings and a neighboring area with 15 cm cover overlying
moderately acidic (pH > 5) tailings are shown in Figure 6. Both pictures were taken ten years after
seeding and planting of trees and shrubs. Tree and shrub planting was limited to the circumneutral
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Table 1. Rooting profile descriptions for circumneutral and moderately acidic reclaimed tailings plots.
Root Density1
Trench Cover depth Soil cover 0–10 cm below 10–20 cm below

ID (cm) (above tailings contact) tailings contact tailings contact
P1 13 4 2 0
P2 24 4 1 1
P3 19 4 2 0
P4 12 4 1 0
P5 21 5 4 1
P6 16 4 3 1
P7 21 4 1 0
P8 24 4 3 2
P9 11 4 3 2
P10 19 5 4 3
P11 17 4 3 2
P12 18 3 2 2
1 Root density descriptions use a modified USDA classification system for root abundance: 0 = none, 1 = very
few/none, 2 = few, 3 = few/common, 4 = common, 5 = common/many, 6 = many.
tailings area, otherwise seeding treatments were identical. The greater vegetative success in the
circumneutral tailings plot compared to that in the moderately acidic tailings plot can be observed.
The ability of plant roots to propagate into tailings is influenced by many components, including
compaction, salinity, and acidity. Frequently, a combination of tailings salinity and the dense
nature and generally poor soil structure of deposited and consolidated tailings limits root extension
and density. Moreover, the generally low permeability of mixed and tailing slime areas limits
the downward infiltration of moisture at depth, resulting in root concentration near the surface.
At several reclaimed copper tailings in the southwestern United States, plant roots have been
observed to actively root into circumneutral and moderately acidic (pH > 5) tailings (Milczarek
et al., 2006). Table 1 presents rooting profile descriptions for several reclaimed tailings areas. Roots
were observed down to 20 cm below the tailings and cover material contact, although rooting was
at much lower densities than in the soil cover material. The implications for reclamation planning
are that rooting into the tailings material extends the depth of plant water extraction and makes the
tailings a component of the overall cover system.
Finally, vegetation characteristics vary with location with mesic type vegetation (e.g. creosote
and salt cedar) in the slimes and xeric type vegetation (e.g. cattails) in the beach sands. This may
change over time as the slimes area dries out and if surface runoff is not available to replenish
drained and evaporated moisture.
The vegetation monitoring results indicate that an understanding of the geochemical character-
istics (e.g. pH and salinity) and hydraulic characteristics (e.g. slimes or beach area) of the tailings
material and their spatial distribution will allow for increased likelihood of long-term revegetation
success.
4 INFILTRATION AND NET PERCOLATION
Infiltration is the process of water entry into the soil (e.g. rain or snowmelt event). Infiltrated water
may return to the atmosphere through evaporation or transpiration of plants. Water that remains in
the soil profile and continues downward past the evapotranspiration zone is termed net percolation
and over the long term can be considered equivalent to aquifer recharge. Cover systems act to
increase the evapotranspiration zone, water storage capacity and return of infiltrated water to the
atmosphere by evapotranspiration processes.
Monitoring data collected on cover systems in the southwestern United States indicate that
shallow cover systems can effectively store and release precipitation, though episodic sequences
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Figure 7. Pressure head measurements for vegetated plots with 30 cm and 60 cm cover and bare tailings.
of above-average precipitation can result in net percolation past the cover system (i.e. Milczarek
et al., 2009; Fayer and Gee, 2006; Waugh et al., 2006; Nyhan, 2005; Scanlon et al., 2005; Albright
et al., 2004; Dwyer, 2003). In the case of cover systems over tailings, the contrast in hydraulic
properties between the tailings and cover material also can significantly affect the cover system
performance. For example, Figure 7 presents in-situ soil water pressure head data collected at
180 cm below ground surface under 30 cm and 60 cm coarse-grained cover material and a no (0 cm)
cover (Milczarek et al., 2009). Wetting and drying patterns shown at 180 cm below ground surface
indicate that under conditions of normal precipitation little to no wetting of the subsurface occurs at
depth with either cover system depth. However, when above-average precipitation follows very dry
periods, equivalent or greater wetting occurs at depth below the 60 cm cover than the 30 cm cover
(i.e. August 2002 and July 2006). These data indicate that after periods of drought, differences in
evapotranspiration rates could be diminished and the thicker profile of higher conductivity cover
material over low conductivity tailings may actually result in increased net percolation due to more
rapid downward percolation of precipitation through the upper 60 cm. Of note, the bare-tailings
plots consistently showed drier conditions than did the covered plots at the 180 cm depths. This
result is due to higher runoff rates from the bare tailings surface than from the cover material.
Table 2 presents estimated total and average downward flux across tailing reclamation treatments
using in-situ soil water pressure measurements and the simplified two-layer flux model described in
Milczarek et al. (2009). Predicted downward fluxes through the 60 cm cover systems were slightly
greater than the 30 cm cover systems. The higher estimated flux rates through the deeper covers
are due to observed lower-permeability tailings layers below the 30 cm cover plots than the 60 cm
cover plots. With the exception of the bare-tailings plot, the average estimated flux rates are not
significantly different. These predictions also indicate that the underlying tailings permeability
have a significant affect on cover system performance in controlling net percolation.
Finally, Figure 8 presents the predicted net percolation using a calibrated unsaturated flow model
(UNSAT-H Fayer, 2000) and applying a 98-year climate record for a coarse-grained cover system
located over tailing beach sand and slimes areas. Model predictions indicate that for the tailings
beach and sideslope materials the cover system could be expected to limit net infiltration to between
approximately 4.5 to 7 mm per year, depending on cover thickness. Increasing the cover thickness
from 45 cm to 90 cm was predicted to only nominally decrease the net percolation by 2.5 mm per
year. However, decreasing the estimated saturated hydraulic conductivity of the underlying tailings
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Table 2. Estimated downward flux rates for different treatments.
Flux
Treatment cm/yr Percent of precipitation
30 cm cover, low vegetation 0.37 1.3

30 cm cover, high vegetation 0.12 0.3
60 cm cover, low vegetation 0.55 1.7
60 cm cover, high vegetation 0.48 1.5
Bare tailings 0.02 0.1
Figure 8. Predicted net percolation with different cover material depths and tailings saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ksat).
to approximate hydraulic property differences between the slimes and beach areas showed greater
predicted reductions due to reduced wetting front depths and subsequently higher available moisture
for evapotranspiration. The unsaturated flow model results and estimated flux rates presented in
Table 2 indicate that increasing cover thickness can have less influence on net percolation than the
underlying tailings characteristics.
5 TAILING SOLUTION MIGRATION INTO COVERS
Low pH and high electrical conductivity (EC) of copper mine tailings in semi-arid and arid envi-
ronments raise concerns regarding potential upward migration of salinity and acidity into the cover
materials. Limited upward salinity migration from acidic tailings into reclaimed mine-spoil cover
soils has been observed on time-scales up to 25 years (i.e. Dollhopf et al., 2001; Dollhopf et al.,
2003; Munk et al., 2006). Salinity and acid migration has also been observed to be negligible under
moderately acidic conditions and limited to approximately 15 cm above the cover and tailings
contact (Milczarek et al., 2009; Milczarek et al., 2010).
Figure 9 displays profiles of pH and EC relative to the tailings-cover material contact (Milczarek
et al., 2010). pH and EC results were observed to be highly variable across the test plots, however,
samples generally displayed decreased pH and higher EC values within 5 cm to 10 cm above the
128
Figure 9. pH and electrical conductivity for different treatments.
tailings/cover system contact. EC and pH returned to near background levels within 15 cm above
the contact. Similar tests performed five years prior showed that pH and EC values were essentially
similar over the five year period. The observed nominal effects in pH and EC migration are believed
to be in part affected by cover material neutralization potential due to the cover material being
strongly calcareous.
EC and pH effects from acidic tailings have been observed to be greater in shallow (i.e. 30 cm)
than in deeper (i.e. 60 cm) cover systems at equivalent depths above the tailings/cover system contact
(Milczarek et al., 2010). Because the tailings/cover contact in shallow covers is closer to the surface
than in deeper covers, hydraulic gradients which drive upward advective flux may be greater at the
tailings/cover contact. Diffusion may also be a secondary cause of decreased pH and increased EC
at depths near the tailings/cover contact. However, if diffusion were the primary cause, EC and
pH levels would be expected to be generally uniform across depths. Advection of tailings solution
into the cover system is likely to be driven by episodic rainfall events that wet the tailings and are
limited to a very shallow region above the tailings/cover contact due to rapid decreases in hydraulic
conductivity with distance above the contact due to drier conditions nearer the surface. Vegetation
monitoring results from several semiarid reclaimed tailing sites in the southwestern United States
(i.e. Milczarek et al., 2009; Milczarek et al., 2010; Munk, 2006) indicate that pH and EC changes
above the cover contact has not negatively affected vegetative cover, rooting dynamics, or cover
performance for a range of cover system depths and varying tailings chemistries.
6 CONCLUSIONS
General findings from over a decade of tailings reclamation research and performance monitoring
at five tailings facilities in the southwestern United States indicate that circumneutral tailings
can be directly revegetated with organic amendments or using a shallow cover. The effective
depth of a cover system in supporting vegetation and controlling net percolation can range from
15 cm for circumneutral tailings to 60 cm for acidic tailings. Revegetation seed mixes should
consider differences between beach sand and slimes areas as well as cover depth, such that mesic
species can be used in slimes areas and xeric species will be more successful in beach/mixed areas.
Deeper covers also may promote better success of native seed mixes. Plants can actively root into
circumneutral and moderately acidic tailings, indicating that water balance modeling of the cover
system should allow for evapotranspiration at depths into the tailings. Low permeability tailings
also serve to slow down infiltration and retain water in the cover and can have a greater effect on
net percolation than does cover depth. Finally, upward acidity and salinity migration into covers
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appears to be limited to shallow depths above the cover-tailings contact. These finding indicate that
tailings affect the performance of store and release covers and their influence and spatial variability
should be considered during cover design.
REFERENCES
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Rock, S.A. (2004) Field Water Balance of Landfill Final Covers. J. Environ. Qual. 33:2317–2332.
Barth, R.C. (1986) Reclamation Technology For Tailings Impoundments: Part 2. Revegetation. Mineral &
Energy Resources vol. 29, no. 6, pp 1–24.
Bengson, S.A. (2000) Reclamation of Copper Tailings in Arizona Utilizing Biosolids, Mining, Forest and Land
Restoration Symposium and Workshop, Golden, CO, July 17–19, 2000.
Borden, R.K. and Black, R. (2005) Volunteer Revegetation of Waste Rock Surfaces at the Bingham Canyon
Mine, Utah, J. Environ. Qual. 34:2234–2242.
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Following Restoration with Biosolids and Lime Addition to Alluvial Tailings Deposits in Leadville, CO. J.
Environ. Qual. 34:139–148.
Dwyer, S.F. (2003) Water Balance Measurements and Computer Simulations of Landfill Covers. PhD
Dissertation, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM.
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and Examples. PNNL-13249, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA.
Fayer, M.J. and Gee, G.W. (2006) Multiple-Year Water Balance of Soil Covers in a Semiarid Setting, J. Environ.
Qual. 35:366–377.
Milczarek, M.A., Yao, T.M., Vinson, J., Word, J., Kiessling, S., Musser, B., and Mohr, R. (2004) Monitoring
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ing, Building, & Regulating Evapotranspiration (ET) Landfill Covers, US EPA Remediation Technologies
Development Forum, Denver, CO, March 9–10.
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the San Manuel Plant Site. Hard Rock 2006, Sustainable Modern Mining Applications, US EPA, Tucson,
AZ, November 14–16.
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Reclamation Experiments at the Morenci Mine. 8th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage, June
22–26, 2009, Skellefteå, Sweden.
Milczarek M.A., Steward, F.M. Jr., Word, WB., Buchanan, M.J., and Keller, J.M. (2010) Salinity/pH Inter-
actions and Rooting Morphology in Monolayer Soil Covers above Copper Tailings. Mine Closure 2010,
November 23–26, 2010, Viña del Mar, Chile.
Munk, L., Jaworski, M., Jojola, M., and Romig, D. (2006) Upward Migration of Constituents in Soil Covers
at Semi-Arid Mine Sites, 7th International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage, March 26–29, St. Louis,
Missouri.
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Streambank Tailings Along Silver Bow Creek, Montana. Proc. 12th Annual Meeting of Amer. Soc. Surface
Mining and Reclam., pp. 729–740. Gillette, WY. June 3–8, 1995.
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Slope for Semiarid Regions, Vadose Zone J. 4:466–480.
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Amended Copper Mine Tailings, J. Environ. Qual. 34:1293–1301.
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Reclamation NAAMLP Annual Conference.
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Waste Containment in Arid and Semiarid Regions in the Southwestern USA, Vadose Zone J. 4:55–71.
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Mine Reclamation in the Western United States. Reclamation Review, vol. 2, pp 67–74.
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Biosolids and Green Waste. National meeting of the American Society of Surface Mining Reclamation,
Lexington, KY.
Waugh, W., Smith, G., Danforth, B., Gee, G., Kothari, V., and Pauling, T. (2006) Performance Evaluation of the
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2007 Symposium, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
130
Water management and
water treatment
Dewatered tailings practice – trends and observations
Michael Davies
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Vancouver, BC, Canada
John Lupo
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Denver, CO, USA
Todd Martin & Ed McRoberts

AMEC Earth & Environmental, Vancouver, BC, Canada
Marcelo Musse
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Santiago, Chili
David Ritchie
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Toronto, ON, Canada
ABSTRACT: The traditional impoundment where a dam(s) retains pumped slurried tailings with
solids contents typically in the range of 30–40% remains the most common method for storing
the tailings from milling operations. However, there are a growing number of operations whereby the
tailings are dewatered and placed in the tailings storage facility with less accompanying water. The
degree of dewatering and the method of placement can vary significantly dependent upon design
criteria and site specific constraints.
This paper reviews the state of dewatered tailings practice in a global sense. The review provides
a summary of trends in the practice as well as some valuable lessons learned from observations
throughout the world. Like many things that are relatively new to an industry, both excessive
optimism and pessimism about the value and outcomes from using dewatered tailings have devel-
oped. The paper provides insight to both ends of this spectrum and, through actual operating and
design experience, offers pragmatic and supportable “real case” scenarios to many of the more con-
tentious issues surrounding dewatered tailings practice. The paper addresses critical issues such as
“dry landscape” concepts and beach slopes misconceptions for thickened/paste tailings. Finally,
the paper provides some needed guidance in terms of nomenclature.
1 DEWATERED TAILINGS – WHAT ARE THEY?
1.1 Tailings water removal

Essentially any tailings can be dewatered, by definition, if water is removed by some process
between the point of resource extraction and their subsequent placement in the tailings management
facility (TMF). The simplest form of explanation is in considering the traditional slurried milled
tailings stream that is typically, for hard rock mining, in the 30 to 40% solids range. This slurry can
have its effective solids content increased by dewatering through increasing mechanical intervention
through the dewatering continuum as shown in Figure 1.
However, classification of tailings in the dewatering “continuum” can be confusing. This is par-
ticularly true for thickened/paste tailings where the concept of segregating versus non-segregating
becomes included in the definitions. There is clear understanding as to the meaning of segregating
versus non-segregating tailings as separated by a segregation threshold. At solids contents higher
than the threshold, and often as augmented by coagulants or flocculants, a tailings slurry after
discharge does not separate into sand beaches and fines (also known as slimes or sludges) and
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Figure 1. Tailings dewatering continuum.
releases only water. In some parts of the world, the term thickened tailings is used to describe a
range encompassing non-segregating tailings just dry of the segregation threshold and paste tailings
for tailings slurries that are at even higher solids contents. Both thickened tailings and paste are
ideally types of non-segregating tailings though the former is not necessarily so; hence just one of
the challenges lies in nomenclature for these materials.
1.2 Cycloning or classification

One of the more common methods of creating a dewatered product is that which comes from the
underflow from a cyclone. However, a significant proportion of “coarse” material, typically more
than 50% sand size, is needed to be efficient in a single-stage operation. When it was introduced
in the 1960’s, cycloning represented the first stage in the evolution of tailings dewatering, and was
driven by the attractive economics associated with recovery of the coarse fraction of the tailings
for embankment dam construction. Performance depends on grain size, equipment design, and
equipment operation. Challenges can come in extreme cold climates and several operations have
poorly anticipated these challenges leading to severe mass balance problems (and, in one case, a
facility overtopping failure). In a typical application, underflow (coarse sand) material is obtained
at about 70% solids concentration. Transportation may require positive displacement pumping
(depends on the relative position of the cyclone station and the deposit itself). Often the cycloned
sand will be re-slurried to a lower water content to facilitate conventional pumping and distribution
if the sand is being used for dam construction. If deposited in managed cells, it can be compacted
to provide a very stable containment material; even in extreme environments (high seismicity and
rainfall).
For success with cycloning, quality of the tailings material is a key factor too. Maximum fines
content is a limitation to ensure obtaining the amount of material and, more important, to facilitate
adequate drainage to allow for compaction, and to allow development of a low phreatic surface.
Overflow (fines, slimes) material is typically delivered from the process at about 30% solids
concentration and it can also be dewatered and deposited upstream the of the cycloned sand shell
of the TMF, increasing the recovery of water.
1.3 Thickened and paste tailings

Given the definitions that abound in current literature, there is often only semantics to separate
thickened from paste tailings. Perhaps a convenient approach is to view the origin of thickened
134
disposal on a large commercial scale. Thickened tailings are a technique that has been proposed
for about 35 years and has been implemented in a few operations. The main premise of thickened
disposal is that tailings may be thickened to a degree that they may be discharged from one or
several discharge points to form a possibly non-segregating tailings mass with little or no water
pond. In the most classical connotation, thickened tailings are assumed to form a conical mass with
the tailings surface sloping downwards from the centre of the cone. A thickened tailings system,
if successful, should require lower retaining dykes in compare to traditional slurry, as storage is
gained by raising the centre of the impoundment.
Unfortunately, in many of the first instances where thickened tailings was implemented, thick-
ening technology was not capable of producing a consistent non-segregating material, so fines
would form a very flat slope and require additional dyking at the toe. As well, flatter than pro-
jected slopes were experienced, and it was not possible to steepen these slopes to avoid extensive
land use impact. Moreover, promised improved water management and control of everything from
liquefaction susceptibility to sulphide oxidation simply did not result in these initial efforts. From
the above experiences, thickened disposal did not become widely used in temperate regions. It
has, however, been successful in very arid regions, such as the gold mining districts of Australia.
In recent years, high density thickening technology has been developed which make it useful to
re-examine thickened disposal. Further, irrespective of issues with anticipated versus achieved
slopes and storage capacity utilization, thickening offers significant advantages, especially in arid
regions where makeup water supply can be problematic, for water recovery.
With the addition of “paste”, where the tailings are even further dewatered, there is an increasing
trend to consider thickened/paste tailings for tailings management. Paste tailings has a long suc-
cessful history for underground backfill but a “spotty” record for surface impoundments due in part
to a lack of appreciation for the variations in mill feed and the resulting challenges in addressing
this variation in the thickening process. However, “paste” tailings in their best form can meet a
number of the promised attributes that came with the original visions for thickened tailings (in, for
example, Robinsky, 1975).
Using “paste” as a generic term is the heart much of the discussion with some parts of the industry
using the term to describe what many might be content to call thickened tailings. There can be clear
cut quantitative criteria for a specific type of tailings for which ranges in solids content can be
used to define significant changes in tailings performance, rheology, strength, pumpability and so
forth. Common subjective definitions of paste are varied. One is that paste cannot be pumped by
centrifugal pumps, but requires positive displacement equipment. However, recent developments in
pumping technology render this definition impractical. Another discriminator is that paste does not
have a critical velocity and therefore will not settle in a pipeline. Yet another is that on deposition,
paste will have little or no bleed water. Part of the issue in so characterizing paste versus thickened
tailings is non-technical, with proponents of some disposal scenarios focusing on terminology – not
performance. In reality, discrimination between thickened and paste tailings involves consideration
of many factors including:
• Type of dewatering facilities

• Type of process aids, on-line chemical modifications
• Conveyance of tailings to deposition area: positive displacement pumps, conveyors, trucks.
• Amount of bleed water
• Slope angle on deposition, deformations mechanisms
• Can post depositional consolidation be predicted using effective stress based models or is
consideration of factors such as gel strength, creep and zone settling required
• Strength: can geotechnical constructs be used, or is a rheological based approach more
appropriate
• Is tailings self supporting, or are containment facilities required.
Maintaining this discrimination between thickened tailings or paste may not in fact be that useful.
Unfortunately, there has been branding of the terminology to the point where it has become blindly
proposed on projects where it not the ideal tailings management solution. Even worse, it has shown
up on projects where it has impacted project viability by simply being the wrong technology for
135
that given project. Part of the problem is what has been proposed in these cases is based upon an
expectation based upon a flawed terminology understanding.
1.4 Filtered tailings

Development of large capacity vacuum and pressure belt filter technology has presented the oppor-
tunity for storing tailings in a solid state, rather than as conventional slurry and/or in the “paste
like” consistency associated with thickened or paste tailings. Tailings are dewatered to moisture
contents that are no longer pumpable and that are, in fact, below a material’s liquid limit. The
filtered tailings are transported by conveyor or truck, and placed, spread and compacted to ideally
form an unsaturated, dense and stable tailings stack (often termed a “dry stack”) requiring no dam
for retention. Filtered tailings, still considered primarily for operations under 20,000 tpd but that
trend is changing quite quickly, can have attraction for projects with the following attributes:
a) arid regions, where water conservation is an important issue
b) situations where economic recovery is enhanced by tailings filtration
c) where very limited space and/or very high seismicity contraindicates some forms of conventional
tailings impoundments
d) cold regions, where water handling is very difficult for significant portions of the year.
Moreover, filtered tailings stacks have regulatory attraction, require a smaller footprint for
tailings storage (lower bulking factor), are easier to reclaim, can be reclaimed in a progressive
manner, and have lower long-term liability in terms of structural integrity. One challenge with
the technology can be defaulting to the less-expensive vacuum filtration for tailings materials that
require pressure filtration to achieve the required moisture content (Davies and Rice, 2001).
A curious aspect of filtered tailings is that it is used on substantially more operating mines than
paste tailings yet there are but a few publications on filtered tailings versus the extensive (and
growing) number of papers, specialty conferences and even texts on paste tailings.
2 DEWATERED TAILINGS – NO TAILINGS PONDS?
The trend to the concept of a “dry landscape” once a mine decides to start dewatering their tailings
is indeed seductive but seldom is it accurate. The only case where “no pond” can be stated with
some confidence is for filtered tailings and then only where there is sufficient system redundancy
to handle feed variations and limits to equipment availability. One culprit in the “no pond” myth is
a surprising large portion of the recent literature includes statements or implications that adoption
of thickened/paste technology will eliminate tailings ponds. This is particularly curious in non-arid
or cold regions where operating without some form of a tailings pond is a near crippling constraint
to put on a mill. While it might be the case that no pond is required in some centrally discharged
tailings stacks in very arid climates, in many others it is not. In fact, even applications of thickened
tailings in arid environments often have bleed water ponds. In other words, unless a project is at a
very unique combination of tonnage, climate and feed consistency, if the dewatering technology is
not filtered tailings requiring trucking or conveying, then planning around not having any form of
a tailings pond is contraindicated by experience. Some projects involving central stack discharge
have been promoted as dry tailings, notably projects in Canada, and have ended up with extensive
pond areas to manage a range of other requirements such as recycle water clarification due to solids
from non-segregating or off-specification episodes, concerns about sulphide oxidation and rainfall
or snowmelt runoff.
To that end, there is also a prevailing theme by some in the literature that tailings ponds themselves
are inherently “bad” whereas the opposite is often the case during the operating phase of a mine.
A tailings pond allows:
• Storing the pore fluids expressed through bleed and consolidation processes.
• Saturation which limits oxidation of sulphide bearing constituents, as experience to date with
thickened/paste tailings demonstrates oxidation of these materials will occur.
• A facility to store and provide water during drier periods.
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• A location to allow clarification of recycle water; often process requirements result in a need for
significant areas to meet those requirements. Note however that optimal process water recovery
in many environments is achieved via some level of dewatering.
• Provide a mixing zone to manage ionic levels.
• Water management buffering – storage of storm water, direct and runoff, that becomes tailings
contact water and cannot be directly released to the environment.
• Geothermal factors in cold climates: a large pond can be a large heat source. A small pond with
very limited water has much less of a heat reservoir. When coupled with long beaches, pond
temperatures can readily approach the freezing point and can significantly complicate winter
pond operations, potentially including the inability to obtain reclaim water due to excessive ice
and inadequate water pond depths. However, dewatered tailings can provide decent heat recover
where the tailings are processed at elevated temperatures relative to the environment.
3 THICKENED AND PASTE TAILINGS BEACH SLOPES
Another important trend in dewatered tailings practice is the better understanding of the actual
mechanisms involved with beach slopes in thickened/paste tailings. The design of thickened or
paste tailings stacks, or central discharge operations using some form of non-segregating tailings
in conjunction with desiccation or drying is used in perhaps 20 to 30 operations (Fitton, 2007).
For tailings intended to be self supporting in a large cone the specification of the design angle is
highly critical, and several stacks have been laid out with design slopes that were far steeper than
those ultimately achieved in the real operating conditions. The common theme of many such slope
designs (i.e., for thickened tailings or paste tailings) is the reliance on small scale flume or “fish-
tank tests” which while universally appealing given their common use, are in fact fundamentally
wrong.
Non-segregating tailings flow on beaches does not occur via simple sheet flow observed in very
low discharge rate experiments. It can be observed that achieved slope angle can be correlated to the
height or length of a deposit. The concept of “sheet flow” provides a simple model that supposedly
justifies the use of small scale flume tests. The equation for sheet or skin flow, where during the
deposition of the slurry lift, the rheological properties of the slurry in a zone settling mode and the
lift thickness determine the slope angle achieved is as follows:
where:
θ = slope angle,
Cu = undrained strength of the slurry (as determined from rheological considerations of yield
strength and strain rate),
γ = unit weight of the slurry, and
d = lift thickness measured perpendicular to the slope.
Inspection of Equation 1 indicates that three parameters must be manipulated to achieve a desired
slope angle. Consider a slurry discharged at a constant continuous rate of volume Q, and at a fixed
solids content or constant operative strength, Cu . Consider also a conical shape of Height h, raised
by continuous discharge of tailings Q at the tip of a cone (Figure 2).
Of interest is the incremental thickness of tailings on the cone surface with time, in this instance
represented by an increment in volume placed which is assumed placed evenly around the cone
generated by the surface at a given height.
From this is can be seen that the “dz/dv” is function of the cone slope and the current height. If
the slope angle is fixed then the only way to get sheet flow to all parts of the cone is to continually
adjust either Q or Cu . This conundrum is well summarized by Pirouz et al. (2000).
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Figure 2. Idealized tailings cone.
Pirouz et al. (2000) state:

If a very large area of a tailings stack is eventually to be developed it can be intuitively
understood that this will not occur over the full 360◦ and the full radial distance
simultaneously. This would require a progressively thinner and thinner sheet each
day, and/or a progressively steeper and steeper slope in accordance with sheet flow
equations. Furthermore the radial velocity would have to also increase since the time
for zone settling within a layer is fixed, and the flow must reach the outermost perimeter
of the area before this occurs.
The second problem with a simple sheet flow model is that the sheet flow can only move so far
before it stops or self arrests due to dewatering. When a fresh non segregating layer is deposited,
dewatering occurs due to several mechanisms. Firstly, the solids content of the tailings increases due
to zone-settling via a mechanism first presented by Kynch (1952), and first discussed in the context
of soil settling by McRoberts and Nixon (1976), and the theory expanded by Bartholomeeusen
(2003). The procession is as follows:
• The zone settling process is relatively rapid especially when fine tailings are highly flocculated
by the addition of process aids.
• As the fine tailings participates in zone settling, they also move downslope, either by sheet flow
(commonly assumed) or by flow channelization (commonly observed). As the tailings move
downslope, water loss occurs downwards into the previously desiccated layer causing the fine
tailings to consolidate.
• The combination of zone settling and downwards flow causes fine tailings to eventually “freeze”
in place or self arrest; however, as discussed further below, flow channelization complicates this
process.
• Once downslope movement ceases, water loss occurs upwards and downwards. Depending on the
tailings characteristics and surface slope, desiccation may initially be inhibited by consolidation
water arriving at the surface at a flux rate greater than the evaporative rate.
• Eventually, desiccation is initiated and consolidation is enhanced by the imposition of tension in
the pore water within the desiccation zone drawing water upwards. As the tailings consolidates,
the rate at which water can be driven out is reduced because the hydraulic conductivity of the
tailings reduces.
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A key factor in understanding non-segregating fine tailings behavior stems from the work of
M.P.A. Williams who has identified the observed phenomenon of flow channelization as distinct
from sheet flow. This is clearly stated by Williams (1992) as follows:
It is necessary to understand the mechanics of beach formation which, contrary to

intuitive expectations does not occur as a result of ever expanding radial sheets of
slurry flow. Rather the flow concentrates into a self formed channel. From time to time
the direction of flow from the plunge pool below the point of discharge changes and
breaks out over a new area of beach…”
Flow channelization has been observed in essentially every thickened or paste tailings deposit
developed. If flow is maintained by channelization, then such flow can be turbulent and zone settling
in laminar flow will not occur. While channelization will move slurry out over longer distances
from the discharge point, it is thought that the time for second water release is extended. Moreover,
turbulent flow may affect the integrity of flocculation, as it is know that shear-thinning can affect
the rheological properties of flocculated slurries. That is to say, segregation thresholds obtained
from column tests or low energy flumes are not valid under shear. Fitton (2007), following on the
work of Williams, (1992) provides a lucid explanation of the phenomenon of flow channelization.
In summary, experience and theory indicate that it is invalid to assume deposition slopes and
processes that are independent of slope length, deposit height, and are derived on the basis of flume
tests that due to scale inevitably exclude many of the key processes, including post-depositional
dewatering, driving performance at a field scale. There can be plenty of useful information gained
from bench scale tests with dewatered tailings but providing an indication of what the operating
slopes will be is not one of them.
4 CURRENT GLOBAL TRENDS
Initiatives to limit the amount of water sent to tailings management facilities is increasing in all
major mining districts in a global sense. The reasons vary in each case but the clear objective in each
case is to reduce water consumption/water losses related to tailings management. Some specific
trends that have been noticeable are described below.
In Chile, there are a high number of large tonnage productions with commensurate high costs
of equipment and pumping, large containment embankments and design concerns with the impact
of large seismic and infrequent, but large, rainfall events. Important potential savings of water
exist at most of the major mines in Chile and dewatered tailings are being considered on multiple
projects and being implement on several. Examples of actual dewatered tailings projects currently
in operation include:
• La Coipa (filtered)
• Mantos Blancos (filtered)
• El Peñón (filtered).
The El Indio Mine (currently closed) was also a dewatered tailings operation having had a series
of conventional and dry (filtered) tailings facilities.
Projects that will soon be in operation include the Las Cenizas Project (small scale, paste) and the
Esperanza Project which will be Chile’s first large scale paste tailings project. Other projects have
run multiple studies at different engineering levels, but results have not been sufficient compelling
(technically and/or economically) to make the change from conventional tailings though the use of
cycloned classification of tailings remains a very common practice in Chile. Of interest, Chilean
regulators have already included different types of dewatered tailings in governance literature.
In Canada, there is a slow, but steady, increasing use of dewatered tailings but on large scale
projects, like in the Alberta Oil Sands, commitment to full-scale production has been slow due to
challenges at large scale. Lower tonnage in the northern regions of Canada (and Alaska), have more
readily embraced thickened/paste and filtered tailings and some of the best global examples of these
technologies exist in this region. The Pogo Project in Alaska, for example, has been operating a
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Figure 3. Trends in use of dewatered tailings in mining.
very efficient filtered dry stack since 2006, Raglan Mine in Northern Quebec several years longer.
However, some of the least successful thickened tailings facilities also exist in Canada where these
projects have provided some valuable lessons learned to the industry as a whole but significant
negative impact to the mines that utilized this technology.
In Australia, filtered tailings have not been embraced quite as quickly as in other regions but
the region is by far the leader in thickened tailings applications. The pioneering work by M.P.A.
Williams and his colleagues has resulted in some excellent project examples in the area of thickened
tailings for use in arid environments at modest tonnage. This same expertise has been applied at
much higher throughputs in Middle Eastern countries such as Iran where scarce water resources
has driven the need for dewatered tailings.
Besides regional trends, another important trend is the size of the facilities using dewatering
technologies. For the most part, the current operations using thickened/paste tailings are mostly
under 30,000 tpd whereas most filtered operations are generally under 10,000 tpd. There are
exceptions in each case with operations of greater throughputs currently existing. Moreover, the
authors are aware of proposed mines in advanced project stages where thickened tailings in excess
of 100,000 tpd and filtered tailings in the range 70,000 tpd. This significant increase in potential
throughput has come from a combination of increased economies of scale with advances in the
dewatering equipment and increased “drivers” for having dewatered tailings as the base case for
many new projects.
Figure 3 provides a summary of the relative (and somewhat actual) number of dewatered facilities
on a global scale. While this paper does not specifically address co-disposal (fine tailings mixed
with a coarser material, often waste rock), it is a dewatered tailings that is used in such applications
and for that reason the trend in these projects was included in Figure 3.
5 DEWATERED TAILINGS – THE FUTURE
Using cyclones to classify tailings, and effectively dewater the underflow, started in the late 1960s
on an appreciable scale, driven by the desire to recover the coarse fraction of the tailings as a
construction material for embankment dams. The first thickened tailings facilities were being con-
ceptualized and trialed in the mid 1970s, filtered tailings roughly 10 years later and paste facilities
starting about 1990. Through misapplication and other considerations, none of the dewatering
methods, other than cycloning, gained much initial momentum. However, since about 2000, all
methods of dewatering noted and some newer concepts such as centrifuging, have become more
routine in design consideration.
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Table 1. Dewatered Tailings Classification.
Thickened
coagulants/flocculants Paste
Conventional slurry cyclones/thickeners deep bed/cone thickeners Cake
Dewatering facilities1 none (cyclones possible) on-line chemical modifications additional chemicals filters (vacuum or pressure)
Typical Slurry Density2 30–40% solids 45–65% solids 65–70% solids 80–85% solids (unsaturated)
Typical conveyance Centrifugal pumps Positive displacement pumps Trucks or conveyers
Viscosity reducers
Bleed Water Fines to pond with Considerable water to manage Little to no bleed water to manage Consolidation only – can
significant water to manage be negligible
Deposit Character Segregating Possibly segregating Non-segregating Soil-like (non-segregating)
Physical strength model Fluid rheology Fluid rheology Transition to soil mechanics Soil mechanics
Beach Slopes Flat with concavity Lesser concavity. Slightly Approaching sheet flow N/A
steeper than conventional slurry. but still has channelization.
Beaches form through Beaching can be inhibited
channelized flow by strength
Post Depositional Creep may still effect non-linear finite strain predictions Approaching traditional Traditional soil mechanics models
Settlement (Consolidation) soil mechanics models
Containment of Tailings Retention structures for all Can be self-supporting on Can be self-supporting on Self-supporting at high
subaerial deposition very low angle slopes. modest slopes. Can potentially angle slopes without
Modest retention structures be developed with need for retention structures
still required minimal retention structures
1 Centrifuges, not listed, can develop tailings product intermediate to paste-cake.

2 Typical densities are for mineral tailings from metal mining. Variations in behavior with other mined materials can be expected.
The capital and per ton operating cost of the various dewatering options continue to improve
as their scale of use increases. This economy of scale is being met by the increasing “cost” of
water use (real and political) to the point where for many projects, dewatered tailings is not only
the best technical option it is also the most logical option from an overall economics perspective.
Moreover, as life-cycle costs (including closure) are more comprehensively factored into feasibility
studies and project economics, the perceived capital costs associated with dewatering become more
palatable in many cases.
The collective experience of the authors indicates that dewatered tailings have become a viable
alternative for mining projects of essentially any tonnage with the main limitation being in ensuring
the right technology is selected based upon the nature of the tailings, not some misconception taken
from an alarming amount of misinformation available in current literature. With the increased use
of these methods, more case records will be developed and better information will flow to operators,
designers, regulators and educators and improved decisions will result.
Finally, a classification guide provided as Table 1 is provided to assist with the nomenclature
challenge and to assist those not as familiar with the dewatering options available to the current
mining industry.
REFERENCES
Bartholomeeusen, G., 2003. Compound Shock Waves and Creep Behaviour in Sediment Beds. A thesis
submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Oxford.
Davies, M.P. and Rice, S., 2001. An alternative to conventional tailing management – “dry stack” filtered
tailings. Tailings and Mine Waste 2001.
Fitton, T., 2007. Tailings Beach Slope Prediction. A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy, RMIT University
Jewell, R.J. and Fourie, A.B., 2006. Paste and Thickened Tailings – A Guide (Second Edition). Australia Centre
for Geomechanics. 257 p.
Kynch, G.J., 1952. A Theory of Sedimentation. Transactions Faraday Society, 48, 166–176.
McRoberts, E.C. and Nixon, J.F., 1976, A Theory of Soil Sedimentation. Canadian Geotechnical Journal.
Pirouz B., Kavianpour M.R. and Williams M.P.A. 2000. Thickened Tailings Beach Deposition, Field
Observations and Full-Scale Flume testing. Paste 2000 Santiago, Chile.
Pirouz, B. and Kavianpour, M.R., 2005. Thickened Tailings Beach Deposition. Field Observations and Full-
Scale Flume Testing. Paste 2005, Santiago, Chile.
Robinsky, EI 1975. ‘Thickened discharge – A new approach to tailings disposal’, CIM Bulletin, vol. 68,
pp. 47–53.
Robinsky, E.I., 2000. Thickened Tailings in the Mining Industry.
Williams, M.P.A., 1992. Australian Experience with the Central Thickened Discharge Method for Tailings.
Environmental Issues and Waste Management in Energy and Minerals Production, Singhal et al. (eds)
Williams, M.P.A. and Seddon, K.D., 1999. Thickened Tailings Discharge: A Review of Australian Experience.
Tailings and Mine Waste 1999.
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Groundwater modeling at the Panna Maria uranium facility

in support of an ACL application
M. Gard & J. Warner

Gard Water Consulting, Loveland, Colorado, USA
L. Cope
SRK Consultants, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
K. Raabe
Rio Grande Resources Corporation, Hobson, Texas, USA
ABSTRACT: Alternative Concentration Limits (ACLs) are a viable option for groundwater com-
pliance at mining properties. The numerical groundwater flow and transport mode is a critical tool
to establish ACLs at a point of compliance (POC) that can be shown to be protective at downgradient
points of exposure (POE). A three-dimensional variably-saturated multilayer groundwater model
was developed to support an ACL Application for a uranium mill tailings facility. The objective of
the model was to simulate and predict seepage from the Panna Maria Tailings Impoundment and
the long term net effect this seepage has on the groundwater in the various aquifers in the vicinity
of the site and ultimately on the San Antonio River. The model domain incorporated regional and
local groundwater divides and simulated unsaturated and saturated flow and contaminant transport.
It was developed using MODFLOW-SURFACT to simulate flow and transport through variably
saturated clay units that lie between the tailings and underlying near surface and deeper, regional
sand units. The resulting calibrated model demonstrates the concentrations to be defined at POC
monitoring wells that will be defined as ACLs that are protective of human health and the environ-
ment at downgradient POE locations. The ACLs will be used to establish groundwater protection
criteria that are protective of human health and the environment from potential releases from the
facility. The proper calibration and application of this model will provide a reliable and defensible
model and a pathway for prompt regulatory approval of the ACLs.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Panna Maria Uranium Operation Facility (Facility) is located in Karnes County, Texas, near the
town of Hobson, Texas. The Facility was operated as an open pit uranium mine and conventional
milling operation. After the completion of mining, the mining pit and mill site were closed and
reclaimed. The tailings impoundment was reclaimed using a multilayer soil cover. The cover was
designed to limit the release of radon gas from the tailings, to manage the runoff from the reclaimed
impoundment, and to limit precipitation infiltration. The multilayered cover consists of random
fill that was placed as an interim cover, and an infiltration barrier of clayey soil having a hydraulic
conductivity of no greater than 1 × 10-8 cm/sec. Above the infiltration barrier, a soil cover was
placed to enhance vegetative rooting and further reduce the emission of radon gas. The surface of
the cover consists of topsoil.
The objective of the groundwater flow and transport model was to establish alternate uranium
and sulfate concentration limits at the points of compliance. The model accurately simulates and
predicts seepage from the Panna Maria Tailings Impoundment and the corresponding long term
net effect this seepage has on the groundwater in the Alluvial Sand, A-Sand, slough sediments,
B1-Sand and ultimately the San Antonio River. The model is expected to accelerate regulatory
approval and reduce the overall time and costs of the approval process.
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The model was developed using MODFLOW-SURFACT Version 3.0, (Modflow-Surfact, 1996),
a variably saturated, fully integrated flow and transport code, based on the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) groundwater modeling software, MODFLOW (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1988). This
model was implemented to address the variably saturated clays in the alluvium and between the
alluvium and the underlying Catahoula sandstones. The groundwater model was calibrated to
groundwater elevations and chemical analytical results collected from 1992 to 2008. The calibrated
model then simulated the 1,000 year predicted fate and transport of uranium and sulfate.
2 SITE DESCRIPTION
The Facility is located approximately six miles north of Karnes City, Texas and is located approxi-
mately one half to one mile northeast of the San Antonio River. The Facility was operated as an
open pit uranium mining site with onsite uranium milling and onsite waste disposal ponds and
tailings impoundment. Approximately 6.8 million tons of uranium ore was processed at the Facility
during active onsite mining that occurred from 1977 until 1992. Reclamation of the Facility was
initiated in 1992 and was completed in 2000.
2.1 Geologic settings

The site is underlain by southeast dipping Tertiary sediments, consisting primarily of poorly consoli-
dated siltstones, claystones, claystones and fine grained sandstones. In the site area, these sediments
include the lower sequence of the Catahoula Formation, underlain by the Tordilla Member of the
Witsett Formation of the Jackson Group.
The geologic formations of primary focus beneath the site are the Catahoula Formation and
overlying alluvial sediments. The Catahoula Formation consists of poorly consolidated claystones
and alternating sandstones. This formation contains distinctive fluvial channel-fill, crevasse splay,
flood-plain, and lacustrine facies, which tend to persist vertically through the section. The Catahoula
Clay composition reflects alteration to montmorillonite and kaolinite of large volumes of deposited
volcanic ash.
Situated above the Catahoula Formation are alluvial and fluvial sediments that consist of
unconsolidated clays, silty clays, silts and silty sands. The deposition and subsequent erosion
of these sediments began penecontemporaneously (Miocene) with the deposition of the Catahoula
Formation and continued into the Quaternary.
The upper portion of the Catahoula Formation and the overlying unconsolidated sediments has
been subdivided into eight hydrostratigraphic units (HSUs) for the purpose of numerical modeling.
More than one hundred well logs were evaluated to create the model’s geologic layering. The
geologic data were interpreted using the Environmental Visualization Software package (EVS). All
of the available well logs were collected and analyzed to determine the various geologic units at each
log’s specific spatial location. These data were recorded on a log by log basis and entered into an
EVS database. EVS implemented three-dimensional kriging, a geostatistical gridding algorithm, to
generate the three-dimensional geologic structure. The EVS-generated geologic layering allowed
for a three-dimensional visual analysis of each geologic layer. EVS also enabled analysis of cross
sections to maintain the integrity of the data within the geologic conceptual model.
The HSUs are summarized below from oldest to youngest.
2.1.1 B1-Sand
The B1-Sand is the lowest HSU included in the flow and transport models. The B1 Sand consists
predominantly of a silty to clayey sand. The average thickness of the B1-Sand is twenty to twenty-
five feet. The B1-Sand can be as thick as fifty feet in the center of the model and thins to zero
thickness in the northwest where it has been eroded.
2.1.2 B1-Clay
The B1-Clay (Catahoula) is situated above the B1-Sand. It is the first HSU that is contiguous though
out the model domain. The B1-Clay consists predominantly of stiff hard sandy silt, with regions of
hard silty sandy clay. The B1-Clay thickens substantially along the dip slope to the southeast to a
maximum thickness of about one hundred feet.
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2.1.3 A-Sand
The A-Sand deposits include the first encountered sand unit beneath the eastern portion of the
tailings impoundment. The A-Sand deposits also extend beyond the tailings impoundment to the
north, east and northeast to some extent. The A-Sand consists primarily of fine grained, silty sand,
ranging from sandy gravel to very dense silty or clayey sand and layers of gravel. In addition, the
A-Sand has scattered caliche deposits.
The A-Sand consists of two main units. The lower A-Sand unit consists of pedogenically modified
deposits of Quaternary valley fill and is most likely older than the Alluvial valley fill sand. The
A-Sand also includes a younger overlying tributary alluvium. Typically at the interface between
the two main A-Sand units there are intermittent layers of cemented silty or clayey sand (WWL,
1993).
The A-Sand deposit is absent in much of the model domain. It occurs primarily beneath and
to the northeast of the tailings impoundment. Thickness of this unit ranges from zero to as much
as twenty feet beneath the tailings impoundment. Some A-Sand deposits have been interpreted to
exist east and north of the tailings impoundment. The A-Sand is truncated immediately south of
the tailings impoundment and is interpreted to have been truncated by subsequent erosion. The
A-Sand has been eroded by and is in direct contact with the Alluvial Sand on portions of the south
side of the tailings impoundment. The margin of this contact is characterized by the presence of
low permeability clay representing bank and overbank deposits.
Additionally, the A-Sand is present near the surface of the Manka Slough. This previously
unnamed slough is located east of the tailings impoundment and the Manka Ponds are located
within this slough. The A-Sand deposits have been eroded by the Manka Slough drainage system.
Groundwater discharges to the Manka Slough sediments in this area. The A-Sand is also present
near the surface east of the Manka Slough. The A-Sand subcrop is important hydrogeologically
because it may provide a direct pathway to the subsurface waters of the slough sediments.
2.1.4 A-Clay
The A-Clay is a silt, silty clay or clay deposit situated near the ground surface. The clay has
been eroded by the Miocene-aged streams that deposited the alluvium. The modern alluvium,
where present, has typically dissected or truncated the A-Clay. The A-Clay is generally dry but
groundwater has been encountered in isolated locations. This unit is discontinuous and pinches
in and out within the model domain. Geologic logs describe the A-Clay as predominantly stiff or
dense sandy silt to sandy clay. The A-Clay is not contiguous throughout the model domain. The
A-Clay varies in thickness from zero to a maximum of about forty feet within the model domain.
2.1.5 Alluvial sand

The Alluvial Sand generally describes the sands and clayey sands that are first encountered under the
southwest portion of the tailings impoundment and that extend primarily to the south. The Alluvial
Sand is an important hydrogeologic unit in the area. Distinct from Quaternary Alluvium, they are
Oligocene in age, deposited penecontemporaneously with the clay deposits of the Catahoula. The
Alluvial Sand is discontinuous within the model domain and as discovered in the 1992 investigation,
is separated by a horseshoe shaped, primarily fine grained silty clay ridge to the south of the tailings
impoundment (WWL, 1993).
The Alluvial Sand is not vertically continuous and is often divided by silty clay to clayey silt
lenses. This was defined during the 1992 investigation and was determined to be vertically separated
in places by a muddy floodplain or paleosol deposit. The Alluvial Sand unit is generally saturated
to various degrees and is typically unconfined.
2.1.6 Sloughs
In addition to the HSU layering at the site, the geologic conceptual model contains several surficial
and near surface alluvial deposits in sloughs that are interpreted to represent surficial expressions of
older Miocene-aged Catahoula streams. These streams may have devolved into the existing sloughs
due to fine grained sediments deposited during flood events. The existing Lake and Manka Sloughs
found on the aerial photos and USGS topographic maps are thought to be the remnant expressions
of these paleo-streams.
Subsequent to the paleo-stream sediment deposition, the sloughs in the flood plain were covered
through time with fine-grained flood deposits. Because of their coarse texture and corresponding
145
high relative hydraulic conductivity, the sloughs were considered preferential transport pathways
for potential off-site migration of potentially impacted groundwater. The slough sediments consist
of poorly sorted sands and silty or clayey sands. Some locations contain silty clay or gravel lenses
and carbonate nodules are sometimes present.
2.1.7 Surficial soils
The surficial unit consists of surficial deposits including the topsoil and tailings. The topsoil consists
of a variety of materials, ranging from loose organic rich silty sand with gravel to an organic rich
sandy loam to a stiff sandy silt or clay. Surficial soils in the floodplain typically contain small
gypsum crystals. The tailings consist of sandy clay or silt with some interbedded deposits of
chemical precipitates or slimes.
2.2 Waste disposal facilities

The waste disposal facilities at the Facility consisted of a mine and mill drainage pond, an industrial
waste pond, a molybdenum storage pond, decantation ponds and a major tailings impoundment.
The Facility placed the tailings and effluent from the milling process into the tailings impoundment.
An acid leach procedure utilizing sulfuric acid was used in the milling process at the Facility; hence
the water in the tailings impoundment has a very low pH, with a historical range between 2 and 6
standard units. During reclamation the fluid and wastes that accumulated in these auxiliary ponds
were transferred to the main tailings impoundment and the ponds were backfilled with clean soil.
The tailings impoundment was constructed using dikes that contained a central core of low
permeable clay. The tailings impoundment dikes consisted of a zoned earthen embankment con-
sisting of a central core flanked by shell zones with a blanket drain system on the downstream
side (IECO, 1977). The central core was designed to be a minimum of ten feet wide at the top and
twenty feet wide at the bottom where it was keyed through the Alluvial Sand or A Sand and at least
two feet deep into the underlying Catahoula Clay. The central core was designed to be relatively
impervious and was constructed of select mine overburden material with an average permeability
of 1 × 10−6 cm/sec. The inner portion of the tailings impoundment was not excavated down to the
Catahoula Clay; therefore the tailings were placed directly on top of the existing Alluvial Sand or
A-Sand units. The tailings impoundment covered approximately 150 acres and had a capacity of
10 million tons of tailings (Shepherd Miller, 2002). In 1996 construction began on a reclamation
cover for the tailings impoundment, which was constructed to minimize infiltration of water into
the tailings.
2.3 Hydrogeologic conceptual model

Groundwater movement follows four primary transport pathways from the closed tailings impound-
ment to discharge points into the San Antonio River. The pathways are illustrated on the figure
below. The easternmost pathway consists of the Manka Slough sediments. Fluids from the tailings
146
impoundment seep through or beneath the clay core along the eastern margin of the tailings
impoundment and are intercepted by the Manka Slough sediments. The tailings fluid is comin-
gled with groundwater from up gradient and east of the tailings impoundment. The Manka Pond is
situated just east of the tailings impoundment and groundwater can be observed rising to the surface
down gradient of the constructed dam as a result of under flow and dam seepage. These fluids are
then transported down the slough sediments onto the floodplain of the San Antonio River. The
fluids in the Manka Slough sediments are then captured by the paleo-San Antonio River sediments.
The groundwater then migrates through the San Antonio Paleochannel to the current San Antonio
River.
The second and third transport pathways begin on the southwest corner of the tailings impound-
ment. The tailings fluids seep through or beneath the clay core at this location and are intercepted by
the Alluvial Sand sediments. Just south of Farm to Market (FM) Road 81, an A-Clay ridge bisects
the Alluvial Sand and forms two separate transport pathways. The eastern limb of the Alluvial
Sand transports seeped tailings fluids downgradient until intercepted by the paleochannel of the
San Antonio River.
The western limb of the Alluvial Sand is a significant transport pathway for the tailings fluid.
Transport within the western limb of the Alluvial Sand is intercepted by the sediments of the Lake
Slough along the western margin of the Alluvial Sand deposit. The Lake Slough sediments then
provide a pathway to the floodplain sediments where they are intercepted by the paleochannel of
the San Antonio River. Transport continues until the paleochannel is intercepted by the current
river.
The fourth transport pathway is downward through the B1-Clay into the B1-Sand. Only a minor
amount of the tailings fluids are found along this pathway.
3 GROUNDWATER MODEL
The model’s geologic layering structure was based on the conceptual geologic model discussed
previously and incorporated the hydrogeologic conceptual model. The groundwater flow system at
the Facility was simulated based on the post-mining conditions. Initially, a steady-state model was
developed for the summer of 1992, a time period that coincided with an extensive hydrogeologic
field investigation. The 1992 investigation yielded key spatially-distributed groundwater level data
for theAlluvial Sand andA-Sand units that was otherwise lacking. The 1992 groundwater elevations,
coupled with the groundwater data collected from the quarterly monitoring program, produced a
significant amount of spatially distributed groundwater elevation data. The calibrated steady-state
groundwater elevations were used as initial heads for the transient flow model.
Subsequently, a transient groundwater model was developed to simulate the conditions collected
beginning July of 1992 until the end of December, 2007. The transient model was calibrated to
measured quarterly groundwater elevations, the precipitation record, and well extractions.
3.1 Model domain

The model grid extends to natural flow boundaries in the region that include the San Antonio River
and natural groundwater flow divides. The total model grid extends 4.27 miles by 3.83 miles and
consists of 1,344,168 total cells; with 224,028 cells per layer. The active grid consists of 1,170,510
total cells, with 195,085 active cells per layer and the active model domain is illustrated in the
accompanying figure. A very fine grid spacing of 25 feet by 25 feet was used in the vicinity of
the Panna Maria tailings impoundment and extends south, encompassing the southern portion of
the Lake Slough. The fine grid, relative to the size of the model domain was required to accurately
simulate the constituent transport through the hydrogeologic units of concern, due to high ground-
water gradients between the tailings impoundment and the adjacent sediments. Outside this area of
the fine grid, grid spacing was gradually increased to a maximum spacing of 500 feet by 500 feet.
3.2 Perimeter boundary conditions

Existing natural boundary conditions were used to define the extents of the Panna Maria model
domain. The top hydrogeologic unit of the Catahoula Formation is the B1-Sand. This unit outcrops
147
to the north of the site and was used as reference points for the northern extent of the active model
domain. As the development of the model progressed, the Rincon Lake was originally included
in the model. The Rincon Lake is the remnants of the westernmost mine pit converted to a lake.
During construction of Rincon Lake, over one hundred feet of low hydraulic conductivity clay was
used to line the old mine pit. This low hydraulic conductivity liner material acted in effect like a
no-flow boundary and created unnecessary numerical instability in the model. The abandoned mine
pits to the east of the Rincon Lake were also backfilled with low permeability clay. The backfill
material serves to isolate the sediments south of the pits from the hydrogeologic regime north of
the pits.
The model cells in Rincon Lake and backfilled mine pits area were converted to no-flow cells
and the corresponding northern extents of the active model domain were reduced to the southern
edge of Rincon Lake and abandoned mine pits. This elimination of the thin, low conductivity cells
in this area increased numerical stability of the model.
The San Antonio River acts as a natural western and southern hydrologic boundary to the model
domain. The San Antonio River was input into the model as river boundary cells and the river surface
elevation was digitized and utilized as the river stage for each river model cell. River boundary
conditions were placed in cells corresponding to the defined sand units including the B1-Sand.
The eastern model boundary condition consists of a series of no-flow cells located at a natural
topographic ridgeline. The alignment of the topographic ridgeline is to the southeast, the same
general direction of the corresponding subsurface groundwater flow, making the ridge a reasonable
no-flow boundary for the relatively shallow groundwater flow system. Precipitation that occurs
east of this topographic ridgeline flows east and recharges potential alluvial outside of the area of
interest for this modeling effort. Therefore, no-flow boundary cells were used along this topographic
ridgeline/groundwater divide.
3.3 Internal boundary conditions

Internal boundary conditions were utilized to represent naturally occurring surficial sloughs
and associated ponds, the central core of the tailings impoundment dikes and the drain system
incorporated with the tailings impoundment.
3.3.1 Sloughs and ponds

The naturally occurring sloughs in the vicinity of the tailings impoundment include the Lake Slough
and associated tributary in the western and southern portions of the model domain and the Manka
Slough in the mid-eastern portion of the model domain, which ultimately is a tributary to the Lake
Slough. The sloughs originate in the vicinity of the Alluvial and A sands.
Miocene-aged streams that drained the Catahoula deposits carried a stream load of silty sands
and fine to medium grained sands. The streams sediments are, in general, approximately 100
148
feet wide and between five and twenty feet thick. In the upland, near the Facility, the sediments
are hydraulically connected to either the Alluvial Sand or the A-Sand. The hydraulic connection
typically occurs near the surface. As the sloughs extend southward into the floodplain the sediments
have been buried by the deposition of flood deposits of the San Antonio River to a depth of
approximately forty feet. The floodplain sediments consist of primarily clay and silty clay that are
generally dry.
The sloughs are important for two reasons. The surficial expression of the sloughs provides
surface drainage from the uplands to the San Antonio River. The subsurface slough sediments
provide a pathway for groundwater to the San Antonio River.
The MODFLOW-SURFACT drain package was used to simulate the surficial sloughs based on
the concept that the sloughs do not significantly recharge the alluvium and primarily act as a conduit
for periodic surface water flow to the San Antonio River. The slough sediments are represented by
high conductivity lenses in the low conductivity floodplain deposits.
Ponds and lakes on and near the Facility were simulated using constant head boundary conditions.
The constant head at each boundary condition was set at the average head observed in the existing
water body.
3.3.2 Central core of tailings impoundment embankment

Construction of the tailings impoundment dikes entailed a zoned earthen embankment consisting of
a central core flanked by shell zones with a blanket drain system on the downstream side. The central
core of the impoundment dikes were designed to be relatively impervious. The average permeability
of the select mine overburden material used to construct the central core was 1 × 10−6 cm/sec. The
width of the central core was constructed to be a minimum of twenty feet wide at its base where it
was keyed into the underlying Catahoula Clay.
Horizontal flow barrier boundary conditions were employed to simulate the central core on the
tailings impoundment dikes. A preliminary width of twenty feet and a corresponding permeabi-
lity of 1 × 10−6 cm/sec were used to define the total conductance of the horizontal flow barrier
material. This preliminary conductance was modified during the flow calibration process, ensuring
adequate model seepage values were maintained while concurrently matching the observed tailings
impoundment dewatering curve.
3.3.3 Tailings impoundment drains

The tailings impoundment contains a drain system on the downgradient side of the zoned earthen
embankment. The drain system was designed to remove any runoff from precipitation occurring
on the dikes as well as any seepage that infiltrated through the dikes. MODFLOW-SURFACT
boundary condition drain cells were used in the model to simulate the drains.
149
3.3.4 Tailings impoundment heads
The site is unique in that there are three groundwater monitoring wells installed within the tailings.
These wells provide both groundwater elevation and analytical data not available for most tailings
sites. In the steady-state model constant head cells were used to represent the fluid elevation in
the tailings impoundment. These constant head cells were implemented to ensure correct starting
head elevations for the fluid in the tailings impoundment. The tailings impoundment’s steady state
constant heads were set at an elevation of 360.12 feet amsl, based on the fluid elevation in well
data measured in the summer of 1992. The tailings impoundment constant heads were only used
in the steady-state model and subsequently removed for the transient calibrations.
The head in the tailings impoundment in the transient flow model were initially set at the 1992
observed levels. Model parameters representing the central clay core of the tailings impoundment
dikes and the underlying clay were adjusted until the drainage curve was approximated.
3.3.5 Tailings uranium and sulfate concentrations

The tailings source concentration of uranium and sulfate was simulated using constant concentration
boundary conditions. The tailings impoundment was subdivided into twelve zones. The zones were
established to account for the special variability in tailings composition.
4 MODEL CALIBRATION
The Facility was modeled implementing three separate, but inter-related models. A steady-state
model was developed to simulate the summer of 1992, when much of the groundwater elevations
and analytical data was collected. This model provided the initial conditions for subsequent transient
models. A transient calibration model was used to simulate the data collected between 1992 and
2008, when the temporary piezometers were installed. The transient model included variations
in precipitation, well pumping, and analytical results. When parameters were changed during the
calibration of either the steady-state or the transient models, those parameters were updated in all
models. The third model was used to predict the long term impacts of the tailings impoundment
on the surrounding groundwater and the San Antonio River.
The parameter estimation program PEST was used during both the steady-state and the transient
calibration. PEST was allowed to adjust key parameters within an established range of variability to
reduce the objective function of the model and thus improve the model calibration. The parameter
variability was established using available data, literature values and professional experience.
4.1 Flow model calibration

The steady-state flow model calibration statistics are summarized in the table below. Prior to model
calibration, a target standard deviation (SD)/Range value of less than 0.05 (5 percent) indicated a
good calibration, greater than 0.05 but less than 0.10 (5 to 10 percent) was considered a satisfactory
calibration and greater that 0.10 (10 percent) was considered a poor calibration. The calculated
SD/Range value of 0.07 indicates a satisfactory steady-state calibration.
The results of the steady-state calibration were used as the initial conditions for the afore-
mentioned transient calibration. The transient flow model calibration was somewhat better that
the steady-state calibration. Using the previously defined calibration criteria, the transient model
calculated SD/Range value of 0.036 represented a good calibration.
4.2 Transport model calibration

After the steady-state and transient flow models were calibrated, both the sulfate and uranium trans-
port models were calibrated. The initial 1992 uranium and sulfate plume extents were estimated
using the data available from the 1992 investigation. Transport parameters including porosity and
dispersion were calibrated using sulfate since it was expected to act as a conservative constituent,
i.e. no transport retardation was expected. Adjustments were made to the initial plume configu-
ration, porosity values and dispersion values until sulfate transport calibration was achieved. The
final calibration SD/Range statistics were calculated to be 0.046 and the sulfate transport model
calibration classification was considered good.
150
The initial uranium plume distribution was estimated using the 1992 investigation data. Uranium
calibration consisted of making minor adjustments to the initial plume distribution and to the
distribution coefficient, Kd. The resulting calibrated Kd for the slough sediments and the A-Sand
was 0.09 ml/g. The observed breakthrough curves at an off-site well for uranium and sulfate were
coincident, indicating that no retardation was affecting the uranium transport. Kd for the Alluvial
Sand was set to zero. The resulting calculated calibration statistics (SD/Range = 0.059) indicate
that the uranium transport model is satisfactorily calibrated.
5 PREDICTIVE FLOW AND TRANSPORT MODEL
Predictive modeling entailed simulating the calibrated flow and sulfate transport model and the
calibrated flow and uranium transport model for a 1,000 year timeframe. The calibrated physi-
cal parameters were directly incorporated into the flow and transport models for the 1,000 year
151
152
simulations. The average precipitation of record, 30.9 inches per year, was utilized as the long term
average precipitation for the 1,000 year simulations.
The groundwater elevation in the tailings impoundment was allowed to naturally decline based
on the calibrated tailings impoundment dewatering curve, which is primarily a function of the
limited recharge through the overlying infiltration barrier cap, the conductance of the horizontal
flow barrier representing the central core of the embankment and the vertical hydraulic conductivity
of the underlying B1-Clay.
During the 1,000 year simulations the remaining model boundary conditions were unchanged,
including the constant concentration zones representing source constituent concentrations within
the tailings impoundment. A mass balance was performed on the approximate quantity of uranium
in the tailings impoundment to determine if the uranium source term was anticipated to be depleted
within the 1,000 year predictive time frame. The calculated depletion was considered negligible.
6 FLOW AND TRANSPORT MODEL RESULTS
The results of the flow and transport predictive modeling indicate that neither sulfate nor uranium
will reach the San Antonio River at concentrations exceeding the respective Maximum Contami-
nant Levels (MCLs). The primary transport pathway is through the Alluvial Sand sediments and
connecting Lake Slough sediments.
Tailings seepage is expected to change over time. Seepage was estimated to be 24 gallons per
minute from 1992 until 1996, when the tailings were capped. In 1997, the seepage estimated
was reduced to 17 gallons per minute. Current tailings seepage estimates are about 8.3 gallons
per minute. Ultimately, tailings seepage estimates will approach a steady-state condition when it
approaches the recharge through the barrier cap, of approximately 4.6 gallons per minute.
Tailings seepage has a significant impact on the groundwater flow and site groundwater quality
at the Facility. The tailings fluid is the source of the constituents at and downgradient of the site.
Increased seepage from the tailings impoundment results in higher constituent concentrations. Addi-
tionally, the tailings seepage increases the groundwater gradients near the tailings impoundment
and the Facility. Higher gradients result in faster flow velocities and transport rates. Conversely, as
the tailings impoundment drains, the gradients and resulting constituent load decline.
Tailings fluids are discharged through the clay core of the impoundment into both the A-Sand
and the Alluvial Sand. The A-Sand is hydraulically connected to the sediments of the Manka Slough
and ultimately to the Lake Slough sediments. The Alluvial Sand is hydraulically connected to the
Lake Slough sediments. The Lake Slough, in the flood plain, is interpreted to be a paleochannel
of the San Antonio River and discharges to the San Antonio River. The final transport pathway
of constituents of concern is through the unsaturated B1-Clay into the underlying B1-Sand. The
San Antonio River is considered a groundwater divide within the model domain and is expected to
affect flow in the B1-Sand. It is assumed that the B1-Sand discharges to the San Antonio River. This
assumption provides a conservative estimate of the constituent load to the river from all potential
sources.
Neither the A-Sand nor the Alluvial Sand is currently used for domestic water supply nor are they
expected to be capable of sustaining enough groundwater to be used as a drinking water source.
Due to their limited extent, the slough sediments likewise are not capable of supplying sufficient
quantities of groundwater to be used as a drinking water source.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The modeling code MODFLOW-SURFACT was able to simulate the constituent transport through
the variably saturated clays. The calibrated model adequately simulates the transport of the con-
stituents of concern through the sediments present on and near the Facility. The modeling effort for
the Panna Maria ACL Application indicates that there is a significant area that will require insti-
tutional controls to transfer the Facility to the Department of Energy, especially down the western
Alluvial Sand/Lake Slough transport pathway. The proper application and calibration of the robust
model, supported by sufficient site-specific geologic, hydrologic and water quality data, provides
153
a reliable and defensible basis for the establishment of the ACLs. The model will facilitate the ACL
Application acceptance and accelerate Facility closure.
It was discovered that the coincident breakthrough of uranium and sulfate at an off-site well was
possibly the result of well casing failure that allowed shallow groundwater already impacted by
uranium and sulfate to reach the well screen. This observation negates our conservative assumption
that retardation was not a factor for uranium transport along theAlluvial Sand/Lake Slough transport
pathway. This result is significant as it will affect the timing of the uranium arrival at all locations
within and down gradient of the Alluvial Sand. The extent of the modeled plume will be reduced
as the result of increasing the distribution coefficient (Kd). Currently additional work is proposed
to adjust this parameter in the model and estimates the resulting uranium extents. This will likely
reduce the area where institutional controls are required.
Point of Compliance (POC) alternate concentration limits have not yet been estimated for the
ACL application. This effort has been delayed until regulatory approval of the calibrated model has
been indicated. The ACL application is anticipated to be complete by mid-year, 2010.
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155
A priori and posterior probabilities in operational water balances for

tailing storage facilities
Steven F. Truby, Victor Lishnevsky & James R. Kunkel

Knight Piésold and Co., Denver, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: An a priori probability distribution for a Tailings Management Facility (TMF)

water balance variable (pond volume) is one in which you can see that it is true just lying on your
couch. You don’t have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in
the physical world. You don’t have to do any science. In a posteriori probability distribution for a
TMF water balance variable, knowledge or justification is dependent on water balance outcomes or
empirical evidence. This paper will examine the difference between modern water balance models
where the selected input parameters (precipitation and evaporation) are assigned a priori probability
functions and a large number of water balance output realizations for a given variable (pond volume)
are generated, versus examining all possible combinations of input parameters and operational
parameters (TMF evolution) and then fitting a posteriori probability function to the outcomes.
1 INTRODUCTION
The procedure used in the operational water balance to perform TMF pond design is the robust
water balance model previously described by Kunkel (2001) and Kunkel and Lishnevsky (2002).
The traditional approach to an operational water balance is to use the systematic climatological time
series data as average monthly values and once-through operation. This approach uses only a 12-
“season” model with each season represented by a month. An alternative approach for operational
water balance modeling is to use the complete monthly time series for as many years of data as are
available, or to use a stochastically generated monthly time series. Modern stochastic climate data
generating techniques are easily applied to obtain data “in-fill” and/or extension of the historical
climatological data. Typical stochastic data generation models include WGEN (Richardson and
Wright, 1984) and ClimGen (Stöckle and others, 1998; 1999). Similar stochastic models also are
available within the EPIC computer program (Sharpley and Williams, 1990) which is extensively
used by Knight Piésold and Co., as well as GoldSim™.
The robust operational water balance approach (Kunkel and Lishnevsky, 2002) uses the sys-
tematic climatological record or a synthetically generated monthly time series. Figure 1 shows a
hypothetical monthly climatological time series of 33 years and a mine life of 6 years for a Perú
mine site, which indicates how the robust operational water balance operates. The first operational
water balance model run is placed at the start of the mine life in the first year of the 33 years
of precipitation data, while the second model run is placed in the second year of the data, and
so on. Each model run is considered to be independent of the previous run. Therefore, each of
the 33 runs produces 33 equally-likely, independent outcomes which can be analyzed and fit to a
probability distribution to calculate the probability of occurrence of given output variables from the
runs. The reason for performing 33 equally likely and independent water balance runs is because it
is unknown, a priori, when the mine project will come on line or what the climate conditions will
be when the project comes on line.
2 WATER BALANCE MODEL COMPONENTS AND MODELING GOALS
A simple operational water balance problem including a TMF, a processing plant, and an exter-
nal makeup water source was modeled. The water balance input components included the
157
Figure 1. Hypothetical operational water balance procedure for 6-year mine life and 33 years of climatological
data.
following: (1) TMF pond (elevation, area, capacity data), (2) inflows to the TMF from internal
and external areas, (3) seepage from the TMF, (4) tailings production over time (water, solids,
tailing pore water storage), (5) precipitation, (6) evaporation (from tailings and non-tailings areas),
and (7) process plant water requirements. Calculated water balance outputs included the following:
(1) TMF pond volume, (2) TMF water supplied to the process, (3) TMF water discharged to treat-
ment and/or the environment, and (4) required external makeup water for the process. A schematic
of these components and their interactions is shown on Figure 2.
Using a 14-year set of monthly climatological data and the robust water balance technique
mentioned above with the Knight Piésold Minder™ program, a water balance was generated
and probabilities calculated for operating tailing pond volumes and operational makeup water
requirements for the process as the two example modeled variables. Monthly outcomes from the
Knight Piésold Minder™ program were fit to an Extreme Value Type I (Gumbel) probability
distribution (Kite, 1977); although a two-parameter Log Normal or a Weibull distribution would
give essentially the same conclusions. This same approach was used deterministically in GoldSim™
in order to have a common starting point for the a priori analysis. Monthly outcomes from the
GoldSim™ program also were fit to an Extreme Value Type I probability distribution.
For comparison, the same 14-year monthly climatological time series data were fit to a two-
parameter Log Normal probability distribution and the moments for these data then used in
GoldSim™. The goal of the modeling was to assess differences, if any, between assigning a
probability function to the input climate data (a priori) to obtain water balance outcomes, ver-
sus, calculation of the probabilities of the water balance outcomes (posteriori) from a series of
independent, identically distributed random variables.
GoldSim™ provides two stochastic distribution models that would be suitable for modeling
precipitation data, namely the Log-Normal and Weibull distributions. The log normal distribution
was selected for the modeling as it has been shown by the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO, 1999) to provide reasonable approximations of monthly precipitation
values, and the input parameters required for the log-normal distribution are easy to generate from
158
Figure 2. Simple TMF water balance model components and their interactions.
historical data. Separate log-normal distribution functions were generated for each month of the
year, with the appropriate function being selected by the model during runtime, depending on the
month being modeled.
Functions were generated to relate precipitation to evaporation from water surfaces, wet tailings,
dry tailings and natural ground. A separate function was generated for each component of evapora-
tion, and for each month of the year, resulting in a total of 48 evaporation functions. The appropriate
function was selected by the model during run time depending on the month of the year, and the
component of evaporation being modeled. The functions were based on monthly precipitation and
evaporation data generated by Knight Piésold for the project. Similarly, a function was generated
relating seepage into existing ground surfaces to precipitation, with a separate function being gen-
erated for each month of the year. The outcomes presented below comparing the two programs
utilized to model the water balance for the simple TMF system are considered to be preliminary
and did not show favorable comparisons. The reason(s) for the sometimes large differences in the
outcomes using the two programs is yet to be completely resolved.
3 WATER BALANCE OUTCOMES AND COMPARISONS
3.1 Deterministic model outcomes

Water balance outcomes for operational TMF pond volumes (in m3 ) and operational makeup water
requirements (in m3 /hr) for the process were modeled deterministically using both the Knight
Piésold Minder™ and the GoldSim™ programs. Monthly results for average operational TMF
pond volumes in cubic meters (m3 ) are shown graphically on Figure 3 for the deterministic cases.
Analysis of Figure 3 showing the average operational TMF pond volumes indicates that both the
Knight Piésold Minder™ and the GoldSim™ programs generally predict the same maximum TMF
pond storage which would be used for design of the TMF. However, the GoldSim™ program mod-
eled significantly lower (by approximately 50 percent) minimum TMF storage volumes. The reason
for this is not well understood but may be due to the evaporation component of the water balance,
as the two models were independently programmed and even though the individual programmers
communicated with each other, there were small differences in the codes which may have resulted
in a systematic increase in evaporation during the southern hemisphere summer (rainy season for
the site utilized).
159
Figure 3. Deterministic TMF operational pond volumes.
Figure 4. Deterministic makeup water requirements.
Deterministic outcomes for makeup water requirements using the two programs are shown on
Figure 4. The GoldSim™ program shows much larger makeup water requirements at the end of
the dry season (October of each year). The reason for this is not well understood but may be due
to overprediction of the evaporation even though the monthly evaporation input functions were the
same for both programs.
3.2 Probabilistic model outcomes

A Gumbel probability distribution was fit to the deterministic outcomes for TMF operational pond
volumes and makeup water requirements based on the outcomes of the deterministic modeling
160
Figure 5. Posteriori 100-Year TMF operational pond volumes.
Figure 6. Posteriori 100-Year makeup water requirements.
using both the Knight Piésold Minder™ and the GoldSim™ programs. Results of this exercise
are shown respectively in Figures 5 and 6 for the operational pond volumes and makeup water
requirements.
Analyses of these two figures indicates that the 100-Year return period using both programs
giving the monthly 1-percent chance exceedance volumes are generally the same and match well
for the dry season months (April through October), but differ by over 50 percent during the wet
season (November through March). This difference indicates that for some reason, even though the
input data were the same, GoldSim™ program underpredicts the TMF pond volume and, as can be
seen in Figure 6, over predicts the makeup water requirements.
161
Figure 7. A priori vs. Posteriori 100-Year TMF operational pond volume.
Figure 8. A priori vs. Posteriori 100-Year makeup water requirements.
3.3 Probabilistic model outcome comparisons

Figures 7 and 8 compare the a priori and posterior 100-Year (1-percent chance) monthly outcomes
for, respectively, TMF operational pond volumes and makeup water requirements using the Knight
Piésold Minder™ and the GoldSim™ programs. In this case the probabilistic outcomes using
the GoldSim™ program were the result of 2,000 realizations using a Log-normal probability
distribution fit to the monthly data for 14 years, and evaporation functions based on the same
evaporation data used in the Knight Piésold Minder™ program.
162
Figure 9. GoldSim™ A priori and Posteriori 100-Year makeup water requirements.
The presumption was that the a priori Log-normal precipitation inputs to the GoldSim™ program
would result in generally Log-normally distributed outcomes for both the TMF operational pond
volumes and the makeup water requirements. Comparison of the a priori (GoldSim™ program 1%
stochastic) and posteriori (Knight Piésold Minder™ program 1% deterministic) outcomes shown
on Figures 7 and 8 indicate that the results vary greatly during some portions of the year. Most
likely the underestimation of TMF storage volume during the dry season is due to overestimation
of evaporation by the GoldSim™ program. Makeup water requirements are over-estimated by the
stochastic GoldSim™ program model during the rainy season, primarily as a result of precipitation
being under-estimated over this period by the Log-normal rainfall generation routine in the program.
Given that there may be differences in the user programming in the Knight Piésold Minder™
and the GoldSim™ programs, a comparison was done for the a priori and posteriori 100-year
makeup water requirements from only the GoldSim™ program as shown on Figure 9. As would be
expected the stochastically generated values tend not to preserve the extremes which are typically
exhibited by hydrologic data and actual operational variables. Whereas the GoldSim™ 1 percent
deterministic (posteriori) results do show some months in which makeup water requirements are
zero (rainy season), the GoldSim™ 1-percent stochastic (a priori) results never show zero makeup
water. This could cause operational issues if water storage reservoirs are smaller than necessary,
and/or result in water shortages during some months of the year.
4 CONCLUSIONS
A comparison of two water balance programs, Knight Piésold Minder™ and the GoldSim™, have
shown that even with consistent programming, the outcomes from these programs can differ by
50 percent or more during some months of the year. Additionally, the comparison of probabilistic
outcomes for TMF operational pond volumes and makeup water requirements show substantial dif-
ferences if the analyses are performed deterministically and then probabilities fit to these outcomes,
versus stochastic inputs with presumed probabilistic outcomes.
The stochastic and deterministic models generated very similar results over many of the months of
the year. Makeup water requirements are, however, overestimated by the stochastic model during
163
the rainy season, primarily as a result of precipitation being under-estimated over this period.
This, along with non-realistic wet season makeup water requirements indicates that care must be
utilized in interpreting the outcomes of even simple water balance models. More complex water
balance models which have, for example, multiple heap leach pads, multiple liquid storage ponds,
and complex piping and pumping may be best analyzed utilizing the robust water balance model
proposed by Kunkel (2001) and Kunkel and Lishnevsky (2002).
The outcomes presented herein comparing the two programs utilized to model the water balance
for the simple TMF system are considered to be preliminary and did not show favorable compar-
isons. The reason(s) for the sometimes large differences in the outcomes using the two programs
is yet to be completely resolved.
REFERENCES
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 1999. A Statistical Manual for Forestry
Research. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bankok. 231p.
Kite, G.W. 1977. Frequency and Risk Analysis in Hydrology. Fort Collins: Water Resources Publications.
224 pp. http://www.wrpllc.com/links.html
Kunkel, J.R. & Lishnevsky, V. 2002. A Robust Water-Balance Method for Sizing Heap Leach Solution Ponds.
Proceedings of the SME Annual Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona. February 25–27, 2002 (only available on
compact disk). Preprint 02-049. 5p.
Kunkel, J.R. 2001. A Robust Water-Balance Method for Sizing Heap Leach Solution Ponds and Reservoirs.
Proceedings of the XXV Convention of Peruvian Mining Engineers, Are-quipa, Peru, September 10–14,
2001 (only available on compact disk). 11p.
Richardson, C.W. & Wright, D.A. 1984. WGEN: A Model for Generating Daily Weather Variable.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. ARS-8, August. http://soilphysics
.okstate.edu/software/cmls/WGEN.pdf
Sharpley, A.N. & Williams, J.R. 1990. EPIC-Erosion/Productivity Impact Calculator: 1. Model Documenta-
tion. US Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 1768. 235 p., http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/
600r05149/600r05149epic.pdf
Stöckle, C.O., Steduto, P. & Allen, R.G. 1998. Estimating Daily and Daytime Mean VPD from Daily Maximum
VPD. 5th Congress of the European Society of Agronomy, Nitra. The Slovak Republic.
Stöckle, C.O., Campbell, G.S. & Nelson R. 1999. ClimGen Manual. Biological Systems Engineering
Department. Washington State University. Pullman, WA. 28 p., http://bsyse.wsu.edu/climgen/
164
Single process arsenic and antimony removal using coagulation

and microfiltration
Joseph R. Tamburini & H.C. Liang

Tetra Tech, Denver, CO, USA
Samuel J. Billin
Tetra Tech, Elko, NV, USA
ABSTRACT: Several arsenic removal strategies have been approved by the EPA as Best Avail-
able Technologies; and with the promulgation of the Arsenic Rule in 2001, these strategies are well
understood and widely implemented. However, strategies for antimony removal are not as widely
implemented. Bench scale testing at a remote water treatment site in Nome, Alaska showed that a sin-
gle treatment process including pH adjustment and coagulation followed by low pressure filtration
could be used to remove both contaminants at 90 percent removal efficiency. The treatment process
highlighted here is advantageous over other treatment methods such as high pressure reverse osmo-
sis filters because it requires less power consumption, creates less waste, and is lower in capital cost.
1 BACKGROUND
Arsenic has been found to impair biological metabolic pathways as well as cause cancer (specifically
lung and skin cancer) in humans in chronic doses (CDC 2000). Due to the prevalence of arsenic in
many ground water sources scattered throughout the United States, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) issued an arsenic standard on all drinking water sources, promulgated as the Arsenic
Rule in 2001. Several arsenic removal strategies have been approved by the EPA as Best Available
Technologies including: ion exchange, activated alumina, reverse osmosis, coagulation followed by
microfiltration, modified coagulation/filtration, modified lime softening, electrodialysis reversal,
and oxidation/filtration (EPA 2001). Although many of these technologies have been implemented
for some time, after the promulgation of the Arsenic Rule, these strategies became even better
understood and widely implemented. The discussion in the paper will focus on coagulation followed
by microfiltration (C/MF) for treating both arsenic and antimony.
1.1 Arsenic chemistry

Under natural conditions, arsenic (As) is present in two different oxidation states: arsenous, or
As(III) and arsenic, or As(V). When present in water, arsenic forms the dissolved species presented
in Figure 1, dependant on the pH and oxidation reduction potential (ORP) of the solution. As
illustrated in Figure 1, under typical groundwater conditions, As(III) occurs as H3AsO03 and As(V)
occurs either as H2AsO− 2−
4 or H2AsO4 . This is significant when trying to remove arsenic using
C/MF because As(III) occurs in solution as a neutral species while As(V) occurs as a mono- or
di-anion, depending on the pH.
In order to remove dissolved arsenic from water using coagulation followed by microfiltration,
a coagulant must be added to adsorb the arsenic and form a floc particle that can be removed
by the microfiltration unit. Typically, an iron-based or aluminum-based chemical is added as the
coagulant. For the purposes of this paper, an iron-based coagulant will be used since that is the
chemical available for Alaska Gold Company (AGC) at their mine site. Ferrous sulfate was used
in the bench scale tests for arsenic removal.
165
Figure 1. Arsenic Pourbaix Diagram (Liang, 2008 and Garrels, 1965).
When ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 ) is added to water, it forms ferric hydroxide that precipitates out
of solution. At neutral and low pH, a floc with the simplified formula of Fe(OH)+2 can form from
ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3 , according to Equation 1.
There is a net positive charge on ferric hydroxide as long as the pH of the solution is less than
8 (Chwirka et al., 2004), and the net positive charge increases as the pH decreases. The negatively
charged form of dissolved arsenic (H2AsO− 4 ) is attracted to the positively charged ferric hydroxide
floc particles. Once the dissolved arsenic is adsorbed by the ferric hydroxide floc, the arsenic can be
removed from solution by removing the floc particles with a microfilter. However, if the oxidation
state and the pH of the solution is below the red line in Figure 1, the dissolved arsenic is in the form
of As(III), which has a neutral charge, meaning that it has little attraction to the ferric coagulant.
This shows that it is essential to have the correct pH and oxidation state balance for optimal arsenic
removal.
1.2 Antimony chemistry and removal

While the coagulation chemistry for arsenic is well understood and widely implemented, the coagu-
lation chemistry of antimony is not as well understood. Antimony resides in the same group within
the periodic table as arsenic, indicating that its chemistry should be similar to that of arsenic. In
fact, antimony (Sb) is generally present in two oxidation states: antimonous, Sb(III) and antimonic,
Sb(V). Pourbiax et al.(Pourbiax 1966) developed a Pourbaix diagram for antimony similar to that
shown in Figure 1 for arsenic. This diagram suggests that a negatively charged dissolved gaseous
species (SbO− 3 ) is present under highly oxidized conditions, similar to that of arsenic. Therefore,
similar coagulation chemistry should occur for the removal of antimony as for the removal of arsenic.
2 METHODOLOGY
A pilot study was conducted in October 2006 at the Alaska Gold Company’s (AGC) Rock Creek
mine site in Nome, Alaska. Water from three different dewatering wells was collected and the raw
water tested for water quality parameters including arsenic and antimony and used throughout the
pilot study. The water quality from each of the three wells is summarized in Table 1 in comparison
to the maximum contaminant limits (MCL). Groundwater pumped from AGC Rock Creek mine pit
166
Table 1. Raw water quality summary.
Parameter Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 MCL
Alkalinity, mg/L 200 262 172 N/A

pH, s.u. 7.72 7.59 7.90 N/A
Total Dissolved Solids, mg/L 324 410 232 N/A
Antimony, mg/L 0.000 0.171 0.006 0.006
Arsenic, mg/L 0.079 0.205 0.155 0.010
area must be treated to meet, or exceed, the more stringent of either the drinking water requirements
(or MCLs) or the aquatic life standards. As illustrated in Table 1 the three wells are between 8 and
20 times above the MCL limit with respect to arsenic. Also, Well 2 and Well 3 are at or above the
MCL limit with respect to antimony. Both contaminants need to be removed from the raw water in
a water treatment plant.
The goal of the pilot study was to determine the optimum pH and coagulant dose for both arsenic
and antimony removal via low pressure filtration. The mine utilizes ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 ) for
other coagulation processes in the processing of ore; therefore, the water treatment plant is required
to utilize this same chemical. The study included adding ferrous sulfate coagulant at various doses
ranging from 14 to 160 mg/L as FeSO4 (5.1 to 58.8 mg/L as Fe2+ ). The pH was also adjusted to
various pH values ranging from approximately 4.0 to neutral pH using sulfuric acid to decrease
the pH. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) was also added to the raw water to oxidize arsenic (III) to
arsenic (V).
Each set of tests were conducted with four 1000 mL jars all with the same oxidant and coagulant
dose added to the jars and mixed thoroughly. A 4-jar gang mixer was used to mix all samples
simultaneously. Next, the pH was adjusted using sulfuric acid at varying pH values in each of the
four jars starting at a pH of approximately 4.0 and increasing one pH unit in each jar to 5.0 and 6.0.
The fourth jar was kept at a neutral pH, which varied depending on the coagulant concentration
added. The jars were then mixed again at which time floc formation was evident. The samples
from each jar were then filtered through a 1.0 micron filter using a vacuum filter apparatus. The
resulting filtrate for each sample was express-shipped to a laboratory to be tested for arsenic and
antimony under Method E200.8.
One set of tests was performed for three different coagulant doses with each of the three well
water sources. A summary of test conditions can be found in Table 2.
3 RESULTS
Water quality reports for each of the samples were received in October 2006. The concentration of
antimony in the raw water of Well 1 was non-detect (less than 0.001 mg/L), so all results from Well
1 showed non-detect levels of antimony. The concentration of antimony remaining in the filtrate of
the bench scale tests for Well 2 ranged from 0.002 mg/L to 0.135 mg/L as illustrated in Figure 2.
Most of the Well 3 antimony concentration values were below the detection limit; however, four
values were above that detection limit as seen in Figure 3.
Although the raw water from each of the three wells showed elevated levels of arsenic as presented
in Table 1; interestingly, all filtrate samples from the C/MF bench scale testing showed non-detect
levels of arsenic. Regardless of coagulant or oxidant dose, and regardless of the water source, all
samples were below the arsenic detection limit of 0.001 mg/L. In order to confirm that this was
not testing error, six of the samples were analyzed for a second time using Method A3114 B, and
again showed non-detect levels of arsenic.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Results from this bench scale test indicate that both arsenic and antimony removal is possible using
coagulation followed by microfiltration. Both contaminants can be effectively removed in one pass
through the system assuming the pH and the coagulant dose are adequate. Arsenic removal was
acceptable at all pH values and coagulant doses tested. Antimony removal varied significantly based
167
Table 2. Sample testing conditions.
Water pH FeSO4 Dose as NaOCl

Sample Source (s.u.) Dose (mg/L) Fe2+ (mg/L) Dose (mg/L)
102 Well 1 4.0 14 5.1 20

103 Well 1 4.9 14 5.1 20
104 Well 1 6.1 14 5.1 20
105 Well 1 7.9 14 5.1 20
106 Well 1 3.9 30 11.0 20
107 Well 1 5.1 30 11.0 20
108 Well 1 6.1 30 11.0 20
109 Well 1 7.9 30 11.0 20
110 Well 1 4.0 60 22.1 20
111 Well 1 4.9 60 22.1 20
112 Well 1 6.4 60 22.1 20
113 Well 1 7.6 60 22.1 20
114 Well 2 3.9 80 29.4 20
115 Well 2 5.1 80 29.4 20
116 Well 2 6.1 80 29.4 20
117 Well 2 7.7 80 29.4 20
118 Well 2 4.1 120 44.1 20
119 Well 2 5.1 120 44.1 20
120 Well 2 6.1 120 44.1 20
121 Well 2 7.4 120 44.1 20
122 Well 2 4.0 160 58.8 20
123 Well 2 5.1 160 58.8 20
124 Well 2 6.1 160 58.8 20
125 Well 2 6.8 160 58.8 20
127 Well 3 3.9 80 29.4 20
128 Well 3 5.0 80 29.4 20
129 Well 3 6.1 80 29.4 20
130 Well 3 7.2 80 29.4 20
131 Well 3 3.8 120 29.4 20
132 Well 3 5.0 120 29.4 20
133 Well 3 6.0 120 29.4 20
134 Well 3 6.9 120 29.4 20
136 Well 3 3.9 160 29.4 20
137 Well 3 5.0 160 29.4 20
138 Well 3 6.0 160 29.4 20
139 Well 3 6.5 160 29.4 20
140 Well 2 4.1 120 44.1 10
141 Well 2 5.0 120 44.1 10
142 Well 2 6.0 120 44.1 10
143 Well 2 6.7 120 44.1 10
144 Well 2 4.1 120 44.1 0
145 Well 2 5.1 120 44.1 0
146 Well 2 6.1 120 44.1 0
147 Well 2 6.5 120 44.1 0
on pH and coagulant concentration; therefore, the conditions leading to cost effective antimony
removal will dictate at the full scale treatment system. Antimony removal efficiency for the Well 2
bench scale tests is presented in Figure 4.
The conditions required for adequate antimony removal are summarized in Table 3.
Figure 4 shows antimony removal at the various pH values, coagulant doses and oxidant doses.
This chart shows that the most cost effective antimony removal would likely occur at a pH of
approximately 5.0, ferrous sulfate dose of 120 mg/L and a sodium hypochlorite dose of 10 mg/L.
Under these conditions antimony removal was seen to be above 80 percent, which is more than
sufficient to meet the required MCL outlined in Table 1. Increasing the dose and/or lowering the pH
168
Figure 2. Filtrate Antimony Concentration for Well 2 Bench Scale Tests.
Figure 3. Filtrate Antimony Concentration for Well 3 Bench Scale Tests.
would increase the removal efficiency as high as possibly 92 percent removal, as seen in Figure 4,
but the incremental increase is small compared with the cost of additional chemical.
The relatively low pH needed for effective antimony removal compared to the higher pH values
under which arsenic can be removed using ferrous or ferric salts can be rationalized by the overall
charges of the antimony and arsenic species involved and their differing affinity for the ferric
hydroxide floc. For example, while the predominant arsenic species removed is the di-anionic
species HAsO2− 4 near neutral pH and high ORP values, the antimony species removed is the mono-
anionic SbO− 3 . Based on coulombic interactions, it can be speculated that near neutral pH, where
there is a mixture between cationic ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)+2 and neutral Fe(OH)3 floc, adsorption
and subsequent removal of the higher charged HAsO2− 4 should be more efficient than that of the
singly-charged SbO− 3 . It can further be argued that as the pH decreases and there is a higher
169
Figure 4. Antimony Removal Efficiency.
Table 3. Optimum operating conditions.
Parameter Value
Coagulant (Ferrous Sulfate), mg/L 120

Oxidant (Sodium Hypochlorite), mg/L 10
pH, s.u. 5.0
percentage of positively-charged Fe(OH)+2 , the binding and removal of antimony becomes better
due to more affinity between SbO−3 and the ferric hydroxide floc.
4.1 Full scale design considerations

The full scale treatment system has been designed and is currently under construction. The design
includes pH adjustment with sulfuric acid and ferrous sulfate coagulant addition. Due to the high
dose of coagulant required, a lamella-type plate settler is installed after coagulation, ahead of
microfiltration, to protect the membrane modules from excessive calcium sulfate buildup, which
can result from coagulant addition. The pH is then adjusted back to neutral with lime slurry and
then filtered through a low pressure microfiltration membrane.
The results of this pilot testing show that antimony can be removed in the same process along with
arsenic using low pressure microfilters. This is advantageous over high pressure reverse osmosis
filters because it requires less capital cost, much lower operating pressures, and produces only
2 to 5 percent waste compared to 20 to 25 percent waste from a high pressure membrane system.
REFERENCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001), Arsenic Rule 2001, 40 CFR 141, Washington, D.C.
Center for Disease Control (2000), Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity, Atlanta, GA.
Chwirka Joseph D. et al. (2004), Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water Using the Coagulation/Microfiltration
Process, Journal AWWA, 96 (3), 106–114.
Liang, H. C., et al. (2008), The Simultaneous Removal of Arsenic and Manganese for water in Northern
Nevada, Nevada Water and Environment Association 2008 Conference.
Garrels, Robert M.; Christ, Charles L. (1965) Solutions, Minerals, and Equilibria; Freeman, Cooper &
Company.
Pourbaix, Marcel et al. (1966), Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, Translated from
French by James A. Franklin, Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York.
170
Mitigating impacts from acid-producing rock in Tennessee road

construction projects
J.J. Gusek
Golder Associates, Lakewood, Colorado, USA
V. Bateman, J. Ozment, L. Oliver & D. Kathman

Tennessee Department of Transportation, Nashville & Knoxville, TN, USA
J. Waples, T. Rutkowski, H. Moore, W. Bowden & A. Reither

Golder Associates, Lakewood, Colorado, and Atlanta, Georgia, USA
ABSTRACT: There is a potential for runoff to become polluted with sulfuric acid and metals
(mostly iron) when the pyrite/sulfide rock weathers in road projects where Chattanooga shale and
other pyrite-bearing or sulfide-bearing rock formations are exposed. As a part of surface water
pollution management, the Tennessee Department of Transportation updated its standard operating
procedure to create a new guidance document. A team of geologists and GIS experts developed
a database to quickly identify projects that need to follow the new guideline to avoid impacts by
highlighting zones of geologic formations known to contain pyrite or acidic pH-neutralizing rocks
such as carbonates.
Despite the implementation of best management practices, some residual acidic/metal runoff
may occur. For these situations, BMPs from mining industry experience are applied, and may have
reverse application in mine waste situations. TDOT’s new guidelines are the most comprehensive
construction-related acidic rock drainage BMPs of any state DOT.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) has in recent years been involved in the
detection, testing, and mitigation of rock material containing minerals that, under certain conditions,
are capable of producing acidic runoff. In late 2006, a focused effort began to replace an earlier
standard operating procedure (SOP) regarding this issue. The new guideline was based on existing
literature and published practices by others faced with the challenges of encountering acid producing
rock (APR) which can lead to acid rock drainage (ARD). The new document, entitled Guideline
for Acid Producing Rock Investigation, Testing, Monitoring, and Mitigation (TDOT 2007), and
called the “APR Guideline,” was designed to provide consistent guiding principles rather than
strict analytical/procedural protocols, to be applied to TDOT projects for investigation, prevention,
and mitigation of potential ARD. Thus, it considers professional judgment as acceptable input
in decision-making. Notably, it was produced in cooperation with the Tennessee Department of
Environment and Conservation (TDEC).
While the primary focus of the new guideline was ARD prevention, it also included a secondary
focus on ARD treatment not addressed by the original SOP (TDOT 1990).
The first phase, project screening, will be conducted using geographic information system (GIS)-
based data, TDOT personnel professional experience, and other available geological literature and
maps. The goal of this phase is to determine if a project, or a project’s components, is located in
medium- or high-risk APR potential zones. Figure 2 shows the various risk zones as developed by
the APR guideline team. These GIS data are based on a bedrock geology map (1:250,000 scale)
produced by the Tennessee Division of Geology (Hardeman 1966) and were deemed sufficiently
comprehensive for use as a general guide for site geology and potential risk. Project components in
171
Figure 1. Phases of project investigations and Activities (TDOT 2007).
Figure 2. Acid Producing Rock Risk Map for Tennessee (TDOT 2007).
low-risk APR zones could likely be exempted from additional phases such as sampling and testing.
However, all project sites would require an initial site visit and/or knowledge from previous visits
to determine that potential APR materials are not present. While the primary purpose of the site
visit is to verify the accuracy of the GIS mapping data and expected geology of the site, the visit
may be combined with other tasks related to geotechnical data needs.
Projects with components located in medium- or high-risk APR zones are to follow sampling
and testing guidelines during the life of the project and monitoring at the conclusion of the project.
Data generated would be examined using guidance provided in the “Triggers and Thresholds”
sections of the APR Guideline to identify if further sampling or mitigation measures are warranted.
In addition, if potential APR materials are identified at any point during the project, the APR
Guideline provides direction for appropriate APR mitigation design approaches. Mitigation is
divided into two methodologies: prevention and treatment.
172
Figure 3. Relative costs within the realm of APR mitigation strategies.
The realm of prevention and treatment technologies has two logical endpoints as shown graphi-
cally in Figure 3. At one end, an APR situation might be completely mitigated by implementing a
“walk-away” prevention design remedy that is nearly permanent, requiring little or no maintenance
with just cursory post-construction monitoring. The upfront costs of implementing this approach
may be much more than Tennessee taxpayers are willing to spend for a new transportation project.
At the other end, it may not be practical to implement APR prevention measures in which case a
commitment to perpetual treatment of acidic drainage and monitoring will be required in the event
that acidic drainage actually forms. The long-term costs and problems of this approach may be
equally unacceptable. Some projects may have components encompassing both endpoints, and the
vast number of combinations in between. The proportioning of prevention and treatment risk is to
be resolved by the professional judgment of qualified engineers and/or geologists based on project-
and site-specific circumstances.
Guideline-based recommendations may vary within a given project depending on the current
project phase and with changes in geology, site conditions, and disturbance area. Pre-, mid-,
and post-construction activities may require different levels of sampling and testing. Also, due
to the linear nature of highway construction projects, guideline applicability may vary with mile-
post/stationing as a function of the geology combined with the depth of construction and other site
conditions. Lastly, the type of project might influence APR assessment and response procedures.
These include:
– Building a new-alignment road in undisturbed terrain

– Widening or modifying an existing road segment, and
– Implementing ARD mitigation at a previously-constructed project.
The principles and general direction included in the new APR Guideline were derived from
existing literature, previous TDOT professional experience, past practices, and experience reported
by others, such as the US EPA, other states, and the Federal Highway Administration. Germane
TDOT experience was obtained from recent TDOT highway projects involving acid producing rock
material in Blount, Carter, Sevier, and Unicoi counties.
Based on literature searches as well as direct contact with the transportation departments in other
states, it appears that no other state transportation agency has a guideline document for dealing
with APR at this time, though several other states are aware of these issues and are researching
them as well. The US EPA, many state agencies, and mining companies are confronted with APR
situations related to existing and abandoned mines; therefore, it was appropriate to consider some
of this experience in identifying and characterizing APR and in developing mitigation guidelines
for potential APR from TDOT projects.
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While the new APR Guideline attempts to provide up-to-date and state-of–the-art practices for
APR and roadway construction, new tests, standards, or mitigation technologies may be developed
in the future. Factors affecting APR generation include mineralogy, weathering rates, climate,
material size and surface area, mineral occlusion or exposure, exposure of the material to air and
water, hydrologic regime, and material placement method and location (EPA 1994; Nordstrom &
Alpers 1998); these factors and their complex interactions are being continuously studied and
researched in a variety of settings. Therefore, it is anticipated that the new APR Guideline will be
reviewed and updated periodically to account for new developments, including findings developed
in-house by TDOT based on site-specific observations at Tennessee road projects.
Those observations may include the assessments of mitigation strategies that TDOT implemented
at the outset of dealing with APR issues over a decade ago. There is no better gauge of a mitigation
design’s effectiveness than the test of time. The protocols developed in the new APR Guideline
should facilitate this ongoing process into the future.
2 APR RISK MAP GENERATION
The GIS/APR map (GIS dataset) was developed by researching the geology of the State of Tennessee
to identify known geologic units that have the potential to be sources of APR. In addition, the
APR Guideline team also identified geologic units that contain neutralizing materials for APR. As
noted earlier, the GIS/APR Map was based on the Geologic Map of Tennessee (Hardeman 1966).
Geologic units shown on the map legend were researched as well as a general internet search for
APR and pyrite-containing formations in the State. While pyrite is the most common component in
APR, other sulfide-bearing minerals can also be present. In addition, the team researched available
hard-copy publications to complete the effort.
The research identified individual geologic formations and groups of formations that contain
known APR sources, potential APR sources or sources of neutralizing materials. The team defined
seven categories for the GIS/APR map (five with APR potential to varying degrees and two with
APR neutralizing potential) and color coded them as follows:
– Red–individual Formations which are known sources of APR
– Light Red–groups and supergroups that include formations which are known sources of APR
– Orange–formation that may contain potentially APR
– Yellow–formations that are potential sources of APR
– Navy Blue–Fort Payne and Chattanooga Shale (specific, historically problematic, high APR
potential rock formations)
– Green–limestone (material with comparatively high neutralizing ability)
– Light Green–dolomite (material with comparatively lower neutralizing ability).
The details supporting these categorizations would constitute a separate technical paper and are
not discussed here. An example of the individual formation data is provided in Table 1 below which
is an excerpt of the geological data that was inserted in the GIS metadata table (TDOT 2007).
The GIS/APR Map includes a number of layers that contain political or geographical information
for orientation and to make the map more useful. These layers include the following:
– TDOT Regions
– TDOT jurisdictional roads
– County Names, boundaries, and county seats
– Waterways
– 303(d)/305(b) waters impaired by pH and/or metals
– 7.5 Minute (1:24,000 scale) USGS quadrangle map names and boundaries
– State Plane 1983 Coordinate System:
FT Zone 4100 Tennessee with a North American Datum (NAD) 1983 projection
– Latitude and longitude
The GIS/APR Map is intended to be an evolving “living” tool which can be updated and refined
with more detailed information which can be incorporated into the GIS database to supersede the
existing database. Several directions for additional effort or further refinement of the GIS database
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Table 1. Typical geological formation data from the GIS metadata table.
Geo. Formation ID Geological formation(s) APR Category
Pcm Cross Mtn Formation Includes formations that may contain

acid producing rock
Pco Crab Orchard Mountains Group: Includes formations that contain
Contains Whitwell Shale acid producing rock
Pcg Crab Orchard Mountains and Gizzard Includes formations that contain
Groups: Contains Whitwell Shale acid producing rock
p€o Ocoee Supergroup Includes formations that contain
acid producing rock
p€w Walden Creek Group: Includes formations that contain
Contains Sandsuck Formation acid producing rock
p€ss Sandsuck Formation Formation that contains
acid producing rock
p€rb Rich Butt Sandstone
p€g Great Smoky Group Includes formations that contain
acid producing rock
p€s Snowbird Group Includes formations that contain
acid producing rock
p€m Mount Rogers Group
p€r Roan Gniess
were identified during the research that may be of particular value. For example, a significant
amount of published geologic mapping exists that could be evaluated, digitized and incorporated
into the GIS/APR database to provide more detail and precision. Several areas of 303(d)/305(b)
impaired waters are covered by 1:24,000 scale geologic mapping which could provide additional
detail in these critical locations. In addition, site-specific geologic mapping of APR data could be
incorporated into the existing database. Another opportunity for refinement would be to incorporate
the Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) Database developed by the National Resource Conserva-
tion Service (NRCS). This soils mapping is complete and available in digital format for much of
the state. The SURRGO soils mapping provides soil properties based on shallow (60-inch deep)
soils borings and laboratory testing which includes classification testing, basic soils mechanics
properties, erosion characteristics, permeability, and soil pH.
3 PROJECT SCREENING AND SITE ASSESSMENT
The APR Guideline prescribed three preliminary phases to be conducted as a part of a potential
APR evaluation. The first phase is project screening. Project screening should identify whether a
project or project components are located in areas of low-, medium-, or high-risk APR zones. These
zones are based upon the geology of Tennessee and professional knowledge of Tennessee geologic
formations with respect to APR. Tennessee formations have been classified as those with known
potential (high risk zones), likely potential (medium risk zones), or minimal to rare potential (low
risk zones). Locations of these zones are determined using a GIS database, published geological
literature and maps, as well as internal institutional or professional knowledge.
The second phase includes a dedicated site visit and/or assessment of observations noted in
previous site visits, referred to here as a visual and geographic assessment. The purpose of the
visual and geographic assessment is to confirm that site conditions match those predicted by the
database or other existing information, to assist with development of a sampling plan (SP), and to
identify areas or zones that should be targeted for future sampling and testing.
The third phase is the development of a SP. For projects with components containing medium-
or high-risk APR zones, a SP, or multiple SPs if necessary, should be developed. The SP(s) should
be prepared at the conclusion of the project screening and visual and geographic assessment using
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Figure 4. Summary of water, rock, and geophysical sampling programs (TDOT 2007).
project site-specific information and information collected as a part of the screening. The SP, or
SPs, should incorporate recommendations presented in the APR Guideline.
4 SAMPLING AND TESTING
The “Sampling and Testing” section of the TDOT APR Guideline provides details for pre-
construction and construction phase planning and sampling if the project is located in medium- or
high-risk APR zones. Sampling of water and rock is required for those areas of the project that are
located in medium- or high-risk APR zones, or in areas identified by the visual and geographic
assessment. Sampling may vary throughout the project or in different areas, depending on the
project type, phase of the project, and results from earlier phases. Figure 4 provides a summary of
the recommended water, rock, and geophysical sampling programs.
For completeness, theAPR Guidance document provides recommendations for specific sampling
methods and guidance for analytical testing methods. Results from the sampling and testing would
be assessed using the information contained in the triggers and thresholds discussion to determine
if additional actions are required.
5 GUIDELINES FOR MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION AND MITIGATION

THRESHOLDS
The APR Guideline provides direction for examination and use of data collected during the sam-
pling and testing phases of a project, as well as for the initial screening and monitoring phases.
Numerical thresholds are provided for each of the testing methods, or a combination of the test-
ing methods. If these thresholds are exceeded, additional effort, such as sampling or mitigation
designs and appropriate material handling during construction, are therefore “triggered.” How-
ever, these numerical thresholds must be considered with the site-specific conditions and past or
known behavior of the materials. Actual known field behavior of materials may be considered more
reliable than laboratory testing performed in a sterile environment. To facilitate understanding and
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communication regarding this complex issue, the APR Guideline provided figures that summarized
recommendations if thresholds are exceeded during the initial screening as well as flow charts for
decision-making based upon water and rock sampling results.
5.1 Visual and Geographic assessment thresholds

The Visual and Geographic Assessment can provide an excellent indication that potential-APR
(P-APR) or APR materials are present or information about the field behavior of these materials.
Site thresholds include the following that are associated with site geologic conditions:
– Waters of distinctive colors, such as iron/red, yellow, white, or black stained streambeds, or
iron/red staining with large amounts of algae
– Staining of rocks or surface materials, particularly on hillsides, streambeds, road cuts, roadways
or sidewalks, or other surfaces
– Low pH values (<5) or elevated conductivity values [>2,000 microsiemens per centimeter
(µS/cm) depending on background] or
– Kill zones, or areas devoid of vegetation
– Cementation crusts or areas of mineral precipitation from evaporating water
– Geologic formations at the site, as outcrops or on geologic maps—of particular interest are
those known to be rich in sulfides (e.g. pyrite), have a history of APR impacts, or are carbonate
materials (e.g. limestone)
– Proximal P-APR sites, such as coal mines or, road cuts, and
– Proximal road fills and any seeps emanating from the fills.
5.2 Rock thresholds

Laboratory test results drive the following thresholds and categories for rock materials. Based on
initial laboratory acid-base accounting (ABA) testing, including paste pH and pyritic sulfur values,
materials will fall into one of four categories, as listed below.
– APR-Neutralizing Materials
– Non-APR Materials
– Potential APR Materials
– APR Materials
Flow charts for identifying materials falling within these categories were developed and provide
the foundation of the APR thresholds; one two sets of guidelines may be applicable depending on
the TDOT’s experience at a given site or geological situation.
The primary rock characterization guideline is based on existing institutional knowledge. TDOT
has been actively and progressively working with P-APR and APR materials for many years and
their practices to date have not resulted in significant ARD problems. Therefore, a primary set of
guidelines has been provided based on practices to date. These guidelines may be more appropriate
for sites and materials for which TDOT has previous experience where previous material handling
and placement procedures have not resulted in ARD.
A second set of guidelines provides thresholds that represent state-of-the-art practices with
respect to ARD evaluations applicable to the geologic setting of Tennessee but where institutional
knowledge may be lacking. These thresholds are necessarily conservative in order to account for the
wide variety of factors that can influence ARD development. An appropriate future course of action
for TDOT may be to collect and analyze historical and current data on handling and placement of
non-APR, P-APR and APR materials to date in order to formally calibrate the thresholds proposed.
Selection of the particular set of guidelines should be made by a qualified engineer or geologist
based on site-specific and material-specific information based on the previous experience with a
site or material.
5.2.1 APR characterization overview

The characterization of a particular geologic horizon falls with a continuum ranging from APR-
neutralizing materials to APR materials. The behavior of a geologic horizon is dependent on a
number factors, such as its mineralogy, weathering rates, material size and surface area, mineral
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occlusion or exposure, exposure of the material to air and water. Therefore, characterization of a
material relies upon several tests or aspects of the material to classify it as APR-neutralizing, APR,
or somewhere in between. Paste pH, net neutralization potential (NNP) or neutralization potential
ratio (NPR) values, and sulfur values are all considered in the APR Guideline to determine whether
a given material needs to be fully or partially encapsulated or blended. In general, avoidance of
construction in APR horizons should be the preferred action.
5.2.2 Water thresholds

There are several water chemistry indicators for the presence of APR. As described by Skousen et al.
(1987), water affected by APR in the Appalachian region (Alabama, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky,
Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia) generally has pH values
less than 5.0 or a combination of the following:
– total iron greater than 7 mg/L
– total manganese greater than 4.0 mg/L
– other dissolved metals greater than EPA MCLs
– elevated acidity
– elevated conductivity (>2,000 µS/cm, depending on background), and
– elevated sulfate concentrations.
If these conditions are observed, then APR conditions may have developed. It is worth noting that
not all of these water geochemistry indicators may be present to indicate that APR conditions are
developing; professional judgment and understanding of site geology should be used to determine
if all or some of these conditions present indicate the development of ARD. Additional sampling
should be performed in anticipation of development of APR mitigation. If the above thresholds are
observed in surface water or groundwater, this should trigger periodic measurement of flow rates,
which are necessary for design of mitigation systems.
In addition, trends in water chemistry through time are just as important as the stated values
above. Coupled with visual assessment clues (e.g. fresh iron staining), a professionally-judged
increase in metals, sulfate, or acidity concentrations, or a coincidental decrease in alkalinity or pH
values with time may be an indication that ARD is occurring. Increasing sulfate and decreasing
alkalinity of the water, without increasing metals concentrations, may indicate that oxidation of
sulfides and subsequent consumption of neutralizing potential (NP) is occurring. If the NP becomes
fully depleted then ARD conditions may occur. Therefore, if these trends are observed, increased
monitoring should be performed and APR mitigation designed if ARD conditions have occurred.
6 MITIGATION MEASURES
Mitigation techniques are needed for two general situations: excavated material and cut slopes.
Several mitigation techniques, referred to here as best management practices (BMPs) are provided
for both situations. For excavated materials, techniques range from blending to full encapsulation,
with an intermediate of partial encapsulation. The techniques may be viewed as distinct methods
or as a continuum that may be adjusted to fit site specific conditions or materials.
6.1 Mitigation of excavated material

Techniques for the mitigation of APR excavated material have been proposed by the Federal High-
way Authority (Byerly 1990) and TDOT (2005). TDOT has had significant experience with APR
mitigation and has published research on updated mitigation methods (Moore 1992). The current
APR Guideline expands or furthers these publications and experience. Techniques or BMPs of
several phases of road construction are provided below.
6.1.1 Design phase best management practices (BMPs)
If pre-construction sampling and analysis indicates the presence of P-APR/APR, the APR Guideline
indicates that:
– Excavation of P-APR/APR should be avoided where possible and always minimized.
– The expected quantity of P-APR/APR should be estimated from construction drawings.
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Figure 5. Partial encapsulation cross section view (TDOT 2007).
– Sites for disposal of all anticipated P-APR/APR should be identified.

– On-site borrow areas from which adequate quantities of cover material for burial of the APR
should be identified.
– Logistics for hauling P-APR/APR, the lime and limestone, and cover material to the disposal
sites during construction should be developed to eliminate, if possible, temporary storage of the
P-APR/APR.
– Drainage should be diverted away from all excavations and encapsulating embankments if
possible.
– Drainage ditches or other water conveyances along excavated and encapsulated APR should be
lined with geomembrane or other impervious material such as clay.
– Underdrains, pipe culverts, and storm drains in areas of excavated and encapsulated APR should
be constructed of inert plastic.
6.1.2 Blasting BMPs

If blast hole sampling and testing indicate the presence of P-APR/APR, blast designs may be
adjusted to minimize the production of “fine-grained” P-APR/APR. This BMP is implemented
only if it results in blasted fragments that may be safely and cost-effectively loaded into haulage
vehicles or moved into encapsulation zones.
6.1.3 Construction phase BMPs

Three different construction phase BMPs are described in this section, including blending, partial
encapsulation, and full encapsulation. These three methods are appropriate for different thresholds;
however, variations or modifications to or between the methods may be appropriate given site-
specific conditions or site-specific materials. These BMPs should be selected in consultation with
TDEC. Four major BMPs were developed in the APR Guideline:
– Blending of P-APR and APR with APR-neutralizing material [i.e. limestone, calcareous shale,
or rock material with a net neutralizing potential (NNP) value greater than 50 Tons of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) per kiloton (kT) of rock]. Grain sizes and mixing recommendations are
provided.
– Partial Encapsulation (See Figure 5).
– Full Encapsulation (See Figures 6 and 7) which may occur within the roadway or at a dedicated
waste site repository.
The full encapsulation BMP conceptual design includes both clay and geomembrane liners;
Figure 6 shows the geomembrane liner option for a roadway embankment location of the waste
repository.
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Figure 6. Roadway embankment full encapsulation cross section view (TDOT 2007).
Figure 7. Waste-Site repository encapsulation cross section view (TDOT 2007).
6.1.4 Cut slopes–ARD prevention

Cut slope ARD prevention BMPs include designing the slopes to be as steep as possible within
geotechnical stability constraints and public safety. Pre-split blasting to minimize rock face over-
break is a BMP that limits exposure of APR to water and oxidizing conditions. If near-vertical
slopes are not recommended, the slopes would be flattened to allow placement of nonAPR and
plant growth medium. Bactericides, which are considered a temporary BMP, may be used in this
effort to suppress pyrite oxidation as the plant community matures.
Other cut slope BMPs include: attention to bench designs, stabilizing friable rock slope covers,
and rapid revegetation protocols. Post-construction BMPs include the placement of oxic limestone
channels and mixing of limestone into native soils/plant growth medium prior to revegetation.
7 WATER TREATMENT
While the goal of the guideline is to avoid generation of ARD, and if proper planning and mitigation
BMPs have been followed, the likelihood of generating ARD should be minimized. However,
treatment of ARD would be necessary if other implemented prevention measures have not achieved
the level of control required. Water treatment is costly, and in some cases, must be continued in
perpetuity. In addition, this may not have occurred at some older sites that pre-date effective
mitigation methods.
The spectrum of ARD treatment ranges from active to passive and includes a “semi-passive”
category. Active treatment processes typically require mixing and settling tanks, pumps, electricity,
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chemical addition, and some level of filtration in addition to the labor required to operate and
maintain these systems. Active treatment plants also generate sludge which requires disposal on a
regular schedule. Because of these permanent infrastructure requirements, active treatment systems
are deemed inappropriate for TDOT projects.
Passive treatment, on the other hand, consists of oxic limestone channels, free water surface wet-
lands, and bioreactors that treat water without electricity, day-to-day labor, or chemical addition.
Passive treatment systems (PTS) require occasional maintenance and must be refurbished, depend-
ing on the type of system, every 10 to 20 years. The primary limitation of the PTS technology is
that large areas may be required to treat high flow rates and/or high metal concentrations. Some
types of PTS may require National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permits.
Semi-passive treatment is an off-the-shelf technology that uses water-powered chemical feeders
to add reagents either continuously or intermittently to ARD. The reservoirs of chemical reagents
require refilling perhaps on a monthly to bi-monthly schedule, depending on the ARD treatment
situation.
The new APR Guideline was not intended to be a PTS design manual but instead to offer
direction for situations in which PTSs are appropriate. If a site requires water treatment, a qualified
professional engineer should evaluate the site water, and design the appropriate PTS. Public-domain
software, AMD Treat© , is available from the internet to assist the project engineer in sizing and
designing a PTS and/or a semi-passive treatment system in typical situations.
7.1 Water treatment implementation triggers

Water treatment should be initiated based on the following triggers:
– The source of the ARD cannot be eliminated or remediated, or
– Water leaving the site is in violation of TDEC water quality criteria for Fish and Aquatic Life, or
– Water leaving the site has a pH of less than 5 (site dependent).
The decision to treat water at a particular site will be based on a variety of site factors including
background water quality, flow rate, land ownership, historic land use, and future land use. In the
case of background water quality, it is possible for streams to have naturally-occurring pH values
less than 5. In this situation, TDOT and TDEC could waive the water treatment requirement. This
document attempts to provide generalized guidance for initiation of water treatment at potential
ARD sites. The final decision to treat water at any particular site should be made based on the
triggers listed above and TDOT and TDEC recommendations.
7.2 AMD Treat© public domain software

AMD Treat© is a computer application for estimating remediation costs for mine drainage or
generic ARD. Version 4.0 of AMD Treat© can be downloaded from the internet from the Office
of Surface Mining website (http://amd.osmre.gov/amdtreat.asp); the website also offers an on-
line tutorial in learning how to use the software. The software can be used to estimate construction
quantities and costs (capital and operating) for a variety of passive and chemical treatment methods,
including:
– vertical flow ponds – oxic limestone channels

– anoxic limestone drains – caustic soda
– anaerobic wetlands – hydrated lime
– aerobic wetlands – pebble quicklime
– bio reactors – ammonia
– manganese removal beds – oxidation chemicals, and
– limestone beds – soda ash treatment systems.
– settling ponds
The treatment estimating modules in bold above have been identified as preferred treatment
methodologies at TDOT sites. However, these preferences are not necessarily all-inclusive and
other methodologies may be appropriate.
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7.3 Water treatment methods
7.3.1 Short-term semi-passive treatment
If ARD is discovered during construction, immediate capture and semi-passive treatment of the
water should begin to prevent off-site impacts. This short-term treatment method will be employed
until a permanent system is designed and built. Short-term semi-passive treatment measures follow.
– Retention Pond Sizing–The flow rate of the ARD should be measured. If the ARD flow is
the result of precipitation events, a qualified hydrologist/engineer should estimate the 10-yr,
24-hr runoff volume. A geomembrane-lined retention pond with a 24-hr retention time should
be constructed to capture the ARD. See the following modules in AMD Treat© : Ponds, Flow
Calculation Tools, and Acidity Calculator. Periodic sediment and/or sludge removal will be
required for the retention pond. Clean stormwater should be diverted from the retention pond.
– Aquafix™ Treatment–Aquafix™ units are water-wheel powered pebble lime-dosing machines.
Aquafix™ systems require neither electricity nor constant monitoring but function better under
continuous flow conditions. If the ARD flows are intermittent but can be stored and released as
a continuous feed, an Aquafix™ unit may be appropriate. Contact and ordering information for
Aquafix™units can be found at http://www.aquafix.com/. See the following modules in AMD
Treat©: Ponds, Pebble Lime, Flow Calculation Tools, and Acidity Calculator.
– Wheel-treaterTM Treatment–Wheel-treater™ units are water-wheel powered caustic soda
(sodium hydroxide solution)-dosing machines. These units require neither electricity nor
constant monitoring. They function well under both continuous and intermittent flow
conditions. Contact and ordering information for Wheel-treater™ units can be found at
http://www.chemstream.com/. See the following modules in AMD Treat©: Ponds, Caustic Soda
Flow Calculation Tools, and Acidity Calculator.
– Other Semi-Passive Units–Vendors offering semi-passive units that feed limestone or other
acid-neutralizing reagents should be investigated on a case-by-case basis.
– Water Treatment Sampling Program–A water quality sampling program should be initiated
as soon as the retention pond receives water. Pond influent and pond water samples should
be collected and analyzed for the parameters listed on the advance sampling suite. The pond
influent sample should be collected upstream of the pond and the semi-passive unit. The pond
water sample should be collected from the surface of the pond near the pond discharge point.
If the ARD flow is driven by precipitation events, samples should be collected after significant
precipitation events (rainfall > 1 inch in 24 hours). A sampling quality control plan should be
developed in accordance with TDEC regulations to ensure a successful sampling program.
– Semi-Passive Reagent Feed Rate Adjustment–The target pH for pond water should be 8 or less,
depending on the pH of the receiving stream. Increasing the pH to this level should remove a
significant portion of metals. Based on the pH levels measured in the pond water, the lime feed
of the Aquafix™ unit or the caustic soda feed of the Wheel-treater unit should be adjusted to
provide the target pH level.
– Constituents of Concern and Reporting–Sampling results should be reported to TDOT and TDEC
on a quarterly basis and after the completion of construction. Based on the sampling results, a
list of contaminants of concern should be developed upon which to base future sampling efforts.
7.3.2 Long-term passive treatment implementation

After the short-term semi-passive treatment system is in place, the long-term PT implementation
phase begins and consists of the design and construction of a suitable PT system to address mitiga-
tion of ARD at the site. After an appropriate PT system has been constructed and commissioned,
the operation of the semi-passive unit can be suspended. However, retaining the semi-passive unit
on site in standby status is recommended for at least six months. The APR Guideline provides
decision criteria for three different types of PT systems as listed below. Some types of PTS may
require National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permits. Long-term passive
treatment measures addressed in the APR Guideline follow.
– Analyze water quality data from the short-term semi-passive treatment phase.
– If the site water has a pH < 5 or if any metals concentrations exceed the TDEC water quality
criteria, long-term PT will be required. The site conditions and water quality will dictate which
PT system (PTS) is appropriate among the options listed below.
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Figure 8. Decision tree for selection of long term passive treatment system (PTS).
1) PTS I–Settling Pond, Open Limestone Channel (OLC)

2) PTS II–Settling Pond, Surface Flow Wetland (SFW)
3) PTS III–OLC, Setting Pond, two Sulfate-Reducing Bioreactors (SRBRs), and SFW.
Detailed descriptions of these systems, sizing criteria, and installation guidance are provided in
the APR Guidance document. A decision tree diagram for choosing the most appropriate PTS is
shown on Figure 8. Sulfate reducing bioreactors are discussed in more detail in Gusek (2002).
8 POST-CONSTRUCTION MONITORING
If P-APR/APR materials are identified during the course of the project, then the guideline indicates
that post-construction monitoring should be performed for a minimum of two years following
construction to ensure that mitigation and design measures are working effectively. If a PT system
is constructed, monitoring should be performed as long as the system is in operation. If adverse
impacts from APR disturbance/exposure develop, they would most likely be detected in surface
water, runoff, or groundwater associated with the project. Sampling of rock in the post-construction
phase is impractical relative to water sampling.
8.1 Monitoring locations

The guideline recommends that any area of construction that contains P-APR/APR materials should
be monitored. Monitored areas include, but are not limited to:
– road cuts fill zones, constructed or exposed embankments, and blended fill areas associated
with APR
– structures designed for encapsulation, mitigation, or remediation of P-APR/APR
– and PT systems.
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In order to monitor these areas, designated sampling points should be established to capture
groundwater, seepage, and runoff from these areas. Surface water sampling points should include
provisions for flow rate measurement, if this data requirement is triggered. Monitoring locations
should be established in a site-specific monitoring plan to monitor areas associated with APR
materials.
The sample locations should be accounted for during the pre-construction design phase to ensure
that the sampling sites will provide representative samples of water leaving the site. If impacts are
noted down-gradient, appropriate up-gradient samples should be collected.
8.2 Monitoring period

The monitoring period should be established in a site-specific monitoring plan that accounts for
the specifics of each project. It is recommended that water sampling should be performed on a
quarterly basis for the first year following construction, or in accordance with permitting, and
semi-annually until one year after vegetation is established on cut faces, graded areas, slopes, and
embankments; however, this frequency may be varied based on site conditions and professional
judgment. If no indication of ARD generation is shown in this time, sampling may be discontinued.
Background groundwater should be sampled on the same frequency as down-gradient waters.
If no indication of ARD generation is observed during these monitoring periods, sampling may
be discontinued. If indications of ARD are observed, sampling should be increased to bi-monthly in
order to evaluate the ARD generation. PT systems should be monitored on a quarterly basis for the
first year following construction and on a semiannual basis thereafter. Treatment systems should
be monitored as long as they are in operation. If a PT system is regulated by a NPDES permit, the
permit will specify the monitoring frequency.
8.3 Monitoring suite

The analysis suites for post-construction monitoring are the same as those presented in the “Water
Testing Methods” section of the APR Guideline. Two sampling suites are specified there: 1) if ARD
is not present, the analysis suite should include an “abbreviated” set of parameters; 2) if ARD is
known to exist or if a PT system is in operation, an extended sampling suite is recommended. The
sampling suites can be modified based on site conditions and professional judgment.
9 CLOSING REMARKS
Roads are relatively narrow, linear design features when compared to typical mining disturbances
that may or may not expose APR. As such, it is not appropriate to apply the TDOT APR Guideline
to mining situations. There are many handbooks and guidelines available for mitigating acidic
and neutral/alkaline mining influenced water (MIW), including the free, on-line GARD Guide
(www.gardguide.com) compiled by a mining industry consortium, the International Network for
Acid Prevention [INAP], and recent publications developed by the Acid Drainage Technology
Initiative’s (ADTI’s) metal mining and coal mining sectors. See Gusek and Figueroa (2009) for an
example of one of six ADTI Metal Mining Sector guide books available. Collectively, these are
generic guideline publications whose recommendations can be embraced just about anywhere on
the planet.
In contrast, TDOT’sAPR Guideline is a site-specific guideline, applicable toTennessee’s geologic
conditions, that builds on the general knowledge related to MIW that has been compiled by the
INAP and ADTI practitioners. As such, it has prescriptive controls and triggers incorporated into
it that are intended to provide consistent APR management decisions which are jointly accepted by
road designers and the state environmental agency that approves those designs. One of its better
features is planned flexibility: it is considered a living document (particularly the GIS dataset) that
should improve over time provided that the findings of others can also be incorporated to update it
when needed. It also allows professional judgment to override prescriptive controls. Some of those
controls, or BMPs, might find reverse application in certain mining situations if properly tailored
to the individual mining site.
184
REFERENCES
Byerly, D.W. 1990. Guidelines for Handling Excavated Acid-Producing Materials. (FHWA-FL-90-007).
[Washington, DC]: US Federal Highway Administration. 81 p.
EPA. 1994. Acid Mine Drainage Prediction; Technical Document. (EPA-530-R-94-036; available NTIS PB94-
201829). Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste.
Gusek, J. J. 2002. Sulfate-Reducing Bioreactor Design and Operating Issues: Is This the Passive Treatment
Technology for Your Mine Drainage?, presented at the National Association of Abandoned Mine Land
Programs, Park City, Utah, September 15–18, 2002.
Gusek, J. and L. Figueroa (eds.) 2009. Mitigation of Metal Mining Influenced Water. Littleton, CO. Society for
Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. for ADTI Metal Mining Sector.
Hardeman, W. D., 1966. State [Tennessee] Geologic Map, scale 1:250,000 (1 inch = 4 miles), in 4 sheets.
Nashville, TN: Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation
Moore, H. 1992. The Use of Geomembranes for Mitigation of Pyritic Rock. In 43rd Annual Highway Geology
Symposium, Fayetteville, AK, August 1992. Asheville, NC: The Symposium.
Nordstrom D.K & Alpers, C.N. 1998. Geochemistry of Acid Mine Waters. In G.S. Plumlee & M.J. Logsdon,
(eds.) The Environmental Geochemistry of Mineral Deposits, Part A: Processes, Techniques, and Health
Issues. (Reviews in Economic Geology Volume 6A). Littleton, CO: Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
Skousen J.G., Sencindiver, J.C., & Smith, R.M. 1987. A Review of Procedures for Surface Mining and Reclama-
tion in Areas with Acid-Producing Materials, in cooperation with the West Virginia Surface Mine Drainage
Task Force, the West Virginia University Energy and Water Research Center, and the West Virginia Mining
and Reclamation Association. Morgantown, WV: The Center.
TDOT. 1990. State of Tennessee Special Provision Regarding Acid Producing Materials, revised May 30, 2003.
Nashville, TN: Tennessee Department of Transportation.
TDOT. 2005. Standard Operating Procedure for Acid Producing Rock; Investigation, Testing, Monitoring,
and Mitigation, revised July 2005. Nashville, TN: Tennessee Department of Transportation, Geotechnical
Engineering Section.
TDOT. 2007. Guideline for Acid Producing Rock Investigation, Testing, Monitoring and Mitigation, prepared
by Golder Associates, Inc., Lakewood, CO. October, 2007.
185
20-day design build to save $50 million worth of equipment
S.J. Tamburini
Tetra Tech Inc., Denver, CO, USA
S.J. Billin
Tetra Tech Inc., Elko, NV, USA
ABSTRACT: To prevent the flooding and loss of $50 million worth of equipment in an under-
ground nickel mine, a new Effluent Water Treatment Plant (EWTP) was design, procured, built, and
commissioned in 20-days. The mine’s interim tailings storage facility which was storing the dewa-
tering water was full, and the mine was unable to meet its discharge permit without the construction
of the EWTP. The EWTP targeted the removal of total suspended solids, radium, ammonia, and total
dissolved solids from the water stored in the interim tailings storage facility. It was designed as an
integrated membrane filtration plant with microfiltration and reverse osmosis membrane systems.
Through great team work from the mine staff, the design engineer, contractors, and equipment
suppliers, the EWTP was completed and met permit limits within the extremely tight timeline.
1 BACKGROUND
Crowflight Minerals Incorporated owns and operates the Bucko Lake Mine (Mine) near Wabowden,
Manitoba. The Mine is underground with onsite milling facilities for nickel production. The Mine’s
dewatering pumps keep the mine shaft dry by pumping at a rate between 300 to 400 gpm. When the
mine failed to meet its discharge permit regarding total suspended solids (TSS) and trout toxicity,
they diverted the dewatering flow to their interim tailings storage facility (ITSF) until a solution
could be found, and the discharge could meet permit limits. The mine hired Tetra Tech Inc. to help
them develop and implement a strategy to bring the mine into compliance with their discharge
permit. When Tetra Tech was hired, there was 20-days of storage in the ITSF before it exceeded
its design capacity. If the ITSF reached its capacity the mine would be faced with the difficult
discussion to either discharge water that knowingly violated their permit (which was illegal), or
turn off the dewatering pumps which would cause the mine shaft to flood, destroying $50 million
worth of equipment.
The first step to solve the problem was to develop a treatment strategy that could reliably meet
all permit requirements. Once the conceptual treatment scheme was developed, the EWTP needed
to be designed in such a way that the contractors could begin construction without waiting for
the design to be completely finished. One of the biggest challenges was to procure the necessary
equipment that closely met the design requirements which could be delivered to the site within the
required timeline. Once construction was complete, the EWTP needed to be commissioned, and
effluent quality needed to meet the discharge requirements in order resume discharging.
2 WATER QUALITY
To develop a treatment strategy, the contaminants of concern were first identified. The Mine collects
effluent water samples on a regular basis which are analyzed for total metals, dissolved metals,
inorganic compounds, specific organic compounds, and other important water quality parameters.
By comparing the water quality data to the discharge permit parameters, the contaminants of
concern were identified. Table 1 summarizes the Mine’s permit parameters and Table 2 summarizes
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Table 1. Discharge permit limits.
Parameter Units Grab Sample Maximum 30-day Maximum Average
pH S.U. 6.0–9.5 6.0–9.5

Arsenic mg/L 1 0.5
Copper mg/L 0.6 0.3
Lead mg/L 0.4 0.2
Nickel mg/L 1 0.5
Zinc mg/L 1 0.5
TSS mg/L 30 15
Radium 226 Bq/L 1.11 0.37
Toxicity Trout LCD50 NA >100%
Toxicity Daphnia LCD50 Report Report
Table 2. Untreated discharge water quality summary.
Parameter Units Average Value Maximum Value Number of Exceedances*
pH S.U. 7.8 7.9 0

Arsenic mg/L 0.0006 0.0008 0
Copper mg/L 0.003 0.006 0
Lead mg/L 0.0004 0.0007 0
Nickel mg/L 0.38 0.49 0
Zinc mg/L 0.017 0.040 0
TSS mg/L 30.7 72.0 3
Radium 226 Bq/L 0.20 0.50 1
Toxicity Trout LCD50 35% 60% 2
Toxicity Daphnia LCD50 NA NA NA
* Number of exceedances is the number of individual samples that exceeded the 30-day maximum average
value and does not necessarily indicate a permit violation.
the average and maximum discharge values along with the number of samples greater than the
30-day maximum average.
Of the permitted water quality parameters, the main contaminants of concern include TSS,
radium 226, and trout toxicity. The water quality data presented shows that all three of these
parameters exceeded their allowed discharge value at least once. Each of these parameters was
viewed individually in order to determine a reliable overall treatment approach. It is difficult to
pin point a treatment process for trout toxicity that will be “guaranteed” to work because the exact
parameter responsible for killing the fish in the toxicity test cannot be determined. To determine
an appropriate treatment technology to limit toxicity, the water quality as a whole was evaluated.
3 ENGINEERING
To develop the complete treatment process, each of the three parameters of main concern (TSS,
radium 226, and trout toxicity) were evaluated separately to determine the recommended individual
process for that parameter. Each one of these parameters can be treated using various treatment
systems; however, to create an overall efficient treatment scheme, processes that can remove
multiple contaminants were identified and were given preference over processes that target single
contaminants.
3.1 TSS
Two main options that could be implemented within the given timeline capable of removing the TSS
from the effluent water were identified. These options were chemical addition with sedimentation,
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and microfiltration (MF). Chemical addition followed by sedimentation would include the addition
of a metal salt (such as alum or ferric chloride) and/or addition of a polymer to improve settleability
of the solids suspended in solution. The chemicals would be added to the process water in the mill
before it is sent to the existing settling ponds where the solids would be allowed to settle out of
solution. The main advantage of this process was that it did not require much additional equipment,
and it was easy to mobilize to the site. The main disadvantage of this process was that it is difficult
to control or ensure the facility will meet the discharge limit. This treatment method also adds to
the total dissolved solids which could become a future permit issue.
The MF option consisted of leasing or purchasing a used membrane microfiltration system that
could be used to physically separate the solids from the water. Prior to visiting the site, the engineer
called manufacturers check the availability of already manufactured microfiltration systems that
were available. It was found that a model AP-6 manufactured by Pall Corporation was currently
available. This system consists of a skid mounted module with racks of membranes, a control skid,
a feed tank, and a clean-inplace (CIP) solution tank. An AP-6 is rated for a flow rate of 750 gpm and
is approximately 98% efficient (meaning that 2% of the water processed through the membrane
is used for cleaning sediment off the membranes). The main benefit of the MF system was that it
gives the Mine a positive barrier which can be controlled to deal with TSS removal. MF is ideal for
removal of suspended solids, and the process should remove TSS to approximately 1.0 mg/L which
is significantly lower than the permitted value of 15 mg/L. Chemical addition and sedimentation
cannot achieve TSS values in this range and it is significantly less reliable. Using the MF system, it
would take multiple catastrophic events before the TSS would be violated. The main disadvantage
of this process was that it requires construction of an EWTP and a structure to house the equipment.
3.2 Trout toxicity

For trout toxicity, it is difficult to determine what treatment techniques need to be applied because
this parameter does not target a specific contaminant. To assure compliance with this parameter the
water quality was viewed as a whole. The main parameters of concern for toxicity are ammonia,
nitrite, strontium, and possibly total dissolved solids (TDS). The average ammonia concentration
in the water of 23 mg/L can be toxic to fish and required removal. While the nitrite concentration is
rather low with an average concentration of 0.97 mg/L, the nitrate concentration is relatively high
with an average concentration of 20 mg/L. Nitrite is extremely toxic to fish while nitrate is not;
however, a high nitrate concentration is still concerning, because, under certain conditions nitrate
could be reduced to nitrite. The average strontium concentration of 19 mg/L is also higher than the
secondary acute value which could have negative impacts to fish.
3.2.1 Ammonia
The main contaminant of concern with regard to trout toxicity is ammonia. There are several
treatment techniques that remove ammonia that could be implemented within the timeframe. These
alternatives include reverse osmosis membranes, break point chlorination, and ammonia stripping.
Reverse osmosis (RO) uses a membrane with very small pore sizes that allows water to pass
through based on osmotic pressure. RO will also remove other metals and contaminants, such
as nitrate and strontium, at the same time. The main disadvantage of RO is that it requires very
high operating pressure (approximately 300 psi) which results in high energy consumption. This is
normally a serious concern for RO systems but less of a concern in Manitoba where energy costs
are significantly lower than average. This process would also require additional equipment leases
or purchases thus increasing the cost of treatment system.
Break point chlorination consists of adding a source of chlorine (usually sodium hypochlorite)
to oxidize the ammonia to nitrate. Ammonia stripping requires the pH to be raised to approximately
11.5 which will convert all ammonia to a gaseous form which can then be stripped from solution.
Ammonia stripping was not considered further, because it requires chemical addition for raising
and then lowering the pH, plus it requires stripping towers that have a high capital cost. Long-term
use of treatment options that rely on significant chemical addition for pH adjustment or oxidation
are not unfavored as they will gradually raise the TDS in the ITSF reclaim as the waste streams are
recycled back to the tailings circuit.
Break point chlorination is an effective way to remove ammonia to reduce the toxicity of the
effluent. This process includes adding sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) at an approximate dose of
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10 mg NaOCl per mg ammonia removed. The hypochlorite will oxidize the toxic ammonia to
nitrate which is less toxic. Excess hypochlorite is also toxic thus requiring the installation of
dechlorination prior to discharge to the environment. Dechlorination can be accomplished through
the addition of sodium thiosulfate or other dechlorination chemicals. The main advantage of this
process is that it does not require much equipment, and it can be implemented very quickly. The
main disadvantage of this process is that it requires close operational control to assure enough
chlorination is provided and enough dechlorination is provided.
Special considerations were considered to readily remove ammonia using RO membranes. Both
molecule size and molecular ionic strength contribute to the removal of contaminants using RO
membranes. The pore size of the RO membranes is designed to allow molecules the size of water to
pass through while larger molecules cannot. The size of an ammonia molecule is similar to water,
and ionic strength of ammonia is similar to water, indicating that ammonia cannot be removed by
RO membranes. While this is true, the acid and base chemistry of ammonia indicates that the pH
conditions of the water at the Mine convert nearly all of the ammonia (NH3 ) to the ammonium ion
(NH+ 4 ) form. The ionic strength of ammonium is greater than that of water; therefore, ammonium
is removed by the RO membrane. If the pH of the mine water increased, ammonium would be
converted to ammonia and the removal efficiency would decrease. It is important to maintain a pH
less than 8.2 to remove ammonium.
3.3 Radium
For radium treatment, the Mine was historically adding barium chloride (BaCl2 ) to the dewatering
water before the final settling pond as well as in the underground shaft. The BaCl2 reacts with
sulfate in the water to form a barium sulfate precipitate which settles out of the water. While the
barium sulfate settles, the flocs attract and entrap the radium in the water, thus also removing it
from solution. This treatment technique was usually successful yet occasionally unreliable.
There are several other ways to remove radium from solution. These methods include ion
exchange, adsorption, and hydroxyl manganese oxide (HMO). These three treatment alternatives
all operate on the same premise; they use electrostatic attraction to pull the radium from the water
onto the surface of a media. For ion exchange and HMO, the main disadvantage is that once the
media is saturated with radium and other like cations, the media needs to be regenerated. The waste
from the regeneration process would require disposal in some manner. In this case the waste from
the regeneration process would have to be either recycled to the tailings pond or treated further to
produce a solid. Both of these disposal options have significant negative ramifications. Recycling
the waste to the tailings pond would cause a buildup of cations in the system creating a cycle of
more frequent regeneration cycles. In the long term this operation would not be feasible; how-
ever, as an interim treatment, further study would be needed to determine whether the buildup of
cations would cause the process to fail within the interim treatment timeframe. Adsorption has a
similar negative impact. When the adsorption media is saturated, it requires removal and disposal.
Considering radium is a radionuclide, disposal of the media may be a permitting issue.
Another treatment option for radium removal is RO membranes. The radium particles are too
large to pass through the RO membranes and the radium remains in the RO reject. Considering the
recommendation to deal with trout toxicity includes installation of these membranes, the radium
removed by the RO membranes was accounted for. Without installation of a larger RO system
the influent radium concentration is high enough to require a higher blend of RO treated water to
meet the discharge limit. Based on the treatment alternatives available, it was recommend the Mine
continue to use BaCl2 addition and sedimentation.
3.4 Design criteria

The recommended treatment strategy included installation of MF followed by RO. The MF system
will remove TSS and will provide adequate pretreatment for the RO membranes. RO will remove
almost all contaminants in the water including ammonium, nitrite, nitrate, strontium, and all other
metals in the water. The RO system was installed after the MF system so that the TSS does not clog
the small pore spaces of the RO membranes. The RO system was designed so that only a portion
of the water from the MF would be sent to the RO system to limit the size of the RO treatment
190
system. The portion of the water that is only treated by the MF system will be blended with the RO
permeate so that the blended water meets discharge limits and complies with toxicity tests.
The EWTP needed to be designed to treat the maximum dewatering flow rate of 400 gpm. When
the dewatering pumps can keep up using a lower flow rate, the Mine wanted the ability to reduce the
volume in the ITSF by treating the water. The design RO to MF blend was 60% meaning that 60%
of the water treated by the MF was also treated by the RO system. The MF system acquired had
excess capacity and could treat 750 gpm however, while only 400 gpm flow rate was required. The
RO system had a input capacity of 230 gpm with a 75% recovery or a permeate flow of 175 gpm.
The wastewater from the EWTP was sent back to the ITSF.
4 PROCUREMENT
Procurement and delivery of the major pieces of equipment was the most difficult part of the project
and required the most timing coordination. When determining the possible treatment alternatives for
the project, the engineer contacted Pall Corporation to see if they had any pilot scale treatment skids
available for immediate delivery to the mine. Pall happened to have one 750 gpm treatment skid in
southern California ready for shipment back to Pall’s factory for refurbishing. The mine signed a
temporary lease and the MF skid was shipped directly to the mine site. Considering the equipment
was being shipped internationally, the equipment had to clear customs at the US and Canada border.
To assure the equipment cleared customs without being delayed, the Mine hired a shipping broker.
RO membrane manufacturers also needed to be contacted to determine if they had any systems
available for immediate delivery. While there were several pilot units identified, none of them
could be shipped within the timeline; however a newly manufactured RO system was available
from Applied Membranes. The fastest this RO skid could be delivered to the site was three days
before the dewatering pumps would have to be shutoff. This meant all equipment and piping had
to be installed and ready for operation when the RO skid arrived, so it could be connected, wired
and started by the deadline. This equipment was manufactured in California, and it also required
the help of a shipping broker to minimize possible delays.
Booster and transfer pumps that met the design criteria were also required. Local suppliers out
of Winnipeg were contacted to determine what pumps were in stock that could be shipped in time
that could also meet the flow and head conditions required. While the EWTP was designed to
have a standby redundant pump, the suppliers only had one pump in stock. The Mine purchased
the stocked pump and ordered a second pump for installation at a later date. The combination of
Canadian and American equipment created another problem. The Mine’s mill and the Canadian
pumps used a 600V power supply while the American equipment used 480V motors. In order to
transform the 600V power supply available to the 480V required by the MF and RO systems a
transformer was needed. A used transformer was acquired; although when it arrived onsite, it was
not functional and needed to be repaired.
The Mine is remotely located; therefore, there are not construction supply companies readily
available. To ensure the Mine can continue operation and not experience significant down time due
to equipment or mechanical failures, the Mine maintains an onsite warehouse. In the warehouse,
pipe, pipe fittings, concrete, power cable, control panels, motor starters, etc are stored; therefore,
construction did not rely on shipment of construction materials. Once the design phase of the
project was nearly complete the, Mine had to make one order for additional materials that were not
stored in the warehouse.
5 DESIGN BUILD AND COMMISSIONING
5.1 Design-build
The construction of the EWTP began immediately after the conceptual design was complete. To
complete the project in the timeframe allowed, it required good teamwork between the engineer,
contractors, mine staff, and equipment manufacturers. Typically the progression of a design project
does not follow exactly the sequence of construction; however, in order to complete the project
within the timeline, the design process was modified so that the engineer’s design was one step
191
Table 3. Treated discharge water quality summary.
Parameter Units Average Value Maximum Value
pH S.U. 8.0 8.1

Arsenic mg/L 0.0004 0.0004
Copper mg/L 0.0005 0.0008
Lead mg/L 0.00007 0.0002
Nickel mg/L 0.12 0.14
Zinc mg/L 0.006 0.011
TSS mg/L 4.3 9.0
Radium 226 Bq/L 0.07 0.12
Ammonia mg/L 6.7 8.1
Toxicity Trout LCD50 0% 0%
ahead of the contractor. For example, the first step in the construction of the EWTP was to install
the concrete slab. The engineer needed to figure out the size of the pad and the approximate weight
which it needed to support before the complete equipment layout was complete. The progression of
the design portion of the project was driven by what the next task was in the construction sequence.
While the contractors were waiting for the design of the next construction item at the EWTP, they
had to construct the piping within the Mill to transport the tailings water to the EWTP and transport
wastewater from the EWTP back to the tailings pond. This process required input from the engineers
and mine staff to determine how to incorporate the EWTP without affecting the milling process.
Several problems arose during the construction. First, when the 600V to 480V transformer arrived
onsite, it was not operational and some of the internal wiring had to be replaced. This delayed the
startup of equipment and minimized the amount of time for troubleshooting and commissioning.
Another problem encountered during construction was the air compressor for the MF system was
not functional. The MF equipment was scheduled to be refurbished at the factory before being sent
to the next project, so the MF manufacturer had to refurbish the equipment onsite. In order to get
the equipment running as soon as possible, a temporary compressed air line was installed from the
mill compressed air system to the MF unit. This effort was led by the MF system manufacturer
and the Mine staff, demonstrating the importance of having a good relationship with all parties
involved in the project.
5.2 Commissioning
Due to finalizing electrical power issues, the equipment could not be started until there was less than
2 days before the dewatering pumps had to be turned off. The majority of problems that occurred
during the commissioning required electrical troubleshooting to make sure the power and control
wiring were correctly installed at the control panels. By the end of the first day of commissioning,
the MF system was operable; however the RO system would only run for a few minutes before it
would shutdown due to low pressure alarms. To correct this problem some last minute changes were
required. The controls between the RO booster pumps which were fed by the MF system required
significant changes to the timing which could have jeopardized the commissioning. To change this
control loop so that the EWTP could be operated in a manual mode, a small tank was installed. The
MF system effluent filled the tank which was connected to the suction of the RO booster pumps.
This last minute change in the design allowed the EWTP to be started in manual operation.
The effluent quality of the treatment system met the discharge limits and the design criteria imme-
diately upon manual startup. The effluent flow rate was set at 400 gpm to offset the dewatering flow
rate. Sixty percent of the water was treated by MF and RO which was blended with the remainder of
the water that was only treated by the MF system. Once the Mine began to discharge, they collected
four consecutive days of water samples. The water quality results of the treated water are shown in
Table 3. Once the results of the effluent samples were received and it was noted that the effluent
quality was not close to a violation for any parameter, the percent RO/MF split was decreased from
60% to 50% to increase the overall throughput of the EWTP. After this operational change, the
effluent water quality concentrations increased slightly; however, they were below the permit limits.
192
After the plant was operational in manual mode, the EWTP was automated in the following days
to minimize the required operations time. After automation was complete, the Mine’s existing mill
operations staff was able to incorporate the operations of the EWTP into their normal operations.
Considering the MF system was oversized and the Mine wanted to quickly decrease the water level
in the ITSF, they leased a second RO system to increase the through put of the plant.
6 FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS
The project was constructed in the summer months which allowed the EWTP to be constructed and
operated without an enclosure. After the EWTP was operational, the Mine ordered a pre-engineered
structure to house the treatment plant to prevent freezing during the winter months.
Due to the tight timeline of the project, disposal of the RO reject was not considered. The RO
reject was recycled back to the ITSF where it was mixed with rest of the tailings water and is
eventually retreated at the EWTP. This continuous cycle causes a buildup of TDS in the tailings
pond, and over time, it would affect the overall treatment and milling process. An increase in TDS
in the tailings water will also lead to decreased performance of the RO membranes resulting in
a lower permeate flow rate. If the TDS increase goes unchecked, the permeate flow rate could
decrease to the point where the Mine could not get the right blend of RO treated water and a permit
violation could result.
To prevent the buildup of TDS in the system, a RO reject handling system must be designed. RO
reject treatment system alternatives include passive evaporation, mechanically enhanced evapora-
tion, crystallization, or deep well injection. Manitoba receives more rain than there is evaporation;
therefore passive evaporation is not an option. The remaining possible options for the RO reject
disposal have high capital and operations costs associated with them and therefore require careful
consideration.
7 RESULTS
In 20 days, the mine staff, contractors, and engineering team was able to design, procure, deliver,
build, and commission a MF and RO treatment system. Developing a treatment strategy involved
identifying contaminants of concern, then evaluating what treatment options could be implemented
given the timeline available. By maintaining good relationships with manufacturers and working
as a team, the equipment was procured and delivered. The design approach was modified so that
the design was one step ahead of the construction sequence. The EWTP was able to meet discharge
limits as soon as all equipment was functional. By allowing the mine to resume discharging, the
mine was able to save over $50 million worth of underground mining equipment. In addition to
saving equipment, the treatment plant allowed the mill to resume the production of nickel. In the
future the Mine plans to install calcite filters to restabilize the RO permeate so that the water can
be used for potable use. The mine currently hauls all potable water for the site by truck at the cost
of $14,000 per month.
193
The simultaneous removal of arsenic and manganese at a gold

mine in Nevada
H.C. Liang, S.J. Billin & J.R. Tamburini

Tetra Tech, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: Arsenic, which occurs naturally in many parts of the earth, is commonly released
into the environment from mining activities. Not only is arsenic acutely toxic towards human health
at higher levels, low level chronic exposure and ingestion of arsenic is also a major human health
concern and can lead to various diseases, including diabetes and cancer. The latest research also
shows that arsenic can act as a potent endocrine disrupter and adversely impact hormone functions
in humans. The paper highlights a case study at a gold mine in Nevada where water with arsenic
levels up to 4 mg/L were treated down to below 50 µg/L, and manganese levels were treated down to
below 100 µg/L, using existing infrastructure at a water treatment plant by changing the treatment
process configurations. Both bench scale testing results and full-scale water treatment plant data
and analyses are presented, and the rationale for the refinement and changes to the arsenic removal
treatment processes are discussed. Studies of the water chemistry and the adjustments of both the
treatment chemicals used and the treatment procedures, such as the chemical addition points, are
also presented, and the challenges for the simultaneous removal of manganese and arsenic as well
as the relevant water chemistry behind the treatment processes are also discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Arsenic and metals removal are commonly required for mining-impacted waters due to the propen-
sity of mining activities to mobilize these contaminants (Liang & Thomson, 2009; Liang &
Thomson, 2008). Arsenic toxicology, both as an acute and chronic toxicant, is well-known (Hall,
2002; Gebel, 2000). Arsenic can cause death when ingested at higher levels, while long-term con-
sumption of lower levels of arsenic can lead to a host of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and
blackfoot disease (CDC, 2000). Many arsenic removal technologies that have been deemed Best
Available Technologies (BAT) by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), such as
activated alumina adsorption, anion exchange, greensand filtration, coagulation/filtration, lime
softening, or reverse osmosis (RO) are commonly used for arsenic removal (EPA 2001). Although
manganese is considerably less toxic than arsenic (Howe et al., 2004), its removal from mine waters
prior to discharge is also important due to the potential adverse effects of manganese on humans
and aquatic life (Howe et al., 2004). The case study and research described in this paper focus on
the use of oxidation, ferric-based coagulation, clarification, and pH adjustment to achieve effective
arsenic and manganese removal at a mine water treatment plant (WTP). Because of the very different
water chemistry parameters that are required for removing arsenic using ferric-based coagulation
(vide infra) compared to the parameters required for manganese precipitation and removal (vide
infra) and the inherent challenges in removing both contaminants in the same treatment process
(Chang et al., 2006), the successful implementation of the water treatment process required careful
modifications in chemical addition and doses at the existing WTP at the mine site in northern
Nevada.
2 BACKGROUND
In December of 2008, the authors were contacted by representatives at a gold mine in northern
Nevada. The WTP at the mine site had been treating the combined dewatering flows from two nearby
195
Figure 1. Original treatment process and flow diagram.
mines to remove high influent arsenic levels (up to 4 mg/L) and manganese for discharge, with
their NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System) permits stipulating that the arsenic
levels need to be below 50 µg/L and that the manganese need to be below 100 µg/L. At that time,
however, their treated water consistently contained arsenic and manganese concentrations higher
than 700 µg/L and 200 µg/L, respectively, and the treated water could not be discharged and had
to be diverted to a tailings pond. Analyses of the existing WTP and the original treatment process
showed that waters from two mines were pumped into a thickener feedbox, where the oxidant
potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ) and the coagulant ferric sulfate (Fe2 (SO4 )3 ) were added to the
influent waters, which then flowed to a solids thickener for solids removal and then to a reaction
tank followed by two parallel settling ponds for polishing before the treated water effluent was
discharged to an infiltration basin (Figure 1).
In November of 2008, when effluent manganese concentrations started consistently exceeding
the discharge limit of 100 µg/L, the WTP staff ceased adding KMnO4 to the treatment process
to decrease the overall manganese input into the treatment system. Thereafter, the treated water
arsenic levels started to climb dramatically, sometimes up to greater than 700 µg/L. The WTP staff
responded to the high treated water arsenic levels by increasing the dosage of ferric sulfate, which
not only did not lower the arsenic levels but instead exacerbated the manganese problems in the
treated water, leading to treated water arsenic and manganese concentrations higher than 700 µg/L
and 200 µg/L, respectively.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Initial Data and Analyses. Although no arsenic speciation data were available when the authors
were first called to resolve the operational issues at the mine WTP in northern Nevada, it was clear
from analyzing the data that most of the influent arsenic was in the form of reduced arsenic(III).
Voluminous data and research exist which show that ferric coagulation is ineffective for removing
arsenic(III), and that arsenic(III) would need to be oxidized first to arsenic(V) prior to coagulation
for effective removal (Hering et al., 1997). The vast contrast in removal efficiencies between
arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) by ferric coagulation can be attributed primarily to the differences
in the overall charges between As3+ vs. As5+ compounds over the pH ranges of water that are
commonly encountered at WTPs. For example, from examining the Pourbaix Diagram (Pourbaix,
1966) of arsenic in water (Figure 2), it can be seen that while arsenic(III) exists as the uncharged
H3AsO3 arsenous acid over a wide pH range, arsenic(V) exists primarily as the oxyanions H2AsO− 4
and HAsO2− 4 .
One of the consequences for the difference in overall charge between arsenic(III) and arsenic(V)
compounds in water is that ferric hydroxide floc formed from the addition of a ferric coagulant
would more effectively adsorb and remove arsenic(V) due to the higher attraction between the
negatively charged arsenic(V) species and the positively charged ferric floc, especially at lower pH
levels (Figure 3). As seen from Figure 3, at lower pH, the average formula (not a discrete molec-
ular formula) for ferric hydroxide changes from the neutral-charged “Fe(OH)3 ” to the positively
charged “Fe(OH)+ 2 ,” which would more effectively adsorb negatively-charged arsenic(V) species
due to stronger coulombic attractions. Because of the ineffective removal of arsenic(III) by ferric
196
Figure 2. Pourbaix Diagram of arsenic in water.
Figure 3. Distribution diagram for ferric floc speciation vs. pH (Adapted from Chwirka et al., 2004).
coagulation, cessation of potassium permanganate addition at the WTP led to skyrocketing effluent
arsenic levels.
When the WTP staff attempted to mitigate the resulting high arsenic effluent levels by increasing
ferric sulfate dosage, the effluent manganese levels increased. This can be explained by examining
the speciation chemistry of manganese in water and from analyzing the effects of ferric coagulation
on the pH. The hydrolysis of the ferric ions in water results in an increase in hydronium (H3 O+ )
ion concentrations in water and decreases the pH of the solution (Equation 1):
197
Figure 4. Pourbaix Diagram of manganese in water.
Consequently, as the ferric sulfate dosage was increased at the WTP, the pH was decreased
further. As can be seen from the Pourbaix Diagram of manganese (Figure 4), manganese becomes
more soluble at lower pH levels as the reduction of oxidized, insoluble manganese oxide species
to the soluble Mn2+ species becomes more facile while the desired reverse reaction of manganese
oxidation and precipitation becomes more thermodynamically unfavorable. Because of this, as the
pH became further depressed from higher ferric sulfate dosages at the WTP, the effluent manganese
levels climbed even higher, both due to ineffective precipitation of dissolved manganese as well as
the re-dissolution of precipitated manganese oxides in the settling ponds.
Process Improvements. After analyzing the data, it was determined that the WTP needed to
re-introduce an oxidant to the treatment process. Although permanganate is a highly effective
reagent for oxidizing arsenic, and the manganese content from permanganate could be removed
as an insoluble manganese oxide if the process were finely tuned, because the process controls
at the WTP were not well-developed, the authors felt that switching to another oxidant such as
sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) would be better to insure that no additional manganese sources were
introduced into the WTP.
Bench scale testing was conducted which led to optimization of the NaOCl dosage to effectively
treat the influent waters for both arsenic and manganese. Furthermore, it was discovered in the
course of the investigations that the ferric sulfate that was used at the WTP contained approximately
600 mg/kg of manganese. Therefore, usage of the batch of ferric sulfate was discontinued and
replaced with polyferric sulfate (PFS) which was assayed and determined to contain negligible
levels of manganese impurities. Besides helping to decrease the amount of manganese added into
the WTP, PFS was also chosen because it had been shown to be more effective at arsenic removal
than ferric sulfate (Fan et al., 308).
Another process improvement, based on bench scale testing results, was to divide the ferric
addition to two steps, where it was added at both the thickener feedbox and after the solids thickener
(Figure 5). The two-step PFS addition led to higher arsenic removal efficiency and lower overall
PFS usage compared to single-step PFS addition. Not only did the two-step PFS addition lead to
lower PFS dosage requirements and chemical cost savings on PFS, it also helped to decrease the
amount of pH depression from ferric addition and improve manganese removal. Sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) was also added prior to the settling ponds to increase the pH above 8 to further
facilitate manganese precipitation and removal in the settling ponds. The process flow diagram of
the improved process is shown in Figure 5.
After implementing the process modifications and improvements described above, the WTP
consistently treated the mine waters to below 50 µg/L arsenic and 100 µg/L manganese, most of
the time with arsenic levels below 10 µg/L.
198
Figure 5. Improved treatment process and flow diagram.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Comprehensive knowledge of water and inorganic chemistry is critical in effectively treating

mining-impacted waters for inorganic contaminants such as arsenic and manganese. Although the
water parameter requirements for arsenic and manganese removal are vastly different, by under-
standing the speciation chemistry of both contaminants, and by conducting bench scale testing to
devise the optimal treatment schemes and implementing process changes based on the bench scale
testing results, the treatment process at a mine dewatering WTP in northern Nevada was improved,
and the effluent arsenic and manganese levels were brought back to compliance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
HCL is grateful to W. Brinson Willis and Sarvin S. Tabatabaei for their kind help on other aspects
of this project which were not discussed in this paper.
REFERENCES
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 2000. Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity.
Atlanta, GA.
Chang, Y. J.; Black, B. D.; Chang, D.; Gehling, D. 2006. Advanced Processes for Simultaneous Arsenic and
Manganese Removal. AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, CO.
Chwirka, J. D.; Colvin, C.; Gomez, J. D.; Mueller, P. A. 2004. Arsenic removal from drinking water using the
coagulation/microfiltration process. J. AWWA 96(3): 106–114.
Fan. M.; Brown, R. C.; Sung, S. W.; Huang, C.-P.; Ong, S. K.; van Leeuwen, J. H. 2003. Comparisons of
polymeric and conventional coagulants in arsenic(V) removal. Water Env. Res. 75(4): 308–313.
Gebel, T. 2000. Confounding variables in the environmental toxicology of arsenic. Toxicology 144: 155–162.
Hall, A. H. 2002. Chronic arsenic poisoning. Toxicol. Lett. 128(1–3): 69–72.
Hering, J. G.; Chen, P.-Y.; Wilkie, J. A.; Elimelech, M. 1997. Arsenic removal from drinking water during
coagulation. J. Environ. Engin. 123(8): 800–807.
Howe, P.; Malcolm, H.; Dobson, S. 2004. Manganese and its compounds: Environmental aspects. World
Health Organization, United Nations Environment Programme, International Lab.
Liang, H. C.; Thomson, B. M. 2008. Minerals and Mine Drainage. Water Environ. Res. 80: 1481–1509.
Liang, H. C.; Thomson, B. M. 2009. Minerals and Mine Drainage. Water Environ. Res. 81: 1615–1663.
Pourbaix, M. 1966. Atlas of electrochemical equilibria in aqueous solutions, Translated from French by James
A. Franklin, Pergamon Press, Oxford, New York.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001), Arsenic Rule 2001, 40 CFR 141, Washington, D.C.
199
Geochemistry
The impact of short-term variations of weather conditions on the

chemism of rain water runoff from flotation wastes of Mississippi
Valley-type Zn-Pb ores (southern Poland)
A. Bauerek
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The article presents the results of investigations of runoff water generated by heavy
storms on a slope of tailings pond made from Zn-Pb flotation wastes of the Mississippi Valley-
type ore formation (Silesia-Cracow ore district). For selected indicators of contaminations (SO2−
4 ,
Ca2+ , Zn, Cd, and Pb) leached from wastes through water runoff main statistical parameters are
presented. The impact of short-term variations of weather conditions on the chemistry of runoff
water is clarified. It has been pointed out that SO2− 4 concentrations in rain water runoff have
highly negative correlation with the sum of rainfalls and relative air humidity during days pre-
ceding runoff occurrences. Among heavy metals only cadmium concentrations in waters point out
an some dependence on weather conditions, occurring before runoff events. For sulfates, as the
main contamination indicator, regression models (linear, polynomial and exponential) of depen-
dences of their concentrations in waters on precipitation and air humidity were tested. Moreover, a
non-standard technique of runoff water sampling and a system of information about approaching
rainfalls, based on meteorological radar data, have been presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
According to estimations, zinc-lead (Zn-Pb) deposits of the Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) for-
mation contain about 25% of world resources of metals mentioned above (Paradis et al. 2005).
As a result of exploitation and processing of MVT zinc and lead ores, considerable quantities of
fine-grained wastes, rich in heavy metals (Zn, Pb, As, Cd), arise. Most wastes of this type are dis-
posed in the central part of the United States, in deposit areas Tri-State and Old Lead Belt Mining
District (Missouri, Oklahoma, and Kansas). However, they are systematically managed. According
to assessments, in these regions from previously disposed 750 million tons of wastes only about
200 million tons remained unmanaged (Kring et al. 2007). In Poland flotation wastes of Zn-Pb
ores occur in three regions of the Silesia-Cracow ore district (southern Poland): Bytom – about
30 million tons, Olkusz – about 60 million tons and Chrzanow – about 33 million tons (Girczys
et al. 2002). The thickest fractions of currently produced wastes are used for the reclamation of
abandoned open cast mines of Zn-Pb ores (Eckes et al. 1998).
Investigations carried out in Poland have pointed out that flotation wastes from MVT Zn-Pb ore
processing play an essential role in the migration of heavy metals (HM) and sulfates (SO2− 4 ) into
the environment. The environmental impact of these wastes results mainly in soil contamination
with fine-grained fractions rich in heavy metals spread by the wind (Krzaklewski et al. 1990,
Cabała et al. 2006) and infiltration of leachates containing SO2− 4 into ground waters (Adamczyk
et al. 1994, Górecka et al. 1994). Girczys & Sobik-Szołtysek (1999) indicate that waters flowing
down from the embankment surfaces, having a short time contact with the buffering environment
of wastes rich in Ca and Mg carbonates, are able to leach contaminants, including heavy metals.
The initial results of investigations into contamination leaching through rain water runoff (RWR)
from flotation wastes and mineralogical transformation accompanying the phenomenon were pre-
sented by Bauerek et al. (2009). These investigations have pointed out that in the waters of the
surface runoff are dominated by sulfate (SO2− 2+
4 ) and calcium (Ca ) and accompanied by zinc (Zn)
and cadmium (Cd). The results of later investigations (Bauerek et al. 2010) indicate the seasonal
203
Figure 1. Location of study area.
concentration variability of main contamination indicators in RWR and are suggesting a possible
significance of local meteorological conditions for the environmental impact.
In the United Kingdom the recognition of the phenomenon of contamination leaching in RWR,
conducted in the 1990s, concerned environments with low carbonate content, generating acid
mine drainage (AMD). The results from post-mining areas Wemyss in western Wales indicate
that leaching of heavy metals during torrential rainfall should be taken into consideration in the
evaluation of contaminant transfer into the environment (Merrington et al. 1994). Episodic heavy
rainfalls causing waste erosion, can release Pb, Zn, and Cd in hundreds of kilograms into the
environment (Gao et al. 1995). The results of investigations carried out in the area of the abandoned
in 1954 Zn-Pb Parc Mine (northern Wales) indicate that HM are released into the environment as
a consequence of erosion and leaching of fine-grained processing wastes.
The investigations carried out in the United States indicate that intensive rainfalls following
directly after a dry period can generate acid runoff especially enriched in HM and SO2− 4 . In the
zone of temperate climate essential significance for RWR enrichment in metals has the dissolution
of secondary sulfates containing HM precipitated as a result of evaporative crystallisation (Keith
et al. 2001, Hammarstrom et al. 2005). One of few examples of occurrence of basic surface runoff
waters containing high concentrations of sulfates as well as Pb and Ni is the area of the Trojan
Nickel mine in Zimbabwe (Lupankwa et al. 2006). The investigations carried out there indicate
that even RWR with pH between 7.0 and 8.5 can contain considerable concentrations of sulfates
and metals leached from wastes.
The aim of this investigation was to link sulfate (SO2− 2+
4 ), calcium (Ca ), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), and
cadmium (Cd) concentrations in surface runoff waters from the tailings pond of flotation wastes
of MVT ores to selected weather variables. In the analysis selected regression models to describe
the variability of SO2−
4 concentrations in RWR were used. As independent variables the average
relative air humidity and sum of rainfalls in days preceding runoff episodes were also determined.
2 SITE DESCRIPTION
The investigations at a site of flotation wastes coming from processing of Zn-Pb ore of MVT
formation, were carried out. These wastes build the embankments of the tailings pond located near
Olkusz (southern Poland). The tailings pond, where wastes have been disposed since 1957, has
a surface area of 110 ha and height up to 42 m above the terrain’s surface (Fig. 1). Currently 60
million tons of wastes are disposed there.
3 GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF DEPOSITS AND MINERAL COMPOSITION OF WASTES
The MVT deposits occurring in the area of the Silesia-Cracow ore district are of epigenetic origin.
They were formed as a result of metasomatic transformation of carbonate formations of the middle
204
Figure 2. Average mineral composition of flotation wastes from tailings ponds in Olkusz (Cabała et al. 2006).
Triassic system under the influence of low-temperature (75–200◦ C) hydrothermal solutions (Kon-
stantynowicz 1979, Leach et al. 1993, Leach et al. 2001). Ore bodies, containing mainly simple
metal sulfides (sphalerite, galena, marcasite or pyrite) occur mostly in secondary dolomites as the
filling of karst voids, brecciated zones or as ore mineralization in bedrock. Shallow occurrence of
ore bodies favours the development of weathering features in their roof zones (Cabała 2001).
In the mineral composition of flotation wastes carbonates (about 73%) represented by dolomite,
ankerite, and calcite (Fig. 2) prevail. Sulfates and minerals Zn, Pb, and Fe oxides constitute 20%
by weight of wastes (Górecka et al. 1994).
Among sulfide minerals iron sulfides (marcasite and pyrite) prevail; their share in wastes dis-
posed in various time periods changes from 11 to 17% by weight. Zn and Pb sulfides and carbonates
constitute 1.9% by weight and 0.8% by weight, respectively. Clayey minerals such as illite, mont-
morillonite and kaolinite constitute on average about 7% by weight of wastes (Cabała et al. 2006).
The total contents of Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Sr and Tl in wastes do not exceed 0.1% by
weight (Górecka et al. 1994, Cabała 2000).
4 MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 Sampling and laboratory tests

Water samples were collected during all runoff episodes that took place on the embankment of the
tailings pond in 2008 and 2009. In the period from June to October 2008 five runoff events were
noted, in which total 24 samples were collected. The next 20 samples represent four episodes from
May, June, and July 2009. For water sampling the surface area on the outside slope of the tailings
pond was selected, with an inclination of 30◦ , covered with fine-grained wastes. In order to sample
the waters of the surface runoff at the base of the slope, five 2-metre gutters were set up, creating
five plots with a total surface area of 60 m2 (Fig. 1). The gutters were designed in such a way that
the waters originating from the runoff should not mix with rain water (Fig. 3).
Water samples were collected to polyethylene bottles of 0.5 l. Measurements of pH and electric
conductivity (EC) were performed in the field using an integrated meter WTW MultiLine P4. Ion
chromatography (IC) tests (Dionex, ICS-2500) were used to determine SO2− 4 (uncertainty ±10%).
Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) (PerkinElmer, OptimaTM
3000 DV) was used to determine Ca, Cd, Pb, and Zn (uncertainty ±5%). The analyses were
performed in the laboratories of the Department of Environmental Monitoring at the Central Mining
Institute in Katowice.
4.2 Meteorological data and information system about storms

The data concerning the relative air humidity and rainfall quantity were collected at an automatic
meteorological station belonging to the network of stations of the Institute of Meteorology and Water
205
Figure 3. Construction of gutters for sampling of rain water runoff.
Figure 4. Scheme of meteorological radar data obtaining system.
Management (IMWM). The station is located 6 km from the tailings pond. The measurements of
rain quantity were carried out using the rain-gauge Hellmann D200 with resolution 0.1 mm, whereas
air humidity was measured by means of a hygrometer of Hassmann type with a resolution of 0.1%.
In cooperation with IMWM a system of heavy rains (Fig. 4) monitoring based on the data from
the meteorological radar was created. The system activates itself automatically in the case of a
rainfall with intensity above 5 mm/h at the distance up to 10 km from the tailings pond (1). The
radar data are transmitted to the headquarters of IMWM in Warsaw and after processing they are
directed every 10 minutes as maps and data tables to the server of the Central Mining Institute
(2). At the same time short message services (SMS), containing current data on rain intensity, are
generated on mobile phone. The system provides the possibility to reach the testing site before the
rainfall appearance (3).
5.1 Chemistry of rain water runoff

The results of surface water runoff analyses from the embankments of the flotation tailings pond
of MVT zinc and lead ores indicate an essential significance of 5 indicators. These are SO2−
4 and
Ca2+ as main ions, indicating the sulfate-calcium (SO4 -Ca) hydrochemical type of water runoff
according to the Monition classification (Macioszczyk 1987), and heavy metals Zn, Cd, and Pb.
206
Table 1. Statistical parameters of the selected indicators in RWR samples collected in 2008 and 2009.
Parameters
mg/l pH SO2−
4 Ca2+ Zn Cd Pb
2008
Frequency 24 24 24 24 24 24
Minimum 6.8 579.0 240.5 1.1 0.030 0.010
Maximum 7.7 939.0 388.8 2.4 0.075 0.028
Range 0.9 360.0 148.3 1.3 0.045 0.018
Mean 7.3 756.3 318.2 1.6 0.051 0.016
Median 7.3 736.0 315.6 1.4 0.052 0.016
Standard deviation 0.2 84.5 37.1 0.4 0.012 0.004
2009
Frequency 20 20 20 20 20 20
Minimum 7.1 179.0 80.6 0.6 0.020 0.013
Maximum 8.0 917.0 382.8 2.7 0.068 0.038
Range 0.9 738.0 302.2 2.1 0.048 0.025
Mean 7.5 499.6 214.3 1.6 0.038 0.025
Median 7.5 476.0 208.4 1.4 0.037 0.025
Standard deviation 0.3 215.9 87.4 0.6 0.013 0.006
Probability p 0.79* 0.00006** 0.00003** 0.92*** 0.0007* 0.000008*
for α = 0,05
The following statistical tests for the comparison of means were applied: ∗ ) – F tests, ∗∗ ) – Cox tests with
separate variance estimation, ∗∗∗ ) – U Mann-Whitney test.
The of statistical parameters of the indicators show that only pH and Zn concentrations in runoff
waters do not differ considerably during 2 years period of the study. However, the differences
between SO2− 2+
4 , Ca , Cd and Pb concentrations, measured in 2008 and 2009, are statistically
significant (Tab. 1).
The ranges of results of SO2− 4 and Ca
2+
as well as HM concentrations obtained in individual
seasons, described by minimum and maximum values and range, are considerable. However, the
relatively similar values of mean and median, for the results related to individual seasons suggest
that these sets are homogeneous (Tab. 1).
5.2 The impact of weather conditions on SO2− 2+

4 , Ca , Zn, Cd, and Pb concentrations in RWR
The weather parameters used to classify the variability of SO2−4 and Ca

2+
concentrations in surface
runoff waters, tested in the summer months of 2008 and 2009, were the average relative air humidity
and sum of rainfalls within the period of five days preceding the surface runoffs. The applied
weather-related data are presented in Table 2.
The investigation results indicate that SO2− 4 and Ca
2+
concentrations in RWR representing
episodes of surface runoff with numbers 1–6 and 9 (Fig. 5) are high (from 525 to 939 mg of
SO2− 2+
4 /l and from 226 to 387 mg of Ca /l). These runoff events are generated by intensive storms,
which followed after dry and hot periods lasting several days. The values of relative air humidity
(from 41.6 to 65.8%) and sum of rainfalls (from 0.0 to 10.8 mm) in 5-day periods preceding runoff
episodes were relatively low (Tab. 2). Such conditions have favoured the evaporative crystallisation
of easy leachable sulphate minerals, of which the greatest significance has gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2 O)
or bassanite (CaSO4 . 0.5H2 O) (Bauerek et al. 2009). Thus every intensive rainfall, causing runoff,
resulted in dissolution of these salts and release of considerable amounts of SO2−
4 and Ca .
2+
2−
The relatively low concentrations of main ions (from 179 to 492 mg of SO4 /l and from 81 to
208 mg of Ca2+ /l in water from rainfalls with numbers 7 and 8, noted in 2009, are an example of the
impact of unstable weather and long wet periods on the reduction of contaminant concentrations
leached by RWR (Fig. 5). The relative air humidity reaching 69.4 and 84.0% and high sum of
207
Table 2. Meteorological data.
Number of runoff Average relative Sum of 5-day

episode air humidity [%] precipitation [mm]
2008
1 52.0 0.0
2 62.0 10.8
3 47.4 2.6
4 41.6 0.0
5 65.8 2.3
2009
6 49.4 11.3
7 69.8 50.6
8 84.0 26.1
9 53.6 2.3
Figure 5. Distribution of SO2−

4 and Ca
2+ concentrations in waters and values of average relative air humidity
and sum of rainfalls.
rainfalls reaching 50.6 and 26.1 mm have not favoured sulfate minerals precipitation on the waste
surface. This caused a gradual depletion of the surface waste layer in easily leachable components.
Thus, the described dependence confirms the the supposition about an important role of local
weather conditions (Bauerek et al. 2010). However, according to US Geological Survey (Seal
et al. 2002), not only the temperately warm climate with considerable rainfall quantity is the
condition intensifying contamination leaching. The time-related rainfall distribution and atmo-
spheric conditions occurring in periods separating heavy storms that cause surface runoffs are also
important.
The distribution of Cd concentrations in RWR fits the best the data concerning main ions leaching.
The lowest Cd concentrations were noted in runoff water originating from the episodes 7 and 8,
which followed after wet days with high rainfalls (Fig. 6). However, the analysis of data in the
diagram indicates that cadmium concentrations have also other minima, which are difficult to
interpret (runoff episodes No. 3 and 5).
The distribution of lead (Fig. 6) and zinc (Fig. 7) concentrations in runoff waters are even more
difficult to interpret, indicating the possibility of impact of other factors that were not taken into
consideration. Though zinc concentrations, similarly as main ions and Cd concentrations, also reach
the minimum during the runoff No. 8 (Fig. 7). Lead concentrations, however, have a distribution
208
Figure 6. Distribution of Cd and Pb concentrations in waters and values of average relative air humidity and
sum of rainfalls.
Figure 7. Distribution of Zn concentrations in waters and values of average relative air humidity and sum of
rainfalls.
approximately balanced during the study period and do not show dependences on meteorological
conditions (Fig. 6).
5.3 Regression of SO2−

4 concentrations in relation to air humidity and sum of rainfalls
Among the tested contamination indicators (SO2− 2+ 2−

4 , Ca , Zn, Cd and Pb), SO4 concentrations in
runoff waters and their dependence on weather variables were selected for regression analysis. The
selection of SO2−
4 is based on two reasons:
• The SO2−4 ion concentrations are characterized by a strong, negative correlation with selected
meteorological factors:
– −r = −0.73 for the dependence of SO2− 4 concentrations on the 5-day sum of rainfalls,
– −r = −0.72 for the dependence of SO2− 4 concentrations on average air humidity from five
days,
• The SO2−4 ions are the main indicator affecting water quality in the area of disposal of flotation
wastes from MVT ore processing (Adamczyk et al. 1994, Górecka et al. 1994, Bauerek et al.
2010).
209
Table 3. The results of regression analysis of SO2−
4 concentrations in relation to weather variables.
Index of
Models Equations adjustment
Relation: concentration of SO2−

4 – sum of rainfall
Linear (A) SO2−

4 = 754.3808 − 9.2109*rainfall R2 = 0.515
Polynomial (B) SO2−
4 = 796.1808 − 20.1259*rainfall + 0.2253*rainfallˆ2 R2 = 0.567
Exponential (C) SO2−
4 = 773.547*(exp(−0.0183* rainfall)) R2 = 0.560
Relation: concentration of SO2−
4 – average relative air humidity
Linear (D) SO2−

4 = 1322.4503−11.5981*hum. R2 = 0.511
Polynomial (E) SO2−
4 = 308.1379+22.3791*hum. − 0.2719*hum.ˆ2 R2 = 0.550
Exponential (F) SO2−
4 = 2481.4737*(exp(−0.0242*hum.)) R2 = 0.427
hum. – humidity
Figure 8. Diagram of dispersion of SO2−

4 concentrations and rainfall parameters approximated by regression
lines.
The tested regression models (linear polynomial of second grade and exponential) explain from
42.7 to 56.7% the variabilities of SO2− 4 concentrations in relation to air humidity and sum of
rainfalls (Tab. 3). The adjustment of lines, described by equations shown in Table 3, to basic data
are presented in dispersion diagrams (Fig. 8–9). The rightness of the models mentioned above was
confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk tests (S-W) on distribution normality of remainders and assessment
of variance homogeneity of the random component of remainders.
The remaining, not clarified part of SO2−
4 concentration variabilities is connected to non-tested
factors, of which the highest significance may have the quantity of water running off from the
embankment during heavy storms.
For practical application, linear models are proposed for estimation of SO2−4 concentrations on
the basis of the analysed weather variables. Their equations are the most simple and their indices
of adjustment to variables (R2 ) do not considerably depart from those counted for other models
with better fits. Weather variables, i.e. the sum of rainfall and air humidity are characterised
by relatively high, mutual correlation (r = 0.65). Thus, the proposed regression models can be
210
Figure 9. Diagram of dispersion of SO2−
4 concentrations and air humidity approximated by regression lines.
used interchangeably when estimating SO2− 4 concentrations, dependent on the availability of data
concerning air humidity or rainfall quantity.
6 CONCLUSIONS
In runoff waters flowing from tailings pond embankments, comprising carbonate–sulfide flotation
wastes, SO2−4 and Ca
2+
ions and heavy metals Zn, Cd, and Pb are dominant. The weather variables,
such as the average relative air humidity and the sum of rainfalls for 5-days periods preceding runoff
episodes do not modify the qualitative composition of runoff waters. The weather conditions have
an impact, however, on the main ion concentrations and, to a lower extent, on Cd concentrations,
while Zn and Pb concentrations in waters remain independent of air humidity and sum of rainfalls.
The variability of SO2−
4 concentrations, as the main contamination indicator in tested rain water
runoff, can be explained by short-term fluctuations of weather conditions. The performed regression
models (linear, polynomial and exponential) indicate that independent weather variables explain
about 50% of the variability in the SO2−4 concentrations data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to The Mining and Metallurgy Plant ZGH “Boleslaw” in Bukowno for
rendering the testing ground accessible and for the permission to carry out research procedures.
The research work was financed from means for science within 2010-2011 and as a research
project No 5682/B/T02/2010/38.
The anonymous reviewer is thanked for helpful suggestion and comments.
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The effect of weathering on the acid-producing potential of the Goathill

North Rock Pile, Questa mine, NM
Virginia T. McLemore & Nelia Dunbar

New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, NM Inst. of Mining and Tech., Socorro, NM, USA
Samuel Tachie-Menson
Freeport McMoRan, Morenci, AZ, USA
Kelly Donahue
Telesto Solutions Inc., Fort Collins, CO, USA
ABSTRACT: The Goathill North (GHN) rock pile was constructed in 1964–74 and re-graded in
2004–05. GHN samples were subjected to static, petrographic, and chemical tests to characterize
acidity and future acid-producing potential (AP). Samples that have higher concentrations of pyrite
are more likely to have a higher AP. Static tests indicated that, although the rock-pile material
contains acid consuming minerals, acid generation has occurred. Samples with rhyolite rock frag-
ments have lower NP (neutralization potential) then samples with andesite rock fragments. Samples
with rhyolite rock fragments had undergone hydrothermal quartz-sericite-pyrite (QSP) alteration,
whereas samples with andesite rock fragments were propylitically altered; these hydrothermal
alterations occurred after the molybdenum mineralization, but prior to mining. No single compo-
nent controls the ABA (acid-base accounting) and NAG (net acid generation) tests. This lack of
correlation between ABA and NAG tests, mineralogy, and chemistry is a result of 1) weathering
reactions in the soil matrix producing precipitation of coatings surrounding the rock fragments and
preventing further weathering of the rock fragments, especially around pyrite crystals, 2) a lack
of the water available that is required for weathering in the 25–40 years since the formation of
GHN rock pile, 3) non-uniform weathering of pyrite within the rock pile due to heterogeneous air
flow, and 4) little or no weathering of the rock fragments. Also, the AP capacity of the rock-pile is
determined by the combination of K-feldspar, calcite, smectite, illite, and pyrite, which are con-
trolled in part by the lithology, pre-mining hydrothermal alteration, and post-mining weathering.
The effects of pre-mining hydrothermal alteration and post-mining weathering both affect the static
tests, emphasizing the need to perform detailed petrographic and mineralogic investigations along
with the static tests to determine the AP of any mine waste material.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
Rarely do waste-rock-pile characterization studies allow for detailed petrographic, mineralogical,
and geochemical characterization of the undisturbed interior of large rock piles in situ. During the
period of open-pit mining (1969–82) at the Questa molybdenum mine, NM (Chevron Mining Inc.,
formerly Molycorp, Inc.), approximately 317.5 million metric tons of overburden rock was removed
and deposited onto mountain slopes and into tributary valleys, forming 9 rock piles surrounding the
Questa open pit. After the rock piles were emplaced, a foundation failure occurred at the Goathill
North (GHN) rock pile that resulted in sliding of the rock pile (Norwest Corporation, 2004). The
re-grading and stabilization of GHN rock pile provided an opportunity to examine, map, sample,
and develop a conceptual model of the interior of a large rock pile in situ by means of trenches cut into
the rock pile. GHN has since been reclaimed and the gravitational sliding of the material has been
stopped. The purpose of this paper is to describe the effects of mineralogy, lithology, hydrothermal
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Figure 1. Questa rock piles and other mine features, including location of trenches constructed in GHN.
alteration, and weathering of samples from throughout the rock pile on the static tests used to
determine the acid potential (AP) and neutralization potential (NP) of the rock-pile material from
GHN. Tachie-Menson (2006) reported preliminary results of the effects of mineralogy, lithology,
hydrothermal alteration, and weathering of samples on AP and NP; this paper significantly updates
that work.
1.2 Location of site

The Questa mine is on the western slope of the Taos Range of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in
north-central NM (Fig. 1) and is on southward facing slopes at elevations of 2290 to 3280 m.
1.3 Definitions
Rock piles, the preferred term by many in the metal mining industry today, refer to the man-made
structures consisting of piles of non-ore material that had to be removed in order to extract ore. This
material, referred to in older literature as mine waste, mine soils, overburden, subore, or proto-ore,
does not include the tailings material, which consists of non-ore material remaining after milling.
Alteration is a term describing the changes in mineralogy, texture, and chemistry of a rock
as a result of a change in the physical, thermal, and chemical environment in the presence of
water, steam, or gas (Henley and Ellis, 1983; Reed, 1997; Neuendorf et al., 2005). Alteration
includes the effects produced by hypogene or hydrothermal (primary) and supergene (secondary)
alteration and weathering. Hydrothermal alteration is the change in original composition of rock
by hydrothermal (warm to hot) solutions during or after the mineralization. Hypogene alteration
occurred during the formation of the ore body by upwelling (ascending) hydrothermal or warm to
hot fluids. Supergene alteration is the natural weathering of the ore body, at low temperatures at and
near the Earth’s surface by descending fluids. In this study, hydrothermal alteration refers to pre-
mining processes. Weathering is the set of physical and chemical changes, including disintegration,
of rock by physical, chemical, and/or biological processes occurring at or near the earth’s surface that
result in reductions of grain size, changes in cohesion or cementation, and changes in mineralogical
composition (Neuendorf et al., 2005). In this study, weathering occurred after the material was
emplaced in the rock pile.
1.4 Acknowledgements
This project was funded by Chevron Mining Inc. (formerly Molycorp, Inc.) and the New Mexico
Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, a division of New Mexico Institute of Mining and
Technology (NMIMT). Special thanks go to the numerous students of NMIMT, who did much of
the hard work from sampling to data compilation.
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2 SITE DESCRIPTION
2.1 Climate
The climate at Questa is alpine and semi-arid, with cold snowy winters and moderate warm sum-
mers with monsoons during July and August. The annual average temperature is 4◦ C and the
annual average precipitation and snowfall are approximately 50 and 371 cm, respectively. Daily
temperatures generally fluctuate by 18◦ C throughout the year.
2.2 Geology
The geology and mining history of the area is complex and is described by others (Lipman
and Reed, 1989; Roberts et al., 1990; Meyer, 1991; Robertson GeoConsultants, Inc. 2000a, b;
McLemore, 2009). Lithologies also are diverse, ranging from metamorphic to volcanic rocks,
granites, shales, limestones, and sandstones (McLemore et al., 2009b). The Questa deposit is a
Climax-type porphyry Mo (±W) deposit, which is a large, low-grade (0.1–0.2% Mo) deposit that
contains disseminated and stockwork veinlets of Mo sulfides and is associated with Si- and F-rich
porphyritic granitic intrusions (Ludington et al., 2005). The Questa ore deposit contains quartz,
molybdenite, pyrite, fluorite, calcite and other minerals. Climax-type deposits produce concen-
tric zones of hydrothermal alteration (Ludington et al., 2005). There are seven major hypogene
alteration types at Questa: 1) propylitic (chlorite, epidote, albite, calcite), 2) argillic and advanced
argillic, 3) potassic (biotite, potassium feldspar, quartz, fluorite, molybdenite), 4) quartz-sericite-
pyrite (QSP, also called phyllic, sericitic and silicic), 5) magnetite veining, 6) silicification, and
7) post-mineral carbonate-fluorite veining, which are described by Meyer (1991), Ludington et al.
(2005), among others. Supergene alteration is commonly superimposed on the hypogene alteration.
Natural alteration scars occur in the Questa area that also are of hypogene and supergene origin.
The Questa rock piles were constructed using standard mining practices, primarily by haul-truck
end-dumping in high, single lifts, which involved the dumping of rock over the edge of the hill
slopes and resulting pile crests (Fig. 3; URS Corporation, 2003). Multiple areas of the open pit were
mined at the same time. Records of the quantity, lithology, and rock-pile location of individual
overburden material were not maintained during construction of the rock piles. An estimate of
the construction history of the rock piles was determined by examination of aerial photographs,
as summarized by URS Corporation (2003). The upper portion of the rock pile tends to be more
soil-like (matrix-supported), whereas the lower portion tends to be rock-like (cobble-supported).
The base of the rock pile is coarse rock and cobble supported, and is referred to as a boulder rubble
zone. The resulting layers are locally at or near the angle of repose and subparallel to the original
slope angle. More details are in McLemore et al. (2009a).
The GHN rock pile contained approximately 4.2 million m3 (14.5 million metric tons) of over-
burden material with slopes similar to the original topography, approximately at an angle of repose
of 38◦ (Fig. 2). GHN rock pile was approximately 192 m high and 61 m thick (URS Corporation,
2003; Norwest Corporation, 2004), and was constructed during 1964–74 when material was end
dumped in an alteration scar area, which is a natural, actively eroding landslide area caused by
acidic weathering (Norwest Corporation, 2004). GHN rock pile is stratified consisting of locally
alternating layers and lenses of coarse- and fine-grained material that increase in grain-size down
slope (Fig. 2). GHN was divided into 2 areas: a stable and an unstable area (Fig. 3). The unstable
portion of the rock pile was the active land slide area, involving 1.9 million m3 of material (Norwest
Corporation, 2004). Molycorp stabilized this rock pile by removing material off the top portion of
both areas to the bottom of the pile (Norwest Corporation, 2004). This re-grading has decreased
the slope, reduced the load, and created a buttress to prevent movement of the rock pile. This report
describes only the stable portion of GHN.
3 PROCEDURES
3.1 Mapping procedures

Remote sensing techniques, ground penetrating radar surveys (van Dam et al., 2005) and thermal
camera imaging surveys (Shannon et al., 2005) were used to select the location of trenches
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Figure 2. Conceptual geological cross section of the stable portion GHN rock pile as interpreted from surface
mapping. Locations of trenches and drill holes are shown. Geologic units described in McLemore (2009a).
Figure 3. GHN before re-grading, looking east. Solid line indicates approximate location of trenches con-
structed in summer-fall 2004 and the line of the cross section in Figure 2. Dashed line indicates the boundary
between the stable and unstable portions of the rock pile.
within GHN during reclamation. Standard geologic mapping techniques were used (Lahee, 1961;
McLemore et al., 2009a). Each unit on the surface and in the subsurface of GHN was examined and
mapped, and were differentiated mostly on the basis of color, grain size, lithologic composition,
texture, stratigraphic position, dip, thickness, and other soil properties (McLemore et al., 2009a).
Longitudinal sections were made of each bench in the GHN rock pile and geologic maps were
made for each trench. McLemore et al. (2009a) described the mapping and field procedures and
includes specific locations of samples and construction data for each trench.
216
3.2 Sampling procedures
Sampling procedures, descriptions, and analytical methods typically used for soil profiles were
employed, since the rock-pile material is similar to mine soils (URS Corporation, 2003; Smith and
Beckie, 2003; Haering et al., 2004; Stormont and Farfan, 2005). Most samples were channel com-
posites collected along approximate 1.5-m-long horizontal slots. Some samples were composites
collected along specific layers that were less than 1.5 m thick. Sample locations are in Figure 2 and
McLemore et al. (2009a). Only the upper third of the GHN rock pile was trenched, mapped, and
sampled in detail using trenches. Data from 3 drill holes that were drilled into the rock pile (Fig. 2)
also were used. Samples from the surface of the toe of GHN were used to define the toe region.
These data were extrapolated for the entire rock pile.
3.3 Laboratory procedures

The laboratory analyses, summarized in Figure 4, were performed at NMIMT using standard
laboratory procedures (SOPs). Petrographic analyses (mineralogy, lithology, hydrothermal and
weathering alteration) were performed using a binocular microscope and supplemented by thin
section petrography, microprobe, X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses, and whole-rock chemical
analyses. Clay mineralogy, in terms of the major clay mineral groups, was determined using
standard clay separation techniques and XRD analyses of the clay mineral separates on oriented
glass slides (Moore and Reynolds, 1989; Hall, 2004). This method does not liberate or measure the
amount of clay minerals within the rock fragments, just within the soil matrix. The concentrations
of major and trace elements, except for S, SO4 , LOI (loss on ignition), and F, were determined
by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy at the New Mexico State University and Washington State
University laboratories. F concentrations were determined by fusion and single-element electrode
and LOI concentrations were determined by gravimetric methods at NMIMT. S and SO4 were
determined by ALS Chemex Laboratory. Acid base accounting tests were performed on selected
samples at NMIMT (Tachie-Menson, 2006).
The acid-base accounting (ABA) test comprises two separate procedures: the acid potential (AP)
test and the neutralization potential (NP) test. The AP test measures the potential for a sample to
generate acid, while the NP test determines the potential for a sample to neutralize acid. From these
two tests, values are obtained for NP and AP, both expressed in kg of CaCO3 per metric ton of
material (i.e. parts per thousand). A net neutralization potential (NNP) is then calculated as NP–
AP. The NNP also is referred to as the acid-base account of a sample. Factors that affect the NNP
are the concentrations and types of acid-producing minerals such as pyrite, and acid-consuming
minerals such as calcite. The genesis and development of these test procedures and their variations
are published by many researchers (Smith et al., 1974; Sobeck et al., 1978; Cruywagen et al., 2003;
Tachie-Mensen, 2006). The hydrogen peroxide procedure was used for the AP test and the Standard
Sobek Method was used for the NP test.
3.4 Mineral abundances

Mineralogical data is obtained by different techniques, including: 1) petrographic analysis of a
bulk grab subsample using a binocular microscope, 2) petrographic analysis of thin sections of the
rock fragments using a petrographic microscope (including both transmitted- and reflected-light
microscopy), 3) electron microprobe analysis of both the fine-grained soil matrix and the rock
fragments, 4) clay mineral determination of a bulk sample split using clay separation techniques
and XRD analysis (Moore and Reynolds, 1989; Hall, 2004), 5) Rietveld analysis of heavy mineral
separates (Oerter et al., 2007), and 6) other methods of determining mineralogy (spectral analysis,
XRD, fizz test).
Petrographic analysis of rocks has been traditionally performed with optical microscopy using
thin sections and point counting to provide a modal mineralogy. However, this method typically
does not provide accurate and reproducible mineral proportions for sedimentary, volcanic, and soil-
like material, such as that found in the Questa rock piles, because rock fragments, groundmass, and
matrix are typically identified as separate phases, not as specific minerals. In addition, groundmass
phases in volcanic rocks and soils can be too fine-grained to identify individually by petrographic
microscopes. Quantitative mineral abundance determination by whole rock XRD analysis also is
217
Figure 4. Flow chart showing characterization analyses of selected samples. Not all analyses are performed
on every sample. Bucket, metal tin, and bags refers to size of sample collected. XRF = X-ray fluorescence anal-
yses, XRD = X-ray diffraction analysis, ICP = Induced-coupled plasma spectrographic analysis, NAG = net
acid producing tests, ABA = acid base accounting tests. Specific details of sample preparation are described
in the project reports and are available upon request.
difficult, because of factors such as mineral crystallinity, preferential orientation in the sample
mount, differential absorption of X-rays, and overlapping peaks by different minerals affect the
diffractogram patterns and makes their interpretation difficult. Some minerals, such as hematite and
other iron oxides, have poor crystallinity and are not always easily detected from the background
by XRD. Another approach that can be used to determine quantitative mineralogy is to calculate
a normative mineralogy from the whole-rock chemical composition. A normative mineralogy is a
set of idealized minerals that are calculated from a whole-rock chemical analysis (Neuendorf et al.,
2005), but not all calculated minerals in the normative approach are always actually present in the
sample.
For this project, the mineral abundances were determined by the modified ModAn technique
(Paktunc, 1998, 2001; McLemore et al., 2009c), which provides a quantitative bulk mineralogy
that is consistent with the petrographic observations, identified minerals, electron microprobe
analysis, clay mineral analysis, and the whole-rock chemistry of the sample. Unlike most normative
mineral analyses, all of the minerals calculated for the quantitative mineralogy are in the actual
sample analysis using the modified ModAn technique. ModAn is a normative calculation that
estimates modes “. . . by applying Gaussian elimination and multiple linear regression techniques to
simultaneous mass balance equations” (Paktunc, 1998, 2001) and allows location-specific mineral
compositions to be used. Representative mineral compositions for minerals in the Questa samples
were determined from electron microprobe analysis and used in ModAn for this study (McLemore
et al., 2009c).
3.5 Precision and accuracy of data

Precision and accuracy are measured differently for each field and laboratory analysis (i.e. para-
meter), and are explained in the project reports and summarized by McLemore and Frey (2008).
218
Figure 5. Sample GHN-KMD-0048, backscattered electron image showing original igneous texture shown
by presence of large, altered phenocrysts. Phenocrysts are patchily replaced by clay minerals (generally illite).
Other secondary minerals include epidote and Fe oxide. These are hydrothermal minerals. This sample exhibits
no weathering textures.
The chemical analyses are accurate to within ±5%. The mineralogical analyses are estimated to be
accurate to within ±10% of the reported value (McLemore et al., 2009c).
4 DESCRIPTION OF GHN ROCK PILE
4.1 Composition of original material removed from the open pit (i.e. overburden)
Chemically, the volcanic rocks in the Questa-Red River area are calc-alkaline, metaluminous to
peraluminous igneous rocks (McLemore, 2009). The GHN samples are a mixture of 2 or more
basic rock types that were hydrothermally altered before mining, typically rhyolite (Amalia Tuff)
and andesite. The rhyolite has more quartz and little to no epidote and chlorite compared to the
andesite. The rhyolite typically has higher SiO2 , K2 O, Rb, Nb, less TiO2 , Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3T, MgO,
CaO, P2 O5 , and Sr than the andesite. Little, if any, unaltered rocks went into the Questa rock
piles, which resulted in large variations in mineralogical and chemical composition. Amphiboles,
pyroxenes, and feldspars were replaced by biotite and albite during alteration. Biotite, hornblende,
and pyroxenes were hydrothermally altered to chlorite, sericite, smectite, illite, and mixed layer
clays (prophyllitic alteration). Feldspars show varying degrees of hydrothermal alteration to illite,
kaolinite, smectite, quartz, mixed layer clays (QSP overprinting prophyllitic alteration). Many rocks
were silicified. Pyrite occurs as fine disseminated crystals in the host-rock matrix and as stockwork
veins up to 15 cm thick. Other sulfide minerals are rare. A typical texture of hydrothermal-altered
andesite is in Figure 5.
4.2 Geologic units of GHN rock pile

The geologic units mapped in GHN typically consist of numerous elongate to lobate, wedge-shaped
lenses and layers of a few centimeters to a meter in thickness and were differentiated mostly based
on similar color, grain-size, lithologic composition, texture, stratigraphic position, and other soil
properties (Fig. 2; McLemore et al., 2009a). Individual layers pinched and swelled or graded
vertically down slope or laterally across the width into other lenses. Very few individual layers are
continuous through the entire length of the rock pile, but many of the geologic units do appear
219
to be continuous until cut off by the coarse rubble zone forming the toe of the rock pile. Rock
fragment lithology is generally consistent within mapped geologic units and correlates well with
mineralogy and chemistry. The units in GHN are generally youngest to oldest on the basis of
stratigraphic position because the relative time of deposition of the units in GHN increases from
west to east. Unit boundaries ranged from horizontal to vertical, but most dipped between 20◦ and
40◦ westward to northwestward. A specific geologic unit probably represents a combination of 1)
similar lithologic composition of overburden material mined from the upper portion of the open pit
and dumped by individual truck loads, 2) aqueous movement in finer-grained material down slope
and vertically through the rock pile material by rain-fall events in between individual truck loads, 3)
differences in hydrothermal alteration and 4) subsequent weathering of the rock-pile material. Note
that all rock piles are different in terms of their construction, composition of overburden materials
(including hydrothermal alteration), and weathering, therefore this model only represents the stable
portion of GHN rock pile and similar constructed rock piles.
The Questa rock-pile materials are a mixture of different lithologies and hydrothermal alteration
mineral assemblages before being emplaced in the rock piles, therefore changes of mineralogy and
chemistry between the outer, oxidized zone and the interior, unoxidized zones of the rock pile are
a result of differences due to pre-mining composition as well as post-mining chemical weathering.
These differences can be difficult to distinguish and the changes due to hydrothermal alteration are
more pronounced than those due to weathering.
4.3 Weathering of the rock-pile material

Typical chemical weathering is based upon the acidity derived from the CO2 system, where the
dissolution of feldspar to form clays is the most important chemical reaction (Drever, 1997; Price
and Velbel, 2003). However, in the Questa rock piles, unlike most natural residual soil weathering
profiles, dissolution of pyrite produces H2 SO4 as the dominant weathering acid, with subsequent
dissolution of calcite, and to a lesser extent chlorite, illite, and other silicate minerals. These
reactions result in 1) elevated dissolved solutes in water seeping from the rock piles and 2) the
precipitation of gypsum, jarosite, soluble efflorescent salts, and Fe oxide/hydroxide minerals.
These reactions can occur within years to hundreds of years, until the source of S is consumed.
Weathering or oxidation of pyrite and other sulfide minerals generally requires four components:
water, S (sulfide), air (oxygen) and bacteria (McLemore, 2008) and the result is sulfuric acid, locally
called acid drainage (AD), acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD). The resulting
sulfuric acid does not entirely escape the rock pile, but resides as pore fluids, which can dissolve
minerals within and at the surface of the rock pile. Water and oxygen appear to be the rate limiting
factors in the oxidation of sulfide minerals, especially in arid and semi-arid environments (León
et al., 2004). Recent experimental studies by Jerz and Rimstidt (2004) shows pyrite oxidizes faster
in moist air than under saturated conditions, thereby accelerating the weathering of the rock piles,
at least locally. Specific factors that affect pyrite oxidation are oxygen concentration, temperature,
pH, pyrite surface area, concentration of ferric iron (Fe+3 ), the presence of bacteria or other living
organisms, and water. Both water and air flow through the Questa rock piles (McLemore et al.,
2009a; Reiter, 2009).
It is difficult, but possible to distinguish between pre-mining hydrothermal alteration and post-
mining weathering in the rock piles, because of both the fine-grained texture of the soil-like matrix
material and the extensive pre-mining hydrothermal alteration. Detailed field observations and
petrographic analysis (especially using electron microprobe analyses, McLemore et al. 2009d) are
used to define the paragenesis (sequence of events). Some of the rock in the rock piles also had
been weathered in the natural supergene environment before open-pit mining began (Campbell and
Lueth, 2008). The field observations and petrographic analyses are important to understand in order
to properly evaluate the mineralogy and chemistry of the rock piles and the effect on predictions
of AP and NP. The evidence for weathering in the Questa rock piles includes (McLemore et al.,
2009a, d):
• Change in color from darker brown and gray in less weathered samples (original color of igneous
rocks) to yellow to white to light gray in the weathered samples. However, the fast-reacting (less
than 40 yrs) weathering of pyrite produces precipitates of secondary reaction minerals on the
surface of existing rock fragments and within the soil matrix, which result in the yellow to orange
220
Figure 6. BSE images showing a) delicate gypsum blades with intergrown jarosite cement (bright phase) and
b) feathery blades in adhered soil matrix. These are typical weathering textures. Note the lack of weathering
of the rock fragments.
color, reflecting the role of ferric iron in the mineral structures. The secondary precipitates form
coatings on exterior surfaces, rims, and fill macro- and micro-fractures. Thus, the macro-scale
impression of weathering, caused by the discoloration from the observed secondary precipitates
is exaggerated (McLemore et al., 2009d).
• Thin yellow to orange, “burnt” layers within the interior of GHN, where water and/or air flowed
and oxidized the rock-pile material.
• Paste pH, in general, is low in oxidized, weathered samples and paste pH is higher in less
weathered samples.
• Increase in abundance of jarosite, gypsum, Fe oxide minerals and soluble efflorescent salts
(locally as cementing minerals) (Fig. 6), and low abundance to absence of calcite, pyrite, and
epidote in weathered samples.
• Textures of gypsum crystals indicate in-situ formation with supporting evidence from S and O
isotopes (Campbell and Lueth, 2008).
• Tarnish or coatings of pyrite surfaces, as well as more complete oxidation or dissolution of pyrite
within weathered samples.
• Dissolution textures of minerals (skeletal, boxwork, honeycomb, increase in pore spaces, frac-
tures, change in mineral shape, accordion-like structures, loss of interlocking textures, pits,
etching) within weathered samples (McLemore et al., 2009d).
• Change in bulk texture of the rock-pile material as compared to the original mined material,
including increase in soil:rock ratio, piping or stoping within the rock pile, and decrease in grain
size due to physical weathering.
• Chemical classification as potential acid-forming materials using ABA methods (Tachie-
Menson, 2006).
• The chemical composition of waters from the Questa rock piles (i.e., seeps and runoff waters
from the rock piles, chemistry of leachate waters obtained by laboratory leaching of rock pile
samples) imply that silicate dissolution is occurring within the rock piles in a similar manner
as that suggested by surface and ground water documented in the alteration scars by Nordstrom
et al. (2005).
• The chemical analyses of these water samples are characterized by acidic, high sulfate, high TDS
(total dissolved solids), and high metal concentrations. Sulfate is the predominant anion and Al,
Mg, Fe, and Mn are the predominant cations. The chemical analyses of these waters reflect the
dissolution of calcite, pyrite, gypsum, and soluble sulfate and hydroxide minerals. The high Mg
and Al in the waters possibly are related to chlorite, epidote, and other clay minerals, and are
likely a result of incongruent dissolution (i.e. selective removal of cations) by the acidic waters.
The high Mn is possibly related to Mn-bearing carbonate (calcite, dolomite, rhodochrosite),
chlorite, epidote, and smectite. The high F is possibly related to dissolution of fluorite, illite,
beryl, apatite, and smectite, which contain anomalous fluorine concentrations (McLemore
et al., 2009a). The high Fe and S are possibly related to the dissolution of pyrite and other
sulfide minerals.
221
Figure 7. Net NP (neutralizing potential) versus paste pH for samples in GHN. Geologic units shown in
Figure 2 and described in McLemore et al. (2009a).
Not all weathered samples exhibit all of these features. It is common for the fine-grained soil
matrix to be weathered, but most rock fragments within the rock-pile material exhibit little or no
weathering, except on their surface (McLemore et al., 2009d). As the pyrite oxidizes, calcite dis-
solves, and secondary gypsum and Fe oxides precipitate; the mineralogical changes can be observed
microscopically and, locally, macroscopically. Extensive evidence of mineral transformations due
specifically to weathering in the rock pile is not observed (i.e. feldspar to kaolinite).
Four different zones of weathering can be distinguished at GHN (Fig. 2; McLemore et al.,
2009a): 1) outer oxidized zone (includes the surface and geologic units C, I), 2) intermediate zone
(includes unit J, N), 3) inner, less oxidized, weathered zone (includes units K-W), and 4) basal
oxidized zone (includes geologic units R and rubble zone). In all benches and drill holes sampled,
the interior, less oxidized units (east, units K-W, excluding unit N) of the piles are uniformly dark
to light brown or gray with visible pyrite that are interbedded with occasional yellow to gray zones
of oxidation associated with little or no pyrite. The inner, less oxidized zone typically contains
abundant calcite, chlorite, and clay minerals and accordingly, has high paste pH values and lower
AP than the outer units. The outer surface-atmosphere interface represents a zone with the most
active geochemical processes noted in the rock piles. The outer, oxidized units consist of highly
leached and oxidized rock comprising mainly quartz and secondary iron sulfates, with smectite and
mixed layer illite-smectite and some pyrite. This zone is characterized by low paste pH, low NP,
and high AP. Extensive interchange of water and oxygen occurs in this zone, which enhances pyrite
oxidation. Inside the leached zone (J) is a zone of clay accumulation. The clays are predominantly
illite and smectite with increasing chlorite toward the center of the pile. This unit is typically green
to orange with moderate to low paste pH. Inward from the zone of clay accumulation is a zone of
sulfate mineral accumulation. Jarosite and gypsum become more abundant and the zone is typically
orange. In between the outer, oxidized and interior, unoxidized zone is an intermediate zone (Unit
N) of light to dark brown material that is well cemented by clay. It contains local zones of bright
orange to yellow oxidized sandy clay. Clays are dominated by illite, smectite, and chlorite.
5 STATIC TESTS
ABA and NAG tests indicate that the GHN material ranges from potentially acid-generating to non-
acid generating samples (Fig. 7). Generally, AP depends on the amount of pyrite and other sulfide
222
Table 1. Summary of ABA results for the stable portion of GHN rock pile (Tachie-Menson, 2006). Paste
pH2 = paste pH on powdered samples; NP = neutralization potential; AP = acid potential; NNP = NP – AP;
no = number of samples.
Paste pH2 NNP (kg CaCO3 /t)

Hole/Trench No Min. Max. Avg. Std dev Min. Max. Avg. Std dev.
LFG-005 3 3.98 7.75 5.37 2.07 −1.51 41.03 12.96 24.32

LFG-006 30 3.14 8.08 5.58 1.74 −12.92 47.78 9.23 14.71
LFG-007 3 5.47 7.81 6.47 1.21 0.32 13.33 6.55 6.52
LFG-008 13 4.14 7.69 5.77 1.16 −10.66 28.44 4.38 13.25
LFG-009 16 3.05 6.78 4.46 1.08 −12.81 51.74 2.82 14.02
Surface 2 3.72 4.09 3.91 0.26 −5.59 −5.49 −5.53 0.05
TH-GN-01 32 3.11 8.08 5.23 1.51 −18.8 29.15 3.48 10.64
Overall 99 3.05 8.08 5.30 1.53 −18.8 51.74 5.43 13.25
Table 2. Summary of NAG test results for the stable portion of the GHN rock pile (Tachie-Menson, 2006).
No. = number of samples.
NAG pH2 NAG4.5 (kg CaCO3 /t)

Hole/Trench No. Min. Max. Avg. Std dev Min. Max. Avg. Std dev.
LFG-005 3 2.96 8.99 5.38 3.18 0.00 1.27 0.42 0.73

LFG-006 29 2.42 9.29 6.32 2.06 0.00 29.74 2.02 7.14
LFG-007 3 6.26 8.51 7.27 1.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
LFG-008 22 2.43 8.62 5.10 1.96 0.00 14.77 1.58 3.70
LFG-009 16 2.03 8.49 4.55 2.10 0.00 25.89 4.99 9.54
Surface 2 2.84 3.00 2.92 0.11 1.66 3.98 2.82 1.64
TH-GN-01 32 1.37 8.06 4.39 2.16 0.00 31.18 3.33 6.44
Overall 107 1.37 9.29 5.16 2.22 0.00 31.18 2.68 6.55
minerals and NP depends upon the amount of calcite and other acid-neutralizing minerals. Samples
that have higher concentrations of pyrite are more likely to have a higher acid generation capacity.
Samples with rhyolite rock fragments in GHN have lower NP then samples with andesite rock
fragments. Samples with rhyolite rock fragments were hydrothermally altered to QSP alteration,
whereas samples with andesite rock fragments were propylitically altered; these hydrothermal
alterations occurred after the molybdenum mineralization, but prior to mining. The samples from
the interior of the GHN rock pile (units L, K, O, R, S, U, V, M, T) are less weathered since its
emplacement and have less acid-generating capacity. However, the majority of GHN samples do
not show any strong correlation between paste pH, AP, NP, mineralogy, or chemistry (Tables 1, 2,
3). No single component controls the ABA and NAG tests.
This lack of correlation between ABA and NAG tests, mineralogy, and chemistry may be con-
trolled by several factors. First, as weathering progresses, we observe that reactions in the soil
matrix producing precipitation of coatings on mineral grains in rock fragments. This is particularly
true for pyrite, which is coated by goethite. This coating process may slow the rate at which pyrite
weathers and produces acid, although this process is not completely halted because some fully
altered relict pyrite is observed (McLemore et al., 2009d). Second, the local climate in the Questa
area is relatively arid, and therefore much of the GHN rock pile has remained relatively dry in
the 25–40 years since its construction. Water is a key component of the acid-generating weather-
ing process, and in this case we suggest that uniform weathering was hampered by the relatively
small amount of available water. Third, the air flow through the GHN rock pile has been shown
to be heterogeneous (Reiter, 2009), leading to a heterogeneous weathering process. Fourth, for
some of the reasons mentioned above, there has been little or no weathering of the interior of the
223
Table 3. Pierson correlation coefficients for various parameters. Note the lack of any significant correlations.
Paste pH NAG pH NAG value AP NP Net NP NPAP
SiO2 −0.40 −0.36 0.07 0.03 −0.34 −0.21 −0.24

TiO2 0.45 0.45 −0.10 −0.07 0.37 0.24 0.38
Al2 O3 0.39 0.32 −3.51E-04 0.06 0.34 0.15 0.26
Fe2 O3T 0.31 0.33 −0.07 −0.07 0.25 0.15 0.21
MnO 0.51 0.52 −0.37 −0.322 0.35 0.36 0.30
MgO 0.56 0.61 −0.29 −0.25 0.59 0.46 0.59
CaO 0.61 0.64 −0.32 −0.31 0.56 0.50 0.59
Na2 O 0.42 0.49 −0.36 −0.35 0.30 0.37 0.34
K2 O −0.37 −0.29 0.09 −0.009 −0.36 −0.31 −0.22
P 2 O5 0.44 0.39 −0.11 −0.12 0.34 0.25 0.34
S −0.22 −0.34 0.87 0.85 −0.16 −0.20 −0.24
SO4 −0.23 −0.37 0.25 0.24 −0.28 −0.24 −0.30
C 0.25 0.25 −0.14 −0.09 0.30 0.20 0.15
LOI −0.14 −0.25 0.25 0.29 −0.13 −0.23 −0.25
Ba 0.34 0.32 −0.06 −0.04 0.18 0.11 0.21
Paste pH 1 0.71 −0.31 −0.27 0.56 0.49 0.47
NAG pH 0.70 1 −0.48 −0.41 0.62 0.52 0.56
NAG value −0.31 −0.48 1 0.74 −0.24 −0.31 −0.23
AP −0.27 −0.41 0.74 1 −0.20 −0.37 −0.30
NP 0.56 0.63 −0.24 −0.20 1 0.74 0.68
Ne tNP 0.49 0.52 −0.31 −0.37 0.74 1 0.55
NPAP 0.47 0.56 −0.23 −0.30 0.68 0.56 1
quartz −0.52 −0.59 0.25 0.23 −0.43 −0.36 −0.41
K-feldspar 0.10 0.18 −0.24 −0.34 0.05 0.20 0.20
plagioclase 0.41 0.41 −0.28 −0.28 0.26 0.34 0.29
epidote 0.57 0.51 −0.22 −0.26 0.43 0.38 0.49
calcite 0.32 0.41 −0.18 −0.13 0.45 0.33 0.23
pyrite −0.22 −0.38 0.78 0.80 −0.17 −0.44 −0.16
Fe-Mn oxides −0.04 −0.09 0.09 −0.002 −0.10 −0.06 −0.12
gypsum −0.04 −0.002 −0.09 −0.09 −0.12 −0.07 −0.15
biotite −0.12 −0.14 0.81 0.18 −0.09 −0.12 −0.07
fluorite −0.09 −0.16 −0.07 0.02 0.29 0.09 0.14
apatite 0.23 0.41 −0.22 −0.23 0.38 0.34 0.340
Total clay −0.16 −0.23 0.28 0.34 −0.10 −0.28 −0.23
kaolinite 0.14 0.17 −0.13 −0.08 0.06 0.05 −2.73E-04
chlorite 0.56 0.61 −0.29 −0.25 0.60 0.46 0.50
illite −0.32 −0.38 0.34 0.39 −0.20 −0.34 −0.31
smectite 0.24 0.36 −0.16 −0.15 0.14 0.15 0.15
mixed-layered clays −0.14 −0.03 −0.06 −0.23 −0.13 −0.10 −0.15
rock fragments, which comprise much of the rock-pile material (Fig. 6). Also, the acid producing
capacity of the rock-pile is determined by the combination of K-feldspar, calcite, smectite, illite,
and pyrite, which are controlled in part by the lithology, pre-mining hydrothermal alteration, and
post-mining weathering. The rock-pile material forming the interior of GHN has not experienced
significant weathering since emplacement except where water and air flowed (McLemore et al.,
2009a, d). A similar lack of correlation between weathering and geotechnical properties (such as
slake durability, point load indices, and shear strength) is observed at GHN (Gutierrez et al., 2008;
McLemore et al., 2009a).
6 CONCLUSIONS
In the Questa rock-pile materials, dissolution of pyrite, calcite, and to a lesser extent some combina-
tion of chlorite, illite, feldspars, smectite, and other silicate minerals are the predominant chemical
224
weathering reactions that results in 1) elevated dissolved solute concentrations in water seeping
from the rock pile and 2) the precipitation of gypsum, jarosite, soluble efflorescent salts, and Fe
oxide/hydroxide minerals. The Questa rock-pile materials are a mixture of different lithologies and
hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblages before being emplaced in the rock piles, therefore
changes of mineralogy and chemistry between the outer, oxidized zone and the interior, unoxidized
zones of the rock pile are a result of differences due to pre-mining composition as well as chem-
ical weathering. No single component controls the ABA and NAG tests. This lack of correlation
between ABA and NAG tests, mineralogy, and chemistry is a result of 1) weathering reactions in
the soil matrix producing precipitation of coatings surrounding the rock fragments and preventing
further weathering of the rock fragments, especially around pyrite crystals, 2) a lack of the water
available that is required for weathering in the 25–40 years since the formation of GHN rock pile,
3) non-uniform weathering of pyrite within the rock pile due to heterogeneous air flow, and 4)
little or no weathering of the rock fragments. Also, the AP capacity of the rock-pile is determined
by the combination of K-feldspar, calcite, smectite, illite, and pyrite, which are controlled in part
by the lithology, pre-mining hydrothermal alteration, and post-mining weathering. Samples that
have higher concentrations of pyrite are more likely to have a higher AP. The effects of pre-mining
hydrothermal alteration and post-mining weathering both affect the static tests, emphasizing the
need to perform detailed petrographic and mineralogic investigations along with the static tests to
determine the AP of any mine waste material.
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Effect of reservoir pool changes on metals release from

mining-contaminated sediment
Thomas Moyer
Black & Veatch, Federal Services Division, Arvada, CO, USA
Brian Striggow
EPA Region 4 Science and Ecosystems Support Division, Athens, GA, USA
James Eldridge
Black & Veatch, Federal Services Division, Woodinville, WA, USA
Craig Zeller
EPA Region 4, Division of Superfund, Atlanta, GA, USA
ABSTRACT: Eastern Parksville Reservoir in Tennessee contains a large sediment delta contam-
inated with copper slag, sulfide minerals and other mine wastes. Repeated exposure of the delta
during winter drawdowns has oxidized the upper few feet of the delta, which is flooded during
summer months. Seasonal inundation creates pore water in the oxidized zone with low pH (<4)
and high concentrations of metals and sulfate. Water in the reduced zone has near-neutral pH, low
concentrations of most metals, and variable iron. Surface water collected within inches of the sedi-
ment interface often exceeds chronic aquatic life criteria for copper and zinc, suggesting sediment
influence. Winter drawdown permits poor quality water to drain to the reservoir perhaps through
preferential pathways. Investigation of the delta illustrates that understanding complex mechanisms
of contaminant release and cycling from sediment is critical to assessing potential long-term risks
such as those associated with reservoir management practices.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Ocoee River in southeastern Tennessee historically received acid mine drainage, mining wastes,
and soil eroded from the Copper Basin mining district. Much of this material was deposited
approximately 32 km downstream in eastern Parksville Reservoir where a sediment delta was
formed (Fig. 1). Studies of the reservoir, conducted as part of a remedial investigation (RI) of the
Ocoee River (Black & Veatch, 2008), revealed adverse chronic effects to the aquatic ecosystem
caused primarily by metals and pH. This prompted a more detailed study of the delta in order to
better understand potential contaminant release mechanisms.
The upper Ocoee River drainage (known as the Toccoa River in Georgia) is underlain by Precam-
brian metamorphic rocks, some of which contain disseminated iron sulfide minerals. The absence
of calcareous strata in this region creates surface water with low hardness (commonly <20 mg/L)
and little alkalinity. The Copper Basin mining district occurs within the Great Smoky Group and is
characterized by massive sulfide deposits containing pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite
(Slater, 1982). Ore from surface and underground mines was beneficiated using flotation separa-
tion, roasting, and smelting to produce iron calcine, copper metal, zinc concentrate, and sulfuric
acid and other sulfur products (EPA, 2010). In the late 1800s, local hardwood was cut and used as
fuel to roast ore in open sheds prior to smelting. The deforestation, combined with the effects of
sulfur dioxide gas partly to wholly devegetated a 130 square kilometer area, leading to substantial
soil erosion. Granulated copper slag, iron calcine, tailings, and other mining and processing wastes
also were eroded and conveyed to the Ocoee River. Beginning in the 1970s, revegetation efforts
began to stem the widespread erosion, although tributary streams continued to convey water with
229
Figure 1. Location map showing the location of Parksville delta at the eastern end of Parksville Reservoir in
southeastern Tennessee.
low pH and high concentrations of aluminum, copper, iron, manganese, zinc, sulfate, and acidity
to the river. In 2001, the mining district and Ocoee River downstream of the site were designated as
a Superfund Alternative megasite (EPA, 2010). Actions taken since that time have addressed creek
discharges through selective removals and water treatment using lime neutralization.
Sediment and mine contaminants discharged from the creeks moved downstream through the
river, forming lateral bars and mid-stream islands before being deposited in the still water behind
Parksville (Ocoee No. 1) dam, which was built in 1911. Two additional dams (Ocoee No. 2 and No.
3) were constructed in 1913 and 1942, respectively to provide water for power generation (both) and
limit downstream sediment migration (No. 3). Reservoir pool elevation within Parksville Reservoir
is managed by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) primarily for power generation. From May
through October, pool level is kept at an elevation that floods the delta with 0.6 m or more of water.
In winter months, pool elevation is lowered by about 2.7 m, which exposes approximately 1.05 km2
of sediment.
2 STUDY APPROACH
Data collected from the delta as part of the Ocoee River RI included grab samples of oxidized and
reduced sediment, sediment cores collected from a transect along the delta axis, shallow ground
water from temporary locations in the oxidized sediment and wells installed in reduced sediment,
surface water from the reservoir, and field parameters collected from the water column at the
delta toe as pool level was lowered in the fall. To support a feasibility study, the RI data were
supplemented with measurements of ground water concentrations though a full reservoir cycle and
bench tests to investigate the effect of amending sediment with lime.
2.1 Delta ground water investigation

Data on ground water concentrations were gathered from three sets of nested wells screened at
different depths in the sediment column, including both the oxidized and reduced sediment zones
(Fig. 1). The wells were installed in February 2008 prior to the rise in reservoir level to summer pool
and monitored until water level was lowered in December. Samples were collected approximately
monthly and analyzed for selected metals, sulfate, acidity, and field parameters; ground water eleva-
tion also was measured at each location. In addition, samples of surface water were collected at each
location and from the river upstream of the delta. The results of the well investigation were combined
with results previously obtained during the RI to provide a more complete picture of the delta.
Wells were sampled using low-flow techniques with water purged until field parameters were
stable. Water samples for metals were field-filtered through certified 0.45 µm filters, preserved
to pH <2 using nitric acid, then placed on ice. Samples for sulfate and total acidity were not
230
filtered and were placed on ice immediately following collection. Field parameter measurements
of temperature, pH, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, redox potential, and turbidity were
made at the time of sample collection using a flow-through cell and Eureka Manta multi-parameter
sondes that were calibrated daily.
Water samples were analyzed by GEL Laboratory in Charleston, SC following accepted proto-
cols. Aluminum, calcium, cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, and zinc were analyzed
using EPA Method 6020A (inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry; EPA, 1986). Total sul-
fate was analyzed following EPA Method 300.0 (ion chromatography; Pfaff, 1993). Total acidity
was analyzed following Standard Method 2010B (titration; Eaton, et al., 2005).
2.2 Bench testing

Oxidized delta sediment was collected from the upstream end of the delta for use in bench testing.
This location was chosen for its sandy composition to minimize potential problems with percolation
of water through the material. The sediment was homogenized and aliquots withdrawn for use in
the bench tests. Test cells were constructed using 5 gallon (19 L) buckets fitted with pre-packed
sample screens installed horizontally near the base of the cell to permit sampling of pore water. The
cells were filled with about 16 kg of delta sediment and saturated with deionized water; the cells
were maintained in a laboratory at EPA’s Science and Ecosystem Support Division. Test protocols
included static tests to mimic permanent inundation of the delta and dynamic tests to imitate the
current reservoir management practices. Sediment remained inundated in the static cells for the 8
month test duration, whereas sediment in the dynamic cells was inundated for 80 days, drained and
exposed to the atmosphere for 100 days, then flooded for an additional 66 days. Agricultural lime
amendment obtained from local suppliers was incorporated into the upper portion of the sediment
column in both static and dynamic tests.
Water collected from the test cells was analyzed following the protocols listed above. Two splits
of the sediment were analyzed by SVL, Inc. in Kellogg, ID using standard protocols. Aluminum,
calcium, cobalt, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, and zinc were analyzed using EPA Method
6010C (inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometry; EPA, 1986). Neutralizing potential
and sulfur forms (total, sulfide, sulfate, and non-extractable) were analyzed following Sobek, et al.
(1978). Saturated pH was measured following McLean (1982).
3 PARKSVILLE DELTA SEDIMENT
Delta sediment was investigated through grab sampling, hand augering, and coring the upper
layers of the sediment column. Sediment is moderately to poorly sorted and varies from silty clay
to coarse sand. Sand fractions are dominated by quartz and other metamorphic minerals, with minor
metamorphic rock fragments, granulated copper slag, and trace amounts of sulfide minerals. Silt
and clay is typically layered on intervals of less than a few millimeters and leaf litter and organic
detritus commonly defines bedding tops/bottoms throughout the sediment. Sediment layers at the
surface of the emergent delta are oxidized and have an orange-brown color distinct from the dark
gray of underlying reduced material (Fig. 2). The change from oxidized to reduced sediment varies
from sharp to gradational over approximately 15 cm.
A boat-mounted vibracore core rig was used to collect cores from the upper 3 m of the delta
sediment; the six cores defined a transect along the strike of the delta axis (Fig. 1). Because
recovered core length was typically 50 to 75 percent of the drilled depth, there is uncertainty in the
depositional history of the recovered material. Coring showed that the zone of oxidized sediment
thinned from nearly 0.6 m near the reservoir inlet to zero where sediment remains permanently
inundated and that silty clay layers are interbedded with sand units across the delta. A well-sorted
slag-bearing sand layer identified at 1 m below the surface near the inlet is thought to correlate
to a normally graded sand layer identified in other cores. That this layer was found in cores
separated by about 1.5 km along strike illustrates that some sedimentary units are widely distributed
across the delta and represent significant depositional events. Such layers may form preferential
pathways for water flow through the delta. Testing of samples collected from the delta suggest that
hydraulic conductivity varies widely (at least 3 orders of magnitude), with maximum measured
values exceeding 0.75 m/day.
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Figure 2. Photo of Ocoee River bank cutting through Parksville delta, showing orange-brown oxidized
sediment overlying dark gray reduced sediment. Thickness of oxidized zone is about 20 cm.
Table 1. Median and range of concentrations in Parksville delta sediment.
Oxidized Reduced
Median Minimum Maximum n Median Minimum Maximum n
Aluminum 19,000 3400 40,800 25 21,000 8200 35,300 21

Calcium 770 160 9000 25 2800 820 7600 21
Copper 630 110 1600 25 800 290 2000 21
Iron 56,000 20,000 92,900 25 59,000 31,000 98,400 21
Lead 220 68 980 25 270 130 1080 21
Magnesium 3400 730 4800 25 3600 2000 5900 21
Manganese 630 68 3300 25 400 250 1200 21
Zinc 850 230 2000 25 1300 680 2540 21
Paste pH 4.75 3.69 6.34 21 6.16 3.84 7.00 11
Oxidizable S 0.07 0.04 0.41 11 0.97 0.64 1.28 11
Neutral. Pot. <0.3 <0.3 <0.3 11 16.6 2.17 20 11
n = number of samples
metals in mg/kg; pH in standard units; oxidizable sulfur in %; neutralizing potential in tons CaCO3
equiv/kiloton.
Sediment samples collected from across the exposed portion of the delta had variable con-
centrations of metals (Table 1; see Black & Veatch, 2008 for additional details). Most exceeded
site-specific and literature-based risk levels for copper, iron, lead, and zinc in sediment and a few
samples exceeded toxicity reference values for cadmium (TRV; the concentration at which toxic
effects to receptors is expected). Samples also had low to moderate concentrations of total phos-
phorous and organic carbon. Paste pH varied from 3.7 to 7.0; of the eleven samples having pH less
than 5.0, ten were collected from the upper 15 cm of the soil column or from material described
as oxidized. Most samples had low concentrations of oxidizable sulfur (total sulfur minus sul-
fate sulfur) and neutralizing potential (Table 1). Median metals concentrations in oxidized and
reduced sediment samples were generally similar for the two groups; however, oxidized sediment
had consistently lower zinc and paste pH. Moreover, oxidized sediment had little to no oxidizable
sulfur or neutralizing potential, which contrasted with higher values for both in reduced sediment
samples. These results suggest that oxidation of delta sediment used up most available neutralizing
potential, resulting in lower sediment pH. The oxidation also appears to have mobilized considerable
232
Table 2. Well construction data.
Screen Top Screen Bottom
Location Well ID Sediment Screened (m bss) (m bss)
PR200 PR200R reduced 1.43 1.59

PR200X2 oxidized 0.30 0.46
PR201T transition 0.43 0.58
PR201X oxidized 0.15 0.30
m bss = meters below sediment surface
zinc from the sediment, but had less effect on copper, lead, and most other metals. Grain size also
was found to influence sediment chemistry. Analysis of sieved splits of a few sediment samples
showed that silt and finer material had significantly higher concentrations of metals and oxidizable
sulfur than sandy material.
4 PARKSVILLE DELTA GROUND WATER
Shallow ground water contained within the oxidized and reduced sediment of Parksville delta
was investigated by installing three clusters of shallow wells whose locations are illustrated in
Figure 1. Wells in reduced sediment were screened just below the permanent water table defined by
winter low pool in the reservoir; wells in the oxidized zone were dry at the time of installation and
contained water only when reservoir water flooded their locations. Reservoir information obtained
from TVA showed that pool elevation began to rise from winter low pool around April 1, 2008
and had reached full summer pool by the end of the month (at summer pool, the delta is covered by
0.6 to 1.5 m of water). A sharp drawdown to winter pool occurred in early to mid-May (exposing
the delta) and water elevation did not regain typical summer pool until the last week of May.
From June through November, pool elevation remained stable, with fluctuations less than 0.3 m.
Winter drawdown began the first week of November and low pool was achieved by early December.
Pressure transducers installed at each well location showed that ground water elevation at stations
PR200 and PR202 responded quickly to changes in lake elevation, whereas ground water elevation
at PR201 responded more slowly, lagging by up to three weeks. The lag suggests local anisotropy
in water flow through the delta.
Table 2 summarizes information for the wells at each cluster. Sand filter packs were installed
around each well screen and the screens were isolated with bentonite plugs above and below the
sand packs. In addition to the wells shown in the table, each cluster contained a fourth well screened
below the permanent water table and fitted with a pressure transducer and data logger to record
ground water level. Samples were collected from the wells on seven occasions. The initial samples
were collected when reservoir pool had risen to about 70 percent of summer pool (as measured from
winter low pool). The second set of samples was taken during the May drawdown when reservoir
pool stood at about 25 percent of summer elevation. The subsequent three sets were collected at
full summer pool, while the remaining two sample sets were collected when reservoir pool had
fallen from summer elevation by approximately 10 percent and 75 percent. Analytical data for all
samples can be found in Black & Veatch (2008).
A composite sediment sample was collected from the upper 1.9 m of the delta in 2002 and
submitted for leach testing using the State of Nevada Meteoric Water Mobility (MWMP) procedure
(NDEP, 1996). The sample included reduced sediment with subordinate oxidized material. The test
released numerous metals from the sediment in concentrations generally similar to those of ground
water collected from reduced sediment near the base of the sampled interval. This indicated that
the composition of ground water in the delta sediment could be expected to be a function of the
materials in which it occurs.
233
Table 3. Median and range of concentrations of ground water in Parksville delta sediment.
Water in Oxidized Sediment Water in Reduced Sediment
Median Minimum Maximum n Median Minimum Maximum n
Aluminum 3610 26.2 16,800 33 9.7 <5 228 21

Calcium 11,700 7490 27,400 33 56,200 10,800 161,000 21
Copper 2560 49.8 11,500 33 1.7 0.27 14.5 21
Iron 6290 <50 66,000 33 21,100 7540 829,000 21
Magnesium 5110 2260 9530 33 12,400 10,200 79,200 21
Manganese 878 62.4 3040 33 586 157 14,000 21
Zinc 9280 3000 24,100 33 6.8 <2.6 659 21
Sulfate 237 101 665 33 164 <5 1990 21
pH 4.6 3.5 7.1 33 6.8 6.0 7.8 21
ORP 284 68 380 33 −54 −153 78 21
Conductivity 508 281 700 33 552 261 2908 21
n = number of samples
metals in µg/L; sulfate in mg/L, pH in standard units; ORP in mV; conductivity in µS/cm.
Figure 3. Ground water contained within Parksville delta sediment. Filled symbols collected from oxi-
dized sediment; open symbols collected from reduced sediment. A. Dissolved zinc vs. dissolved copper. B.
Oxidation-reduction potential vs. pH.
4.1 Water in the oxidized and reduced sediment zones

Table 3 summarizes concentrations found in ground water collected from oxidized and reduced
delta sediment during the 2008 study. The results show that water sampled from oxidized sediment
has higher concentrations of numerous dissolved (0.45 µm filtered) metals including aluminum,
cobalt, copper, manganese, and zinc. For most of these metals, median concentrations are two or
more orders of magnitude higher than the median concentrations in samples collected from reduced
sediment (Fig. 3A). Reduced water had median concentrations of calcium, iron, and magnesium
higher than those of oxidized water by factors of 5 or less. Water contained within oxidized sediment
also had higher acidity and sulfate, lower median pH (by 2 log units), and positive redox potential
(Fig. 3B). Importantly, pH and the concentrations of metals in most samples of ground water
collected from oxidized sediment exceeded applicable Tennessee State chronic surface water quality
criteria for the protection of aquatic life in Parksville Reservoir (Cu = 2.0 µg/L; Zn = 26 µg/L; pH
6.0 to 9.0) and the recommended Federal criterion for aluminum in surface water (87 µg/L). In
contrast, only one sample of water from the reduced zone exceeded the surface water criterion for
aluminum, while ten samples exceeded the criterion for copper (7 of these from location PR201),
and seven samples exceeded the criterion for zinc (all from location PR201).
4.2 Local variation in ground water concentrations
Abrupt changes with depth were observed in the composition of ground water within the delta at
each of the three well clusters. The magnitude of these changes varied significantly from one well
234
Figure 4. Dissolved metal concentrations in interstitial pore water from the Parksville delta at location PR201.
A. Dissolved iron vs. dissolved aluminum in ground water collected from oxidized, transitional, and reduced
sediment and surface water from the same location. B. Dissolved zinc vs. dissolved copper.
cluster to another. Ground water contained in oxidized and reduced sediment layers at location
PR201 provides an example of the large variations that are locally observed, in this case within a
depth range of about 1 m. Cluster PR201 contained a well screened fully within oxidized sediment,
a well screened fully within reduced sediment, and a well screened across the sharp transition
between the two. These wells were screened in relatively fine-grained sediment; the oxidized sed-
iment well was dry during the May and December sampling events and the transitional sediment
well was dry in May when the reservoir level was down. Although aluminum, cobalt, and copper
occurred in low concentrations in the reduced sediment well, the reduced water contained elevated
concentrations of dissolved iron, manganese, zinc, sulfate, and hardness that contrasted with water
in reduced sediment in other locations.
Figure 4 illustrates the wide variation in ground water concentrations present at location PR201
and shows that water from the well screened across the oxidation boundary has a composition
intermediate to the oxidized and reduced endmembers. Moreover, the concentrations of metals in
surface water collected a few cm above the sediment surface at this location show that the compo-
sitional differences in ground water cannot be explained simply as a function of dilution by surface
water (Fig. 4A).
4.3 Changes in ground water composition over a reservoir cycle

Ground water composition was observed to change throughout the course of the reservoir cycle.
Figure 5 provides an illustration of the types of changes observed at well cluster PR200. Obser-
vations of water extracted from reduced sediment at the three well clusters showed that dissolved
aluminum concentrations more than doubled from April through September during rising and full
pool conditions, then dropped by nearly as much as pool level fell to winter conditions. Dissolved
zinc initially dropped in two of the three reduced sediment wells then began to rebound as the water
level was lowered. Lowering of the reservoir pool also caused redox potential, which remained
relatively constant at high pool, to increase in these samples, in some cases to positive values.
Other constituents, such as pH, iron, and copper, displayed inconsistent behavior, increasing in
some wells and decreasing in others.
The concentrations of copper and zinc decreased by about half in samples collected from oxidized
sediment during rising and high reservoir pool, then increased by a lesser amount as reservoir pool
was lowered. In contrast, iron concentrations increased throughout the reservoir cycle, with the
greatest increase occurring during rising and high pool. Field pH generally decreased throughout
the cycle whereas redox potential increased during rising and full pool until remaining essentially
unchanged as water level declined in the fall.
4.4 Field measurements of reservoir water during drawdown

An effort was made to investigate potential water quality impacts to the reservoir caused by the
release of water from the delta as the reservoir level was drawn down to winter pool in 2005. Three
235
Figure 5. Dissolved metal concentrations in ground water from the Parksville delta at location PR200. A.
Ground water in reduced sediment at 1.43 to 1.59 m below the top of sediment (note log scale for concentration).
B. Ground water in oxidized sediment at 0.30 to 0.46 m below top of sediment.
Figure 6. Profiles of specific conductance in Parksville reservoir with time as reservoir level was drawndown
in the fall of 2005. Delta toe station located 30 to 60 cm above delta sediment at mid-point of toe; reservoir
station suspended adjacent to toe, 3 m above sediment. A. Mid-November, 2005 shows abrupt increase in
specific conductivity near the end of the monitoring period at the delta toe station. B. Early December, 2005,
shows continued higher conductivity with delta toe water significantly more elevated than the reservoir as a
whole. This departure is consistent with high conductivity water draining from the delta toe and gradually
mixing into the reservoir as drawdown continues.
stations were located in the reservoir along the western toe of the delta and sondes were suspended
in the water column at these stations for multiple days on three occasions. Each sonde was equipped
with probes to measure temperature, pH, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen. Two stations
were established at the mid-point and bottom of the delta toe within 30 to 60 cm of the sediment–
water interface, while the third station was located within the water column approximately 3 m
above the sediment. The stations were occupied for several days in mid-October 2005 prior to
drawdown, in mid-November as the reservoir level was dropping, and in early December as the
reservoir was nearing low pool.
Figure 6 shows the records for the stations located at the mid-point of the delta toe and at 3 m above
the sediment for the November and December events. The conductivity data showed that all stations
had similar values prior to and during the early stages of drawdown. As drawdown progressed,
however, higher conductivity was noted in the delta toe station (Fig. 6A) and this eventually was
matched by higher conductivity higher in the water column of the reservoir (Fig. 6B). The increase
in conductivity is consistent with high conductivity water draining from the delta into the reservoir.
5 BENCH TESTING OF PARKSVILLE SEDIMENT
Sediment used in the bench test was collected adjacent to well cluster PR202 (Fig. 1) and con-
sisted of medium to coarse, orange-brown micaceous sand with small gravel-sized fragments of
236
metamorphic rocks. The sand was quartz-rich, with the quartz typically stained yellow and it
included 1 to 3 percent black, glassy granulated slag by visual estimate. Biotite mica was oxidized
and appeared brassy; sulfide minerals were not observed with a hand lens. The sediment was
thoroughly homogenized in a single pile from which aliquots were taken for testing.
Analysis of the delta sediment used in the bench tests found that the test sample had metal
concentrations lower than the median oxidized sediment shown in Table 1. Most significant were
aluminum and copper which were lower by about 70 percent, iron which was lower by 37 percent,
and zinc which was lower by 22 percent. In addition, the test sample had paste pH that was higher by
0.6 log units, oxidizable sulfur that was lower by 43 percent, and measurable neutralizing potential
(3.5 tons/kiloton CaCO3 equivalent).
5.1 Static tests

Five cells were used to conduct the static tests. These tests were intended to mimic long-term
inundation of the delta sediment that occurs as reservoir elevation is maintained at summer pool. The
tests used about 16 kg of delta sediment saturated with 9 to 10.5 L of deionized water. Agricultural
lime from two different suppliers was incorporated into the upper 3 to 4 cm of the sediment in four of
the cells; the fifth cell was unamended to serve as a control. Water fully saturated the sediment and
a pool of water 5 to 7 cm deep was maintained above it. Lids were placed on the cells to minimize
evaporative loss and the dissolved oxygen content of the surface pool was monitored weekly to
ensure that reducing conditions did not ensue. Three cells received 40 g of lime whereas the fourth
cell received 80 g of lime. These amounts mimicked application rates of 3 and 6 tons/acre, which
is typical for amending acidic soils in the mining district.
The static tests began operating on May 15, 2008 and continued through January 15, 2009. Six
pore water samples were collected from each cell during that interval. The cell amended with 6
tons/acre was inadvertently drained immediately after completion; the amount of water flushed
through the cell is uncertain but less than the 9.5 L of water that were used to initially saturate it.
The cell was refilled with water; no sediment or amendment was added.
Figure 7 illustrates that water produced in the unamended control cell was generally similar
in composition to actual ground water collected from the delta, with the exception that the test
cell water contained higher concentrations of cobalt and manganese; the cause of these elevated
concentrations is unknown. Similar to ground water in the oxidized delta sediment, water in the
unamended test cell exhibited trends of decreasing concentrations with time for most metals except
iron, which progressively increased by two orders of magnitude.
Significant changes in pore water quality were observed in all cells over the course of the
static test. Aluminum, calcium, copper, and zinc decreased with time while iron increased. For
some metals, changes were substantial: copper in the control cell decreased by a factor of 12
and iron increased by a factor of 124 from the first to the last sampling event. Redox potential
also decreased throughout the test and pH typically increased by less than 1 unit. These changes
complicate interpretations of the effect, if any, of lime amendment on pore water quality. Although
most metals had similar concentrations in the control and amended cells, calcium in the amended
cells was nearly double that of the control cell. Moreover, relative to the control cell, amended
cells exhibited greater decreases in aluminum, copper, and zinc over time and a less substantial
increase in iron. The differences were greatest for the cell receiving the most lime. This suggests
that amending sediment with lime could potentially produce positive effects on pore water quality.
5.2 Dynamic tests

Three cells were used to conduct the dynamic tests. These tests were intended to mimic the periodic
flushing of reservoir sediment that occurs annually when pool level is drawn down from summer
to winter pool. The dynamic cells were set up similarly to those of the static tests, using the same
amounts of sediment, lime amendment, and reagent-grade water. One dynamic cell was unamended
to serve as an experimental control; the other two cells were amended with two different types of
agricultural lime at an application rate of 3 tons/acre.
The cells were subjected to two flushing events. During the first event, the cells were filled with
water on May 15, 2008 and a pool of water a few cm deep was maintained above the sediment.
Samples of pore water and the surface water pool were collected after 80 days after which the cells
237
Figure 7. Comparison of water produced in the unamended control test cell to ground water collected from
the deep oxidized well at location PR202 on the delta. Concentrations for dissolved metals are in µg/L; those
for hardness, acidity, and sulfate in mg/L.
were permitted to drain. The cells were then rested and the sediment allowed to dry and oxidize
for approximately 100 days. At that point (November 10), the cells were refilled with water and
a surface pool was again maintained atop the sediment. Samples of pore water and surface water
were collected after 66 days at which point the cells were drained and the experiment terminated.
Results from the unamended control cell showed that constituent concentrations in the pore water
and surface pool were similar for the first and second tests, with concentrations slightly lower in the
first flush test samples. During each test, concentrations were typically higher in pore water than in
surface water and constituents that were elevated in pore water also were found to be elevated in the
surface water sample. The surface water had significant concentrations of many constituents (e.g.,
Cu 534 and 863 µg/L; Zn 4060 and 5860 µg/L in the first and second tests) and acidic pH (4.5
and 4.1 s.u). Since the surface pool was not disturbed after the cell was filled, constituents clearly
had diffused out of the sediment and into the deionized water used to fill the cells, illustrating that
delta sediment can negatively affect surface water quality.
Cells that were amended with lime obtained from two different sources responded similarly to
one another. As observed in the control cell, pore water and surface water had similar concentrations
in the two flushing tests, with the exception of pH, which dropped by up to log unit in surface water
in the second test. In these tests, however, there was a marked difference between surface water and
pore water composition during each flushing event, with pore water having slightly lower calcium,
magnesium, and hardness, and concentrations of cobalt, copper, manganese, and zinc that were up
to 2 orders of magnitude higher.
Figure 8 compares constituent concentrations in pore water and surface water generated during
the second flushing event in the unamended test cell and in a test cell amended with lime. Pore
water in the amended cell had pH and constituent concentrations that were similar to or slightly
lower than those in the unamended cell (Fig. 8A). In contrast, surface water in the amended cell had
significantly higher pH, slightly higher concentrations of calcium, magnesium, iron, and hardness,
and substantially lower concentrations of aluminum, cobalt, copper, manganese, and zinc (Fig.
8B). The dynamic tests clearly indicate that amending the sediment with lime can limit diffusive
exchange between surface water and sediment pore water.
6 DISCUSSION
The assessment of ecological risk to the reservoir conducted as part of the Ocoee River RI (Black &
Veatch, 2008) found that water quality in the reservoir was generally good. Exceptions included
water adjacent to the sediment delta collected during reservoir drawdown and during winter months
and deep water (hypolimnion) in the reservoir collected during the summer. These areas suffered
238
Figure 8. Comparison of concentrations in pore water and surface water in amended and unamended dynamic
test cells. Concentrations for hardness, acidity, and sulfate in mg/L; all others in µg/L. A. Pore water from the
second flush test. B. Surface water from the second flush test.
chronic risk, primarily from zinc. Data collected as part of the RI pointed to the sediment delta at
the eastern end of the reservoir as a primary source of the chronic effects and this was substantiated
during the more detailed study of the delta described herein.
For 4 to 5 months each winter, drawdown of the Parksville Reservoir exposes about 1 km2 of
a sediment delta contaminated with slag and other mining-related wastes eroded from the Copper
Basin mining district. As a result, the upper surface of the delta, extending locally to a depth of
about 0.6 m has become oxidized. Delta sediment contains concentrations of copper, iron, lead,
and zinc that exceed site-specific and literature-based risk levels, indicating that toxic effects to
benthic macroinvertebrates are likely. Sediment analysis showed that the oxidation process created
sediment with saturated pH values less than 5 and low concentrations of oxidizable sulfur and
neutralizing potential that contrast with reduced sediment (saturated pH of about 6; 1 percent
oxidizable sulfur; 16 tons/kiloton CaCO3 equivalent neutralizing potential). Moreover, oxidized
sediment was found to have lower concentrations of a few metals, most notably zinc.
Samples collected from wells installed in the delta showed that despite the typically low concen-
trations of oxidizable sulfur, oxidized sediment produced acidic ground water with concentrations
of aluminum, cobalt, copper, manganese, and zinc up to two orders of magnitude higher than that
of reduced sediment. At any given location, the composition of ground water within the delta was
found to vary with depth and as a function of sediment oxidation. Dilution by the overlying surface
water column does not appear to play a significant role in controlling water composition within the
delta sediment although it is expected to be the source of water in the oxidized sediment zone.
The sediment and ground water chemistry is consistent with the oxidation of iron sulfide minerals
to produce acidity and release metals (Stumm and Morgan, 1996). Over time, neutralization of
this acidity is thought to have used up available neutralizing potential within the oxidized zone
ultimately creating sediment with acidic pH. Continued exposure to oxidizing conditions may be
creating water soluble acid salts as intermediate products that remain in the sediment pore space
until dissolved into pore water as reservoir pool is raised each year.
Historic aerial photos (EPA, 2000) show that the majority of the delta was formed prior to
1942 when Ocoee No. 3 dam was completed. Coring of the upper 3 m of the delta found that
the delta consists of interbedded sandy, silty, and clayey deposits, some of which are widespread.
The hydraulic conductivities of these materials were found to vary over at least three orders of
magnitude. Depending on the stratigraphic architecture created during deposition, preferential
pathways for ground water flow are expected to be present within the delta and may take the form
of widespread layers, channel-fills, or both.
Reservoir drawdown permits water in the oxidized sediment layer to drain from the delta as
water level is lowered below the top of the sediment surface. The pathways taken by this water have
not been documented but are likely to include flow into the river channel that bisects the delta at
low pool and flow through preferential pathways that lead to the delta toe. Evidence for the latter
was provided by sondes suspended above the delta toe that recorded increasing water conductivity
immediately above the delta toe as drawdown proceeded.
239
The Parksville delta does not support a viable benthic community, a fish spawning area, or a
juvenile rearing area when inundated with water. It also does not support the germination, estab-
lishment, and growth of vegetation (either aquatic or terrestrial) due to the water level fluctuation
throughout the year. Bench testing of oxidized sediment demonstrated that inundating the delta
creates poor quality ground water that undergoes diffusive exchange with overlying surface water.
Because water flows continuously through the reservoir, the extent of diffusive effects are expected
to be small due to the short time for surface water to equilibrate with the sediment; surface water
samples collected immediately above the sediment at each well cluster were not clearly different
than surface water in the river upstream of the delta. Nevertheless, dynamic bench tests demon-
strated that diffusive effects to surface water are significant given sufficient contact time; these
effects were greatly reduced by incorporating lime into the upper surface of the oxidized sediment
even though the lime did not significantly improve pore water quality. Although sediment amend-
ment significantly raised surface water pH, the pH of the surface pool dropped from the first flush
test to the second, suggesting that the positive effects of sediment amendment eventually may be
exhausted after several reservoir cycles.
Once released from the delta sediment, metals entering the reservoir may undergo complex
cycling between sediment and water in response to changing geochemical conditions. This is
exemplified by the elevated concentrations of zinc that are found in samples from the hypolimnion
only during summer months when water pH is commonly less than 6. That zinc concentrations are
much lower in winter when pH is above 7 suggests that zinc cycling may be controlled by sorption-
desorption reactions. These processes and their importance to risk have not yet been investigated
in detail.
REFERENCES
Black & Veatch, 2008. Remedial Investigation Report for the Ocoee River, Copper Basin Site, Operable Unit
5, Polk County, Tennessee, CERCLIS ID TN0001890839. Report prepared by Black & Veatch Special
Projects Corp. for EPA Region 4.
Eaton, Andrew D., Clesceri, Lenore, S., Rice, Eugene W., Greenberg, Arnold E., and Franson, MaryAnn H.,
editors, 2005. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater: Centennial Edition, 21st
edition. American Public Health Association, American Waterworks Association, and Water Environment
Federation, Washington, D.C.
McLean, E.O., 1982. Soil pH and Lime Requirement. In: A.L. Page, et al. (eds), Methods of Soil Analysis,
Part 2, 2nd Edition, Agronomy Monograph 9, ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 199–224.
Nevada Department of Environmental Protection (NDEP), 1996. MeteoricWater Mobility Procedure (MWMP),
Standardized Column Percolation Test Procedure. Bureau of Mining Regulation and Reclamation.
Pfaff, John D., 1993. Method 300.0, Determination of Inorganic Anions by Ion Chromatography, Revision
2.1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Office of
Research & Development, Cincinnati, OH.
Slater, R., 1982. Massive Sulfide Deposits of the Ducktown Mining District, Tennessee. Proceedings,
Exploration for Metallic Resources in the Southeast, Athens, GA.
Sobek, A.A., Schuller, W.A., Freeman, J.R., and Smith, R.M., 1978. Field and Laboratory Methods Applicable
to Overburden and Minesoils. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Report EPA-600/2-78-054, 204 pp.
Stumm, W. and Morgan, J.J., 1996. Aquatic Chemistry: Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters,
Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1022 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1986. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physi-
cal/Chemical Methods, 3rd edition. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Report SW-846,
November 1986 with revisions to January 2008.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2000. Aerial Photographic Analysis, Copper Basin Mining
District Study Area, Ducktown and Copperhill, Tennessee, vols. 1 and 2. TS-PIC-99004449S/20004449S,
Prepared by Environmental Services Division, National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. EPA Office
of Research and Development, Las Vegas.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2010. Copper Basin Mining District. EPA Region 4 Superfund
site summary, http://www.epa.gov/region4/waste/copper, viewed 6/2/2010.
240
Neutral mine drainage water-quality impacts from a former

taconite mine
B. Hanna
Itasca Denver, Inc., Denver, CO, USA
ABSTRACT: Surface waters at the site of a former Minnesota taconite mine were reported to
have solute concentrations elevated with respect to water-quality standards. Waste rock and ore
generated from past mining were primarily from open pit mining of the Biwabik Iron Formation
(BIF). The BIF is a variably bedded iron formation composed of inter-bedded cherty and slaty iron
silicate and iron carbonate rich beds. A geochemical characterization was conducted to identify
potential constituents of interest (COI), facilitate understanding of mechanisms controlling their
environmental behavior at the site, and guide future site activities. Primary COI were determined
to be SO4 , hardness (predominantly from Mg), alkalinity, Fe, Mn, and Al. BIF waste rock from
the Lower Slaty member appears to be the primary source for the identified COI. Mechanisms of
release are primarily attributed to pyrite oxidation and subsequent neutralization by dissolution of
mixed-composition (Ca-, Mg-, Fe-, and Mn-bearing) siderite and ankerite.
1 INTRODUCTION
Open-pit mining of taconite ore has led to the formation of several mine pit lakes at a former taconite
mine on the Mesabi Iron Range, in northeastern Minnesota. Water quality from the site, was eval-
uated during preliminary studies associated with redevelopment of the property and found to have
elevated solute concentrations with respect to water-quality standards or regional background con-
centrations (e.g. for SO4 , hardness, and alkalinity). A geochemical characterization was initiated at
that time to assess the sources of the elevated concentrations and guide environmental planning. As
part of this characterization, a variety of geochemical tests have been conducted on waste rock and
waste rock leachate to help identify potential constituents of interest (COI) and facilitate under-
standing of the mechanisms controlling their release and subsequent behavior in the environment.
This paper summarizes the methods, results, and conclusions from the geochemical characteriza-
tion and presents the basis of a geochemical conceptual model that can be used to guide future
management and development of the site.
2 SITE GEOLOGY
The site is located at the eastern end of the Biwabik Iron Formation (BIF). The BIF dips gently to the
southeast, although the geology of the site is complicated by local folding and faulting. The BIF is
classified into two types of iron formation: cherty iron formation, which is granular, massive, and
typically rich in quartz and iron oxides, and slaty materials, which are generally finely laminated,
fine-grained, and contain iron silicates and/or iron carbonates.
Wolff (1917) divided the BIF into four informal members: the Lower Cherty, Lower Slaty, Upper
Cherty, and Upper Slaty. The Upper Cherty and Lower Cherty members comprise the primary ore
zones due to their higher concentrations of magnetite and cherty silicate taconite, whereas the
Lower Slaty and the Upper Slaty members are largely waste rock. The Lower Slaty member is
approximately 75 feet to 85 feet thick. The P submember comprises the upper 60 feet to 75 feet and
is a fine-grained, finely-laminated, dark gray to black slate containing some disseminated pyrite. At
the base of the P submember is approximately 10 feet to 15 feet of the Intermediate Slate (locally
241
referred to as the Q submember). The Q submember is typically a black to dark-gray graphitic
silicate- and quartz bearing ash-fall tuff containing up to 5% disseminated ultra fine-grained pyrite
(Morey, 1993). Due to an erosional unconformity, the Upper Slaty member is absent from most
of the site, and therefore the Lower Slaty member comprises the majority of the approximately
2 × 1011 kg of waste rock on site, particularly in areas of notable water quality.
3 METHODS
Samples of waste rock were recovered from stockpile drilling and selected for testing. Most samples
were subjected to modified acid-base accounting, Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
(SPLP) testing, aqua regia digestion, humidity cell testing, analysis of pore-water chemistry (for
samples collected from the saturated zone), and (for a subset) X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD).
Samples of diamond drill core were subjected to modified acid-base accounting, SPLP, aqua regia
digestion, and (for a subset of samples) humidity cell testing and petrographic analysis. Detailed
descriptions of the methods utilized in the collection and analysis of these samples are provided
below.
3.1 Sample collection

3.1.1 Waste rock
Three boreholes were advanced in each of three stockpiles that together comprise more than 35%
of the Lower Slaty waste rock on site. Sonic drilling methods were used to recover waste rock
material from the stockpiles without the use of water. A 4-inch diameter core barrel was advanced
20 feet ahead of the 6-inch diameter casing while drilling above the level of the pit water, and was
reduced to 10-foot runs below the water level. Samples were shaken out of the core barrel into
6-mil plastic sample bag sleeves. Samples were generally collected from three positions within the
borehole: the surface directly below any cover materials present, just above the water level, and just
above the bedrock. Samples were crushed to less than 1/4-inch diameter using a jaw crusher, after
being allowed to air-dry overnight where necessary. The crusher was cleaned using brushes and
jetted air between samples. After crushing, the samples were homogenized and split using the cone
and quarter technique (Pitard, 1993). Samples were shipped overnight, under chain of custody, to
Northeast Technical Services (NTS) in Virginia, MN and CANTEST, Ltd. in Burnaby, BC, for
testing and chemical analyses.
Continuous diamond drill core through the Upper Slaty, Lower Slaty, and the Lower Cherty
submembers immediately underlying the Lower Slaty was obtained from standard NQ diamond
drilling core from three boreholes from mining activities. Samples for chemical analyses were
collected from the Upper Slaty, Lower Slaty member of the Biwabik Iron Formation: submembers
P and Q and the 20-foot interval underlying the Q submember (identified as the R submember of
the Lower Cherty member). Samples taken for chemical analyses within these submembers were
determined based on detailed geologic logging. Sample interval lengths were modified as necessary
to ensure that geologic contacts were honored, with only one geologic stratum comprising any
sample. Samples were shipped overnight, under chain of custody, to CANTEST, Ltd. in Burnaby,
BC and to ACZ for testing and chemical analyses.
3.1.2 Existing water quality

Site water-quality monitoring has been conducted as part of an ongoing monitoring program.
Groundwater samples to be analyzed for dissolved metals were filtered in the field using an in-line
45-µm disposable filter, following the low flow purging procedure (EPA, 1996). Surface-water
samples collected for dissolved metals were collected in unpreserved containers and were filtered
and preserved (within 48 hours) upon receipt at the laboratory. Each sample container was labeled
with a unique sample identification number, placed in a cooler with ice, and submitted to the
laboratory for analysis. At each surface-water sampling site, sample bottles were filled using a
clean sample bottle. Field blanks and field duplicate samples were collected at a ratio of one per
sampling event. Samples were sent under chain of custody to NTS for chemical analyses for general
parameters and metals (total and dissolved) by standard EPA methods (EPA, 2007).
242
Pore water was collected from waste rock stockpile boreholes using either a disposable bailer
or a submersible pump. Several gallons were purged from the borehole prior to sampling with the
disposable bailer. Between 20 and 30 gallons were purged prior to sampling with the pump. A total
of 15 pore-water samples were analyzed for general parameters and metals (total and dissolved)
by standard EPA methods. Samples were filtered in the field with a 0.45-micron vacuum filter
and preserved with HNO3 (for metals) and H2 SO4 (for cations) in laboratory-provided sampling
containers.
3.2 Mineralogy
The mineralogy of waste rock was evaluated using a combination of XRD, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and optical microscopy. The XRD
analyses included standard qualitative analysis to identify the minerals present as well as quantitative
phase analysis by Rietveld refinements for select samples to identify not only the minerals present,
but also their relative abundance. The SEM and optical microscopy work was performed to identify
the modes of occurrence of the carbonate and sulfide minerals, including their texture, grain size,
morphology, and mineral association. The EDS analyses were conducted to determine the chemical
composition of the carbonate and sulfide minerals.
3.2.1 XRD
Six samples of sonic drill core of the waste rock stockpiles were submitted for quantitative XRD
analysis at The University of British Columbia Dept. of Earth and Ocean Sciences. Samples
were ground at CANTEST, Ltd. to <10 µm under ethanol in a vibratory McCrone Micronising
Mill for seven minutes. Step-scan X-ray powder-diffraction data were collected over a range of
3◦ to 80◦ 2θ with CoKα radiation on a standard Siemens D5000 Bragg-Brentano diffractometer.
The resulting X-ray diffractograms were analyzed using Search-Match software, refined with the
Reitveld program Topas 3. Fifteen samples collected from diamond drill core were submitted to the
Michigan Technological University Department of Material Science and Engineering for qualitative
XRD analysis. Samples were ground, and step-scan X-ray powder-diffraction data collected over
a range of 5◦ to 45◦ 2θ with a Scintag XDS 2000 Diffractometer. Background was subtracted and
crystalline phases were identified using Scintag Diffraction Management System for NT (DMSNT)
software.
3.2.2 SEM and EDS

SEM was used to investigate the physical characteristics of the minerals present in fifteen samples
collected from diamond drill core. In addition to the physical characteristics, the chemistry of the
carbonate minerals was analyzed using EDS in conjunction with the SEM.
Samples representing the range of modes of occurrence of sulfides and carbonates, as well as the
stratigraphic units encountered, were selected from the core at the time of detailed logging. These
samples were polished, mounted, and carbon-coated and then examined using a JEOL 840-JXA
SEM equipped with a Kevex Sigma EDS system. EDS spectra were collected at an accelerating
voltage of 20 kV for 120 seconds, maintaining a dead time of approximately 25%.
3.3 Acid base accounting

Acid-base accounting (ABA) provides a measure of the balance between the acid-producing capa-
bility and acid-neutralizing capacity of mine wastes. Modified ABA was conducted on 25 samples
of waste rock (CANTEST, Ltd.) and 21 samples of diamond drill core (ACZ). Modified ABA
testing utilized partial-decomposition by wet-chemical-leach speciation methods for identification
of sulfur and carbon forms by combustion-infrared spectrophotometer, including:
– HCl-extractable sulfur (total sulfur from untreated sample minus total sulfur after extraction
with 40% HCl), which is attributed to SO4 -sulfur,
– HNO3 -extractable sulfur (total sulfur after HCl extraction minus total sulfur after extraction with
14% HNO3 ), which is attributed to pyritic sulfide-sulfur,
– Non-extractable sulfur (total sulfur from untreated sample minus total sulfur after HNO3
extraction), which is attributed to organic sulfur,
243
– Total carbon after extraction with 15% HCl, which is attributed to organic carbon, and
– Total inorganic carbon (carbonate), which is calculated as the difference in total carbon and total
carbon after HCl extraction.
NP was measured with the method of Lawrence as described in MEND (1991), which is summarized
below.
Two grams of sample were pulverized to < 250 µm (minus-60 mesh) and digested at room
temperature with 0.1 N HCl over a 24-hour period under mechanical agitation to achieve a pH of
approximately 2. Subsequently, samples were titrated with 0.1 N NaOH to reach the endpoint pH,
typically 8.3. However, in this case additional “endpoint” pH values of 4.5, 6.0, and 10 were also
recorded.
3.4 SPLP
Twenty-five samples of waste rock and 21 samples of diamond drill core were submitted to CAN-
TEST, Ltd. and ACZ, respectively, for SPLP extraction and analysis (EPA, 2007). Both labs utilized
extraction fluid number 3, which is deionized reagent water with no added acidity. The solid phase
was extracted with an amount of extraction fluid equal to 20 times the weight of the solid phase.
Samples were agitated in an end-over-end rotary agitator with the extraction fluid for a period of
18 hours.
3.5 Aqua regia digestion

Twenty-five samples of waste rock and 21 samples of diamond drill core were submitted to CAN-
TEST, Ltd. and ACZ, respectively, for aqua regia digestion and analysis to evaluate the solid-phase
chemical composition. Digestate was analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission
spectrometry (ICP), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and cold vapor
atomic absorption (CVAA), to determine solid-phase elemental concentrations of select metals,
metalloids, and non-metals. Analyzed constituents included Ag, Al, As, Au, B, Ba, Bi , Ca, Cd, Co,
Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Hg, K, La, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sr, Th, Ti, Tl, U, V, W, and Zn.
3.6 Humidity cells

Humidity cells are designed to enhance the release of acidity/alkalinity, metals, and other con-
stituents from solid materials by providing conditions conducive to sample oxidation and then
leaching with a fixed volume of water on a weekly basis. Samples of waste rock and diamond
drill core were submitted to CANTEST, Ltd. for humidity cell testing following the ASTM method
D5744-07, Option A (ASTM, 2007). Humidity cell tests were conducted for 25 samples of waste
rock and for 12 samples of diamond drill core. For each humidity cell, one kg of rock was placed
in a clear acrylic cell and was initially flushed with 750 mL of deionized water. The waste rock
stockpile sample cells had an inner diameter of 11 cm and a 20-cm height from the base. Diamond
drill core samples had an inner diameter of 20 cm and height from the base of 11 cm. Subse-
quently, cells were subjected to a weekly cycle composed of three days of dry air followed by three
days of water-saturated air and then a 500 mL flush with deionized water in a climate-controlled
facility. Humidity cell effluent was collected and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, oxida-
tion/reduction potential, SO4 , acidity and/or alkalinity, and dissolved metals by ICP and ICP-MS.
Analytical frequency was initially weekly, but was later reduced following leachate concentration
stabilization.
4.1 Borehole observations

In general, waste rock encountered in the stockpile boring profiles was black, fine-grained, slaty
or cherty iron formation, which was variously magnetic and consisted of coarse-grained gravel
to cobble-sized clasts, with various amounts of sand and silt, some of which was a result of
244
Table 1. Summary of average water chemistry by site.
pH TDS Alkalinity Hardness SO4 Ca Mg Fe Mn Al As Co Cu Sb Se
Site mg/L mg/L CaCO3 mg/L µg/L

GW1 6.8 450 320 440 120 60 70 1.5 0.62 51.3 0.9 1.0 1.4 0.02 0.4
GW3 7.2 760 300 640 320 110 90 20 0.65 109 5.2 0.4 0.5 0.02 0.3
GW4 6.4 780 230 610 340 100 90 30 3.7 474 2.6 0.8 1.2 0.1 0.4
GW5 6.8 2110 480 1700 1220 150 320 10 1.0 343 1.6 1.0 1.9 0.03 1.6
GW6 7.4 370 140 290 150 60 30 3.1 0.61 1169 0.8 1.6 3.3 0.2 0.3
Stream 8.0 676 290 650 330 40 130 0.80 0.16 23.4 2.0 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.6
Pit 1 8.1 860 370 780 390 40 160 0.03 1.2 12.5 1.1 0.9 0.6 0.03 0.6
Pit 2 8.5 440 320 400 110 30 80 0.03 0.01 12.5 4.1 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.5
Pit 3 7.9 2040 570 1660 1150 50 370 0.04 2.3 12.5 2.0 4.1 1.0 0.1 2.4
Pit 4 8.3 760 320 710 350 30 150 0.03 0.03 12.5 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.04 0.8
pulverization of the rock during drilling. Disseminated pyrite or similar sulfide minerals were
occasionally noted in the samples after being crushed and dried. Pyrite also occurred as thin
partings or vein-fillings in some samples.
Diamond drill core from boreholes associated with mining operations was evaluated from three
boreholes to obtain additional information on the materials comprising the waste rock at the site. In
general the holes encountered 40–50 feet of overburden, 55–65 feet of the Upper Cherty member,
66–71 feet of the P submember of the Lower Slaty member, 11–13 feet of the Q submember of the
Lower Slaty member, and 140–145 feet of the Lower Cherty member. One hole also intersected
the Upper Slaty member. In general, pyrite was commonly visible in the P and Q submembers.
Dominant modes of pyrite included disseminated and veinlet occurrences, with veinlets generally
occurring either parallel to or cross-cutting bedding.
4.2 Site water chemistry

Site water chemistry (summarized in Table 1) provides an indication of potential water-quality
concerns and is useful for evaluating the potential for mobilization of constituents under various
environmental conditions. Average concentrations of Al, Fe, and Mn exceed drinking water-quality
standards in all groundwater monitoring wells. Background concentrations for these constituents are
elevated regionally (MPCA, 1999). GW03, GW04, and GW05 also exceed drinking water standards
for TDS and SO4 . GW01, GW03, and GW05 also exceed discharge standards for alkalinity.
Concentrations of Al, Fe, and Mn are generally lower in surface waters than in the groundwater
monitoring wells. Average concentrations of Al and Fe are below water-quality standards for each of
the pit lakes on site. Pit lakes exceed the discharge standard of 250 mg/L for alkalinity, the discharge
standard of 500 mg/L for hardness, and the discharge and secondary drinking water standards
for TDS. SO4 concentrations are elevated in the pit lakes 1, 3, and 4 (390 mg/L, 1150 mg/L, and
350 mg/L, respectively) compared to the secondary (aesthetic) drinking water standard of 250 mg/L.
The tendency for Al, Fe, and (to a lesser extent) Mn to precipitate from solution in circumneutral
to alkaline oxygenated waters is consistent with their concentration trends at the site; they are
elevated in groundwater, but have much lower concentrations in surface waters. Al does not need
to be oxidized prior to hydrolysis and precipitation from solution, and iron oxidation at the mildly
alkaline pH of site waters is rapid (Eary and Schramke, 1990). However, slower oxidation kinetics
for Mn2+ , particularly in the presence of elevated SO4 and bicarbonate concentrations can allow it
to accumulate in solution (Hem, 1963).
The elevated concentrations of solutes in the pit lakes are consistent with the mechanisms dis-
cussed previously. The (Ca+Mg):SO4 and (Ca+Mg):HCO3 - ratios from waters on and near the
site are also consistent with the pyrite oxidation and neutralization mechanisms and relative rates
observed in the humidity cells.
Pore-water chemistry is notably consistent, with pH from 7.4 to 8.0 and SO4 concentrations
ranging from 1040 to 1420 mg/L for all but one sample. That sample was collected at the phreatic
245
Table 2. Quantitative XRD results in wt%.
Mineral Ideal Formula Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Average
Quartz SiO2 40.4 46.8 37.6 33.9 36.5 39

Siderite Fe2+ CO3 31.6 17.5 26.2 30.2 22.5 26
Clinochlore (Mg,Fe2+ )5Al(Si3Al)O10 15.3 0 20.6 18.1 0 11
(OH)8
Stilpnomelane K(Fe,Mg)8 (Si,Al)12 2.4 2.2 1.2 2.5 13.2 4.3
(O,OH)27
Magnetite Fe3 O4 4.3 6.5 6.2 3.5 0 4.1
Minnesotaite (Fe2+ ,Mg)3 Si4 O10 (OH)2 3.7 1.8 4.2 8 0 3.5
Goethite α-Fe3+ O(OH) 0 6.1 0 3.2 8 3.5
Greenalite (Fe2+ ,Fe3+ )2−3 Si2 O5 (OH)4 0 4.7 0 0 11 3.1
Hematite α -Fe2 O3 0 5.6 0 0 4.2 2.0
Ankerite Ca(Fe2+ ,Mg,Mn)(CO3 )2 0 5.1 0.7 0.6 1.3 1.5
Pyrite FeS2 2.4 0 3.3 0 0 1.1
Talc Mg3 Si4 O10 (OH)2 0 3.3 0 0 0 0.7
Plagioclase NaAlSi3 O8 –CaAl2 Si2 O8 0 0 0 0 3.3 0.7
Calcite CaCO3 0 0.4 0 0 0 0.1
surface and had a SO4 concentration of 2270 mg/L. The quality of pore water clearly does not
represent either drinking water or discharge water quality. Nonetheless, comparison of pore-water
concentrations with water-quality standards can provide an indication of constituents that merit
further consideration when evaluating COI. Comparison of the dissolved fraction of pore-water
samples to surface-water discharge and drinking water standards indicates that alkalinity, hardness,
TDS, SO4 , and Mn were greater than standards in all samples, and that Co and Fe exceeded water
quality standards in one or more samples. Dissolved (Ca+Mg):SO4 ratios in pore water ranged from
1.2 to 1.6, and (Ca+Mg):HCO− 3 ratios ranged from 1.4 to 2.6, consistent with partial degassing of
CO2 occurring during neutralization of acidity from sulfide oxidation.
4.3 Mineralogy
Results of the quantitative XRD analyses are provided in Table 2 and are consistent with the
qualitative XRD analyses. Rocks of the Biwabik Iron Formation evaluated as part of this study
generally contain trace to moderate pyrite (< 0.02 to 5 wt% as pyrite) and abundant Mg-rich siderite
(average of 24 wt%). The minerals stipnomelane, greenalite, clinochlore, and, tentatively, magnesite
were also identified in the Lower Slaty P and Q submembers. Ankerite, calcite, and chamosite were
also identified in the Upper Cherty sample. Quartz, minnesotaite, talc, stipnomelane, greenalite,
magnetite, and ankerite were also identified in the Lower Cherty.
Two general modes of occurrence were identified for pyrite: disseminated and veinlets (Fig. 1).
Disseminated pyrite is generally present as euhedral grains (with an average size of approximately
5 µm), as generally < 20 µm individual grains comprising aggregates, or as sieve-textured grains
(small idioblasts lying within larger xenoblasts) up to approximately 300 µm. Pyrite veinlets were
observed in samples from the Lower Slaty (P and Q submembers), generally as aggregates of
individual euhedral grains ranging from 20 µm to 300 µm. Two orientations were common for the
pyrite veinlets: parallel to bedding and cross-cutting. A tendency toward separation along these
pyritiferous veins and bedding was noted. Both modes of occurrence are generally concurrent,
with the disseminated variety comprising the majority of the pyrite in all cases. Pyrite in the Lower
Cherty and Upper Cherty was less abundant than in the Lower Slaty and, where present, was
disseminated. One grain of arsenopyrite was observed in a sample from the P submember of the
Lower Slaty (identified with SEM/EDS, but below XRD detection limits).
Siderite was the primary carbonate mineral identified in this study, although ankerite and sub-
ordinate calcite were observed in the Upper Slaty and in trace amounts in the Lower Cherty
and waste rock stockpiles. Based on EDS, the siderite has a consistent chemical composition
246
Figure 1. Photomicrographs of a) decussate greenalite, idioblastic carbonate, and xenoblastic sieve textured
pyrite, b) idioblastic to subidioblastic sieve textured pyrite in a siderite-rich matrix, c) atoll textured siderite
with disseminated pyrite, and d) disseminated pyrite in a granoblastic siderite and magnetite matrix.
of approximately Ca0.03 Mg0.20 Fe0.73 Mn0.04 CO3 . Siderite in the P submember has a disseminated
idioblastic to xenoblastic mode of occurrence (Fig. 1). Siderite in the Q submember is also
disseminated, but with a smaller grain size (approximately 25 µm). Siderite in the Lower Cherty
is generally present as a granular aggregate with a grain size ranging from <25 µm to >300 µm.
4.4 Acid base accounting

Sulfide content of all samples ranges from 0.01 to 2.73 wt% S, with average values of 0.24 and
0.66 wt% for the waste rock and diamond drill core samples, respectively. Carbonate content
ranges from 0.11 wt% C to 8.3 wt% C, with average values of 2.5 and 3.1 wt% for the waste rock
and diamond drill core, respectively. If all carbonate is assumed to be the Mg-rich siderite described
previously, this would correspond to an average content of 24 wt% siderite, which is in excellent
agreement with the quantitative XRD results (26% siderite, Table 1) and the qualitative XRD, which
consistently identified siderite as a major constituent.
The difference in composition of waste rock and diamond core is attributed to the sampling bias
toward sulfidic zones (e.g. the Q submember, relative to the P submember and Lower Cherty) in the
diamond core samples, and to the partial oxidation of the waste rock samples. Sulfide concentrations
are substantially higher in rocks from the Lower Slaty Q submember (average 2.68 wt%) than from
any other rock types tested. Sulfides are present at much lower concentrations in rocks from the
Lower Slaty P submember (average 0.14 wt%), and the Lower Cherty R submember (average
0.16 wt%). Sulfide concentrations in the P and R submembers appear to increase with proximity
to the Q submember. Sulfide generally comprises >95% of total sulfur for the diamond core
and >75% of total sulfur for the waste rock. The lower relative sulfide fraction observed in the
247
Table 3. Acid base accounting results.
Net neutralization potential*

kg CaCO3 per tonne NP to AP ratio**
Sample type n Minimum Maximum Average Minimum Maximum Average
Waste rock 25 −11 58 22 0.59 166 21

Lower Slaty (P) 8 23 91 51 5.6 38 20
Lower Slaty (Q) 4 −43 −12 −31 0.51 0.87 0.63
Lower Cherty 6 15 68 42 5.6 46 17
Upper Slaty 1 – – 648 – – 84
*Net neutralization potential calculated as the difference in the modified NP to pH 8.3 and acid generation
potential calculated based on sulfide plus non-extractable sulfur.
**Ratio of modified neutralization potential to pH 8.3 and acid generation potential calculated based on sulfide
plus non-extractable sulfur.
waste samples is due to the presence of non-extractable (acid-insoluble) sulfur. For the purpose of
this characterization, the acid-insoluble fraction has conservatively been included with the sulfide
fraction in the calculation of acid-generating potential.
For the purpose of this characterization, the NP values to an endpoint of 8.3 were used for
ABA determinations. ABA results are summarized in Table 3. Net neutralization potentials (NNP)
across all samples range from −43 to 91 kg CaCO3 per tonne with an average NNP of 22 kg CaCO3
per tonne for waste rock. One sample of waste rock and five samples of diamond drill core have
NNP < 0, indicating acid-generating potential. Ten samples of waste rock and two samples of
diamond drill core have 0 < NNP < 20, indicating potential uncertainty regarding classification of
these samples as non acid-generating, depending on the criteria applied.
The NP to AP ratio for all samples ranges from 0.51 to 166 with an average of 19 and a median of
6.8. One sample of waste rock and four samples of diamond drill core (all from the Q submember
of the Lower Slaty) had NP to AP ratios <1, indicating the potential for acid generation for
those samples. Seven samples of waste rock and one of diamond drill core have 1 < NP:AP < 4,
indicating potential uncertainty regarding their acid-generating capacity classification, depending
on the criteria applied. The approach of determining a site-specific appropriate NP to AP ratio for
designation of potentially acid-generating materials (Ferguson and Morin, 1991; Morin and Hutt,
1994) has been applied to the site. As is presented below, observed (Ca + Mg):SO4 ratios for the
impacted areas of the site are approximately 1.4. Thus, an NP to AP ratio of 2 provides an additional
factor of safety when applied to classification of site materials as potentially acid-generating.
To assess the applicability of the NP values from the Modified ABA, empirical NP values were
compared to theoretical mineralogic NP based on observed siderite composition. Comparison
with theoretical mineralogic NP (Fig. 2) indicates that the Modified ABA to an endpoint pH of
8.3 provided a generally conservative representation of the NP, consistent with published results
obtained for similar siderite samples using the SobPer method (Jambor et al., 2003).
A final consideration relating to ABA is that of mineral availability. Two of the primary factors
controlling mineral availability are the particle size distribution and the armoring or encapsulation
of mineral grains. Both of these factors can be evaluated based on consideration of the mineralogical
evaluation. For example, because the surface area of a particle increases exponentially as its particle
size decreases, the actual reactivity will be a function of both the abundance of acid-generating
and acid-neutralizing materials and their respective particle size. Similarly, the presence of mineral
coatings (such as ferric hydroxides on calcite or sulfates on pyrite) can preclude these minerals
from participating in acid neutralization or generation (EPA, 2003).
As described above, grain sizes of pyrite and siderite range from <5 µm to approximately 300 µm
and from <25 µm to approximately 300 µm, respectively. Furthermore, the general tendency is for
the larger carbonate grains to occur conjointly with the larger pyrite grains and, likewise, for the
smaller carbonate and pyrite grains to occur conjointly (e.g. see Fig. 1). None of the mineralogic or
petrographic analyses provided any indication of localized occurrences of pyrite in the absence of
carbonate minerals. Because of the semi-consolidated to poorly-consolidated sedimentary nature
248
Figure 2. Comparison of mineralogic NP with NP measured using the Modified NP to pH 8.3.
of the deposits, the mineral grain sizes are small regardless of the size of the aggregate particles and
the porosity and friability are high relative to typical hard rock mines, particularly for the slaty rock
types. Hence, the overall abundance of carbonate and sulfide is interpreted to provide a reasonable
indication of the extent of their respective surface areas. Furthermore, none of the petrologic
or mineralogic evaluations of waste rock provided any indication of encapsulation, armoring, or
alteration rims that could potentially inhibit the reactivity of the sulfide or carbonate surfaces.
4.5 SPLP
SPLP leachate solute concentrations were generally low and pH was circumneutral to mildly alka-
line (pH 7.3 to 9.0) for all samples. Specific conductance ranged from 28 to 236 µS/cm and
SO4 from 1 to 87 mg/L in the waste rock samples and from 47 to 112 µS/cm and <1 to 9 mg/L,
respectively, in the diamond core samples. Comparison of extract concentrations can provide an
indication of constituents that merit further consideration when evaluating COI. Comparison of
SPLP extract pH and solute concentrations with various Minnesota water-quality standards for
surface-water discharge and drinking water indicates that the extracts from one or more samples
exceeded water-quality standards for Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Se.
4.6 Aqua regia digestion

Aqua regia digestion is a strong acid digestion that will dissolve almost all elements that could
become environmentally available. However, it does not necessarily indicate that constituents will
become environmentally available (EPA, 2007). Constituents released at the highest concentrations
were Fe, Mg, Al, Mn, and Ca. Average concentrations exceeded the crustal average abundances
(Price, 1997) for Mo, Ag, Mn, Fe, As, Cd, Sb, Bi, W, Hg and Se and were in excess of ten times
average crustal abundances for Mn, As, Bi, and Se. However, average extract concentrations for
Sb and Hg were below the average concentration for shale (Price, 1997). Only Ag was present at
an average concentration greater than the average concentration for shale.
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4.7 Humidity Cells
Humidity cell effluent pH ranged from 6.7 to 9.5 for the waste rock samples and from 6.9 to 8.3
for the drill core samples. After effluent concentrations stabilized, SO4 concentrations ranged from
<1 to approximately 200 mg/L, well below saturation with respect to the common SO4 minerals,
which indicates that observed SO4 release rates are not affected by precipitation of secondary
minerals and are likely a good indicator of the sulfide oxidation rates occurring in the cells. SO4
release rates from the waste rock samples calculated using weeks 15 to 26 range from 3.2 × 10−9 to
4.2 × 10−8 kg of SO4 per kg of sulfide per second, with an average value of 1.5 × 10−8 . Although
these calculated rates vary by a factor of 13, most variability is from cells with low SO4 production.
Excluding cells producing less than or equal to 5 mg/L in week 26, the remaining (average weekly)
rates still average 1.5 × 10−8 , but are all within a factor of 2.9. Similarly, SO4 release rates from
diamond drill core samples averaged 7.1 × 10−9 .
Humidity cell effluent is not a direct measure of ultimate water quality. However, constituents
with humidity cell effluent concentrations greater than water-quality standards merit further con-
sideration when evaluating COI. Humidity cell effluent from one or more samples of waste rock
stockpiles has exceeded drinking water standards for Mn, Fe, Al, SO4 , As (from one cell), and Cu
(from one cell). Discharge standards were exceeded in effluent for hardness, and for Cu and Se from
one cell each. Humidity cell effluent from samples of diamond drill core exceeded water-quality
standards for Mn, Fe, Al, SO4 , Cu, and Se. Additionally, effluents from diamond drill core samples
from the Q submember of the Lower Slaty have also exceeded the drinking water-quality standard
for Sb and effluent from the R submember of the Lower Cherty and the Virginia Formation have
exceeded the discharge water-quality standard for Co.
Humidity cell leachate chemistry was evaluated using (Ca+Mg):SO4 and (Ca+Mg): HCO− 3
ratios to identify relative acid-generation and acid-neutralization rates occurring in the humidity
cells. The aggregate overall behavior was assessed by summing the Ca, Mg, SO4 , and bicarbonate
concentrations for all cells through 26 weeks. The resulting overall (Ca+Mg):SO4 ratios were 1.5
and 1.3 and the overall (Ca+Mg):HCO− 3 ratios were 0.80 and 0.70 for humidity cells on the waste
rock and diamond drill core samples, respectively. The overall ratios from the humidity cell tests
are similar to field averages for the pit lakes of (Ca+Mg):SO4 = 1.3 and (Ca+Mg):HCO− 3 = 1.5.
The overall behavior of acid neutralization by siderite can be represented by Equation 1, which
represents approximately 80% CO2 degassing.
The acid-neutralizing consumption rate appears to be approximately 1.4 times faster than the
acid-generating rate, both in the humidity cells and in the field.
4.8 Geochemical conceptual model

Primary COI include: SO4 , hardness (Ca and Mg), alkalinity, Fe, Mn, and Al. These constituents
have been consistently observed at elevated concentrations with respect to water-quality standards
in site water and geochemical test effluent. Secondary COI include Co, Cu, As, and Se. These
constituents have been sporadically detected at elevated concentrations with respect to water-
quality standards in site water and/or geochemical test effluent, but are not readily mobilized under
prevailing conditions at the site. However, these constituents are present and can potentially be
mobilized under certain conditions (such as reducing conditions or elevated pH).
Primary constituents of interest (COI) are associated with pyrite oxidation and subsequent acid
neutralization, primarily by siderite and ankerite. Calcite equilibrium has been shown to control
the relationship between pH and pCO2 in many carbonate aquifers (e.g. Langmuir, 1971; Plummer,
1976). Similarly, the relationship between pCO2 and pH in the site pit lakes and waste rock stock-
piles appears to be controlled by dissolution of siderite (and ankerite) in response to the amount of
sulfide oxidation occurring. In order to evaluate the conceptual model, these geochemical controls,
including equilibration with atmospheric oxygen, progressive degassing of CO2 , precipitation of
calcite, precipitation of ferrihydrite, dissolution of pyrite, dissolution of siderite (with the aforemen-
tioned chemical composition) to the extent necessary to yield observed site Ca+Mg:SO4 ratios,
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Figure 3. Simulated relationship between pH and pCO2 defined by calcite equilibrium (solid line) from
Langmuir (1971) and Plummer (1976) and defined by dissolution of site siderite in response to pyrite oxidation
with subsequent precipitation of calcite and ferrihydrite.
and the pH resulting from thermodynamic equilibrium with the aforementioned controls) were
simulated in Phreeqc (Parkhurst, 1999). Comparison of the simulated results with pore-water and
lake-water chemistry is shown on Figure 3. The model provides excellent agreement with measured
conditions at the site, indicating that the conceptual model provides a consistent explanation of the
behavior of primary COI at the site.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Waste rock from the Lower Slaty member of the BIF has impacted water quality at the site as a
result of pyrite oxidation and subsequent neutralization by Mg-rich siderite and ankerite, resulting
primarily in elevated SO4 , alkalinity, and hardness. Sulfide concentrations are roughly an order
of magnitude higher in rocks from the Lower Slaty Q submember (average 2.7 wt%) than from
any other rock types tested. The Q submember of the Lower Slaty is potentially acid-generating,
whereas the P submember of the Lower Slaty, the R submember of the Lower Cherty, and the top
of the Upper Slaty are non acid-generating. However, the aggregated waste rock present in site
stockpiles appears to be net neutralizing as long as the relative rates of release of acid generating
and acid neutralizing minerals are maintained over the long term. Select humidity cells are being
continued for long-term testing to provide additional information regarding these relative rates of
release. Alternatives for management of waste rock to limit oxidation and infiltration are being
investigated as a means to ameliorate site water-quality.
REFERENCES
ASTM. 2007. Standard Test Method for Laboratory Weathering of Solid Materials Using a Humidity Cell. D
5744-07.
Eary, L.E., & Schramke, J.A. 1990. Rates of Inorganic Oxidation Reactions Involving Dissolved Oxygen. In
Melchior, D.C. & Bassett, R.L. (eds.), Chemical Modeling of Aqueous Systems II. ACS Symposium Series
416, Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society.
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EPA. 1996. Low Stress (low flow) Purging and Sampling Procedure for the Collection of Ground Water
Samples from Monitoring Wells, Revision 2, US Environmental Protections Agency.
EPA. 2003. Characterization of Ore Waste Rock and Tailings. In EPA and Hardrock Mining: A Source Book
for Industry in the Northwest and Alaska. US Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA. 2007. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods, SW-846. US Environmental
Protection Agency.
Ferguson, K.D. & Morin, K.A. 1991. The Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage – Lessons from the Database.
In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage, Montreal,
Quebec, September 16–18, 1991.3:85–106.
Hem, J.D. 1963. Chemical Equilibria and Rates of Manganese Oxidation. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 1667-A: A1-A64.
Jambor, J.L., Dutrizac, J.E., Raudsepp, M., & Groat, L.A. 2003. Effect of Peroxide on Neutralization-Potential
Values of Siderite and Other Carbonate Minerals. J. Environ. Qual. 32: 2373–2378.
Langmuir, D. 1971. The geochemistry of some carbonated groundwaters in central Pennsylvania. Geochimica
et Cosmochimica Acta 35:1023–1045.
MEND. 1991. Acid Rock Drainage Prediction Manual. Mine Environment Neutral Drainage Program.
Morey, G.B. 1993. Geology of the Mesabi Range: Field trip guidebook (Trip 1): 39th Annual Institute on Lake
Superior Geology, Eveleth, MN .39(2): 1–18.
Morin, K.A. & Hutt, N.M. 1994. Observed Preferential Depletion of Neutralization Potential Over Sulfide
Minerals in Kinetic Tests: Site-Specific Criteria for Safe NP/AP Ratios. Presented at the International Land
Reclamation and Mine Drainage Conference and the Third International Conference on the Abatement of
Acidic Drainage, Pittsburg, PA, USA, April 24–29.
MPCA. 1999. Baseline Water Quality of Minnesota’s Principal Aquifers – Region 1, Northeastern Minnesota.
St. Paul: Minnesota Pollution Control Agency.
Parkhurst, D.L. & Appelo, C.A.J. 1999. User’s guide to PHREEQC (Version 2)—A computer program for spe-
ciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical calculations: U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 99–4259.
Pitard, F.F. 1993. Pierre Gy’s sampling theory and sampling practice. Heterogeneity, sampling correctness and
statistical process control. 2nd ed. CRC Press
Plummer, L.N. & Wigley, T.M.L. 1976. The dissolution of calcite in CO2 -saturated solutions at 25◦ C and 1
atmosphere total pressure. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40: 191–202.
Price, W.A. 1997. Draft Guidelines and Recommended Methods for the Prediction of Metal Leaching and
Acid Rock Drainage at Minesites in British Columbia. Reclamation Section, Energy and Minerals Division,
Ministry of Employment and Investment, BC, V0J2N0.
Wolff, J.F., 1917, Recent geologic developments on the Mesabi iron range, Minnesota. Am. Inst. Mining Metall.
Petroleum Engineers Trans., 56: 142–169.
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Benefits of timely and valid geochemical characterization of mine

waste for life of mine and closure planning: A case study of Newmont
Boddington Gold Mine in Western Australia
Nelson Amoah & Rory Haymont

Newmont Asia Pacific, Perth, Western Australia
Graeme Campbell
Graeme Campbell and Associates, Bridgetown, Western Australia
ABSTRACT: The extraction of minerals often involves the removal and storage of large quantities
of waste in the form of waste rock and tailings. These waste materials may have the potential for acid
or metalliferous drainage. Many of the long-term environmental impacts associated with mining
arise from the geochemical characteristics of these wastes. A significant proportion of mining costs
and liabilities is linked to the storage of these wastes during the life cycle of the mine, especially
at the closure and post-closure stages.
While geochemical characterization is usually conducted in the early stages of mine planning
and continues during operations, in many cases the process is driven by the need to assess relevant
mineralogical composition that has economic value, with less emphasis on the key environmental
elements that affect the long-term storage and impacts of waste materials during the life of mine,
closure and post-closure.
Evidence abounds in the mining industry for the misclassification of potentially acid forming
and non-acid forming materials, having significant adverse operational and environmental impli-
cations during the life of mine. Environmental aspects of the geochemical characteristics of waste,
particularly in terms of acid generation and other metalliferous drainage potential, are also very
important during closure and post closure and need to be given sufficient attention early in project
design and development, and as the process progresses.
Acceptable environmental performance at mine closure and post-closure is critical for the con-
tinuation of mining companies’ social licence to operate, and regulatory agencies in many countries
now require a detailed closure plan that includes potential post-closure performance indicators, or
closure criteria, prior to mining approval and development. Closure and post-closure costs and per-
formance go beyond the physical life of a mine and in many cases must be dealt with in perpetuity.
Unfortunately, most long-term environmental issues associated with mining arise from geochem-
ical characteristics of the waste in storage, which may not have been given sufficient attention
during the early stages of mine planning and development.
At Newmont, an important element of closure planning now involves detailed assessment of
geochemical parameters of mine waste that affects closure performance. This paper discusses the
significant benefits of designing and implementing a geochemical characterisation program for life
of mine, closure and post-closure planning. To illustrate this, a case study of a Western Australian
mine site that has the potential to store over one billion tonnes of waste is discussed. Key risks
and opportunities for understanding the specific and subtle issues critical for making management
decisions are also discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Newmont Boddington Gold (NBG) operates a gold mine, located 17 km northwest of the town of
Boddington, and 100 km southeast of Perth, in Western Australia. Open pit mining of an oxide gold
resource has been in operation since 1987, along with small underground mining. In 2008, NBG
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undertook an expansion program that will take gold production to one million ounces per annum
and will become the largest gold mine in Australia by end of 2010. The project was commissioned in
early 2010 and production is at the ramp up stage. Associated with an expansion program involving
large open cut pits, is the requirement to store the large amount of waste rock and tailings materials
in an environmentally sound and sustainable way. Numerous investigations have been conducted at
various stages since the feasibility stage to ensure the economic and environmental sustainability
of the operation.
During the early operational phase, NBG is undertaking further studies to refine and update the
feasibility investigation findings and also to develop new innovative approaches for investigating
and managing the significant quantities of waste generated from the operation. Central to these
ongoing studies is the need to develop an integrated life of mine and closure plan that will ensure
efficient and cost effective operation of the mine both in the short-term and long-term. In achieving
this goal, the geochemical characteristics of the mine waste materials were considered critical, as it
is one major factor that influences the storage performance of waste rock and tailings facilities, as
well as groundwater and surface water quality. Furthermore, Newmont recognizes that a significant
proportion of mining costs and closure liabilities are linked to the storage of these wastes during
the life cycle of the mine, and at closure and post-closure stages. Globally, Newmont’s closure
liabilities amount to several hundred million dollars (Dowd, 2002; Dowd and Slight, 2009). This
proportion of closure liability is also within the range for almost all mining companies of its size
and above (ICMM, 2005).
To mitigate the closure liabilities, Newmont’s internal closure guideline has strict requirements
for the development and review of closure plans at all stages, from feasibility as well as periodic
reviews of closure plans during operations to ensure consistency with life of mine planning, changes
in operations, stakeholder expectation, regulatory requirements and their impact of costs. The aim is
to develop a company-wide system, where closure planning is embedded in the day to day activities
throughout the life cycle of all mining operations.
In the case of NBG, the size of the operation and the potential for future expansion requires
a thorough reassessment of the key closure assumptions and approaches at this early stage of
operations in order to:
• Identify key components of the current closure plan that can have significant impact on future
liability.
• Ensure that current and future life of mine activities and operational decision are consistent with
progressive closure requirements and closure criteria.
• Provide the necessary input for the development of a realistic closure liability/cost estimates.
• Understand and manage potential environmental impacts of the mine expansion that are likely
to require attention at the closure stage.
2 GENERAL SITE DESCRIPTION
Newmont Boddington Gold site is located about 100 km south of Perth in Western Australia
(Figure 1). The site experiences a Mediterranean type climate, characterized by mild to hot dry
summers with occasional storms between November and April and cool wet winter months (May to
October). Maximum summer temperatures are typically in the 30’s Celsius, while overnight winter
temperatures are typically less than 10 degrees Celsius. Average annual (1984–2009) precipitation
for the site is 765 mm, of which 75% occurs in winter. Total annual evaporation is always higher than
rainfall and has an annual average of 1,400 mm, with 80% of evaporation (1,046 mm) occurring in
the period from the start of October to the end of March. Although the site experiences annual net
positive evaporation, average precipitation exceeds average evaporation in the winter months.
The NBG site is located within the Saddleback greenstone belt at the southwestern border
of the Yilgarn craton. From a geochemical point of view, the most common sulphides across the
deposits are chalcopyrite, pyrhotite and pyrite. Less common sulphide occurrences are molybdenite,
arsenopyrite and sphalerite. The sulfur distribution with the deposit varies over a wide range. At the
southern part (of Wandoo North Pit) total S/Cu ratios are low and coincident with chalcopyrite. In
the northeast direction, the ratio increases and most sulfur in these zones is inferred to be related to
pyrite and arsenopyrite. A comparable trend is evident in arsenic distributions, with higher arsenic
concentrations coinciding with higher S/Cu ratios in the northeast.
254
Figure 1. Boddington Mine location map.
In summary, where sulphides occur in the andesite and diorite waste rocks, they are invariably
associated with sulfur values less than 0.5%, and CaCO3 contents less than 1%. Weathering of
these types of waste rocks therefore corresponds to the oxidation of trace amounts of sulphides in
a groundmass where circum-neutral buffering rests chiefly with the fast-reacting calcites initially,
followed by the slower-reacting primary silicates.
3 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MINE MATERIALS
Geochemical characterization of mine materials usually forms an integral part of mine development
from exploration through feasibility and mine planning and continues during operations stages.
While environmentally related testing is conducted as part of this process, in many cases the process
255
Figure 2. Geological characteristics of the project.
is driven by the need to assess relevant mineralogical composition that has economic value and the
key environmental elements that affect the long-term waste storage are given less importance than
they deserve. The environmental aspects of the geochemical characteristics of waste, particularly
in terms of acid generation and other metalliferous drainage potential are very important during
closure and post closure performance and require sufficient attention early in project design and
development and throughout operations stages.
3.1 Static tests

The most common approach for assessing the acid-forming tendencies of mine waste materials
employs static tests based on the conventionalAcid BaseAccounting (ABA) methodology. Common
256
indices developed from this approach to quickly classify materials include Maximum Potential
Acidity (MPA), Acid Neutralization Capacity (ANC), Net Acid Producing Potential (NAPP), and
Net Acid Generation (NAG). ABA classifications for mine-waste samples are generally divided into
three categories including Potentially Acid Forming (PAF), Non Acid Forming (NAF) or Uncertain
(UC). Some of the empirical relations used in interpretation include the ANC/MPA ratio, and the
NAPP (which is determined by MPA – ANC). If the ANC/MPA ratio is greater than 2, then the
tested sample is generally considered to have low potential to acidify, and so may be classified as
NAF. This ANC/MPA ratio of 2 applies especially when the ANC is dominated by the dissolution
of carbonates like calcite.
The attractiveness of this approach is that static tests are relatively quick, and inexpensive to
perform. In terms of management decision making, the interpretation of the results from static tests
is generally straight forward. However, this is not the case for the BGM waste rocks, because of
the contribution made to circum-neutral buffering by primary silicates which is not fully accounted
for in the conventional suite of static tests employed in ABA assessments. This is particularly
important where the rates of sulphide oxidation are slow, since there is, in fact, a sizeable reserve of
alkalinity forms, arising from the hydrolysis and dissolution of primary silicates, which is effective
in maintaining circum-neutral-pH. The net outcome from static testing may then be that a mine
waste sample (containing trace sulphides) is classified as PAF when it will actually never acidify
as its weathering proceeds to the full decomposition of the sulphides
Misclassification of PAF and NAF varieties of mines wastes is not uncommon, and can lead to
significant adverse operational and environmental implications during the life of mine and beyond.
Generally speaking, it is more often the case that a given lithotype may be classified initially as
NAF, but which is actually PAF, and so becomes a source of acidic drainage. A common situation
here is where the ineffectiveness of strongly ferroan forms of carbonates (e.g. siderites) may result
in ANC values being significantly overestimated, so that an invalid NAF classification ensues.
Given the significant quantities of waste rock materials at NBG, it is important that mine waste
classification is valid for effective life of mine planning.
Although a conservative approach to geochemical classification of mine wastes is environmen-
tally sound, this should not be taken to the extreme. Misclassification through over application of
the precautionary principle may lead to significant storage costs that could be avoided (for example
mine wastes may be incorrectly classified as PAF, despite being NAF). In the latter example, instead
of there being a large quantity of PAF materials requiring isolation, there would be a large quantity
of NAF materials suitable for use in other, cost effective operational and progressive closure works.
This is a key challenge facing mine waste management at NBG, and reflects the trace occurrences
of sulphides in the andesite and diorite waste rocks which contain only trace amounts of calcites.
3.2 Kinetic tests

To ensure the full benefits of geochemical classification, testing is often extended to include kinetic
tests. By subjecting samples to simulated ambient weathering conditions, the rates of sulfide
oxidation, carbonate depletion, acid generation and metal leaching may be determined to assess
the dynamics of weathering in a way that cannot be predicted from static tests alone (Bradhum and
Caruccio, 1995). Results of NBG kinetic testing are discussed in the following sections.
4 GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NBG WASTE MATERIALS
The need to ensure environmental compliance of the significant volumes of waste material was
recognized at the early stage of the NBG expansion project. Hence, detailed geochemical charac-
terization of the various lithologies was conducted early in the feasibility stages. Comprehensive
information on static geochemical data which defines acid generation potential for all of the major
materials was developed using drill core samples. In general, NAPP data derived from Total-
Sulfur values are more common than ANC or NAG data. The ANC and NAG data indicate that
the content of fast-reacting alkalinity forms (such as carbonates) is typically low, and reflects the
logging of only trace amounts of calcites (at most) in the andesite and diorite waste rocks. This low
buffering capacity, due to reactive carbonates, was highlighted by a program of kinetic test work
conducted over a two year period (McNeil and Nichols 2003). The kinetic results also highlighted
257
Figure 3. Newmont Boddington Gold total sulfur distribution in waste (parts per million).
several minor elements which have the potential to report to waste rock facility seepage at elevated
concentrations.
Singularly, the key finding from the earlier investigations on the acid forming characteristics of
NBG waste rocks was the inability to validly account for circum-neutral buffering from primary
silicates which thereby biased the ABA assessment overall. Based on the static testing results,
the majority of samples were classified as UC (uncertain) in terms of acid formation potential.
The kinetic test work by McNeil and Nichols (2003) showed that NAF-Composite samples could
produce acidic leachates. Accordingly, the earlier investigatory work resulted in almost all of the
waste bedrocks (those below the regolith profile) at NBG being classified as PAF. This equates
to approximately 60% of the total mine waste volume (this includes the sum of waste regolith
and waste bedrock volumes). The majority of the so-classified PAF waste bedrocks would be
characterized by Total-S values less than 0.3% (or 3,000 mg/kg), as shown by the histogram of
Total Sulfur distribution at NBG (Figure 3).
4.1 Operational approaches for dealing with geochemical uncertainties

The feasibility era classification led to a mine waste management plan which necessitates the
careful control of material segregation throughout operation. Static testing is undertaken during
the blast hole sampling process and this information is used to carefully schedule and direct truck
movements to control material placement. With over 60% of the entire mine waste inventory for the
project classified as PAF, this is a significant undertaking. Although appropriate for environmental
protection, such requirements impose significant limitations and inflexibilities on mine planning as
areas planned for storage can become quickly consumed with the consequent cost impost. Hence,
it was prudent to ensure that the classifications are appropriate. The geochemical uncertainties
resulting from historical testing pose a dilemma for operational management at NBG, since the
unilateral classification of all of the basement waste rock as PAF places significant constraints on
waste storage options, and ensuring implications for project costs.
5 CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF HISTORIC GEOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND

CHARACTERIZATION
Coincident with the closure plan review, Newmont commissioned a suite of investigations to more
fully characterize the geochemical nature of the waste bedrocks at NBG. Identifying the sources of
uncertainties in the historic mine waste classification, and their underlying likely causes, was central
258
Figure 4. Anomalous kinetic test results for non-acid-forming wastes from South Pit (McNeil and Nichols,
2003).
to the follow-up work. A program of database interrogation and material testing was commissioned
and several consultants with expertise in various technical disciplines were engaged. The geological
resource database consisting of tens of thousands of sulfur and other elemental assays that were
compiled by the mine planning department was examined.
The investigation also included a reinterpretation of earlier kinetic testing in the light of the
design of the kinetic testing program (similar to that described in the AMIRA (2002) document),
and the slow rates of the hydrolysis and dissolution reactions of primary silicates at circum-neutral-
pH. Since calcite only occurs as a trace component, its dissolution kinetics may also be suppressed,
due to surface-chemical interactions arising from intimate associations between calcite and silicate
grains.
An example of conflicting outcomes between predictions and observations is shown in Figure 4
for the kinetic testing of a NAF-Composite sample of waste rock from the South Pit (McNeil and
Nichols, 2003). Although this sample had a Total-S value of approximately 0.1%, and classified as
NAF, variable leachate-pH values were recorded during the two years of kinetic testing, and could
be as low as 3.8 (see results for Col 4 S NAF below), but only during the summer months.
In a recent review of these kinetic results, the sulphide-oxidation rates (SORs) were estimated,
and their variations plotted as a function of weathering history, together with the leachate-pH values
(Figure 5). An inverse, and seasonal, trend is evident between the SORs and leachate-pH values,
and is interpreted as reflecting both the use of a non-constant temperature room for the kinetic
testing, and the particle size range (less than 9 mm with minimal fine earth fraction of less than
2 mm) of the drill core derived samples. Use of flood lamps (AMIRA, 2002) during the daytime
to dewater the columns for five days each week meant that the diurnal temperature regime of the
columns varied seasonally during the two years of kinetic testing. The coarseness of the waste rock
samples meant that the columns drained almost to completion within a matter of minutes following
commencement of the flushing step (every four weeks) using deionized water. At the slower winter
SORs, the short residence times of the flushing step was sufficient for the leachate-pH values to
be greater than 5. Leachate-pH values of 6+ would likely have been recorded if the residence
times had been several hours (c.f. minutes), thereby allowing the opportunity for circum-neutral
buffering by the traces of calcites, and the primary silicates. By similar reasoning, at the faster
summer SORs, leachate-pH values near 4 were recorded.
It is therefore proposed that the observed acidic summer leachates are not representative of the
true weathering pH regime, since the residence times of only minutes in the flushing steps were
259
Figure 5. Variation in sulphide-oxidation rates and leachate-pH values for non-acid-forming sample (Col 4
S NAF).
too short. This reinterpretation of the kinetic results reported by McNeil and Nichols (2003) is to
be confirmed, or refuted, in the follow-up program of kinetic testing currently being planned. It
should be noted that, from a pragmatic modeling viewpoint, the use of a non-constant-temperature
room for kinetic testing has the advantage that seasonal variations in ambient temperature allow
direct assessment of the temperature dependence of SORs, and so is useful for modeling purposes,
as required.
The study tasks currently in hand at NBG include:
• Comprehensive review of existing geochemistry data, including analysis of the very considerable
static testing database generated since operations commenced;
• Detailed review of the key findings which underpin the earlier geochemical classification,
specifically the outputs of a suite of kinetic testing undertaken since 2001;
• Preliminary testing to further understand the nature and behaviour of the material from current
as-mined materials, rather than drill core samples tested previously; and,
• Design of comprehensive set of medium to long-term tests to measure a wide range of
geochemical signatures/attributes specific to the materials on this site.
The current geochemical investigations focus on the nature of the sulphide forms, and
groundmass-buffering properties of the NBG waste rocks (chiefly diorites and andesites), and
thereby provide a better understanding of the long term weathering and leaching behaviour. Both
conventional testing methods and novel approaches relevant to this low sulphide and low buffering
capacity materials, are being employed. The findings from the laboratory testing (both static and
kinetic testing) will ultimately be extended by moving to large scale field trials on dumped waste
rock materials in situ.
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6 BENEFITS OF CRITICAL REVIEW AND FOLLOW-UP GEOCHEMICAL
CHARACTERIZATION
The discussions above show that the benefits from conducting careful and detailed geochemi-
cal characterization cannot be overemphasized. With the limitation of storage space, the need to
minimize waste rock dump sizes for short and long term cost implications, the difficulties and
time involved in obtaining approval for extensions to lease boundaries to accommodate the special
requirements for storing PAF materials, coupled with the potential need for expansion in the near
future, it is clear that refinements that validly allow reclassifications are significant for both life of
mine and closure planning. This reclassification process currently being undertaken is estimated
to result in less than 40% of total waste materials being classified as PAF. When dealing with a
mine the size NBG where an estimated 1 billion tons of waste rock material will be stored over the
life of the mine, such a reduction in PAF materials is highly significant in all respects.
The benign component of waste rock material that has been misclassified could be used for both
progressive and final reclamation purposes and can also be placed in areas allocated for general
dumping which will significantly mitigate the cost impost of the various management constraints
required for the hostile (PAF) material. The cost benefits during mine planning and the reduction
in closure liabilities is in the order of tens of millions of dollars during the life cycle of the mine.
The timing of such investigation to reclassify the materials is very important for the operation
of the mine, the life of which is currently around twenty years with potential for future extension.
With such reclassification, a significant proportion can now be managed in a cost effective and
environmentally responsible manner while mitigating what could have posed significant operational
and closure liability constraints.
7 CONCLUSIONS
A significant proportion of mining costs and liabilities is linked to the storage of these wastes
during the life cycle of the mine, especially at the closure and post-closure stages. This storage
cost arises from the geochemical characteristics that imposes environmental restrictions on storage
methods; therefore, giving the required attention to the geochemical characteristics at an early stage
is extremely important for the operations and closure of the mine. This paper has outlined, through
a case study, the significant benefits of conducting a detailed, accurate and timely assessment of
geochemical parameters of mine waste that affects life of mine closure performance.
The findings from this paper confirm the fact that, the assessment of geochemical characteristics
should not be limited to a single approach such as static tests and its interpretation based of ABA
methodology. Because of the complexities involved in assessing and understanding the geochemical
weathering processes and the inter relationship between, weathering history and specific chemical
weathering processes such as sulphide-oxidation rates, tests should necessarily include kinetic
tests of various materials and should be done at the early stage of mine planning and continued
throughout operations. Such approach is the only sure way of capturing the subtleties involved in
the acid forming characteristics of mine waste materials and their potential environmental impacts.
Furthermore, mine waste material classifications should be constantly reviewed and new findings
used in adjustment of LOM and closure planning. Such an integrated approach will save mining
operations significant cost, facilitates life of mine planning process, reduction in environmental
harm and minimize closure liabilities.
REFERENCES
AMIRA International Ltd, 2002, ARD Test Handbook, Prepared by Ian Wark Research Institute, and
Environmental Geochemistry International Pty Ltd.
Bradham, W.S. and F.T. Caruccio (1995) Sensitivity Analysis of Laboratory Based Mine Over Burden, Analyt-
ical Techniques for the Prediction of Acidic Mine Drainage, US Department of Interior/OSM, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania Volume/Pages: p. 267.
Australian Government, Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources (2007), Leading Practice Sustainable
Development for the Mining Industry.
261
Dowd, P. and M. Slight (2009). Business Case for Effective Mine Closure. Proceedings of the First International
Seminar on Mine Closure, 13–15 September. Perth Western Australia. (Ed. Andy Fourie and Mark Tibbett).
Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
Dowd, P.J, 2005 The business case for Preventing Acid Drainage (Ed. C. Bell), Proceedings of the Fifth
Australian Workshop on Acid Drainage, Fremantle, Western Australia. Centre for Minerals Extension and
Research, Brisbane.
Fitzgerald, P.T, (2005). Mine Closure and Exit Strategies. Risk financing Solutions for Environmental Lia-
bilities and Sustainability. Canadian Institute of Mining, Technical Paper. Planning for Integrated Mine
Closure, Toolkit. International Council for Mining & Metals.
262
Containment systems
Disposal of coal mine slurry waste using geotextile containers

at the North River Mine, Chevron Mining Inc.
Mike Watts
Consultant
Ed Trainer
Tencate Geotube
ABSTRACT: The processing of raw coal to a saleable clean coal requires many mine operators to
wash the run of mine product using a processing plant. The raw coal contains impurities composed
of rock and fire clay. Two waste streams are created by this process. Coarse rock and fine rock
particles. At the North River Mine the coarse rock is transported to a refuse disposal area by
conveyor. The fine rock particles leave the processing plant suspended in water to form slurry.
Slurry is normally disposed of via surface impoundments or injected into abandoned underground
mine workings. The volume of this waste stream is very significant and expensive to dispose of.
In this case approximately 1000 gallons per minute is created on a twenty four hour basis at the
North River Mine in Alabama.
With a possible interruption of the primary disposal methods due to available area and construc-
tion scheduling, a third method of slurry handling was sought for the interim. The mine needed
to continue processing coal for shipment to be able to meet customer commitments. This required
slurry disposal. Utilizing Geotube® Containers for dewatering the slurry waste from the processing
plant solved the problem. After a successful test was conducted, and permits obtained, the mine
began using the geotextile containers to dewater and contain the solids from the waste stream.
Chevron Mining Inc. solicited the help of the Alabama Surface Mine Commission, the Office of
Surface Mining, TenCate Geosynthetics, J.F. Brennan Co., Inc., Whittemore Farms Excavation,
and PERC Engineering Co., Inc. to develop a unique and successful method to solve the problem.
1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
North River Mine is an underground coal mine producing over 7 million tons of raw coal per year.
The raw coal is processed to yield 3.5 million tons of clean saleable coal. Raw coal is processed at
the mine preparation plant at approximately 1000 tons per hour. This yields about 550 tons of clean
coal per hour. Refuse is therefore 450 tons per hour of which coarse rock is the primary by-product.
At normal operating levels fireclay and fine rock particles suspended in water at a rate of 70 tons
per hour in dry weight is also a waste by-product. The slurry waste stream reports to a three million
gallon concrete thickener tank adjacent to the preparation plant. Solids in the thickener underflow
are increased with the addition of polymers to produce a waste stream of about 1000 gallons per
minute. Solids in this pump discharge vary between 25 and 35%. A total of approximately 1.5
million gallons of slurry is produced per day. Particle size analysis of the fireclay and rock slurry
reveal that 80% are 400 mesh or smaller. The ultra fine particles tend to stay suspended in the water.
North River Mine began seeking an alternative method of disposal of this slurry waste stream
beyond the conventional methods of surface impoundment or injection into abandoned underground
mine workings. Since containers made from geosynthetic materials have been used for dewatering
various types of sludge wastes, it was thought that they might be able to do the same with coal mine
waste slurry. One type available is the Tencate Geotube® Container. The material used for these
containers is fabricated from a specially engineered dewatering textile fabricated from high tenacity
polypropylene multifilament and monofilament yarns which are woven into a stable network such
265
that the yarns retain their relative position. This provides a sieve to hold the particles and allow
the water to run out. The result is a reduction in the retained water and consolidation of the solids.
Containers are constructed with PVC fill ports for the attachment of pipes from the pump or dredge
through a manifold that allows the filling of several bags at once.
2 PRELIMINARY TESTING
InAugust of 2007, a test was conducted at the mine to determine if the geosynthetic fabric containers
would successfully dewater the slurry waste sufficiently to become a viable option for disposal.
(Figure 1) Two one hundred foot long geosynthetic test bags were placed on a pad that had been
graded to a 1% slope. In order to facilitate the capturing of the material in the containers and prevent
‘blinding’ of the fabric, chemical injection was required.
A chemical treatment pump, tanks, and pipe manifold were assembled. (Photo 1)
The treatment plant utilized an anionic flocculation polymer and a cationic coagulant polymer
to treat the slurry before it was pumped into the bags. (Photos 2 and 3)
For the test, slurry was pumped directly to the bags from the preparation plant underflow. The
bags were filled on August 21st and 22nd. Polymer injection was adjusted when necessary as
266
the changing solids percentage required. As the bags were being filled with the slurry mixture,
clear water flowed from them draining into the waste water sediment pond below. The effluent
was almost totally clear. For the test, a volume of about 500 gallons per minute was processed
alternating between the two containers. After about two days water ceased to flow from the bags
and the bags were stable. The test was successful and determined that the system would work on a
larger scale.
Once all the needed data was collected from the containers, they were split, the material loaded
out with a front end loader into trucks and hauled to the coarse refuse disposal area. The material
had a consistency of fine, wet sand.
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3 IMPLEMENTATION
In order for the system to be employed on a larger scale the mine had to design the system and
seek a permit from the Alabama Surface Mine Commission. Due to the volume of slurry to be
processed the mine sought a safe and efficient plan that would allow the containers to be reclaimed
in place instead of opening them and transporting the material to the coarse refuse disposal area.
The bags are designed to contain, dewater, and consolidate the solid material. A plan was developed
to construct bag fields upstream from the existing South Slurry Pond on the mine property. The
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effluent water would drain to the pond. This pond provided an environmentally safe vessel for the
effluent from the process. The Office of Surface Mining provided a technical review of the design
and permit as well. This was the first time that the use of geosynthetic bags had been utilized for
disposal of slurry waste from a mine washing facility on a large scale. (Figure 2)
Construction of the pads or bag fields included the following steps:
Removal of vegetation and storage of topsoil
Excavation of earth to construct the pad on grade with 1% slope back to pond
Covering the bag field with 6” inches of drain material (a blend of sandstone 1/3 # 4, 1/3 # 57,
and 1/3 # 89).
Covering that with 3” crushed limestone (# 57)
Construction of rock drains and safety berms around perimeter (Photo 4)
In order to maximize utilization of bag field areas, bags can be stacked on top of each other
in a pyramid fashion once the water runs out and the bags have stabilized. Containers were to be
269
placed on top of each other overlapping the line between them. The first field (Bag Field # 1) was
approximately two acres in size. The design called for a total of four levels of bags to be filled.
Containers were ordered for the field as follows:
11 bags 186-ft long for Level A

9 bags 172-ft long for Level B
8 bags 157-ft long for Level C
7 bags 143-ft long for Level D
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The bags used for the field were 60 feet in circumference and could be filled to a height of seven
feet. (Figure 3).
Polymer tanks, pumps, and pipe manifolds were installed on the pad. Other equipment involved
included lift truck necessary to unload, maneuver, and stacking of the tubes, light plants, nerators,
and a field office. Level A bags were then placed on Bag Field # 1 according to the design plan.
(Photos 5 and 6).
The original test was conducted by pumping slurry directly from the preparation plant. The
operation plan for the project was modified by installing a dredge in the 250 acre foot slurry
impoundment to pump to the containers. Removing the material from the impoundment would
create capacity in the pond faster than the plant was producing slurry. A Dredge Supply swinging
271
ladder 8 inch dredge was placed into the existing slurry pond to pump the slurry from the pond to
the bags. This machine was capable of pumping 1750 gallons per minute to the bags. The bags on
Level A were systematically filled from one side to the other allowing Level B bags to be placed
on top of Level A safely. This process was then continued to Level C and Level D thus utilizing all
of the space designed in Bag Field #1. (Photos 7 and 8)
The pipe manifold allowed the operation to switch from one bag to another, using valves. Once
a bag was filled, flow was directed to another bag while dewatering occurred. The containers used
were designed for a maximum filled height of 7 feet. The bags were immediately de-watering
the slurry and becoming stable quickly. Once the material reached a moisture content of 35%
other layers could be added. While filling Bag Field # 1, excavation of Bag Field # 2 began. The
second bag field was constructed prior to completion of the first providing two workable layout
areas for continuous operation thus eliminating downtime for the dredge and providing time for
the containers to drain. Using this method a total of three bag fields were constructed and utilized.
The first bag field was modified to allow a second tier of four levels to be added as well.
Productivity was gauged by measuring the height of the filled and retired bags each day. At about
the midpoint of the project a physical survey was conducted in the slurry pond to verify the volume
pumped. The dredge was initially operated on a twenty four hour basis with two 12 hour shifts per
day. A crew of 5 to 6 employees was required to run the dredge, install the piping, maintain the
polymer station, position the bags, and monitor the filling operation. Later in the project only one
12 hour shift per day was used. This allowed even more dewatering time for the bags being filled.
Hourly productivity for the project varied slightly with bag field distance from the dredge as well
as solids in the slurry. Productivity averaged 1750 cubic yards per twenty-four hour day. A total of
200,000 cubic yards were pumped and disposed of during the project. This yardage was produced
from January – August 2008. Since the dredge operation was independent from the preparation
plant, the project operated on a different schedule from that of the mine. The completed project
utilized 240 bags with a combined total length of 42,000 linear feet. The circumference of the bags
ranged from 60 to 70 feet. The containers held an average of 5 cubic yards of material per linear
foot of bag. (Photo 9)
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Once all the bags in the field were full and dewatered, the site was then ready for reclamation.
First a layer of sand was used to cover the sides of the bags to provide a filter medium and then a
layer of limestone for drainage. The bags were then covered with earth and finally topsoil. A low
ground pressure bulldozer was used to cover the containers. All the bag field sites were very stable
and no problems were encountered during the covering operation with the equipment. (Photo 10)
Once this was complete the entire field could then be mulched and seeded using a hydro seeder.
The entire project was completed without an accident or environmental incident. (Photo 11)
4 CONCLUSION
Although a relatively new application of this technology for the mining industry, the utilization of
Geotube® Containers worked extremely well and provided an alternate method of coal mine slurry
waste disposal for North River Mine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Tim LeBlanc
JF Brennan Co., Inc. – LaCrosse, WI
Mike Windle
Chevron Mining Inc. – Berry, AL
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Identification, management and disposal of PCB-containing

equipment used in mines
D.W. Bench
US Environmental Protection Agency
ABSTRACT: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are highly stable toxic organic compounds that
remain a persistent environmental threat for decades. The molecules, once valued for chemical
stability and fire resistance, made their first industrial debut in 1929, being manufactured and
processed primarily for use as insulating fluids and coolants in electrical equipment. In 1979, the
USEPA issued final regulations banning the manufacture of PCBs and phasing out unenclosed
PCB uses based on bioaccumulation and toxicity data. However, many PCB-containing pieces of
electrical equipment remain in abandoned surface and deep mining operations worldwide, releasing
the toxic compounds into groundwater and eventually to the oceans where they bioconcentrate in
phytoplankton, the basis of the ocean food chain and producer of ∼50 percent of atmospheric
oxygen, as equipment deteriorates. This paper addresses five arenas of PCBs: environmental
hazards, identification information, hidden sources to look for, potential liabilities and what to
do when you find PCBs.
1 PCB PROPERTIES
There is no longer any doubt that PCBs present threats to human health and the environment.
They can contribute to local groundwater contamination and disseminate worldwide throughout
the ocean, which is considered to be the final sink for PCBs (Goddard et al., 2003).
PCBs are one of the 12 chemicals targeted by the global Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs). POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long peri-
ods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms,
and are toxic to humans and wildlife. POPs circulate globally and can cause damage wherever they
travel (Stockholm Convention. 2008). By implementing the Convention, governments are taking
measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment. There are 152 signatories
to the convention, including the United States.
The physical and chemical properties that make PCBs valuable commercially also make them
environmentally detrimental. PCBs are very stable and resist breakdown at high temperatures
and from aging. Once in the environment, PCBs can easily cycle between air, water, and soil
(USDHSS.2000a). Because of their solubility in water and fats, PCBs can readily enter the food
chain. The major dietary sources of PCBs are fish (especially sportfish that are caught in contami-
nated lakes or rivers), meat, and dairy products (USDHSS.2000b). Human health issues/symptoms
associated with PCB exposures were one of the factors that lead to early suspicion about the
chemical’s safety, which motivated the passage of theToxic Substances ControlAct (TSCA) in 1976.
The mining industry, including abandoned surface and underground mines, presents a unique
set of challenges for identification, management and proper disposal of PCBs the release of which
can have important large-scale negative social and ecological impacts. PCBs have been used as
dielectrics in electrical equipment and as coolants in motors in continuous miners and loaders in
the mining industry. A common misperception is that because the USEPA regulations banned the
manufacture of PCBs in 1979, PCB-containing electrical equipment is no longer in use. This is not
the case. The regulations authorize the use of intact and non-leaking PCB transformers, capacitors,
and fluorescent light ballasts for the useful life of the equipment. Today, the mining industry still
uses PCB-containing electrical equipment and some of it continues to be abandoned underground
as documented by USEPA Region 8 mine inspections.
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But abandonment may translate into an unwanted corporate responsibility for PCB contamination
of humans, plants, animals, and the environment for the future. Abandoned equipment is no
longer being maintained; the next step is deterioration with the inevitable release of its chemical
components, including PCBs. Most mining operations communicate very closely with groundwater
which can eventually reach the ocean.
In the ocean, PCBs can cause a number of potentially serious problems: PCBs and other POPs
will bioconcentrate in phytoplankton, the unicellular algae in the surface layers of fresh water
lakes, rivers and the ocean that play a key role in regulating atmospheric carbon dioxide concentra-
tions (Smetacek.2008). Phytoplankton is the primary food source, directly or indirectly, of all sea
organisms. Data show that PCBs affect the productivity of phytoplankton and the composition of
phytoplankton communities (Eisler.1986 and USEPA.1997). Not only do phytoplankton play a key
role in regulating atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, but about 50 percent of the world’s
oxygen is produced by phytoplankton in the oceans (NASA.2008)
The median bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for accumulation [of PCBs] from water by phyto-
plankton range from 1 × 104 to 1 × 106 (USDHSS.2000c). Given that PCB concentrations range
from 0.24 to 5.7 × 10−12 g/L in the North and South Atlantic oceans (Gioria.2008), PCBs can
bioconcentrate in phytoplankton and then bioaccumulate in the food chain through phytoplankton
being eaten by zooplankton which are in turn are eaten by small fish and then larger fish that enter
the human food chain. The Federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has been compelled to
issue the temporary PCB tolerance of 2 ppm for human consumption of the edible portion of fish
(FDA.2010).
It follows that the abandonment of PCBs is not only a hazard to human health and the environment
it also presents potential pollution-related liabilities to the mining industry. This industry can play
a significant role in preventing further increases of PCB contamination in the ocean by eliminating
or controlling its PCBs.
There may be no solution for the long-term water pollution that can be caused by PCB
abandonment underground.
2 PCBS IN THE UNITED STATES
PCBs were manufactured in the US under the trade nameAroclor before manufacture was prohibited
by the regulations in 1979. Aroclors, which are waxes or oils, were liquefied using technical grade
tri- and tetrachlorobenzenes, which give high-concentration PCB dielectrics their characteristic
odor. Aroclors are odorless; different aroclors have different percent chlorine weight fractions
of PCBs that result in different properties. A typical aroclor is designated 1254. Twelve denotes
the number of carbons in the PCB molecule and 54 denotes the percent chlorine weight fraction.
Aroclor 1016, commonly used in capacitors, is an exception to this nomenclature. Mixtures of
PCBs and solvents were sold under the trade names that appear on the manufacturer nameplates
of PCB electrical equipment. Some of the more common PCB dielectric trade names are: Pyranol,
Interteen, Elemex, and Chlorextol. There are many others; by content they average ∼60 percent
PCBs. The generic name for these fluids is Askarel.
PCBs are not the only chemicals used in mines. Underground repair facilities have used chlori-
nated solvents such as trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, and methylene chloride for cleaning and
degreasing equipment. The release of these solvents, in addition to constituting their own threats
of ground water contamination, can mobilize PCBs, facilitating transport into ground and surface
waters. Some mines maintain their own landfills which contain improperly disposed of PCBs and
solvents.
3 IDENTIFYING PCB-CONTAINING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
The regulations require transformers and capacitors containing three pounds or more of dielectric
be identified by PCB Marks (Fig. 1) placed on the equipment by the owner or user if they contain
≥500 ppm (0.05%) PCBs. They are designated PCB transformers or PCB capacitors. Mineral
oil transformers containing ≥50 ppm (0.005 percent) PCBs are designated PCB-contaminated
transformers. All of the above are regulated for use and disposal. This does not necessarily mean
276
Figure 1. PCB Marks may have a yellow or white background.
Figure 2. Two 76-gallon PCB (Pyranol) transformers in the Eagle Mine at Gilman, Colorado.
that PCBs of lower concentrations or PCBs in small capacitors are not hazardous to human health
and the environment. For purposes of this paper “PCB-containing” means dielectrics containing
any detectable quantity of PCBs.
4 PCB TRANSFORMERS
PCB transformers (Fig. 2) may carry a PCB trade name on the manufacturer nameplate. The
regulations require the assumption that a transformer manufactured prior to July 2, 1979, containing
277
Figure 3. PCB-marked capacitor on the left.
fluid other than mineral oil and whose concentration is not established is a PCB transformer and
contains ≥500 ppm PCBs. If the date of manufacture or the type of dielectric fluid is unknown, the
transformer must be assumed to be a PCB transformer. PCB concentrations must be established by
chemical analysis or testing using SW 846-Method 8082 and other methods (USEPA.2010), (see
ASTM D-4059), to document compliance with the regulations. Rebuilt transformers may carry
replacement nameplates that do not correctly identify the dielectrics.
5 MINERAL OIL TRANSFORMERS AND VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Transformers with “oil” or “mineral oil” on the manufacturer’s nameplate originally contained only
mineral oil dielectrics but may have been contaminated with PCBs. Sometimes there is no dielectric
listed. This is common when a transformer has been rebuilt. Testing is the only way to determine
whether or not a mineral oil transformer has been contaminated.
Dielectrics of mineral oil transformers and PCB transformers were often mixed during servicing
resulting in transformers with mineral oil on the nameplates that may contain PCBs as a contam-
inant. In writing the regulations, USEPA concluded the hazards of PCBs warranted regulation
in transformers at ≥50 and ≥500 ppm PCB. This is why mineral oil transformers contaminated
with ≥500 ppm PCBs are regulated as if they are trade name PCB transformers that typically con-
tain about 600,000 ppm (60%) PCBs. Voltage regulators and substation transformers can become
regulated PCB articles if internal small PCB starting capacitors leak (also see Section 12).
6 PCB CAPACITORS
By 1976, 95 percent of the capacitors produced in the United States were filled with PCBs
(USDHSS.2000d) (Fig. 3). PCB capacitors contain the pure aroclors 1242 or 1016. Manufacture
before July 2, 1979, or a PCB trade name on the nameplate is a good indicator of high concentration
PCBs. The regulations require the assumption that a capacitor manufactured prior to July 2, 1979,
and whose PCB concentration is not established, contains ≥500 ppm PCBs and is a PCB capacitor.
If the date of manufacture is unknown, the capacitor must be assumed to be a PCB capacitor and
assumed to contain ≥500 ppm PCBs. Because most capacitors are sealed units, that testing will
require penetration of the casing that may destroy their usefulness and result in leaks which must
278
Figure 4. Fluorescent light ballast.
be eliminated or contained. A helpful aid in identifying capacitors that do not contain PCBs is that
the regulations require capacitors manufactured between1978 and 1998 be marked “No PCBs” by
the manufacturer.
7 FLUORESCENT LIGHT BALLASTS
Typical fluorescent light ballasts (Fig. 4) manufactured before May 31, 1979 contain a small capaci-
tor buried in the tar or asphalt potting material filling the ballast that functions as an insulator. These
capacitors hold about an ounce of aroclor. Asphalt material in fluorescent light ballasts manufac-
tured before 1978 has been found to have a better than 50 percent chance of containing regulated
levels of PCBs (63 FR 35384, 35403). As with capacitors, a means of identifying fluorescent light
ballasts that do not contain PCBs is a manufacturer-emplaced “No PCBs” mark required between
1978 and 1998.
8 ELECTRICAL CABLE
Electrical cable (Fig. 5) can contain PCBs. In some cases, the cable is enclosed in a lead jacket
which makes it difficult to handle. If electrical cable contains liquids or damp insulation, PCBs
should be suspected.
9 PCB REPLACEMENT
Replacement of PCB dielectrics can be a good investment considering the potential costs of cleanup
from PCB spills or fires. In the United States, PCB contamination can result in liabilities under
the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) at any
concentration. Fires and explosions involving PCB-containing capacitors, transformers or any
other PCB-containing electrical equipment, including transformers with contaminated mineral oil
dielectrics, can create polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans some
of which may be more toxic than PCBs and not be easily cleaned up and can permanently shut
down facilities.
Mines and related facilities need not face these risks today because there are good alternatives to
PCBs on the market. Transformers, capacitors, fluorescent light ballasts, and cable manufactured
279
Figure 5. Lead jacket electrical cable.
in the United States after July 2, 1979 should not contain PCBs. Mineral oil dielectric fluids in
transformers are common but can present fire and explosion hazards as can vegetable oil dielectrics
when subject to high temperature faults within the transformer. A number of major United States
power distribution companies have programs to eliminate PCBs and are adopting biodegradable
vegetable oil dielectrics. Company representatives report biodegradability is an important con-
sideration. Many coal and hardrock mining companies have adopted dry-type transformers for
underground use. Dry-type transformers are transformers in which the core and coils are in gaseous
(usually air) or dry compound insulating mediums. In explosive atmospheres dry-type transform-
ers must be in properly ventilated non-combustible containers. Associated switch gear, or spark
producing items, such as fuses, circuit breakers, and relays must be in explosion proof enclosures
(MR.2010).
There are a number of PCB-free capacitor dielectrics on the market. However, some of these
dielectrics can present their own hazards to human health and the environment and constitute
financial risks if released into the environment.
10 MINES AND PCBS
Underground and surface mines and the attendant crushing, milling, and smelting facilities may
use PCB-containing electrical equipment. PCBs are most likely to be in transformers, capacitors,
fluorescent light ballasts, cable, and drums of unidentified oils. Underground inspections have
revealed transformers grouped in permanent substations, located singly, or mounted on mine cars
that can be transported throughout the mine. Capacitors are found in locations similar to those
of transformers. PCB capacitors have been found in electric locomotives. In coal mines, PCB
capacitors have been found in wheel or skid-mounted power centers (Fig. 6).
Inspections have revealed PCB electrical equipment in just about every major electrically pow-
ered mining activity including in draglines used in open-pit coal mines and in power shovels at
open-pit metal mines; inspections also found PCBs in discarded equipment at a variety of types
of mines. PCBs have been found in underground substations, pump stations, mine power centers,
and electric locomotives. PCBs have also been found in surface facilities including hoist facilities,
mills, smelters, metal refineries, breaker houses, and transfer facilities. Experts in the mining
industry believe that substantial quantities of electrical equipment with PCB-containing dielectrics
had been abandoned underground before the advent of the PCB regulations (Personal communi-
cation 1978–94). Even after promulgation of the PCB regulations, PCBs have been abandoned
underground, especially in situations where it was not cost effective to remove them.
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Figure 6. Coal mine power center containing PCB capacitors.
11 PCB MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL
The following is a summary of ways to manage PCBs; this information should be supplemented
by consulting PCB regulations.
Identify and inventory PCB-containing electrical equipment. Equipment should be marked
so it is easily recognizable and not disposed of inadvertently. Written records identifying PCB
equipment and their locations are essential. Records should include a serial number from the
manufacturer nameplate or a company assigned number that has been placed on the equipment,
dielectric identification from the nameplate, dielectric quantity and PCB concentrations from lab
analyses.
Examine the equipment for leaks and clean up any leaks or spills potentially containing PCBs.
A common concept of a leak is that it is a drip, sometimes referred to as a weep or seep. However,
a leak is defined in the regulations as any instance in which a PCB article (including a transformer,
voltage regulator, capacitor, lead cable, or fluorescent light ballast) or container that has any PCBs
on any portion of its external surface. This means a leak can be an oily film or oily dirt near
any port or opening in the equipment. Leaks should be cleaned up and the equipment repaired or
the leaking equipment containerized, moved to safe storage and replaced. PCBs that have run off
the equipment onto the concrete or soil below should be cleaned up and stored pending disposal.
Personal protective equipment and cleanup materials may be contaminated with PCBs and require
proper disposal.
It is a good idea to replace and properly dispose of PCB-containing equipment that is no longer
needed, keeping in mind this can be a good long-term investment to avoid liability. Storage should
be in a building with an adequate roof and walls that is in a location selected to protect the PCBs
from the possibility of release. Storage facilities should not be in a flood plain. Leaking equipment
should be stored in metal drums with lids. Containment should prevent escape of PCBs into the
environment through volatilization and containers should carry PCB marks. PCBs will penetrate
most plastics.
12 BE AWARE OF HIDDEN SOURCES OF PCBS
The largest single hidden PCB source resulting in improper disposal is transformer bushings.
The dielectrics in bushings have no fluid connections with the dielectrics in the transformers to
which they are attached so analysis of the transformer dielectric will not reveal anything about
PCBs in the bushing. Bushings can contain anything from mineral oil to pure aroclor to tar-like
compounds containing very high concentrations of PCBs. Pot heads – cable termination apparatus
that connects transformers to incoming power sources – can be filled with a tar-like material,
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which can contain very high concentration PCBs. Any tar-like or asphalt-like material used as an
insulator or dielectric should be suspected of containing PCBs. Small motors often require starting
capacitors that can contain PCBs. Voltage regulators and substation transformers can contain load
tap changers operated by small motors that contain PCB starting capacitors. Small motor capacitors
can leak contaminating the dielectric fluid. Asphalt material in fluorescent light ballasts, along with
lubricants and caulks are other potential sources. Air compressors have been serviced with PCB
containing lubricants. Oil-filled switches, circuit breakers, and enclosures should also be suspect.
It is of utmost importance to keep in mind the dangers and persistence of PCBs in the environment
when deciding on storage locations and disposal. PCB-containing dielectrics require specialized
disposal techniques that destroy the PCB molecule. Incineration of PCB-containing dielectrics is the
preferred destruction method. However, the PCB regulations require 99.9999 percent destruction
of the PCBs (USEPA.2010) and incinerators can burn PCBs only if they obtain an EPA PCB
disposal approval which includes successful completion of a trial burn to demonstrate this level of
destruction. Inefficient incinerators or open burning can vaporize and disperse PCBs and convert
them to even more hazardous dioxins. Disposal of PCB-containing dielectrics in landfills is not
permitted because of the potential for ground water contamination. If there are no adequate disposal
facilities, long-term storage will be your only option.
The extent and complexity of underground mines present opportunities for abandonment or
illegal disposal of hazardous wastes. The presence of hazardous wastes may not be evident until
they are found in the local ground water. PCBs released underground from abandoned electrical
equipment can cause water pollution in mining districts which will eventually introduce PCBs into
the environment leading to contamination of the ocean and the human food chain regardless of the
location of their release.
Abandoned underground electrical equipment may remain intact and not release PCBs for a very
long time. Testing waters issuing from abandoned mines may not indicate whether or not PCBs are
present in intact electrical equipment.
13 CONCLUSION
PCBs are hazardous not only to human health and the environment but also to the mining industry
because of potential worker exposure and improper disposal liabilities. Risk management should be
an important part of PCB management planning. PCB managers should take into account not only
the regulatory requirements for use and disposal, but also financial risks that can result if PCBs
are inadvertently released into the environment. Compliance with the regulations will not protect
against liabilities under other federal laws while minimal compliance can result in unanticipated
risks. For example, the regulations permit the disposal of fluorescent light ballasts containing small
capacitors with about an ounce of pure aroclor as municipal solid waste. Nevertheless, the preamble
to the regulations states: However, disposers of fluorescent light ballasts that contain a small PCB
capacitor should be aware that they could be subject to Comprehensive Environmental Response
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) liability if the municipal solid waste landfill becomes
a Superfund site (63 FR 35384, 35409). This small thimble-sized capacitor contains enough aroclor
to contaminate 166 gallons of mineral oil at 50 ppm.
In the United States, PCB contamination can result in liabilities under CERCLA at any con-
centration if there is an actual or threatened release of PCBs to the environment which presents
an imminent and substantial endangerment to public health or the environment. Because PCBs
are considered hazardous substances under CERCLA, USEPA can also act whenever there is an
actual or threatened release even in cases where there is no imminent and substantial endangerment
(CERCLA.1980).
Replacement and proper disposal of PCB-containing dielectrics can protect you from future
liabilities.
Dan Bench, a mining engineer, is the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region 8 PCB Coor-
dinator (E-mail: bench.dan@epa.gov or 303-312-7090, the Mining Hotline). For the regulations
and more information on PCBs, check www.epa.gov/pcb.
The views in this article express the opinions of the author and do not necessarily reflect EPA
policies.
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CERCLA. 1980 Section 104(a), 42 USC. Sec. 9604(a).

Eisler, R. 1986. Polychlorinated biphenyl hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. In
Biologic Report 85; Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Laurel, MD: pp. 7,14.
Gioia, R. 2008. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in air and seawater of the Atlantic Ocean: sources, trends
and process. Environmental Science and Technology. Vol 42 No 5: pp. 1416–22.
Goddard, C. et al. 2003. Preliminary report on the sperm whale data collected during the voyage of the Odyssey,
Ocean Alliance, Lincoln, MA and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Woods Hole, MA.
http://earthobservatory.nasa/gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img id=17405. 2008. Nine years of
ocean chlorophyll.
Personal communications from company officials during inspections, 1978–1994.
Smetacek, V. & Cloern, J.E. 2008. On phytoplankton trends. Science. March 7 Vol. 319: pp. 1346–48.
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Chemical (POPs) website. 2008.
US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry. 2000a. Toxicological profile for polychlorinated biphenyls: p. 2.
Disease Registry. 2000b. Toxicological profile for polychlorinated biphenyls: p. 4.
Disease Registry. 2000c. Toxicological profile for polychlorinated biphenyls: p. 493.
Disease Registry. 2000d. Toxicological profile for polychlorinated biphenyls: p. 469.
Federal Register, June 29.1998. 63 FR 35384,35403.
Federal Register, June 29.1998. 63 FR 35384,35404.
Food and Drugs. 2010. 21 CFR Part 109.30. Tolerances for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Mineral Resources. 2010. 30 CFR . Secs. 75.2 Permissible, and 75.340 Underground electrical installation.
Protection of Environment.2010. 40 CFR Part 761.60. Testing procedures (g)(1)(iii).
Protection of Environment.2010. 40 CFR Part 761.70. Nonliquid PCBs (b)(1).
US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics.1997. Management of
polychlorinated biphenyls in the United States. In Health and environmental effects of PCBs.Sec. 1.4.
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Waste management practices at Alaska’s large mines
J. DiMarchi & J. Vohden

State of Alaska, Department of Natural Resources, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
ABSTRACT: Alaska has four large mines that include the world’s largest zinc mine, second
largest silver mine, and two gold mines with a combined annual production of 689,000 troy ounces
gold. Two of these mines are open pit mines and two are underground mines. These mines contribute
to a cumulative total of 22 Mtonnes of waste rock and 18 Mtonnes of tailings each year that have
to be managed during life-of-mine and eventually reclaimed as part of mine closure.
Each mine employs waste management practices suited to their physical environment, waste
rock geochemistry and ARD/ML potential, and the approved closure plans. The constituents of
concern and the ARD/ML potential vary widely between the mines as a function of the differences
in the geochemistry of the ore deposits. Mine reclamation and closure plans vary between mines
to address the unique site, tailings, waste rock and water quality conditions in ways that will attain
and maintain the physical, chemical, and biological stability of each site for the long term, and can
include the need for water treatment in perpetuity.
1 POGO MINE
The Pogo mine is located in Interior Alaska, 90 km southeast of Fairbanks (Figure 1). It is accessible
by road and is connected to the power grid. It receives approximately 35 cm of precipitation per
annum including 127 cm as snow. The mine site is underlain by discontinuous permafrost which is
generally restricted to wetlands and north-facing slopes. The deposit is a gold-bearing quartz vein
with an original resource of approximately 9 Mtonnes at a grade of 16 grams per tonne (gpt) Au. It
is an underground mine and ore is mined at a rate of 2300 tonnes per day. The mine opened in 2006
and is scheduled to close in 2016. However, ongoing exploration is likely to extend the life of the
mine. It produced 389,808 troy ounces in 2009. The mine, processing facilities, access road and
power line rights-of-way are situated on State of Alaska lands. The mine is owned and operated by
Sumitomo Metal Mining Pogo LLC, which is owned by Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd. (85%)
and Sumitomo Corporation (15%).
Waste rock at Pogo includes blast rock removed from underground as development tunnels
are advanced for access to ore stopes and to lengthen haulage ways. The mine has a waste rock
segregation procedure that relies on mine lab x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses of blasthole drill
cuttings that determines the arsenic and sulfur content of each round (a round is the volume of
broken rock generated with each blast – approximately 181 tonnes). Waste rock is classified as
“mineralized” if it contains more than 600 ppm As or 0.5% S. Mineralized waste rock must be
permanently placed on the dry stack or back underground. Nonmineralized waste rock can be used
for constructing roads or other general purposes at the mine. In 2009, 1149 rounds of waste were
taken and sampled in accordance with the rock segregation procedure.
Of these, 375 rounds (33%) exceeded either the As or S thresholds and were placed internally
in the drystack. Average concentrations for mineralized waste rock placed in the dry stack in 2009
were 322 ppm As, 0.225% S, 4178 ppm Fe with ratio of neutralizing potential to acid producing
potential (NP:AP) of 4. The mine estimates that it will generate 756,000 tonnes of mineralized
waste rock over the life of the mine (Sumitomo Metal Mining Pogo LLC, 2010).
The gold ore is conveyed from the underground ore bin to the mill on the surface. The mill
crushes and grinds the ore to 80% passing 50µ before subjecting it to gravity concentration and
flotation. The flotation concentrate comprises 10% of the ore by weight, and is reground to 80%
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Figure 1. Location Map of Alaska’s large mines.
passing 10µ. The flotation concentrate is then subjected to vat-cyanide leaching to extract the gold
that was not recovered in the gravity circuit. Waste streams from the mill include flotation tails, and
CIP tails which are the flotation concentrate after it has been subjected to cyanidation. The flotation
tails consist primarily of gangue (mostly quartz). They are not exposed to cyanide and 60% of these
tails are dried using a filter press to approximately 15% moisture before being trucked, dumped
and compacted in the dry stack tailings impoundment. The remainder of these tails is used to make
paste backfill. Average concentrations for flotation tails solids placed in the dry stack in 2009 were
1116 ppm As, 0.125% S, 2440 ppm Fe with ratio NP:AP of 9.47 (Sumitomo Metal Mining Pogo
LLC, 2010). The CIP tails represent another waste stream from the mill and account for 10% of the
ore by weight. These tails consist of the flotation concentrate that has been subjected to cyanidation
followed by a SO2 /air cyanide destruction process. This waste is pumped to the paste fill plant
where it is combined with approximately 40% of the flotation tails and approximately 7% cement
to make paste slurry. This slurry is pumped underground and used to fill the exhausted stopes. The
paste cures over a 28-day period into a semi-competent solid mass. CIP tails are sampled daily
for WAD CN to ensure that they meet State permit standards. Ninety percent of samples must
contain <10 ppm and 100% <20 ppm WAD CN. In 2009, 100% of samples contained <10 ppm
WAD CN. The procedures have been formulated to meet the specific metallurgical characteristics
of the ore but also meet the following environmental objectives: 1) minimizing the amount of
sulfides and arsenic mineralization in the surface drystack facility, 2) minimizing the volume
of cyanide-contacted material, 3) ensuring that cyanide solutions are detoxified to the greatest
practical extent, and 4) ensuring that all cyanide-contacted material is permanently entombed in
paste fill, underground.
The mine closure plan is designed to return the site to a stable condition including stabilization to
prevent erosion, encourage revegetation and prevent any chemical degradation of the surface water
or groundwater. The closure is subdivided into 5 stages that include reclamation of construction
disturbances, concurrent reclamation, final closure and reclamation, post closure reclamation (10
year duration) and finally, post closure monitoring (20 year duration).
At closure the drystack will be covered with an engineered soil cover. The engineered soil cover
will consist of 0.3 m of non-mineralized waste rock applied over the surface of the crowned tailings,
followed by a 15 cm sand and gravel layer to provide support for an additional 15 cm of growth
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media (TeckCominco, 2003, Pogo Project Reclamation & Closure Plan Update). This soil cover
has been designed in view of the relatively modest annual rainfall at the site, the low hydraulic
conductivity of the compacted drystack tailings, and the lack of acid rock drainage (ARD) potential.
After the soil cover is in place, a system of groundwater monitoring wells will be installed near the
downstream toe of the drystack. These wells, together with 10 years of monitoring of the surface
water flow between the drystack and the RTP, will provide the information required to assess the
effectiveness of the closure design to protect water quality for the long term.
The only waste rock stockpile at Pogo was developed during the advanced exploration program
in 2000. At closure, that waste rock will be entombed in the drystack, below under the engineered
cover. The stockpile site will be reclaimed to original topography, covered with growth media and
revegetated.
The underground mine stopes are routinely filled with paste backfill. At closure, the main haulage
ways will be compartmentalized to minimize hydraulic conductivity. The mine will be flooded and
all three adits will be permanently stabilized and sealed using a combination of select paste backfill
placement and concrete plugs to prevent access and drainage.
After all the facilities that are not required for long term post closure activities are removed, and
the site is in a stable condition, the project will enter into the 10 years of Phase IV post closure
reclamation. During this phase the RTP and water treatment plant will remain in place as long as
needed to treat the drystack runoff and seepage consisting of seasonal water treatment of the RTP
water. By phase V, all surface disturbances will be stabilized and water quality will be acceptable.
Post-closure monitoring of groundwater, stormwater, and surface water will continue for a 20-year
period, which together with the 10 year monitoring period under Phase IV, results in an estimated
30 year monitoring period after closure of the mine.
The Pogo mine has provided the State with a bond in the amount of $27.6M to cover the costs of
mine reclamation and monitoring. That amount is presently under review, and expected to increase,
as part of the State’s renewal process for the mine’s Reclamation Plan Approval.
2 FORT KNOX MINE
The Fort Knox Mine is located in Interior Alaska, 30 km northeast of Fairbanks (Figure 1). It is
accessible by public road and is connected to the power grid. The area receives approximately 36 cm
of precipitation per annum including 127 cm as snow. The mine site is underlain by discontinuous
permafrost which is generally restricted to wetlands and north-facing slopes. The gold deposit
consists of a network of structurally controlled quartz veins hosted within granite. The mine is an
open-pit operation and ore is trucked from the pit at a rate of approximately 82,000 tonnes per
day; half of which is milled and the remainder is subjected to heap leaching. The mine produced
263,260 ounces in 2009. Pre-mining global reserves were 332 Mtonnes of which approximately
105 Mtonnes remain to be mined. The average grade of proven and probable reserves is 0.45 gpt
Au. The mine opened in 1986 and pit operations are scheduled to cease in 2016, although heap
leach operations will continue until 2021. The mine is located on State of Alaska and mine-owned
private land, and is operated by Fairbanks Gold Mining Inc. which is 100% owned by Kinross
Corporation.
Waste rock from the mine includes overburden known as Fairbanks schist, and granite from the
pit that is barren or contains sub-economic concentrations of gold. Approximately 50,000 tonnes
of waste are mined and placed on the dumps per day. This waste is stored in four dumps adjacent to
the pit. The waste rock is sampled quarterly for acid-base accounting (ABA). Typical ABA results
for the waste rock consistently show high NP:AP ratios due to the AP values of <1 and NP values
as high as 69 (Fairbanks Gold Mining Inc, 2007b). Nonetheless, runoff from the dumps reports to
the tailings storage facility which is a zero discharge facility. At closure the dumps will contain
approximately 181 Mtonnes of waste rock.
The Fort Knox mill crushes approximately 40,000 tpd of ore and uses a vat-cyanide leach process
to extract the gold. Waste streams from the mill include coarse reject from the crushing circuit and
tailings. The coarse reject is +3 inch barren granite that is conveyed to stockpiles and used for
construction at site. The tails are pumped via slurry to the tailings storage facility (TSF). The
TSF is a dammed facility. The dam is a cross-valley, earth- and rock-fill structure with seal and
filter/transition zones. The dam has been raised three times and is in the process of being raised an
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additional 16 m to a height of 115 m with a crest elevation of 473 m above mean sea level (MSL).
The pH for tailings ranges from 9 to 10 and the permit limitations are 6 to 11. The tails contain CN
and the waste management permit stipulates monthly average effluent limits of 10 mg/L WAD CN
and an instantaneous limit of 25 mg/L. Typical tailing solution water reporting to the TSF facility
contains between 8 and 9 mg/L WAD CN. Quarterly ABA analyses for the tailings solids shows
that NP:AP ratios are very high (30–50) and not likely to produce acid (Fairbanks Gold Mining
Inc, 2007). The TSF is a “zero discharge” facility. Dam seepage is intercepted by 8 interceptor
wells situated at the toe of the TSF dam which also maintain a cone of depression in the water
table at the toe of the dam. The current pump back rate is approximately 0.11 m3 /s. The chemistry
of the pump back water is monitored quarterly. Eight monitoring wells situated down gradient
are sampled quarterly to ensure that the interceptor system is functioning properly and there is no
seepage into the surface water or groundwater regimes below the TSF dam.
In 2009, Fort Knox completed construction of Stage I of the Walter Creek heap leach facility.
The facility is designed to allow the extraction of gold from low grade run-of-mine ore. The mine
commissioned the heap facility in October, 2009. The entire facility (Stages I–V) will be lined
with 80 mil HDPE. Stage I of the facility will impound the solution pond and is double lined and
includes a leak collection and recovery system (LCRS). Cyanide solution is applied to the heap
at a rate of approximately 0.50 m3 /s. The pregnant solution is pumped from the in-heap pond at a
similar rate to the carbon-in-column circuit in the mill where the gold is removed from solution
and the CN is recycled back into the leach process. Approximately 11 Mtonnes of low grade ore is
placed on the heap annually and approximately 163 Mtonnes of low grade ore will eventually be
treated on the heap pad through 2021, prior to closure.
The reclamation and closure plan for the mine is designed for long term stability of the site
including the waste dumps, tailings and heap leach facility, and the pit lake. The State is currently
reviewing the closure and reclamation plan including the bond amount as required by the recurring 5
yr permit renewal process. Reclamation of the waste rock dumps will include contouring, placement
of 30 cm of growth media, and revegetation.
During the initial closure period, the TSF seepage interception system will continue to operate,
and the seepage water will be pumped to the pit as the tailings decant pool is dewatered. During this
time sufficient storage capacity will be available to contain the 100-year, 24-hour storm event plus
spring runoff, while maintaining the required freeboard. Currently, the TSF seepage does not meet
drinking water quality standards with regard to nitrate and sulfate. At closure, the remaining decant
pond will be pumped to the open pit. The surface of the tails will be reshaped and covered with
clean soil and revegetated. A pond and or stream will be reconstructed to restore some jurisdictional
wetlands, and a permanent spillway will be constructed in the dam to allow water to pass through
the facility, seasonally. Based on the current closure plan it would take 12 years for the water pond
behind the dam to fill naturally to an elevation where seasonal discharges through the spillway
would occur. The downstream face of the tailings embankment is constructed of durable rock, and
is resilient to erosion and will not be capped with growth media.
After closure, the pit lake will begin to fill naturally as the dewatering wells around the pit
are decommissioned. It will take approximately 80 years for the pit lake to recharge naturally
to its maximum water elevation of 448 m MSL. It is anticipated that the pit lake will meet water
quality standards, except for manganese and iron which are naturally high, once it attains maximum
elevation. The closure plan calls for an annual pit lake evaluation to: 1) summarize site conditions,
2) update the water balance, 3) validate the reclamation approach from a water quality perspective,
and 4) validate pit lake water quality predictions based on TSF decant volume and pit wall runoff
water quality and identify an appropriate water treatment/management if required.
The Fort Knox heap leach facility will be active for at least 5 years following closure of the
mill. This is because the heap leach process generally continues to yield gold for several years
following the cessation of placement of ore on the heap pad. Reclamation of the heap leach facility
will include the following: 1) residual leaching until the treatment gold recovery diminishes to the
point that it becomes uneconomic, 2) solution recirculation/rinsing to destroy cyanide and meet
compliance standards, 3) release of drain down to the tailing impoundment, 4) release of minor
long-term seepage to the tailing impoundment, and 5) regrading and cover.
The facility will be regraded to an overall 3H:1V slope and covered with growth media. The
regrading design will include erosion control measures as necessary to avoid loss of growth media.
After closure, monitoring systems for process components will remain in place until each specific
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facility has been chemically stabilized to the satisfaction of the State. This is anticipated to be on
the order of 10 years. The long term monitoring will occur down gradient of the facility at the
surface water and groundwater monitoring points established as part of the tailing impoundment
closure plan (Fairbanks Gold Mining Inc, 2007a).
The Fort Knox mine has provided the State with a bond in the amount of $37.6M to cover the costs
of mine reclamation and monitoring. That amount is increased annually to reflect the Anchorage
inflation index. In addition the closure plan will be reviewed by the State of Alaska large mine
permit team during 2010 and the bond amount will likely be amended as part of that review as well.
3 RED DOG MINE
The Red Dog Mine is located in northwest Alaska on the south flank of the Delong Mountains, a
sub range of the better known Brooks Range (Figure 1). The mine is situated at latitude 68◦ 4 9 N
in the Arctic and north of tree line and is underlain by continuous permafrost. The average annual
temperature is −6◦ C and average precipitation is 23 cm including 122 cm as snow. The mine
produces Pb, Zn and Ag from a one of the largest accumulations of these metals on the planet
and is the largest producer of zinc in the world with production of 516,200 tonnes Zn and 122,600
tonnes Pb and 7.5M ounces Ag in 2008 (Szumigala et al., 2008). The mineralization consists of
strataform galena and sphalerite in two deposits of about 54 Mtonnes each. The Main deposit
is nearly exhausted and the company is stripping overburden from the second deposit, known as
Aqqaluk. Aqqaluk will be mined for approximately 20 years at the current milling rate of 9800
tonnes per day. The mine opened in 1989 and is scheduled to close in 2031. The mine is situated
on NANA Corporation Native lands and NANA also owns the mineral estate. Teck Corporation
operates the mine through an agreement with NANA.
Waste rock from the mine includes relatively barren overburden that is stockpiled and can be
used for construction of roads, the tailings dam, and other uses at the mine. Most of this waste is
stockpiled for future use in constructing covers at closure over the more mineralized waste rock
dumps. The mine has stockpiled approximately 9.9 Mtonnes of overburden. The majority of waste
rock contains anomalous but sub-economic concentrations of Pb, Zn and Ag plus other metals
including Cd. This waste is placed on the main waste stockpile for permanent storage. The main
waste stockpile covers approximately 77 ha and contains approximately 32 Mtonnes of waste and
will contain approximately 60 Mtonnes and cover an area of approximately 111 ha at closure in
2031 (Teck, 2009). The majority of the waste rock in the main waste stockpile weathers rapidly
and either already generates acid or has the potential to generate acid. As a result, water runoff
and seepage from the waste dumps are collected in a series of ditches and sumps, respectively and
directed to the TSF, or to the water treatment plant and discharged into Red Dog Creek. The ditches
and sumps collect approximately 600,000 m3 per annum from the main waste sumps, overburden
stockpile and the low grade ore stockpile.
The Red Dog mill crushes and grinds the ore to sub-65µ particle size before subjecting it to a
flotation treatment to produce separate Zn and Pb-Ag concentrates. Mill throughput is approxi-
mately 9800 tonnes per day producing 1.25 million tonnes of concentrate and 2.3 million tonnes
of waste as tailings, per annum (Teck, 2010). The tailings are pumped as a slurry to the TSF. The
TSF is a dammed facility consisting of a rock-fill dam with engineered seal and filter zones. The
crest of the dam has been raised 4 times utilizing downstream raises. The upstream face of the
dam is lined with a 100 mil HDPE geomembrane. The tailings pond holds an average of 3.0 M
m3 of free water which covers the tailings. The volume fluctuates seasonally with highest inflows
in the spring when about 3.8 M m3 enters the facility. The mine treats and discharges up to 7.6 M
m3 of water per year under the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit
with concurrent Clean Water Act (CWA) Section 401 certification by the State. The TSF water has
pH of approximately 5. The average total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration is approximately
4200 ppm, predominantly as sulfate. Zinc concentrations in the TSF water average 350 ppm while
Fe concentrations average less than 10 ppm. The tailings solids contain approximately 4% Zn, 2%
Pb, 8% Fe and 12% total S. The NP:AP ratio is low and the tailings are strongly acid generating
(Teck, 2009). Maintaining the water pond over the tailings in the TSF is an effective means of
minimizing oxidation and acid generation (Teck, 2009).
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The TSF is a “zero discharge” facility and a pump back system, consisting of a collection gallery
and pumps at the toe of the dam and a well situated 76 m downstream from the toe. The pump back
system collects and pumps seepage back to the TSF at a rate of approximately 0.05 m3 /s (Teck,
2010). A series of monitoring wells situated down gradient from the pump back system are sampled
quarterly to confirm there is no TSF seepage advancing beyond the pump back system
The principal focus of the closure plan is the long term stability of the site. The three major
components of the plan are: 1) encapsulating the mineralized waste rock dumps, 2) maintaining
the wet cover on the TSF, and 3) performing long term water treatment. The mine is on private
(Native) land and the closure plan was developed over an 8 year period working closely with the
landowners and regulatory agencies to formulate a plan that met the requirements of the agencies
and embraced the landowner’s long term plans for the surface use.
The mine will exhaust ore in the Main pit in 2011 as it shifts its production to the adjacent
Aqqaluk deposit. As part of the mine plan, waste rock from Aqqaluk will be used to fill the Main
pit and create a waste dump atop the pit. Eventually 60 million tonnes of waste will be generated
from Aqqaluk. The reclamation plan calls for the waste rock dumps to be covered with engineered
soil covers after the dumps are reshaped to a 3H:1V slope. Reclamation will be concurrent with
ongoing mining to the extent possible. The soil covers will consist of a lower compacted layer of
weathered Okpikruak and Kivalina shale approximately 46 cm thick and an upper uncompacted
layer of the same thickness. Test work supports the concept that the engineered cover will reduce
surface water infiltration into the waste rock by up to 70% (Teck, 2009). The soil covers will be
seeded with a grass mixture for short-term stabilization while native species become established.
The mine is situated north of the tree line so native cover consists of an assemblage of grasses and
forbs. The State of Alaska performance standard for revegetation is 40% cover in 5 years. Field
trials initiated in 2007 will also generate useful information that will be used to modify the cover
and revegetation plans as warranted.
The closure plan for the TSF is a “wet” closure. A number of streams that are currently diverted
away from the TSF will be rechanneled into the TSF and the water pond will be maintained over
the tails in perpetuity. In the long term, water quality in the TSF is expected to improve owing to
the seasonal inflows of clean surface runoff and the cessation of the current practice of pumping
impacted mine water (from sumps and mine surface runoff) into the TSF. A 183 m wide beach will
be constructed on the upstream side of the tailings dam prior to closure to minimize seepage of
tailings water through the dam. The beach will be covered with non-mineralized soil cover and
revegetated. The beach should be effective at reducing seepage through the dam by 75%, thereby
reducing the total volume of water that will require water treatment after mine closure (Teck, 2009).
Long term water treatment will be required for TSF water and impacted water accumulating in
the Aqqaluk pit. Currently all process and impacted surface and ground water is pumped to the
TSF or the water treatment plant. At closure all impacted water will be pumped to the Aqqaluk pit
which will serve as the primary water storage facility for the long term. Water from the Aqqaluk pit
will be treated and discharged seasonally as necessary. The mine reclamation plan estimates that
5.3 M m3 of water will require treatment and discharge seasonally.
The mine has posted a bond in the amount of $305M to cover the cost of reclamation and closure
and long term water treatment.
4 GREENS CREEK MINE
The Greens Creek Mine is located on Admiralty Island in Southeast Alaska, 29 km southwest of
Juneau (Figure 1). The mine is operated by Hecla Greens Creek Mining Company, which is owned
by Hecla Mining Company. It is accessible by boat and float plane although there are 13 miles
of road on-site. The site itself includes the underground mine workings, ore concentrating mill,
tailings impoundment, camp facility, ship loading facility and a ferry dock at tidewater. Employees
at the minesite commute daily via ferry from Juneau. The area receives an average of 135 cm of
precipitation per year, primarily in the form of rain. (US Forest Service, 2003). Average annual air
temperature is approximately 6◦ C, ranging from −13◦ C to 21◦ C degrees.
The orebody was discovered in 1975. Full-scale development was initiated in 1987 and the first
concentrate was shipped in 1989. Low metal prices forced the closure of the operation in 1993
but it was reopened in 1996 and remains open today. The mine will could close in 2015, except
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ongoing exploration is likely to extend the mine life. The orebody contains Ag, Zn, Au and Pb. The
deposit is a polymetallic, stratiform, massive sulfide. Mineralization occurs discontinuously along
the contact between a structural hanging wall of quartz mica carbonate phyllites and a structural
footwall of graphitic and calcareous argillite. Major sulfide minerals are pyrite, sphalerite, galena
and tetrahedrite. The mine is an underground operation utilizing cut and fill as well as longhole
stoping mining methods, which produces approximately 1900 tonnes of ore per day. The mill
produces doré of Ag and Au as well as concentrates of Pb and Zn.
The Greens Creek property is situated on patented mining claims, US Forest Service land and
land within Admiralty National Monument. The patented claims will revert to monument status
after the mine is closed and reclaimed.
Waste rock at Greens Creek includes segregated production rock from underground operations
and is disposed of at Production Rock Sites 23 and D.Acid base accounting shows that portions of the
production rock in both sites have the potential to generate acid. However, carbonate minerals in the
production rock provide substantial buffering and a resulting long lag time to acid generation. This
allows for the construction of a cover system which will limit oxygen and precipitation infiltration
at closure. The cover system is comprised of segregated glacial till, colluvium and alluvium which
are not acid-generating.
Limited covers have been constructed as part of concurrent reclamation. Metal concentrations
in the production waste rock are elevated and lead to metal leaching into contact water. Contact
water is collected in sumps, treated and discharged. Surface and groundwater monitoring show a
lack of elevated metals and establish the effectiveness of the waste management practices at the
mine.
Segregation of waste rock is carried out on a visual basis by a mine geologist. Visual characteris-
tics have been shown to accurately reflect the geochemical properties of the waste rocks including
acid generation potential. Four classes of waste rock are recognized based on net neutralizing
potential (NNP):
Class 1: NNP greater than 100 tonnes CaCO3/1000 tonnes

Class 2: NNP between +100 and −100 tonnes CaCO3/1000 tonnes
Class 3: NNP between −100 and −300 tonnes CaCO3/1000 tonnes
Class 4: NNP less than −300 tonnes CaCO3/1000 tonnes
Class 1 rock has no use restrictions or special handling requirements. Class 2 and 3 must go on
the waste stockpile or underground, with Class 3 being placed underground to the greatest extent
practical. Disposal of Class 4 production rock must be placed underground. (Greens Creek Mining
Co., 2004)
Tailings generated by the milling process are dewatered to approximately 12.5% water using
a filter press and transported by truck to a drystack tailings facility. Fifty percent of the tailings
are placed underground as backfill after being mixed with cement; the remainders are placed in
the drystack. The tailings have an abundance of sulfide sulfur, generally greater than 10%, but
also have a high neutralizing component. Paste pH values are usually above 6.5 with the majority
between 7.5 and 8.5. The average NP:AP for the tailings is 0.74 (Hecla Greens Creek Mining Co.,
2009). Tailings characterization and quarterly monitoring are ongoing. Approximately 447,000
tonnes of tailings are placed in the drystack annually. There are currently 5 Mtonnes of tailings in
the drystack (Kennecott Greens Creek Mining Company, 2004).
ARD potential is minimized in the drystack by grading and compacting the tails to promote
runoff and discourage infiltration. Water management at the tailings facility consists of a complex
network of drains under the tailings, bentonite slurry walls around the perimeter of the site, and
ditches to divert upslope water and collect surface runoff. The site is underlain by a low permeability
till and other glacial/marine deposits. Contact water is collected, treated and discharged to the ocean
under an NPDES permit.
A sulfate reduction monitoring program was initiated in 2004 to determine the feasibility of
using a carbon amendment within the drystack to promote microbial reduction of sulfates and the
precipitation of metal-sulfide minerals. This treatment could decrease the sulfate and metal loading
within the tailings pore water and would result in a shorter closure period during which water would
require treatment prior to marine discharge. Ongoing trials with amendments such as peat, spent
brewing grain and municipal biosolids continue (Hecla Greens Creek Mining Company, 2010).
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The reclamation plan for the mine is designed to return the site to a near-natural condition and to
minimize the effects of mining. The plan is in compliance with all relevant US Forest Service, the US
Army Corps of Engineers, the City and Borough of Juneau, and the State of Alaska requirements.
The tailings drystack will be contoured and an engineered cover will be constructed. This will
include an 20–30 cm capillary break, a 61 cm compacted barrier layer, a second capillary layer
with filter fabric on top, and a 61 cm growth medium layer, which will be seeded and planted (US
Forest Service, 2003). It is anticipated that it will take approximately 7 years for the runoff from the
reclaimed facilities will meet surface water quality standards. Once they meet these standards the
runoff will be permitted to flow along its natural courses into the ocean. The site will be monitored
for up to thirty years on a declining schedule (Kennecott Greens Creek Mining Company, 2000).
The current financial assurance is a surety bond issued to the US Forest Service in the amount of
$26.2M. The closure plan and related bond are under review at this time (US Forest Service, 2007).
5 CONCLUSIONS
Alaska’s four largest mines operate under State and Federal permits. The waste management prac-
tices were developed to address the specific characteristics of the mine waste streams in order to
meet those permit stipulations. The identification and characterization of the waste streams typi-
cally begins years in advance of mine permitting, as part of the mine’s environmental baseline and
pre-feasibility studies. The waste management practices are codified in the mines Plan of Opera-
tions which are approved by state agencies prior to the initiation of mine construction. In addition,
management practices for waste streams are monitored, and modified where necessary, throughout
the life of these mines. The waste management strategy has the objectives of both minimizing impact
to the natural environment during operations and supporting an effective mine closure. Designing
mines for closure and performing concurrent reclamation are considered standard industry prac-
tices in Alaska. Alaska’s largest mines are long-lived, and this affords the operators and regulators
with the opportunity to refine the closure and reclamation plan prior to mine closure. Recurring
permit renewals on 5-yr cycles combined with third party compulsory environmental audits also
provide timely opportunities to revaluate the adequacy of the waste management practices, and the
closure plans including the financial assurances associated with the closure plans.
REFERENCES
Fairbanks Gold Mining Inc, 2007a, Fort Knox Gold Mine Reclamation & Closure Plan, Unpublished Company
Report, 128 p.
Fairbanks Gold Mining Inc, 2007b, Fort Knox Gold Mine Solid Waste Permit #0031-BA008 Quarterly Report,
Second Quarter 2007, Unpublished Company Report, 71 p.
Fairbanks Gold Mining Inc, 2010, Fort Knox Mine 2010 Annual Activities Report, Unpublished Company
Report, 27 p.
Greens Creek Mining Co., 2004, Site23-D Hydrogeology and Geochemistry Analysis, prepared by
Environmental Design Engineering, Unpublished Company Report, 91 p.
Greens Creek Mining Co., 2009, Environmental Audit of the Greens Creek Mine-Final Report. Submitted
to Sate of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, State of Alaska Department of Natural
Resources, the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Hecla Greens Creek Mining
Company, Unpublished Company Report, 225 p.
Hecla Greens Creek Mining Company, 2010, Tailings and Production Rock Site, 2009 Annual Report,
Unpublished Company Report, 169 p.
Kennecott Greens Creek Mining Company, 2004, General Plan of Operations, Appendix 3: Tailings
Impoundment, Unpublished Company Report, 43 p.
Kennecott Greens Creek Mining Company, 2000, General Plan of Operations, Appendix 14: Reclamation
Plan, Unpublished Company Report, 39 p.
Sumitomo Metal Mining Pogo LLC, 2010, Pogo Mine 2009 Annual Activity and Monitoring Report,
Unpublished Company Report, 32 p.
Szumigala, D.J., Hughes, R.A., Harbo, L.A., 2008, Alaska’s Mineral Industry 2008, State of Alaska Division
of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Special Report 63, 90 p.
TeckCominco, 2003, Pogo Project Reclamation & Closure Plan Update, Unpublished Company Report, 48 p.
292
Teck, 2010, Red Dog Mine 1st Quarter Report 2010 for State of Alaska Waste Management Permit No.
0132-BA002 Reclamation Plan Approval F20099958, Unpublished Company Report, 23 p.
Teck, 2009, Red Dog Mine Closure and Reclamation Plan, Prepared by SRK Consultants, Unpublished
Company Report, 66 p.
US Forest Service, 2003, Greens Creek Tailings Disposal Final Environmental Impact Statement, Report
#R10-MB-482a, 403 p.
US Forest Service, 2007, FS Agreement No. 07MU-11100500-059. Memorandum of understanding between
the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, The State of Alaska Departments of Environ-
mental Conservation and Natural Resources and Kennecott Greens Creek Mining Company Concerning
Reclamation/Closure Bonding and Periodic Cooperative Audits for the Greens Creek Mine, 10 p.
293
East Mission Flats Repository design—challenges and case history
Donald K. Vernon, Jr.

TerraGraphics Environmental Engineering, Inc., Boise, Idaho, USA
Andy Mork
Idaho Department of Environmental Quality, Boise, Idaho, USA
ABSTRACT: The East Mission Flats Repository was designed to dispose of metals contaminated
soils and debris wastes. Several of the engineering design challenges included repository confi-
guration to reduce visual impacts; access analysis to reduce impacts to local roads; stormwater
management integrated into the phased construction to retain sediment; slope stability for waste
configuration and placement; evapotranspiration cover to reduce precipitation infiltration through
the waste; and groundwater quality protection.
1 NEED FOR EMF REPOSITORY
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and IDEQ have developed a Basin-
wide Waste Management Strategy to guide waste repository siting and design to safely contain
contaminated soils from the Superfund cleanup. Waste sources and quantities have been forecast
based on the interim Operable Unit 3 Record of Decision requirements and the Basin ICP. This
Waste Management Strategy identified a Lower Basin repository as a high priority for the near-term.
There is not enough room in the existing repositories to dispose of the wastes. In addition, there is
no repository to serve the Lower Basin, where the Basin Property Remediation Program (BPRP)
will soon be working. Also, the repository is needed to serve the community’s ICP requirements.
Material disposed of at the East Mission Flats Repository will be generated by the BPRP and ICP
activities. After the EMF Repository is full, it will be closed and maintained in perpetuity.
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The East Mission Flats Repository footprint is roughly triangular, covering an area of about 14 acres
(TerraGraphics, 2009). The site is approximately 650 feet on the northwest side, 1,600 feet on the
southwest side, and 1,350 feet on the northeast side. Based on this configuration, the estimated
total volume of the repository is approximately 445,000 cubic yards (cy). The cover volume is
approximately 30,000 cy and will be constructed out of clean materials. The side slopes of the
repository will be made at a three foot horizontal to one foot vertical (3:1) slope. There will not be
any side benches or “steps” except for a temporary road on the northeast side during construction.
The top of the repository will be no higher than 2,165 feet, to reduce visual impacts. The top will
be peaked and sloped at 3% from the top to where it meets the 3:1 side slope perimeter to blend in
with the surrounding landscape. The configuration of the repository is depicted in Figure 1.
Idaho Department of Environmental Quality (IDEQ) has acquired a 23-acre parcel of land for the
purpose of providing a repository for wastes generated in the Coeur d’Alene Basin. The property,
referred to as the “East Mission Flats Repository” or EMF, is located adjacent to Exit 39 on I-90
and Canyon Road, two miles west of Cataldo, Idaho. The site is located approximately one-quarter
mile northeast of Old Mission State Park, north of the Coeur d’Alene River.
Waste placement will commence at the westernmost corner near Dredge Road and proceed to the
northeast along the northwest boundary. Once an advancing waste pile/slope has been established
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Figure 1.
along the northwest boundary of the repository footprint, placement will proceed southeastward
until a base pad at elevation 2,140 feet is established. This pad will facilitate a dry work area above
the average yearly flood elevation. With this pad in place the waste pile will advance from the
Dredge Road access of the repository back to the Institutional Control Program (ICP) access to an
elevation of 2,152 feet. Once the final waste placement has reached elevation 2,152 feet, the top
waste in the repository will be constructed to elevation 2,162.5 feet from the ICP Access end of
the repository and proceed to the northwest boundary. Construction of the evapotranspiration (ET)
cover will proceed from the ICP Access in the direction towards the Dredge Road access and will
be installed after the waste material for the top, as described in Phase 6, is completed.
Waste will be placed in 6- to 12-inch lifts and compacted. The waste placed within the interior
of the repository will be compacted to 90% of optimum while the waste placed at the perimeter
will be compacted to 95% of optimum. Slopes which are complete, that are part of the perimeter
protection embankment will have the protective layer installed prior to seasonal closure for the year.
Figure 2 depicts the perimeter protection embankment, the construction pad, and the waste slopes.
Exposed slopes that will not have perimeter protection installed will be stabilized for seasonal
closure by a spray-on soil stabilizer prior to winter closure. These design elements will provide
continual protection for the fill during the construction season as well as provide winter protection
from severe storms or flooding.
The use of waste material to construct the perimeter of the repository is based upon the following:
• Perimeter slopes will be constructed at a 3H:1V angle to encourage runoff and reduce the amount
of time that runoff is in contact with the perimeter slopes.
• The perimeter protection will be installed over the waste and will cover the waste with a minimum
of 21 inches of clean material and be installed on the repository prior to seasonal closure.
• The relatively level nature of the existing topography would make it very unlikely that runoff
would leave the site and discharge to surface water.
• Stormwater retention basins will be constructed to collect stormwater within the perimeter of
the repository.
The perimeter slopes being constructed of waste material, protected from runoff by a minimum
21 inch thick protective layer and the other aspects of the repository design provide an acceptable
means of placing waste at the perimeter of the repository.
3 VISUAL ASSESSMENT AND IMPACTS
The repository will be a sloped mound of soil over most of the 23-acre site. Although the repository
surface will be revegetated with native grass and shrubs to blend into the surrounding landscape, it
will be visible to users of the surrounding area, including visitors to the Old Mission State Park. To
portray the visual impacts to observers in the local area, visual simulations of the repository from
local view points were prepared.
The visual simulations were prepared from six view points. The view points included: two points
on the Old Mission State Park grounds; one point on the Exit 39 overpass; one point on the west-
bound I-90 off-ramp at Exit 39; one point along Canyon Road northwest of the site; and one point
in the town of Cataldo, Idaho.
Results of the simulation indicated the site would not be visible from the Canyon Road or
Cataldo view points. The greatest visual impact would occur to observers on I-90 and on the Exit
39 overpass. These observers would have a generally unscreened view of most of the repository.
Smaller impacts were noted from the two view points at the Old Mission State Park. One view
point was located near the Visitors Center, and the second view point was near the front steps of the
Old Mission. The observation points were first photographed in October 2007, when the deciduous
trees were in full canopy. The October photographs show the repository would be totally screened
by the tree canopy at the Visitors Center, and a small fraction of the top portion of the repository
would be visible as a minor background element from near the Old Mission front steps.
The two sites on the Old Mission grounds were re-photographed in December 2007, after
the deciduous trees had dropped their leaves. Short portions of the top of the western end of
the repository would be visible as a background element through the bare tree branches near the
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Figure 2.
Visitors Center. At the observation point near the Old Mission steps, the bare trees of December
afforded a slightly expanded view of a small portion of the top of the repository as a background
element between a house and garage.
To address potential concerns regarding visual impact when viewed from I-90, more trees were
planted between I-90 and the existing power lines. The existing trees in the buffer zone will be
left in place and continue to grow to reduce visual impacts from Canyon Road. Mitigation efforts,
including enhanced vegetation screening by planting additional trees between I-90 and the EMF
site and revegetation of the repository slopes will reduce visual contrasts and help the repository
blend in with the background. Therefore, the overall visual impact is expected to be small.
4 ACCESS ROADS
Once the BPRP is fully operational in the Lower Basin, the repository will be frequented by BPRP
contractor vehicles and other disposal contractor vehicles. As many as 100 trucks per day will haul
waste materials to the repository during a typical Monday through Thursday work week. Due to
this increased use, it is critical to select a safe, efficient, and cost-effective way to circulate the
truck traffic in and out of the repository.
All truck traffic coming to the EMF site will be routed to Exit 39 off of I-90. This is necessary
because the load limit on the Old Bridge on Canyon Road in Cataldo does not allow for passage of
the heavy trucks typically used by BPRP contractors. To reduce the expenses related with hauling
BPRP waste along Dredge Road and Canyon Road, an access point was selected in coordination with
the Kootenai County East Side Highway District, the Idaho Transportation District, USEPA, and
IDEQ. The selected entrance for the BPRP utilizes a small portion of Dredge Road, approximately
145 feet after exiting I-90 at Exit 39. The repository will be accessed from Dredge Road by a single
span precast concrete bridge. Users of the ICP Access Area will enter the repository via the Canyon
Road entrance, which consists of clean gravel and will place their load in the designated dumping
area. By limiting the access to other portions of the repository and providing a clean gravel access
area, ICP users will not be required to decontaminate their vehicles upon leaving the repository. It
is anticipated that minimal maintenance will be required to maintain clean access for users of the
ICP area.
The bridge section will span a total length of approximately 100 feet and be approximately 24
feet wide. The width will allow for two 12-foot wide lanes, one for entering and one for exiting the
repository. The height of the bridge from ground surface to the bottom of the structural members
will be approximately 15 feet (bottom elevation to be 2,148.5 ft). This height will allow the waters
of a 100-year flood event to flow freely beneath the structure with no interference due to the access
bridge. The elevation at the bottom of the bridge will be above the WSE of a 100-year flood event
as calculated by hydraulic modeling and determined to be 2148.5 ft with the repository in place.
As per the Bridge Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual (ITD 2008), all bridges with a clear
span of 20’ or more must allow the flow of a 100-year flood event to pass below the lowest chord
of the structure. Though this bridge would not be required to meet ITD standards, these standards
were used as the basis for design with regard to flow clearance.
5 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Phase 1 construction will consist of clean fill material and will not require a stormwater collection
system though the disturbed areas will have a silt fence installed for erosion and sediment control.
During Phase 2, drainage from areas where waste is placed will be collected in temporary bermed
areas that will be sized to hold runoff quantities from a 25-year 24-hour rainfall event. During
Phases 3 thru 7, stormwater runoff will be collected in a retention basin located at the interior of
the repository. The interior retention basin will be constructed during Phase 3 and will be modified
as needed. Modifications will be specified in the annual placement and construction plan. Drainage
from areas outside the waste placement areas (undisturbed areas) will not be collected. Stormwater
runoff from the fill areas will be managed to reduce sediment and additional contaminant loading to
nearby surface water bodies. Residual water will be held and used in the dry periods for use in dust
suppression. Disposal of excessive stormwater will be accomplished by pumping the stormwater
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into a truck, hauling the stormwater to the Central Treatment Plant in Kellogg, where the stormwater
will be treated and disposed.
Waste slopes that will not have additional waste placed against them (final waste slope) will
have the perimeter protection layer installed prior to seasonal closure. Because the construction of
Phase 4 may span several construction seasons, the advancing waste pile will have a temporary
berm constructed at the toe of the exposed slope to collect stormwater runoff. The advancing waste
slope graded with a positive slope to the retention basin, see Figure 1, will also be protected for
seasonal closure by means of a spray on soil stabilizer.
6 SLOPE STABILITY
A global stability analysis was performed for the EMF Repository to determine the stability of the
repository slopes under various conditions and combinations of conditions. The global stability
analysis evaluates multiple possible failure planes through the waste and existing base material
resulting in an analysis that determines the factor of safety against failure for the entire slope.
The global stability analysis was performed using the Slope/W 2007 Version computer modeling
software developed by Geo-Slope International Ltd. Slope/W computes the factor of safety of the
modeled slope by means of limit equilibrium analysis. Limit equilibrium formulations are based
upon the widely accepted method of slices analysis, where a failure plane is broken into a number
of cross-sectional slices and each slice is analyzed individually for static equilibrium to determine
the tendency for sliding.
The measure of acceptable resistance to slope failure, or acceptable factor of safety, varies with
the mode and conditions related to that potential failure. A factor of safety is calculated by dividing
the forces within a slope which resist failure by the forces within a slope which could cause failure:
This calculated factor of safety is then compared to the acceptable factor of safety for the given
conditions and mode of failure to determine whether the slope is acceptably stable.
7 COVER
The cover design for the EMF Repository uses an ET cover to minimize infiltration into the waste
materials and to ensure reduction or elimination of leaching and contaminant migration to protect
groundwater. The ET cover system consists of two sections: an upper section and a lower section.
The upper section contains 6 inches of loam soil to support and maintain the cover vegetation. The
lower section is a 2-foot thick layer of silty clay loam soil that provides water storage during wet
periods for later use by the cover vegetation as well as evaporation into the atmosphere. The ET
cover system will be placed over the waste materials in the EMF Repository; therefore, the roots
of the cover vegetation will extend beneath the cover system and remove water from the waste
materials. A schematic of the ET cover for the EMF Repository is illustrated in Figure 1.
The ET cover design for the EMF Repository was evaluated using both one-dimensional and
two-dimensional computer models. The one-dimensional modeling was performed using the Envi-
ronment Policy Integrated Climate (EPIC) model, developed by theTexasA&M Blackland Research
and Extension Center located in Temple, Texas; and the VADOSE/W computer program developed
by Geo-Slope International, Inc. of Calgary, Alberta. The VADOSE/W computer program was also
used to perform the two-dimensional modeling. Based on the one-dimensional modeling results,
the efficiency of the ET cover at the base of the root zone using the EPIC model is approximately
92.2% and the efficiency of the ET cover at the base of the root zone using the VADOSE/W com-
puter program is approximately 91.6%. Based on the two-dimensional modeling results using the
VADOSE/W computer program, the efficiency of the ET cover at the base of the root zone is 95.8%.
ET covers are typically constructed in arid or semi-arid climates with average annual precipitation
amounts of 15 inches or less. At the EMF Repository site, the average annual precipitation is over
30 inches based on daily weather data from the National Weather Service weather station located in
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Kellogg, Idaho. The EPIC model and the VADOSE/W computer program were used to evaluate the
applicability and appropriateness of an ET cover for use at the EMF Repository site by using regional
and site specific data. Based upon the modeling results, the EMF Repository ET cover significantly
reduces the amount of percolation through the waste materials and reduces potential impacts to
groundwater underneath the EMF Repository. These cover modeling results are dependent upon
the soil properties identified for the ET cover. Usually, soil samples are collected from a local
borrow source and tested for soil properties important to the proper functioning and performance
of the ET cover. These soil properties are then used as the basis for the ET cover design. A local
borrow source with soils appropriate for use in an ET cover does not exist in the vicinity of the
EMF Repository site; therefore, soils meeting the specifications will be imported to construct the
EMF Repository ET cover.
8 GROUNDWATER QUALITY PROTECTION
Four monitoring wells were drilled at the site during October 2007. One of these four monitoring
wells is up gradient of the repository site. The wells reach to about 30 feet below ground surface, in
the upper aquifer. A broader look at the soil samples reveals two general soil types are under the site.
The upper 12 to 15 feet below ground surface is made up of light brown silt, clay, and fine sandy
clay. The top two to three feet of this material has bright orange-brown streaks in it from mining
waste. Gravel and sand beds are underneath this fine-grained material. These beds are saturated and
are the first water bearing zone beneath the site. The monitoring wells were constructed to sample
water from this zone. In addition to the four monitoring wells installed at the site, two monitoring
wells were installed to the west and to the south of the repository site during October 2008.
Five groundwater monitoring events were completed between December 2007 and November
2008. Results from the five events showed that groundwater meets USEPA drinking water quality
thresholds for the following metals: antimony, cadmium, lead, and zinc. During the five monitoring
events, the only concentration to exceed the applicable USEPA drinking water quality thresholds
was dissolved arsenic in a monitoring well located west of the repository site, which had a con-
centration of 0.0148 milligrams per liter (mg/l) compared to a National Primary Drinking Water
Regulation (NPDWR) maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 0.010 mg/l (IDAPA, 2007).
The groundwater monitoring effort will continue through construction and operation and main-
tenance, at a minimum, to evaluate whether the repository has an effect on local groundwater
conditions. If future tests indicate the repository is responsible for impacts to groundwater quality,
measures will be implemented to address the contamination source.
The groundwater gradient is very low across the EMF site, and studying water level elevations
suggests two possible flow paths to the Coeur d’Alene River. The shortest flow path is south from
the repository, with groundwater moving east of the Old Mission. The other flow path is west
from the repository, with discharge to the river west of the Old Mission site (downstream). To
monitor groundwater movement to the Coeur d’Alene River, one additional monitoring well was
constructed along each of these possible groundwater flow paths.
Water that seeps through the waste soil is called leachate. The leachate may dissolve metals from
the waste soil and transport them through the repository material to the native soil underlying the
repository. Some of the leachate may mix with groundwater, and could result in elevated metals in
the groundwater. However, the soil at the site appears to remove metals from leaching groundwater
by a process called sorption. Based on the reduction in leachate volume and the demonstrated ability
of the soil at the site to sorb dissolved metals, the potential for significant impacts to groundwater
from the presence of the repository is low. Column tests were completed simulating leaching from
the repository waste material and interactions of leachate with underlying native soil. Results of
the tests confirm the assessment that impacts to groundwater will be negligible.
Although the top of the repository will be gently sloped to help water flow off and away from
the soil mound, a very small amount of water will seep into the soil mass. When the waste material
has reached total design height, an evapotranspiration (ET) cover will be constructed to cover
the waste. Based on results from a cover analysis, the ET cover will reduce the amount of water
percolating past the base of the root zone from 95.8 percent based upon two-dimensional modeling
and 98.3 per cent when using a simplified one-dimensional model based on the wettest annual
recorded and average annual precipitation, respectfully. This amounts to approximately two inches
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of leachate fully penetrating the ET cover and underlying two-foot root zone in the “wet” year and
approximately one-half inch in the “average” year. Given the height of the waste soil column, up
to 32 feet high, the post-placement compaction and top surface grading, it is unlikely a significant
quantity of leachate will fully penetrate the waste soil mass and come into contact with underlying
soil. In addition, as explained above, the underlying clean soil has demonstrated an ability to sorb
dissolved metals from leachate.
Building the repository with the ET cover will greatly reduce or eliminate the amount of leachate
generated beneath the repository. Based on Daily weather data from 1970-1973 and 1975-2005
from the National Weather Service (NWS, 2006) weather station located in Kellogg, Idaho, the
wettest year occurred in 1996 with an annual precipitation amount of approximately 49 inches.
Based on the two-dimensional cover modeling results using the wettest year data, the efficiency
of the ET cover at the base of the root zone is approximately 96%. This means the EMF ET cover
significantly reduces the amount of percolation through the waste materials to approximately 2
inches, and reduces potential impacts to groundwater underneath the EMF Repository. In addition,
the two inches of leachate would then have to pass through the upper existing soil layer at the site,
which has shown the ability to effectively remove metals from percolating groundwater.
Leachate generated by precipitation infiltrating through yard waste soil in the repository is
not expected to contain elevated levels of metals. Based on column tests closely approximating
conditions at the proposed repository, arsenic, cadmium, and lead will not be present, and only very
low concentrations of antimony and zinc will be present. The column tests actually indicate that
the existing native deposits, which include the historic fluvial tailings horizon, have the potential
to generate more metals than yard waste soil, specifically cadmium and zinc. Cadmium, leached
from the existing native deposits, may be in the range of the NPDWR MCL, and zinc could exceed
the National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation (NSDWR) MCL.
Additionally, the total volume of leachate generated will be reduced by the construction and
establishment of a vegetative cap, which will reduce infiltration by promoting evapotranspiration.
Periodic inundation by flood waters will only saturate a small volume of soil around the perimeter
of the repository, and only for a brief period. The extent of infiltration based on the 2008 flood event
indicates that during a standing water event of 75 days, water will penetrate the repository mass 15
to 17 feet. The thickness of the saturated zone will range between 0.5 and 0.7 feet. This model was
developed using in-situ natural soil conditions. During repository construction, soil placed on the
perimeter will be compacted to ≥ 95% maximum density. This compaction will likely reduce the
hydraulic conductivity of the waste soil by an order of magnitude or more. Based on this reduced
hydraulic conductivity, it is likely that the flood waters will penetrate two feet or less into the waste
soil mass. Long-term saturation of the base of the repository and the development of reducing
conditions are not expected. Because the existing soils generate higher levels of metals than the
proposed yard waste, the reduction in infiltration should result in an overall decrease in metals
leached to shallow groundwater, and an improvement in water quality.
9 GEOCHEMICAL EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL IMPACTS TO GROUNDWATER
The potential for impacts to groundwater from placement of contaminated soil at the EMF Reposi-
tory has been evaluated by reviewing the available hydrological and geochemical data, including
site-specific characterization data and relevant information from Coeur d’Alene Basin studies, and
conducting column leach tests simulating site conditions.
9.1 Metal sorption

As precipitation infiltrates through contaminated soil placed in the repository, soluble metals will
dissolve, resulting in porewater or leachate with elevated metals concentrations. Leachate will
continue to migrate through the soil column until it reaches and mixes with underlying groundwater.
As leachate migrates through the soil column, dissolved metals will be sorbed to organic matter,
clay minerals, and iron/manganese (Fe/Mn) oxides in the native fluvial sediments and in the existing
tailings. Each metal will be sorbed to a different degree, depending on site specific characteristics
of the soil/water system, such as soil type, pH, and other factors. The degree or amount of sorption
is described by a term known as the partition coefficient. Partition coefficients have not been
302
determined for the EMF Repository, but literature values for arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, and
zinc, with similar soils, range from about 500 to 15,000. Values of 100 or greater are generally
considered to indicate that the metal is essentially completely sorbed by the soil. This is supported
by existing site characterization data. While the Mission Flats area contains dredge materials up
to 40 feet thick with extremely high total metals concentrations, the shallow groundwater contains
relatively low levels of dissolved metals.
Additionally, metal concentration profiles in test pits and monitor well boreholes at the reposi-
tory site indicate an abrupt change in soil metal concentrations at approximately two to four feet
bgs. Concentrations in the upper one to two feet are up to approximately 8,700 mg/kg of lead;
3,000 mg/kg zinc; 100 mg/kg arsenic; and 20 mg/kg cadmium. Those concentrations decrease
abruptly to multiples of 10 mg/kg at depths of three to four feet, which is interpreted as the native
soil horizon. This decrease is almost certainly due to efficient sorption in the upper level of the native
soils, indicating that metals concentrations in leachate from the EMF Repository will similarly be
decreased as it migrates through underlying soil.
To resolve concerns regarding metal leaching and sorption, a column test was conducted during
Summer 2008 to simulate conditions in the repository following the placement of yard waste
soils. A two-stage column test, in which one column was filled with yard soil and leached with
simulated rainwater, generated leachate representing that of yard waste soil placed at the EMF
repository. The yard soil leachate was subsequently passed through a column of native soil from
the site, to determine metals attenuation/sorption and the chemical characteristics of leachate that
will ultimately mix with groundwater.
The test data indicate that leaching of yard waste soil by precipitation will not release any arsenic,
cadmium, or lead, and only very low concentrations of antimony and zinc. However, the native soil
leached cadmium (at just below the drinking water MCL of 0.005 mg/L) and zinc (exceeding the
zinc secondary drinking water standard of 5.0 mg/L). Therefore the yard waste soils pose essentially
no risk to groundwater, whereas the native soils actually leach more metals to groundwater, although
not at levels that pose a human health risk.
Furthermore, it is important to note that after repository construction the volume of leachate
passing through native soil to the first groundwater will be significantly reduced or eliminated.
The repository will have an ET cover, and the functioning ET cover will essentially create an
umbrella over the 14-acre repository footprint. No water will be percolating through the 14 acres
after construction, where prior to construction an average of 32 inches per year fell to the ground
at the repository site. The reduction in leachate volume should benefit the first water-bearing zone
beneath the site.
9.2 Infiltration into the repository

Infiltration of precipitation through the repository will be substantially reduced following comple-
tion of ET cap construction. After the repository is full, an engineered ET cap will be constructed,
vegetation will become established, and infiltration will be reduced due to plant respiration and
evaporation. The average annual post-construction infiltration rate is estimated to be on the order
of from 0 to 7.8% compared to an estimated 75% under current conditions. Metals leaching should
be approximately proportional to the volume of infiltrating precipitation, consequently leaching
through the EMF will be reduced by a factor of about 10 or more, based on cover modeling results.
The EMF site is also subject to periodic flooding during high water of spring runoff events on
the Coeur d’Alene River, resulting in standing water for short periods. Most recently, for example,
was June 2008, when the site was flooded to a depth of two to three feet depth for several days.
This was considered a 12-year runoff event.
A model to predict the extent of waste soil saturation due to the observed 12-year event was
constructed using the USGS VS2DT code (USGS, 2009). The VS2DT program is designed to
simulate two dimensional, variably saturated flow. The model was developed to simulate water
flux through the part of the repository perimeter armored with riprap. This scenario was selected
because the armored areas will allow the greatest amount of flood water infiltration and modeling
this condition would represent the “worst-case” scenario for flood water intrusion. The armored
areas will be covered with 21 inches of riprap and gravel of very high hydraulic conductivity that
will essentially place flood water in direct contact with contaminated repository waste material.
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The armored areas constitute approximately 20% of the running length of the repository perime-
ter. The remaining 80% will be constructed with a clean soil storage layer, top soil and a vegetated
surface. Water transmittal through this material will be significantly less than in the armored areas.
By selecting the armored areas for simulation, the model as constructed is conservative in estimation
of the degree of flood water intrusion.
The results of the model indicate the 75-day standing water event will result in a maximum
infiltration of 15 to 17 feet into the repository soil. The saturated thickness of the flood water
intrusion ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 feet. This saturated area represents approximately 0.05% of the
total repository volume.
The model incorporated the hydraulic conductivity value reported from a flexwall permeability
test performed on a remolded sample in a laboratory setting. The waste material as-placed will be
compacted to ≥95% maximum density, much greater than the test sample. The field compaction
to ≥95% maximum density will likely decrease the conductivity at least one order of magnitude.
A reduction of this order would reduce the infiltration to less than two feet.
Based on the model assumptions and results, the potential for measureable groundwater impacts
from lateral migration of flood water into the repository waste soil mass is low for the following
reasons: (1) the volume of saturated soil and metals in the saturated soil is negligible; (2) the yard
soils imported to EMF will have lower metals concentrations than the contaminated soil already at
the site; (3) groundwater monitoring results indicate that water beneath the site currently meets EPA
primary and secondary drinking water standards; and (4) the repository as designed will decrease
the amount of water moving through the native soil to groundwater, thus decreasing the metals load
from surface water sources. Furthermore, as column test results indicate, no additional metals are
expected to be leached from the yard soils in any event.
10 CONCLUSIONS
• Visual simulation using photographs was very useful in explaining visual effects to stakeholders.
• Installation of an access bridge resolved load limit issues at a lower cost than other approaches.
• Stormwater management addressed contaminated stormwater via on-site controls while un-
contaminated stormwater was kept un-contaminated.
• Global slope stability was demonstrated using computer modeling so that a stable fill could be
constructed.
• An evapotranspiration cover was included in a humid environment because it significantly
reduces that amount of precipitation passing through the waste materials.
• Groundwater quality is estimated to be protected because of the reduced amount of precipitation
passing through the waste materials along with the ability of existing subsurface soils to absorb
groundwater contaminants. Perimeters construction reduces floodwater infiltration to a short
insignificant distance.
REFERENCES
IDAPA, 2007, Chronic Aquatic Life Criteria, IDEQ Water Quality Standards. IDAPA 58.01.02.210. Last
update March 2007.
Idaho Transportation Department (ITD), 2008, Bridge Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual.
NWS, 2005, Online Precipitation Data, Kellogg and Pinehurst, Idaho.
TerraGraphics, 2009. East Mission Flats Repository, 90% Design Report, TerraGraphics Environmental
Engineering, Inc., Moscow, Idaho, June 5, 2009.
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 2009, VS2DT Code, USGS Survey website, http://wwwbr.cr.usgs.gov/
projects/GW_Unsat/vs2di1.
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Physical properties of mill tailings as foundation material for

waste repositories, Bunker Hill Superfund Site
Justin S. Woolston
TerraGraphics Environmental Engineering, Inc
ABSTRACT: To support soil cleanup and site remediation activities at the Bunker Hill Superfund
Site (BHSS) in northern Idaho, contaminated soils are removed from residential yards and stored
in repositories. With a limited supply of suitable land available for site selection, former tailings
ponds and tailings-covered ground are used as repositories. At the Big Creek Repository (BCR)
in the BHSS, design methods developed from the results of in-situ and laboratory testing and
analysis of the physical properties of mine and mill tailings have been used to design, construct,
and expand this repository. In 2004 the engineering design properties were developed for the BCR
as a result of extensive geotechnical testing of the foundation materials. These properties were
retested to demonstrate how the strength properties change as the repository is loaded. The data
collected at BCR are being successfully applied to the expansion of the BCR and the design of
other repositories.
1 INTRODUCTION
This paper presents geotechnical strength data collected over a 6-year span for tailings that have
been subjected to consolidation due to the placement of a waste repository on top of a tailings
impoundment, including extensive in-situ and laboratory testing of flotation tailings before load-
ing, during loading, and after substantial loading has occurred. The geotechnical strength properties
of flotation tailings are not typically considered due to their method of deposition and their reten-
tion by either a dike or dam. These fine-grained flotation tailings, often referred to as slimes,
visually resemble silts and clays when in an unconsolidated, undrained state but exhibit strength
characteristics more representative of sands when in a drained state. The results and conclusions
of these tests are being applied to the design of soil waste repositories on top of inactive tailings
impoundments.
2 SITE HISTORY
In 2004 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the Idaho Department of Envi-
ronmental Quality (IDEQ) identified an inactive Sunshine Precious Metals, Inc. (Sunshine) tailing
impoundment as the site for disposal of waste generated by cleanup activities conducted pursuant
to the Bunker Hill Mining and Metallurgical Complex Operable Unit 3 Record of Decision (OU3
ROD) (USEPA, 2002). The site referred to as the Big Creek Repository (BCR) is designed to
securely hold soil waste generated from the remediation of the lower Coeur d’Alene River basin
area. As part of the Selected Remedy, repositories are necessary to store the waste generated
through the Bunker Hill Superfund Site (BHSS) cleanup process. The site is located adjacent to
Big Creek in Shoshone County, Idaho, approximately 0.25 miles south of Interstate-90. The repos-
itory is located on the more northerly of two tailings impoundments created by Sunshine, with the
southern impoundment still in operation. The tailings impoundment was constructed in 1968 with
a dam height of 10–40 feet and with slopes of 1.4 horizontal on 1 vertical (1.4H on 1V). The pond
interior measures approximately 14 acres and is filled with flotation tailings. In 1973, the dam was
raised 10 feet.
The tailings impoundment was selected as a waste repository site because: it was available, it
was already contaminated, and it was one of a few parcels of ground flat enough to accommodate a
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soil waste repository. With the exception of the valley floor, most terrain in the area is mountainous,
which is too steep for a stable waste configuration. The original repository design was created in
2004 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), although preliminary waste placement at
the site started as early as 2003. The USACE design placed approximately 250,000 cubic yards
of waste on top of the existing tailings, with the majority of waste placed on the centerline of
the impoundment berm. This equates to approximately 30 feet of soil waste placed on top of the
14-acre footprint of existing tailings material.
In 2005, anticipating the need for additional waste storage capacity, the design was expanded
by increasing the height of fill material by an additional 20 feet. At this point the tailings were
tested again to determine the new shear strength properties. Testing, both in-situ and laboratory,
was again performed in 2009 by Strata Geotechnical Engineering and Material Testing (Strata),
in compliance with the conditional approval from USACE, as USEPA’s third-party reviewer of
the increased height expansion. USACE required the strength of the tailings to be tested prior to
exceeding the original USACE design height, in order to verify the design parameters used in
analysis of the increased height expansion.
3 TAILINGS MATERIAL DESCRIPTION
The flotation tailings underlying the repository soil waste are as much as 45 feet thick and vary
in grain size from fine-grained sand at one end of the impoundment to very soft, saturated silt
referred to as slimes at the opposite end of the pond, with a transitional zone in the middle. The
initial repository design performed by USACE described the tailings as “low shear strength tailings
or slimes” (USACE, 2004). The USACE design asserted that as the repository soil waste was added,
the pore water pressure within the tailings would increase due to the weight of the soil waste and
then slowly dissipate as the tailings consolidated, resulting in an increase in shear strength. The
USACE design also asserted that if soil waste was placed too rapidly, the pore water pressure would
not have adequate time to dissipate, and the additional weight of the soil waste could cause slope
failure. Due to the perceived potential for slope failure, the repository was loaded slowly using
specific procedures that allowed for the tailings to consolidate and develop adequate shear-strength.
As the repository was filled, pore water pressure and settlement data were monitored to ensure the
repository was filled in a safe manner.
When in operation, the tailings impoundment was filled by pumping the tailings slurry into the
impoundment at the southern end and allowing the tailings to settle out from south to north. Decant
stand pipes located at the north end of the impoundment allowed excess water to be discharged
into the adjacent creek. This process deposited a coarser grained tailings beach at the southern
end and deposited the finer grained tailings at the northern end of the impoundment (Figure 1).
Initial in-situ and laboratory testing of this beach material displayed strength properties typical of
sands; whereas, the fine grained slimes resembled silts and clays. Although USACE addressed the
entire site in the initial repository design, they focused on the northern portion containing the finer
gained slimes material as the critical section for repository stability due to a perceived lack of shear
strength.
USACE extensively tested the tailings and the impoundment dikes with cone penetration tests
(CPTs). The northern portion of the tailings impoundment containing the finer grained tailings
served as the control point for determination of the performance of the tailings material as a foun-
dation for the repository as the repository is loaded. In 2005, when the tailings were investigated
again in preparation for expansion of the repository by means of increasing the final design height,
in-situ testing consisted of vane shear tests (VSTs) performed in borings to a depth which corre-
sponded to the depths tested by USACE. Golder Associates Inc. (Golder) used these data in the
stability analysis of the height expansion assuming that shear strength would gradually increase as
the repository was loaded and as the tailings consolidated (Golder, 2005).
4 IMPOUNDMENT MATERIAL TESTING
USACE tested the impoundment material with a CPT to determine the design parameters for the
repository. Golder tested the impoundment material with a VST for the increased height expansion.
306
Figure 1. Sunshine Precious Metals, Inc. (Sunshine) tailing impoundment, 1975.
Strata tested the impoundment material with a CPT to confirm the material strength subsequent to
substantial loading of the repository.
USACE performed CPTs throughout the impoundment site. Golder focused the VSTs at the
northern end of the impoundment where the slimes were located, based on the initial data from
USACE, as did Strata with the CPTs.
In the last round of testing performed by Strata, the waste material stored in the repository posed
a problem with regards to accessing the tailings material. The 30-foot thick layer of waste material
includes debris consisting of chunks of concrete, metal, and other materials which prevented a
CPT apparatus from advancing to depth. To address this issue, Strata advanced the borings to a
depth that corresponded to the top of the tailings material. Once these depths were achieved, Strata
re-tooled the drill rig to advance the CPT apparatus, which provided continuous data from the top
of the tailings layer to the bottom of the tailings impoundment.
Strata drilled a total of 11 borings at pre-determined locations that corresponded to the tail-
ings material of greatest concern because of strength properties. Approximate boring locations
are illustrated in Figure 2. Borings extended to depths ranging from 20 feet to 53.5 feet below
the ground surface. Boring B-7a was accomplished to obtain an in-situ sample of mine tailings
at a depth of approximately 53 feet and a CPT sounding was not conducted. Boring B-7b was
accomplished to conduct a CPT sounding of mine tailings near B-7a to allow for soil parameter
comparison.
Strata advanced CPT soundings from just below the overburden soil to depths ranging from
approximately 55 feet to 73 feet below the existing ground surface. At depths of approximately
20–45 feet below the ground surface overburden soil was encountered and below the overburden
mine tailings were encountered, which generally consisted of a clay and silt sized particle mixture
with sand that was tan to gray, soft, and very moist. Mine tailings extended to at least the termi-
nation of CPT testing at approximately 55–73 feet below the ground surface. Based on the mine
tailings’ in-situ moisture and recorded pore water pressure during CPT soundings, TerraGraphics
Environmental Engineering, Inc. (TerraGraphics) assumed the tailings were saturated and that
307
Figure 2. Boring locations.
groundwater elevation at the site generally corresponded with the interface between mine tailings
and overburden soil. TerraGraphics recorded penetration resistance on the cone and friction on the
sleeve with depth during penetrometer advancement. The near-continuous data profile obtained
from CPT soundings was used to help correlate general stratigraphy at depth, soil type, and various
engineering properties of the subsurface materials.
TerraGraphics estimated soil engineering parameters based on published correlations to data
obtained from the CPT soundings. The parameters included soil behavior type, internal friction
angle, and undrained shear strength (cohesion). The following sections describe the methodology
used for estimating each of the requested parameters.
4.1 Soil behavior type

Soil behavior type (SBT) was estimated based on correlations with cone tip resistance and friction
ratio (sleeve friction divided by cone tip resistance) as published by Robertson et al. (1986). Based
on these correlations, the mine tailings’ SBT appears to be clay and silt mixture with varying
amounts of sand to the total depths explored. Each sounding was terminated in soil interpreted as
clayey to sandy silt or silty sand at depths ranging from approximate 55 feet to 73 feet below the
existing ground surface. Although the slimes exhibit similar properties of clays and are clay-sized
particles, they do not fully meet the classification requirements for clay.
4.2 Drained friction angle

Drained friction angles of mine tailings in CPT soundings were estimated based on the correlation
to cone tip resistance published by Mayne (2001).As expected in a non-homogenous geologic
unit, some variability was observed in friction angle correlations both within the CPT soundings
and between different CPT soundings. Table 1 summarizes the minimum, average, and maximum
friction angle, in degrees, estimated for mine tailings in each sounding.
The mine tailings sample collected from boring B-7a and corresponding to the CPT data of
boring B-7b was subjected to a direct shear test to determine the drained soil friction angle of the
in-situ mine tailings. The sample yielded a value of 32.5 degrees as shown in Figure 3. These data
were compared to the CPT data of boring B-7b.
The effective friction angle estimated from the CPT results for boring B-7b and corresponding
to the depth of sample collection from boring B-7a is 33 degrees compared to 32.5 degrees for the
sample tested in direct shear.
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Table 1. Estimated effective drained friction angle.
Location CPT-# Minimum Ø Average Ø Maximum Ø
B-1 CPT-1 19.5◦ 31.9◦ 38.8◦

B-2 CPT-2 24.0◦ 32.1◦ 37.9◦
B-3 CPT-3 25.8◦ 31.7◦ 36.0◦
B-4 CPT-4 28.4◦ 32.7◦ 38.6◦
B-5 CPT-5 28.8◦ 32.9◦ 41.8◦
B-6 CPT-6 27.9◦ 32.8◦ 41.3◦
B-7b CPT-7 28.2◦ 33.0◦ 40.5◦
B-8 CPT-8 30.2◦ 33.3◦ 34.7◦
B-9 CPT-9 22.4◦ 33.0◦ 41.9◦
B-10 CPT-10 27.9◦ 34.0◦ 38.6◦
Figure 3. Results of direct shear test of tailings material.
4.3 Undrained shear strength

Undrained shear strength (cohesion) of mine tailings in CPT soundings was estimated based on the
correlation to cone tip resistance and total in-situ vertical stress. This correlation was developed
by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA, 1992). A cone factor (Nk) of 15 was used in
the correlation to undrained shear strength. As encountered with friction angle analyses, some
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Table 2. Summary of undrained shear strength estimates.
Minimum Su∗ Average Su Maximum Su

Location (tsf) (tsf) (tsf)
CPT-1 0.02 1.59 5.41

CPT-2 0.13 1.48 4.44
CPT-3 0.25 1.16 2.92
CPT-4 0.48 1.47 5.17
CPT-5 0.54 1.56 10.21
CPT-6 0.41 1.47 9.35
CPT-7 0.44 1.51 7.81
CPT-8 0.75 1.59 2.19
CPT-9 0.01 1.83 10.44
CPT-10 0.40 2.01 5.26
∗ Su = Shear Strength
Table 3. Comparative material strength properties by test and date.
Waste depth Cohesion

Date (feet) Test method Ø Average (PSF)
USACE 2003 N/A CPT 0◦ 300

Golder 2005 15 VST 32.0◦ 0
Strata 2009 30 CPT 33.0◦ 0
Strata 2009 30 Direct Shear 32.5◦ 215
variability was observed in undrained shear strength correlations both within the CPT soundings
and between different CPT soundings. Table 2 summarizes the estimated minimum, average, and
maximum undrained shear strength, in tons per square foot (tsf), for fine grained soil in each
sounding.
4.4 Soil strength parameters

The soil strength parameters are based on CPT correlations from published information. The
two primary soil strength parameters presented are Effective Friction Angle and Undrained Shear
Strength. These parameters are based on drained and undrained conditions, respectively, which
impact the soil’s strength response to load and stress.
With the purpose of the data collection activities being to confirm the strength characteristics
of the mine tailings as they experience consolidation due to the filling of the repository, the data
obtained in the most recent data collection activities were compared to those activities previously
performed. Table 3 presents the data gathered at a common location in the northwest corner of the
tailings impoundment by USACE, Golder, and Strata.
The data obtained from the in-situ testing in 2005 and 2009 confirm the assumption of the
USACE design that as the repository is loaded, consolidation would occur in the tailings and result
in greater shear strength in the form of internal friction. It is worth noting that the strength increase
was essentially fully achieved with 15 feet of waste material placed over the tailings; the additional
15 feet placed from 2005 to 2009 had little to no effect on the shear strength of the tailings. As
shown in Table 4, settlement essentially had tapered off by 2008. Variations in rates of settlement
from one location to another are directly related to the fill sequence of the waste that concentrates
waste placement on one end of the repository each year as well as the difference in material types
from slimes at one end to beach sands at the other. Settlement monument locations are shown in
Figure 4.
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Table 4. Settlement monument data.
Yearly settlement (feet)
2004
#∗ (Base year) 2005 2006 2007 2008
North End Dike (West) 1 0 −1.09 nd∗∗ −0.45 −0.02

(Slimes) Tailings (Slimes) 2 0 −0.20 −0.65 −1.07 −0.2
Dike (East) 3 0 −0.07 −0.16 −0.23 −0.01
Middle Dike (West) 4 0 −0.16 −0.38 −0.85 −0.14
(Transitional) Tailings (Transitional) 5 0 nd∗∗ nd∗∗ −0.74 −0.12
Dike (East) 6 0 −0.44 −0.05 −0.65 −0.07
South End Dike (West) 7 0 0.00 −0.35 −0.39 0.00
(Beach) Tailings (Beach) 8 0 −0.03 −0.10 −0.06 0.00
Dike (East) 9 0 −0.03 −0.03 −0.03 0.00
∗ See Figure 4 for Settlement Locations
∗∗ nd = No Data
Figure 4. Settlement monument locations.
The original design analysis performed by the USACE estimated a total settlement of 3.6 feet
with primary consolidation accounting for 2.1 feet and secondary consolidation accounting for
1.5 feet (USACE, 2004). Settlement estimates were based upon the thickest layer of slimes and an
overburden of 35 feet. As stated in the Golder analysis, the less than expected settlement may be
due in part to the parameters used for the settlement analysis were derived from laboratory tests
on small samples of the slimes, which may have been disturbed during sampling (common with
weak materials). Therefore the samples tested and parameters used in the settlement analysis may
not be representative of the tailings within the repository; and the settlement calculation assumes
38 feet of uniform tailings slimes, which may not be representative of the thickness of slimes over
the entire repository (Golder, 2005).
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5 SUMMARY
The geotechnical strength properties of tailings vary significantly from site to site and even within
a particular site. Flotation tailings range in size form coarse sands to clay size particles. While the
coarse-grained sands have been found to display consistent geotechnical strength properties similar
to those of naturally occurring sands, the fine-grained clay-sized particles often display visual
characteristics typically associated with clays. Often referred to as slimes as they are commonly
found under saturated conditions, the clay-sized particles tend to exhibit geotechnical strength
properties more consistent with sands and silts than clays. This is usually due to the absence of
clay minerals necessary for the material to exhibit clay properties, although this depends on the
processed material.
The tailings contained within the impoundment located beneath the BCR have proven to be a
stable foundation for waste placement. This overall stability, however, depends upon the perimeter
dikes containing the tailings and the rate and methods used for filling the repository. When con-
struction first commenced at BCR the tailings had minimal shear strength. The addition of waste
led to consolidation of the tailings and subsequent strength gain. Although the shear strength cur-
rently exhibited by the tailings is more than adequate, the perimeter dike was and still is essential
to the overall stability. The dikes contained the tailings during gradual loading, which allowed pore
pressure to increase and slowly dissipate in a controlled manner. Even with the current increase
in shear strength of the tailings, the perimeter dike serves as a necessary foundation for global
stability.
The data and experience gained in the design, construction, and monitoring of the BCR are
being applied to other sites where tailings impoundments are serving as the foundation for waste
repositories.
REFERENCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2002. Record of Decision (ROD) – Bunker Hill Mining and
Metallurgical Complex Operable Unit 3 (Coeur d’Alene Basin). September 2002.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), 2004. Big Creek Repository – Design Analysis Report (Final).
Golder Associates, Inc., 2005. Big Creek Revised Stability Analyses.
Federal Highway Administration, 1992. The cone penetrometer test. Federal Highway Administration
Publication No. FHWA-SA-91-043.
Lunne, T., Robertson, P. and Powell, J., 1997. Cone penetration testing in geotechnical practice. E&F Spon,
an imprint of Routledge, New York.
Mayne, P.W., 2001. Stress-Strain-Strength-Flow parameters from enhanced in-situ tests. Proceedings of the
International Conference on In-Situ Measurement of Soil Properties and Case Histories, Bali, Indonesia,
May 20–24, pp. 27–48.
Roberston, P.K., Campanella, R.G., Gillespie, D. and Greig, J., 1986. Use of piezometer cone data. Proceedings
of the ASCE Specialty Conference In Situ ’86: Use of In Situ Tests in Geotechnical Engineering, Blacksburg,
1263–80.
312
Dry Stack/Paste
Dry stack tailings design for the Rosemont Copper project
L. Newman & K. Arnold

Rosemont Copper Company, Tucson, Arizona, USA
D. Wittwer
AMEC Earth and Environmental, Denver, Colorado, USA
ABSTRACT: Dry StackTailings management is a major step toward the future of tailings manage-
ment in mining. While the use of dry stack tailings is relatively new to the industry, the technologies
used for the process are well tested in the industry. A unique and significant portion of the Rosemont
Project is the tailings management system that has been designed to manage 75,000 dry tons per
day of material. Tailings slurry will be dewatered and thickened in tailings thickeners and overflow
will be reused while underflow is pumped to the tailings filters. A conveyor system will transport
tailings filter cake to a dry stack tailings facility. Using proven technology in a new way gives the
Rosemont Project the tools necessary for success in Arizona.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Rosemont Property (Property) consists of a group of patented mining claims, unpatented
mining claims, and fee land that covers most of the Rosemont Mining and the adjacent Helvetia
Mining Districts. Specifically, the Project is located approximately 30 miles southeast of Tucson,
west of State Route 83.
Past and recent exploration activities have confirmed or identified the availability of approxi-
mately 600 million tons (MT) of ore, with an estimated project life of approximately 21 years.
Copper, silver, and molybdenum will be recovered by grinding and froth flotation, with the principal
recovered minerals being the copper sulfide minerals (bornite, chalcocite, and chalcopyrite) and
the molybdenum sulfide mineral (also referred to as “moly”). The sulfide ores will be processed at
a mill throughput of approximately 75,000 dry tons per day or 27 million dry tons annually. Heap
leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning will be used to produce metallic copper at a rate
of 10,000 tons annually. These processes are standard to the industry.
The tailings management system makes the Rosemont Project unique. Tailings slurry will be
dewatered and thickened in tailings thickeners. Thickener overflow (water) will be pumped to the
reclaim water system. Thickener underflow (thickened tailings slurry) will be pumped to tailings
filters. Conveyor belts will transport tailings filter cake to a dry stack tailings facility. AMEC Earth
and Environmental was commissioned by Rosemont to complete a detailed design of the proposed
Dry Stack Tailings Storage Facility (TSF).
2 BACKGROUND OF FILTERED TAILINGS DISPOSAL
Most of the world’s concentrators or milling operations use conventional tailings processes resulting
in tailings impoundments. These impoundments store tailings slurry that is pumped to the impound-
ment at solids contents ranging between 25% and 60% depending on the degree of thickening that
is carried out prior to deposition. These engineered impoundments require construction and main-
tenance to insure structural integrity for the retention structures. In addition, these facilities must
be designed and constructed to manage large quantities of water.
Conventional tailings impoundments remain the primary alternative for the majority of oper-
ating and proposed mines around the world. These facilities are developed using tailings slurries
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from the milling process. However, with advances in dewatering technologies over the past few
decades, tailings slurry is actually only part of a continuum of tailings “states” available to the
modern tailings designer. Pressure filters consisting of horizontally or vertically stacked plates,
and vacuum filters consisting of drums and horizontal belts are the most common filtration plant
configurations. Development of large capacity vacuum and pressure filter technology has presented
the opportunity for storing tailings in an unsaturated state, rather than as conventional slurry or
in a paste consistency associated with thickened tailings. The nature of the tailings material, both
gradation and mineralogy, is important when considering filtration. Specifically, high percentages
of <74 µm clay minerals (i.e. not just clay-sized but having clay mineralogy) may hinder effective
filtration.
Determining the most cost-effective manner to obtain a filtered product consistent with the
geomechanical requirements of the tailings can be a challenge. It is important to anticipate min-
eralogical and grind changes that could occur over the life of the project. The candidate filtering
system(s) must be able to readily expand/contract with future changes at the mine while minimizing
economical impact. For projects that can use a non-slurried tailings alternative to optimize use of
available water and to streamline permitting and/or operating conditions, filtered tailings are often
an excellent alternative.
Filtered tailings are transported by conveyor or truck and placed, spread and compacted to form
an unsaturated, dense and stable tailings stack (often termed a “dry stack”). Dry stack facilities
typically don’t require a dam for a retention structure and as such, no associated tailings pond.
Each project needs to assess the potential applicability for filtered tailings based upon technical,
economical, and regulatory constraints. Experience shows the most applicable projects are those
that have one or more of the following attributes:
– Are located in arid regions, where water conservation is crucial (e.g. Western Australia,
Southwest United States, much of Africa, many regions of South America including Chile)
– Have flow sheets where economic recovery (commodity or process agent(s)) is enhanced by
tailings filtration
– Are located in areas where very high seismicity precludes some forms of conventional tailings
impoundments
– Are located in cold regions, where water handling is very difficult in winter
– Have topographic considerations that exclude conventional dam construction and/or viable
storage to dam material volume ratios
– The operating and/or closure liability of a conventional tailings impoundment are in excess of
the incremental increase to develop a dry stack
– Are located in areas where construction materials for conventional dams do not exist or are very
expensive to supply.
Moreover, filtered tailings stacks generally require a smaller footprint for tailings storage (e.g.
much lower bulking factor), are easier to reclaim, and can have lower long-term (closure) liability in
terms of potential environmental impact. Filtered tailings (dry stacks), although new to many mining
jurisdictions, are becoming more common both for operating mines and for projects in the evaluation
stage (e.g. feasibility). Figure 1 below outlines the continuum of water contents available for tailings
management and includes the standard industry nomenclature. Decreasing water content increases
placement expense because hauling or conveying is required rather than pumping. However, as
the water content decreases, the tailings are able to be placed in self-supporting structures such as
stacks.
Filtered tailings are typically taken to be the dry cake stage. Dry cake material has enough
moisture to allow the majority of pore spaces to be water filled (70–85% saturation) but not so
much as to preclude optimal compaction of the material.
Often one of the main reasons to select dry stacked filtered tailings as a management option is
the recovery of water for process water supply. This is particularly important in arid environments
where water is an extremely valuable resource. Filtering the tailings removes the most water from
the tailings for recycle when compared with other tailings technologies. This recovery of water has
a cost benefit to the project, which offsets the capital and operating cost of the tailings system. It
should be noted, water surcharge storage needs to be factored into the design of a filtered tailings
system. Depending upon the application this can be a small water supply reservoir or tank. Where
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Figure 1. Tailings Continuum (after Lighthall, Davies, Rice and Martin. 2002).
water is relatively scarce, either year round or seasonally due to extreme cold, sending immense
quantities of water to quasi-permanent storage in the voids of a conventional impoundment can
severely hamper project feasibility. By reclaiming the bulk of the process water in or near the mill,
far more efficient recycle is achieved.
One of the main advantages of dry stack tailings is the ease of progressive reclamation and closure
of the facility. The facility can often be developed to start reclamation very early in the project
life cycle. This can have many advantages in the control of fugitive dust, in the use of reclamation
materials as they become available, and in the short and long-term environmental impacts of the
project. Progressive reclamation often includes covers and re-vegetation of the tailings slopes and
surface as part of the annual operating cycle. Dry stack facilities can be developed to closely
approximate their desired closure configuration with a plan to manage surface runoff. The tailings
can be progressively reclaimed in many instances. In all cases, a closure cover material is required
to resist runoff erosion, prevent dusting and to create an appropriate growth media for project
reclamation.
The lack of a tailings pond, very low (if any) appreciable seepage from the unsaturated tailings
mass and general high degree of structural integrity allows dry stacks to present the owner/operator
with a comparably straight-forward and predictable facility closure in comparison with most
conventional impoundments.
3 SITE CHARACTERIZATION
The Rosemont tailings storage facility (TSF) site is located within the southwestern portion of
the Mexican Highlands basin and range physiographic province within the Santa Rita mountain
range. The Mexican Highlands is a transitional terrain with varied topographic relief separating the
Sonoran Desert to the southwest and the Colorado Plateau to the north. The Santa Rita mountain
range defines the contact between the Sonoran Desert and the Mexican Highlands sections. A
significant portion of the site is characterized by rolling grasslands interrupted by densely vegetated
washes. Relatively steep mountain valleys characterize other portions of the site.
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3.1 Geology
The geologic units underlying the proposed location for the Dry Stack TSF are described in descend-
ing order, from the surface downward. The uppermost geologic units include the Gila Conglomerate
(Miocene to Pliocene), which locally overlies the Mount Fagan Rhyolite (late Cretaceous). The Gila
Conglomerate consists of sandstone with variable amounts of pebble-sized clasts ranging from
rounded to subangular. Field investigations intercepted weakly to strongly cemented units from the
Gila Conglomerate at shallow depths. The Mount Fagan Rhyolite is described as a light colored
ash flow tuff with variable amounts of phenocrysts with localized zones of megabreccia with clasts
exceeding 3 feet. The Gila Conglomerate and Mount Fagan Rhyolite Formations exceed 200 and
1,000 meters, respectively.
The Apache Canyon Formation (early Cretaceous) consists of variable stratigraphy, predom-
inately characterized by shales and mudstones, and lesser amounts of micrictic limestone and
feldspathic sandstone. The Willow Creek Formation (early Cretaceous) is characterized as the old-
est local formation consisting of sandstone, variably interbedded with medium to large grains, and
mudstone. The Willow Creek Formation is further interbedded with several lava flows consisting of
maficigneous materials from 10 to 100 meters thick. The Apache Canyon Formation greater than
400 meters in depth and conformably overlies the Willow Creek Formation which exceeds more
than 2,200 meters in thickness.
3.2 Seismicity
As part of the design criteria, the maximum credible earthquake (MCE) was determined to define
the parameters to be used in the analysis of the Dry Stack TSF, based on a review of the tectonic
framework and historical earthquake activity in the region of the facility. The deterministic approach
of obtaining seismic parameters involves: (1) identifying the largest potentially active fault close
to the site, (2) estimating the maximum earthquake that the fault is capable of producing, and (3)
determining the Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) that will be produced at the site from this event.
The Santa Rita fault zone is the closest of 27 contributing fault sources within a 200-kilometer
radius of the project site with a distance from site of 11.2 kilometers and a length of approximately
52 kilometers. The PGA value for a magnitude 7.1 event at the Santa Rita fault zone was determined
to be 0.33 g and was selected as the seismic hazard representing the MCE design event for the project
site.
3.3 Geotechnical investigations

In support of the design for the Dry Stack TSF, Tetra Tech and Rosemont Copper Company con-
ducted several geotechnical field investigations. The field investigations consisted of using several
different methodologies of surface and subsurface exploration across the Rosemont Copper site.
The following descriptions of field investigations are constrained to explorations within the Dry
Stack TSF. The objectives of the geotechnical investigations included:
– To define general subsurface conditions for use in evaluation of the Dry Stack TSF stability;
– To identify suspect zones that could affect the performance of the Dry Stack TSF; and
– To quantify engineering characteristics of the materials incorporated into the Dry Stack TSF.
Historic investigation of the Rosemont Copper property was previously completed by several
different companies and consisted of borings to variable depths. Two phases of field investigations
were completed by Tetra Tech between November 2006 and March 2007 and between May and
July of 2008. These field investigations included activities such as excavating test pits, drilling
geotechnical borings, performing geophysical surveys, mapping surficial geology, and completing
a laboratory testing program.
3.4 Subsurface conditions

There were10 test pits and 38 geotechnical borings completed within or near the vicinity of the
Dry Stack TSF. The borings were completed with several methodologies, depending on subsurface
conditions. Either advancing hollow stem augers or an air hammer penetrated the alluvial/colluvial
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materials overlying bedrock. NQ wireline coring techniques advanced the borings through the
bedrock. Samples of the subsurface materials from the geotechnical borings were collected with
2-inch and 1 3/8-inch inside diameter spoon samplers in general accordance with the standard
penetration test (SPT) described by ASTM Method D1586. Penetration resistance values (N-
values), when properly evaluated, indicate the relative density or consistency of the soils and
can be correlated to internal angles of friction.
The soils encountered at the Dry Stack TSF classify as alluvium/colluvium materials predomi-
nately consisting of sands with varying amounts of clay, silt, and gravel. The soils encountered
in the field investigation generally included 1 to 3 feet of topsoil and growth media underlain by
alluvial/colluvial materials. The underlying sequence of bedrock consists primarily of the Willow
Canyon, Apache Canyon, and Mount Fagan Rhyolite formations. Depth to bedrock varies signifi-
cantly across the site as assessed from the test pits, borings, and results from the geophysical
surveys. Depth to bedrock (as interpolated by field personnel) varies from 0 to over 100 feet with
an average depth of approximately 40 feet. The geophysical surveys were subsequently correlated
to subsurface geology as interpreted from historic borings and test pits and place bedrock slightly
more shallow than the borings.
The consistency of the alluvial/colluvial materials encountered in the field investigation varied
from medium dense to very dense for granular materials and hard for fine grained materials, with
the majority of encountered soils representing very dense or hard conditions as evidenced by the
blow count N-values shown on the geotechnical boring logs. The average depth to interception of
very dense soil is between 10 and 15 feet.
Both Tetra Tech and AMEC obtained select disturbed samples and bench scale tailing samples
from the field investigation and pilot plant studies, respectively, for material characterization,
hydraulic conductivity properties, and strength parameters. Historic and current laboratory testing
completed between 2006 and 2009 are listed below:
– Sieve Analysis: ASTM D 422

– Hydrometer Analysis: ASTM D 1140
– Natural Moisture Content: ASTM D 2216
– Natural Density: ASTM D 2937
– Atterberg Limits: ASTM D 4318
– Specific Gravity: ASTM D 792
– Standard Proctor Compaction: ASTM D 698
– Modified Proctor Compaction: ASTM D 1557
– Direct Shear: ASTM D 3080
– One-Dimensional Consolidation: ASTM D 2435
– ICU Triaxial Shear: USACE EM 1110-2-1906
– Point Load Test: ASTM 5731
– Unconfined Compressive Strength: ASTM 7012
– Flexible Wall Permeability: ASTM D 5084
– Constant Head Permeability: ASTM 2434 (modified apparatus)
– Hanging Column and Water Potential: ASTM D 6836
– Pressure Plate: ASTM D 6836 & D 2325
3.5 Geochemical tailings characterization

Geochemical testing was completed by Tetra tech on four bench scale samples. The following tests
were completed on all or some of the bench scale tailings samples:
– Acid-Base Accounting
– Net Acid Generation
– pH Testing
– Humidity Cell Testing (Kinetic)
– Synthetic Precipitation Leaching
– Meteoric Water Mobility
– Whole Rock Analysis
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Geochemical testing of the tailings indicates the tailings generally (1) contain less than 0.01
percent sulfide-sulfur, (2) can be classified as inert with respect to acid generation, (3) possess high
capacity for acid neutralization, and (4) produce very low metal concentrations in resulting leachate.
Furthermore, the acid-base accounting testing indicates the properties of the tailings meet Arizona
Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) criteria as inert, with total-sulfur concentrations
less than 0.3 percent and a net neutralization potential greater than 0 or a neutralization potential
ratio greater than 3 (ADEQ, 1999). Kinetic or humidity cell testing is a laboratory test which
replicates weathering in an accelerated timeframe. Each week the material subjected to weathering
is rinsed and the resulting solution analyzed for chemical constituents in order to verify possible acid
generating materials. Test results indicate the tailings are inert and are not anticipated to become
acid generating.
The synthetic precipitation leaching and meteoric water mobility procedures are primarily con-
cerned with the potential for release of chemical constituents, including metals, in both coarse
and fine grained materials. The results of each procedure indicate the majority of metal con-
centrations were either below detection concentrations or low compared to aquifer water quality
standards.
Solids liquid separation (SLS) testing was conducted on flotation tailings samples obtained from
the pilot plant studies. The information collected from the laboratory testing was used to provide
a general set of data to design and size pressure and vacuum filtration equipment. The following
tests were completed on the pilot plant tailings samples:
– Flocculant Screening and Evaluation

– Static Thickening
– Dynamic High Rate Thickening
– Pulp Rheology
– Pressure Filtration Studies
– Vacuum Filtration and Washing Studies
4 DRY STACK TAILINGS STORAGE FACILITY DESIGN
The Dry Stack TSF consists of two separate areas referred to as the Phase I and the Phase II Dry
Stack TSF. Phase I will be operated for approximately the first 12 years and can accommodate
approximately 343 million tons of tailings. The Phase II Dry Stack TSF is an extension of the
Phase I facility, will operate between Years 12 through 22 and can accommodate up to 253 million
tons of tailings.
4.1 Tailings filtration

For design purposes filtration tests were conducted to evaluate the potential for achieving suitable
moisture contents of the tailings using pressure and vacuum filtering processes and to size filtration
units for a production rate of 75,000 tons per day. Based on the test results, the use of pressure
filtration produced tailings moisture contents within acceptable limits that were considered to be
dischargeable and stackable. Additional filtration tests were conducted for filter sizing and are
discussed in Section 7.
Standard Proctor (compaction) tests were completed by AMEC on the bench scale tailings in
accordance with ASTM Method D 698. The tailings had an optimum moisture content of 15
percent (by dry weight) and a maximum Standard Proctor dry density ranging between of 116 and
119 pounds per cubic feet. Based on the moisture-density testing completed, a moisture content
near 15 percent (by dry weight) is desired to optimize tailings placement, compaction efforts and
trafficability of the dry stack tailings surface. However, a moisture content ranging between 12
and 18 percent will be acceptable for the placement of the tailings without affecting the overall
stability of the Dry Stack TSF, as tailings exceeding 18 percent moisture will experience a rapid
loss of strength. Therefore, the recommended moisture range is 15 percent plus or minus 3 percent
(by dry weight).
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4.2 Foundation preparation
Site preparation will include removal of trees, clearing and grubbing, construction of access roads
and salvaging topsoil for future reclamation use. Throughout most of the basin this will typically
leave a surface of moderate relief composed of slightly weathered bedrock. Throughout the basin, a
natural drainage network exists consisting of alluvial channels filled with sands and gravels. Prior to
placement of tailings, the drainages will be cleared and grubbed and the soil or growth media will be
removed and stockpiled in designated areas. Pockets of unsuitable materials within the limits of the
Dry Stack TSF footprint will be removed at the direction of the engineer. These unsuitable materials
may include but will not be limited to soft saturated zones, highly organic zones, loose zones, and
other potentially deleterious materials. After stripping of the drainages is complete, larger drainages
will be filled with inert rock to facilitate site drainage by providing a network of underflow drains.
Remaining drainages will be reworked with suitable fill material prior to tailings placement.
4.3 Rock buttresses

An initial Starter Buttress will be constructed in the lower Barrel Canyon drainage using rockfill
to accommodate approximately three months of tailings storage. However, if needed, the dry stack
tailings can be placed upstream of the Starter Buttress to allow for additional storage prior to the
placement of the next lift of the Rock Buttress. Concurrent tailings and rockfill placement will
occur throughout the life of the TSF. Rockfill will be advanced ahead of the tailings level in 50-foot
lifts using upstream construction methods. The Rock Buttresses will have top widths of 150 feet
to accommodate two-way haul traffic and outer slopes of 3 horizontal to1 vertical (H:V). The final
outer slopes of the Dry Stack TSF will achieve an overall slope of 3.5H:1V. This configuration
will allow visual screening of the tailings placement activities from Highway 83 and concurrent
reclamation of the rock buttress slopes. Slope design mimics existing landforms while providing
maintenance access and drainage over the long term.
4.4 Dry stack tailings placement

As described previously, rockfill will be placed in the lower Barrel Canyon drainage area to provide
a buttress for the dry stack tailings. Dry tailings will be delivered from the filter plant by conveyor
and placed in 25-foot lifts using a stacker against the rock buttress. A dozer will be used to spread
the dry tailings and the tailings compacted to provide for trafficability of the conveyor/stacker
system and to provide stability in areas near the berm. An abbreviated second conveyor system
provides redundant stacking capacity to allow temporary disposal of tailings into the upper tailings
area for placement with dozers if the primary conveyor is inactive for movement or maintenance.
The outer perimeter of each tailings lift beneath the areas of the rock buttress will be placed
in 5-foot lifts and compacted with a vibratory smooth drum compactor (or similar equipment) to
achieve a density equal to 90 percent of the standard proctor density (ASTM D 698) to provide a
suitable foundation for subsequent waste rock buttress construction using upstream construction
methods. This will also enhance the overall stability of the Dry Stack TSF.
4.5 Flow-through drains

Flow-through drains will be constructed in the significant washes that exist within the Dry StackTSF
area to augment the existing drainage courses and allow them to pass runoff beneath the tailings. The
size of rock used in the flow-through drains will be approximately 12 inches or less and separated
from the tailings using a non-woven geotextile. For construction purposes the flow-through drains
will be constructed to be a minimum of 25 feet thick and have a top width of 150 feet.
5 WATER MANAGEMENT
A two-component system has been designed to separate water that comes into contact with the
operations facilities from stormwater suitable for discharge. For management of run-on water,
permanent diversion channels will be constructed at pre-production and approximate production
year 12 to divert surface runoff around the plant site and eventually around the Phase 2 or North
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Dry Stack area. This diversion will discharge into the existing drainage northeast of the Dry Stack
TSF. Runoff that directly comes into contact with the tailings will not be discharged but instead will
be collected using perimeter ditches and by sloping the tailings to drain to low spots or evaporation
ponds located on the tailings surface. This stormwater will be allowed to evaporate or will be
pumped to containment ponds at the plant site.
The dry stack tailings will be placed behind large rock buttresses comprised of pit run rockfill.
This will eliminate the potential for erosion of tailings on the outer face. The outer buttresses will
also reduce the visual impact from surrounding areas and allow reclamation of the slopes to begin
the first year of operations. The rock buttress will be raised ahead of the dry stack tailings surface,
eliminating the opportunity for discharge from the face of the tailings.
The top surface of the tailings will be shallow, on the order of 0.25 and 0.5 percent. This will
minimize the potential for stormwater to transport sediments to the evaporation ponds or into
other drainage features. Erosion of the tailings will be further will be minimized by using specific
sedimentation control measures as part of a set of best management practices (BMPs). To control
erosion of the dry stack tailings, the following measures will be utilized:
– Dry Stack TSF compaction – The general placement area may also be compacted to reduce the
potential for dust migration and to enhance the erosion resistance of the tailings from compaction.
– Equipment operations – The Dry Stack TSF shell will be developed in cells versus having place-
ment and compaction equipment on the entire tailings surface which will reduce the potential
for equipment-induced erosion and dust.
– Management of runoff collection/routing areas – For runoff directly from the dry stack tailings,
ditches will be constructed along the perimeter of the Dry Stack TSF and will have sedimentation
traps and siltation fencing as required for erosion control.
5.1 Perimeter ditches and evaporation ponds

Perimeter ditches will be constructed inside the perimeter of the placed tailings to collect runoff
from the surface of the Dry Stack TSF during operations. The ditches will need to be re-constructed
concurrent with tailings placement and are, therefore, considered a temporary facility during
operations. As noted, it is expected that tailings in or near the perimeter ditches will be mobilized
during larger storm events and collected in evaporation ponds. The evaporation ponds will also need
to be reconstructed as the tailings surface is raised. Sizing of the evaporation ponds will depend on
the surface area of the tailings for each particular lift as well s any existing, undiverted watershed
areas directly upstream of the tailings. Run-on from undiverted watershed areas upstream of the
tailings is only an issue on the lower tailings lifts, or until the pit run rock buttresses are constructed
on the west side of the dry stack facility.
5.2 Diversion Channels

There are two permanent diversion channels in the tailings design. Diversion Channel No. 1 will
be constructed at Project startup and Diversion Channel No. 2 will be constructed just prior to
year 12 of operation. Diversion Channel No. 1 starts just north of the ultimate pit configuration,
intercepting an existing drainage and then continuing around the plant site. The channel eventually
discharges into a natural drainage approximately 1/2 mile northwest of the plant site, flowing into
the McCleary Canyon, the northern limit of the Phase I Dry Stack TSF. About operations year
12, Diversion Channel No. 2 will be constructed to receive up-gradient run-off including overflow
from Diversion Channel No. 1. These diversion channels, in combination with detention basins
along the channel alignments, were designed to handle storms of up to the probable maximum peak
(PMP) event.
6 DRY STACK TSF ENGINEERING ANALYSES
6.1 Seepage analyses

Analyses were performed to estimate seepage rates, assess distribution of pore water pressure,
and evaluate the degree of saturation within the dry stack tailings over the life of the facility. The
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analyses utilized the finite element method (FEM) based computer program SVFlux Version 2.0.13
developed by Soil Vision Systems, Ltd. and part of the SVOffice 2009 Geotechnical Modeling suite.
Tailings within the Dry Stack TSF are anticipated to be deposited in an unsaturated condition,
at average moisture content of 18 percent (by dry weight) or less. Based on pilot test data, this
as-placed moisture content is readily achievable from the filtration process, which is at or near the
optimum moisture content (as defined from Standard Proctor tests, ASTM D 698).
Meteoric influences were modeled as precipitation and evaporation on the surface of the
deposited dry stack tailings. Meteoric water (delivered as precipitation) will have a small recharging
effect within the top several feet of the dry stack tailings. However, due to the semi-arid climate at
the Rosemont Project site, it is not likely to have a significant influence on the overall moisture con-
tent and seepage through the tailings mass. Overall, evaporation generally produces a cumulative
negative flux across the surface of the tailings.
To assess the behavior of the tailings under unsaturated flow conditions, a series of moisture
retention laboratory tests were conducted on representative samples. These tests were used to
develop a soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) for the tailings materials. The SWCC was develo-
ped using the knowledge database within the computer program SVFlux. Based on testing data,
the saturated moisture content of the tailings is approximately 25 percent (by dry weight) and the
field capacity moisture content is approximately 11 percent (by dry weight). The filtered tailings
will be placed within the Dry Stack TSF at a moisture content of approximately 18 percent or
less. Therefore, the tailings will be placed at approximately 7 percent above the residual moisture
content and approximately 7 percent below the saturation level. Based on these numbers, tailings
will be placed in the Dry Stack TSF as an unsaturated material. A limited amount of seepage will
be generated from the dry stack tailings as the material moisture content drains down from the
as-placed value (18 percent) to the field capacity (11 percent). Some of this moisture will also be
lost to evaporation.
The results of the seepage analyses indicate that as the Dry Stack TSF expands over time, the
estimated seepage rate increases to a peak value of approximately 8.4 gallons per minute (gpm) at
production year 18 and then decreases after this time period. Model results show that the seepage
from the dry stack tailings is due solely to drainage of pore water as the tailings gravimetric moisture
content reduces from the as-placed value of 18 percent (by dry weight) to the field capacity value
of 11 percent (by dry weight). Since meteoric water (precipitation) influences are negligible there
is a finite amount of seepage that can occur from the facility.
Although the maximum tailings moisture content at placement is not anticipated to exceed 18
percent, higher moisture contents would not significantly affect the peak seepage rates from the
facility since the hydraulic conductivity of the material is the controlling factor in pore water
response. Tailings placed in the Dry Stack TSF in excess of 18 percent moisture content will likely
be conveyed towards the center of the facility and spread out to promote evaporation and moisture
reduction.
6.2 Stability analyses

Slope stability analyses were conducted in support of the final design of the Dry Stack TSF. The
analyses required the selection of parameters from previous and current design work and examined
the stability of the facility under both static and seismic loading conditions for several operational
scenarios.
The stability analyses were conducted at the maximum sections of the facility. Effective and total
stress analyses were conducted for all cross sections analyzed. In order to assess performance of the
Dry Stack TSF under conservative conditions, the models were developed under the assumption
that the tailings become saturated in the center of the facility, within 1,100 feet of the upstream
crest at any elevation. The material in this saturated zone was modeled as having no shear strength,
with the material represented by only a unit weight with no internal angle of friction or cohesion.
This approach is meant to represent major upset conditions where the tailings become saturated
and unconsolidated due to a temporary loss of filtration performance, reduced drainage paths, or
extreme climatic events. However, large saturated zones are not expected within the Dry Stack TSF
due to the tailings being filtered, the arid climate, the subsurface soil conditions, and the proposed
stormwater BMPs.
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Table 1. Slope stability analyses results.
Analysis Static Factor Psuedostatic Factor

Phase Modeled of Safety of Safety
Phase I Effective 2.3 1.2

Total 1.9 1.0
Phase II Effective 2.3 1.2
Total 1.9 1.0
Prescriptive Factor of Safety 1.3 1.0
Table 2. Sample characteristic summary and malvern laser diffraction PSA.
Year 1–3 Colina
Characteristic Summary
Solids Specific Gravity 2.95 3.49
Liquor Specific Gravity 1.0 1.0
Solids Concentration (wt %) 85.0 84.0
Percent Passing
P90 (µm) 154 169
P80 (µm) 113 127
P50 (µm) 47 57
P10 (µm) 3.3 3.4
Mean Size (µm) 65 73
As summarized in Table 1, the proposed Dry Stack TSF facility is stable under the conditions
noted above as the computed values meet or exceed the prescriptive factors of safety (as defined
in Arizona’s Best Available Demonstrated Control Technology [BADCT] document) for both static
and seismic loading conditions.
7 FILTRATION TESTWORK
The design moisture content requirements necessitated a series of filtration tests to determine the
appropriate filtration technology for the Rosemont Project. These tests also were used to determine
the size and the design criteria for the filters. The impact of tailings thickener underflow density
on the filtration rate was also considered.
Bench scale filter tests were conducted on a composite sample that represented expected con-
ditions for Years 1–3 as well as for a 4:1 mix of the Years 1–3 sample and a sample of Colina. The
bench-scale tests were used to identify filtration rates and filtration equipment sizing parameters
as well as reviewing the effects of feed solids concentrations and flocculant dosages.
Particle size distribution for the Year 1–3 and Colina sample materials were similar. Based on
this particle size similarity and the test results, no additional blend tests were determined to be
necessary.
Three types of dewatering equipment were investigated. Based on the results, it was determined
the FLSmidth Eimco® Automatic Filter Press (AFP) Mark IV™ automatic filter press was the
appropriate technology for the Rosemont application. The AFP will result in the fewest operating
filters with the lowest cake moisture content applicable to the anticipated feed materials.
7.1 Sample characterization

Table 2 shows the result of the characterization work and particle size analysis performed on the
tailings samples.
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Table 3. Pressure filtration results.
Result
Feed Solids Concentration (weight %) 63

Filter Media POPR 929M
Filter Media Air Flow (standard cubic feet per minute per square foot) 12
Cake Moisture (weight %) 16.0
Cake Thickness (inches) 2
Feed Rate (dry ton per day) 76,000
Filtration Pressure (pounds per square inch gauge) 140
Feed Time (min) 2
Filter Cake Bulk Density (wet pounds /dry pounds per cubic foot) 139.0/118.0
Filter Size (square feet) 5,448
7.2 Filtration test results

The filtration tests were performed on the Year 1–3 and Colina feed streams. The feed to the filters
is anticipated to be about 76,000 tons of dry solid per day. The tailings thickeners will be a High
Density Thickener design. The tailings were fed to the filter at 60–63 weight percent solids, which
is approaching the maximum solid concentration for a high rate thickener in this application.
TheAFP Mark IV™ press filtration was simulated in a small single chamber bench test apparatus.
The bench test was conducted by pumping feed slurry into the double-sided chamber. Filtrate
production was measured with respect to time while the chamber filled. Once the chamber was
full, the pumping was stopped and a cross-flow air stream was blown from one side of the chamber
to the other was used to dewater the cake to the desired moisture. The filtrate production was also
measured with respect to time. The filtration tests are summarized in Table 3.
8 FACILITY CLOSURE CONCEPT
The primary goal of the closure/post-closure plan is to eliminate, to the greatest extent practicable,
any reasonable probability of further discharge from the Dry Stack TSF and of exceeding aquifer
water quality standards at the applicable point of compliance. Based on the results of the geochemi-
cal testing and modeling completed by Tetra Tech, no impact to the regional aquifer water quality is
anticipated during the operational, closure, and post-closure periods of the facility. Therefore, the
focus of the closure/post-closure strategy is to minimize erosion and promote landform stability.
Pit run rock buttresses will be placed around the Dry Stack TSF, thus eliminating the potential
for tailings exposure and subsequent erosion by wind or water on the outer slopes. Capping of the
top surface tailings with pit run rock will also be performed at closure.
Reclamation of the outer slopes of the Dry Stack TSF will begin the first year of operations.
As much as practicable the outer slopes will be concurrently reclaimed and will be shaped to
complement a natural, stable landform terrain. It is anticipated that a system of variable slope
patterns will be constructed on outslopes of the Dry Stack TSF. Stormwater control features will
be incorporated into the landform as the outer buttresses are raised and concurrently reclaimed.
9 CONCLUSION
The plan for the Rosemont Project is to develop an operation that will provide the balance between
operational reliability, cost effectiveness, and sustainability, specifically water conservation, while
still processing copper ore at 75,000 tons per day. Dry Stack Tailings provides that balance and
therefore has become an integral part of the design work currently underway.
Dry Stack Tailings systems are a major step toward the future of tailings management in mining.
While these systems are relatively new to the industry, the technologies used for the process are well
tested. The use of reliable technology coupled with improvements in filtering equipment make Dry
325
Stack Tailings a more natural fit for new, Greenfield facilities. Sustainable mining techniques in
areas around the world – especially in areas where water is scarce – will require that technological
advances be made in tailings processing and management.
REFERENCES
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Inc. 2008. Rosemont Copper Company Filtered Tailings Dry Stacks Current
State of Practice Final Report. November 2008.
Lightall, P., Davies, M., Rice, S., and Martin, T. 2002. Design of Tailings Dams and Impoundments. Mineral
Processing Plant Design, Practice and Control Proceedings Volume 2. 1828–1845.
Nowicki, K., FLSmidth Minerals. 2009. Confidential Report on Testing for M3 Engineers/Augusta Resource
Corp. Rosemont Project, Filtration Testing on Flotation Tailings, May 2008.
326
Dry stack tailings – design considerations
J. Lupo & J. Hall

AMEC Earth and Environmental, Englewood, CO, USA
ABSTRACT: Filtered tailings can be a viable option for managing tailings disposal at mines.
Some of the advantages of filtered tailings include: i) reduction in water consumption, as more
process water can be recycled; ii) the filtered tailings can often be stacked (often referred as dry
stack tailings) to reduce the footprint for tailings storage; and iii) the dry stack tailings can often
be reclaimed concurrent with placement, thereby reducing reclamation costs. Filtered tailings have
these advantages over slurry, thickened, and paste tailings as the filtration process used (either
vacuum belt or mechanical presses) essentially advances the consolidation process (which can tens
of years or more to achieve with traditional slurry disposal) to form an unsaturated cake. The filter
cake often has a consistency of moist sand or silty sand, with geotechnical and hydraulic properties
amenable to stacking and compaction. While thickened and paste tailings may be able to achieve
beach slopes in the 3 to 6 percent range, dry stack tailings may be stacked with stable slopes in the
20 to plus-30 percent range, with compaction.
This paper presents the primary geotechnical considerations for the design of dry stack facilities.
The designs issues discussed in this paper include rate of stacking, stacking height, seep-
age/infiltration, and settlement. In addition, this paper addresses some common misconceptions
regarding the geotechnical and hydraulic performance of dry stack tailings based on actual lab and
field data.
1 INTRODUCTION
Filtered tailings can be viable alternative to slurry, thickened, or paste tailings disposal at many
mine sites. Some of the key advantages of filtered tailings disposal over the other methods includes:
i) minimized water consumption (most of the water is recovered during the filtration process); ii)
as discussed later in this paper, filtered tailings often have properties that are amenable to stacking,
thereby reducing the land requirements for disposal; and iii) the filtered tailings stack provide a
stable land form, allowing reclamation to be conducted concurrent with disposal, which can save
both time and cost for the operation.
Tailings filtration can be accomplished through either vacuum or mechanical press. The filtration
process basically accelerates the consolidation process that would naturally occur in other tailings
deposits (slurry, thickened, or paste). The resulting filtered product is an unsaturated (often between
50 to 75 percent saturated) material that is firm with a low compressibility and low hydraulic
conductivity. In this state, the filtered tailings are often termed “dry stacked” tailings, since the
materials resemble a moist sand that can be stacked and compacted into a stable landform.
In the design of dry stack tailings facilities, it is important to consider the materials characteristics
that are unique to dry stack tailings as well as operational and material handling considerations.
These issues are discussed in the following sections.
2 DRY STACK TAILINGS CHARACTERISTICS
Before discussing dry stack tailings design issues, it is often useful to review some typical
characteristics of filtered tailings.
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Figure 1. Tailing particle size gradations.
2.1 Particle size

Particle size is not a unique characteristic of filtered tailings. However, it is worth a brief discussion
in terms of what particle size gradations have been successfully used at some dry stack operations.
Figure 1 presents a plot of particle size gradations from several dry stack tailings projects. The
data shown on this graph shows that successful filtered tailings projects have been completed on
materials with very high fines content.
The particle size data presented in Figure 1 illustrates that dry stack tailings projects are not
limited to low fine content tailings. Advances in filtration processes and equipment have it possible
to filter relatively fine materials with good results.
2.2 Shear strength

The shear strength of dry stack tailings will vary, depending on the moisture content and density of
the tailings, and drainage conditions within the stack. From a design standpoint, it is important to
recognize that the density, moisture content, and drainage conditions within the stack are changing
as more tailings are placed in the dry stack. In addition, the tailings density and moisture content
may vary depending on filter efficiency and ore mineralogy. For the most part, dry stack tailings
tend to exit the filtration unit near the maximum dry density (based on the Standard Proctor
density) and slightly wet of optimum. At these conditions, the tailings can have a high degree of
shear strength, and are suitable for placement and compaction. Figure 2 presents a plot of shear
strength (plotted in effective stress path space) from five different dry stack tailings subjected to
Consolidated-Undrained (CU) triaxial compression tests.
All of the samples tested in Figure 2 were remolded near the density and moisture content of
the tailings from the filtration units, and then saturated prior to testing. The purpose of the data
shown in Figure 2 is to illustrate the relatively high shear strength that can be achieved with fine-
grained, filtered tailings (without cement or lime amendment). The ultimate failure surface shown
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Figure 2. Stress path plot – filtered tailing samples.
in Figure 2 could be described with an effective friction angle of 35 degrees, in terms of a traditional
Mohr-Coulomb shear strength criteria.
In addition to the high shear strength, it is evident from the stress path that the filtered tailings
exhibit dilatant behavior under undrained compression (for the five tailings samples shown in
Figure 2). This behavior reflects the relative dense condition of the tailings from the filtration units.
The observed dilatant behavior in Figure 2 needs to be considered when assessing slope stability,
deformations under seismic loading, and liquefaction assessments for dry stack facilities.
For the design of dry stack tailings facilities, it is recommended that the filtered tailings be
tested over a range of dry densities and moisture contents, to reflect the variability of materials that
could be delivered to the dry stack. Filtration equipment (presses and belts) can generally provide
materials with consistent dry densities and moisture contents, but some variability may occur due
to changes in ore mineralogy, loss of filter efficiency by plugging, or increase in throughput above
the design level.
Dry stack operations may also experience brief periods when overly wet tailings may need to
be placed onto the dry stack facility (e.g. upset conditions). Depending on how these materials
are delivered (low density, high moisture content, rapid placement rate, etc), filtered tailings with
contractive behavior may be placed within the dry stack. Under shear, contractive tailings could
lead to very low undrained shear strengths within the dry stack. The placement of these materials
within the dry stack is an important design consideration, which will be discussed in the Section 3.
2.3 Hydraulic conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity (saturated) of filtered tailings tend to be relatively low, typically less
than 1 × 10−6 centimeters per second (cm/sec). The hydraulic conductivity will be dependent on
the amount of fines, mineralogy of the ore, and density of the material. Figure 3 presents a plot of
saturated hydraulic conductivity measured from several samples of filtered tailings. The samples
shown in Figure 3, were remolded to the dry density and moisture content of filtered tailings. The
fines content (finer than 0.075 mm) of the materials tested ranged from 60 to 90 percent.
As shown, the measured hydraulic conductivities ranged from 6.7 × 10−6 to 1.7 × 10−8 cm/sec,
indicating the tailings placed in the dry stack have low to very hydraulic conductivities. The low
saturated hydraulic conductivity, combined with being placed as an unsaturated material, minimizes
that quantity of water (e.g. precipitation) that can infiltrate through the dry stack. Section 3 provides
additional discussion on the infiltration potential through dry stack tailings facilities.
2.4 Compressibility
The compressibility of filtered tailings is an important consideration for dry stack design, as it
directly affects the stacking rate and configuration. As presented earlier, the filtered tailings are
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Figure 3. Filtered tailings saturated hydraulic conductivity.
Figure 4. Typical tailing porosity with increasing dry stack depth.
typically delivered in an unsaturated state (usually between 50 and 75 percent saturation). However,
the degree of saturation of the tailings is a function of porosity, which changes as the depth of the
dry stack increases (i.e. lower porosity at the bottom of the stack, and higher porosity at the top of
the stack). A plot of porosity versus dry stack depth is presented in Figure 4, showing the reduction
in porosity due to the compression of the tailings.
330
Figure 5. Saturation versus tailing height.
If the filtered tailings are highly compressible, there is a potential for the porosity to decrease to
a point where the dry stack tailings become fully saturated. Once a portion of the dry stack becomes
fully saturated, then any additional loading (e.g. adding another lift of tailings), could give rise to
excess pore water pressures. The presence of either saturation and/or excess pore water pressures
within the dry stack, could give rise to stability issues, therefore it is important to quantify the
compressibility of the tailings.
Figure 5 presents a plot of filtered tailings compressibility from several dry stack projects. The
tailings compressibility has been converted from that shown in Figure 4, to saturation versus depth
of tailings. The format shown in Figure 5 can be readily integrated into dry stack facility design.
As shown, the compressibility of the filtered tailings can vary from high compressibility (Tailings
B and B2) to low compressibility (Tailings A).
The curves presented in the compressibility plot show that for design, saturated conditions within
the dry stack would be anticipated to develop within 25 m of stack height for Tailings B; within 50 m
for Tailings B2 and D; and saturated conditions are unlikely to develop in Tailings A, A2, and C.
It must be noted that the development of saturation within a dry stack is not a fatal flaw, rather it
needs to be addressed in the design so that stability of the facility is not negatively impacted.
3 DRY STACK TAILINGS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The discussions presented in Section 2 provided some general observations regarding the charac-
teristics of filtered tailings shear strength, permeability, and compressibility. This section discusses
integration of these characteristics into design.
3.1 General design approach

The design of a dry stack tailings facility is a balance between materials handling and construction
with the geotechnical properties of the tailings. From a materials handling standpoint, the facility
needs to be designed to support the method of transport and deposition of the tailings to the facility
(either conveyor or truck haulage). Therefore, the overall layout needs to include any access roads or
conveyor corridors. The site topography and distance from the filter plant may dictate the method of
delivery, however the tailings properties (moisture content) may also influence this decision. During
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Figure 6. Generalized dry stack cross-section.
the operation of the dry stack, provisions must be made to handle overly wet tailings, should upset
conditions occur in the filter plant. Therefore, the design of the materials handling systems and
equipment should be robust to handle a wide range of materials (unsaturated to saturated tailings).
Placement and compaction of the tailings will also need to consider a wide range of materials
during operation. In general, it is good practice to place and compact unsaturated tailings along the
downstream end of the facility, forming a structural zone to support the dry stack facility. Behind
the structural zone, the tailings can be placed with no or low compaction. These tailings may also
include overly wet materials that may have low shear strength or high compressibility.
The size and extent of the structural zone can developed based on stability analyses to support and
contain the materials behind the structural zone. The design basis for the structural zone needs to
consider material strengths, static and seismic loading, and potential water management concerns.
A generalized cross-section through a dry stack facility is shown in Figure 6.
In some cases, a rockfill buttress or rock mulch may be added along the outside slopes of the
dry stack facility to enhance stability, provide benching for slope reclamation, and for erosion
protection of the out slopes.
3.2 Stacking height

The design of the dry stack height is generally based on slope stability analyses conducted on
several sections through the dry stack facility. The stability analyses need to consider:
• Shear strength of all the materials within the section (tailings, foundation, rockfill buttress, etc).
The tailings shear strengths need to be derived based on drained or undrained laboratory testing.
The drainage conditions (drained/undrained) assumed in the stability analyses should reflect
those that could develop through operation. Data, such as that presented in Figure 5 can be
used to establish if zone(s) of saturation may develop within the dry stack. If saturation may be
present, then the designer will need to conduct some additional engineering analyses to estimate
the magnitude of excess pore pressures that may be present (if any).
• Presence of a static groundwater surface. As indicated previously, the presence of groundwater is
not fatal flaw (unless the tailings must remain dry for geochemical reasons) in a dry stack design.
The design must be developed to provide a stable landform in the presence of the groundwater
surface.
• Seismic loading and residual shear strengths. Seismic loading must be considered for slope
stability for operational and post-closure configurations. Depending on the location and material
properties of the tailings, seismically-induced permanent deformation should also be assessed.
These assessments need to consider the dilatant behavior of filter tailings (if it is present) as
shown in Figure 2. Material dilatancy may have a significant effect on post-earthquake material
strengths and development of permanent deformations.
3.3 Stacking rate

Stacking rate needs to be considered in cases where the tailings exhibit a high degree of compress-
ibility (see Section 2.4). Highly compressible tailings, if stacked too quickly, may generate excess
332
Figure 7. Example of infiltration through dry stack tailings.
pore pressures, which could compromise stability of the dry stack. If high compressible tailings
are to be included the dry stack design, the following approaches may be considered:
• Include multiple deposition points, so that tailings can be distributed across the facility, effec-
tively reducing the stacking rate. This is often the most cost-effective and practical approach to
control compressible materials.
• Design a substantial structural fill zone to support low shear strength tailings mass. While this
can easily be designed, the cost of construction and scheduling needs to be considered as part
of the feasibility of this approach.
3.4 Infiltration and surface water management

One of the most common misconceptions with dry stack tailings is that surface water (e.g. precip-
itation or run-on) will readily infiltrate through the tailings, and could saturate the stack leading
to failure or sloughing. Experience from actual operating dry stack operations have shown that
infiltration through the dry stack is not a significant issue, as long as proper surface water man-
agement controls are employed. As shown in Figure 3, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
filtered tailings is typically quite low. This, in combination with the fact the tailings are placed in
an unsaturated state, results in very low infiltration through the dry stack. Even if water is ponded
at the surface, the infiltration rate will be limited by the low saturated hydraulic conductivity.
The rate at which the infiltration front moves through the tailings can be assessed using one or
two-dimensional seepage models. An example showing the infiltration front moving through a one-
dimensional section of dry stack tailings is shown in Figure 7. In this example, water is ponded on
333
the surface of the dry stack. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the tailings is 5 × 10−7 cm/sec.
As shown in the figure, the infiltration front requires a very long time to move through the dry
stack column, and does not readily infiltrate.
For most dry stack tailings facilities, the majority of the precipitation runs off the surface (due to
the low hydraulic conductivity of the tailings) and can be collected by surface water management
channels. It is prudent to design the dry stack facility with the upper surface graded to drain water
away from critical stability areas (e.g. downstream buttresses or structural zones) during the wet
season. Integrating surface water collection channels into the dry stack design can minimize the
potential for infiltration through the stack and provide a way manage surface water from the facility.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Dry stack tailings facilities can be a viable option for tailings management at mining operations
by minimizing water consumption, minimizing the footprint for tailings storage (by stacking), and
allowing concurrent reclamation of the dry stack, thereby reducing costs. The design of the dry stack
facilities needs to consider the geotechnical properties of filtered tailings. This paper presents actual
test data from several filtered tailings projects and discusses the characteristics of the materials in
terms of design. Key characteristics include relatively high shear strength at the dry density and
moisture content of the filtered tailings, low hydraulic conductivity, and compressibility.
Design considerations for dry stack tailings facilities are provided based on performance
from actual facilities. The design considerations can be used to integrate materials handling and
construction issues with the geotechnical characteristics of the filtered tailings.
334
Reprocessing of tailings of Chador-Malu iron ore, Iran
H. Nematollahi
University of Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: During the last twelve years of exploitation and production at Chador-Malu iron
mine, about 27 Mt of tailing is accumulated containing about 31% Fe. This material could be
reground as a feasible reserve. The studies of this tailing showed that by regrinding and reprocessing,
using high gradient magnetic separation and flotation, a concentrate of 63.31% Fe and 0.058% P,
similar to actual flotation concentrate, could be produced.
1 INTRODUCTION
Chador-Malu iron mine is located at 165 km north east of city of Yazd, in central desert of Iran.
The exploration of this reserve carried out during 1966-1970 by NIOC (National Iranian Steel
Corporation) under the supervision of ex-Soviet geologists. The reserve was estimated to 400 Mt,
containing 55% Fe in average. The recent evaluation of the reserve has approved only 320 Mt of ore.
Exploitation of this mine began on 1997. At the beginning, the ore was processed in three parallel
lines, each one with 392 t/h capacity. Since beginning of 2008, a fourth line was added. Iron grade
of tailing, especially during the first years of operation has been relatively high and has ranged
between 42% and 26%, averaging 30.80%.
This research has been carried out on reprocessing of the tailing. The microscopic studies of
tailing show the interlock of hematite with phosphate and gangue minerals. Regrinding of the tailing
and then reprocessing by using high gradient magnetic separation and finally flotation, 39% of iron
could be recovered with 63.31% Fe and 0.058% P, which is similar to actual flotation concentrate
in Chador-Malu mine.
2 MINERALIZATION
In this mine, the main mineralized zones occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks, including
ultramafic to mafic and intermediate igneous rocks with reported age as Cambrian and retrogressive
metamorphic products of such igneous rocks, in particular greenschist. There are two main ideas
about the genesis of this mineralization: (1) active metsomatic processes, and (2) separation of iron-
rich melt from magma and subsequent emplacement of such melt in this geological environment.
3 MINING
The annual mine ore tonnage was initially designed as 7 Mt. This tonnage was obtained on the sixth
year of commissioning when the three parallel processing lines were active. After the installation
and commissioning of the 4th line (January 2008), and some modification in the previous lines,
the annual ore tonnage mined increased to more than 12 Mt. Mining operation as well as mineral
processing is carried out by the contractor, Asfalt Tous Co., a Persian contractor. The contract has
been renewed every three to five years.
Major equipment currently in use include two 250 mm pull-down rotary blast hole drills, three
11 m3 cable shovels, four 13 m3 hydraulic shovels (one diesel and three electric), twelve 120 t
trucks. Recently, thirteen new 120 t trucks were procured for recent and future development of
this mine. Mining crews work 24 h a day, 355 days a year (10 days of holiday for Persian New
Year “Now-rouz”). The iron ore, after exploitation, is transported by trucks to the gyratory crusher.
335
Figure 1. Simplified flowsheet of Chador-Malu processing plant.
The crushed ore is stocked in stockpile in two alternative blending beds, and then transferred by a
reclaimer to a conveyor belt, discharged in bins at the beginning of each line.
4 PROCESSING
The simplified flowsheet of Chador-Malu Processing is shown in Fig. 1, for the three initial lines.
The major equipments in each line include an autogenous mill (D = 9.7 m, L = 4 m), low intensity
magnetic separator (LIMS) as cobber, ball mill (D = 5.4 m, L = 9.25 m), LIMS as cleaner, high
gradient magnetic separator (HGMS), ball mill (D = 3 m, L = 5.9 m), flotation cells for hematite
beneficiation and flotation cells for apatite processing as by-product. The fourth line is a little
different with the three previous ones, in the size and power of ball mill, the size and number of
thickeners and the size of filters. There is no section to recover the apatite as by-product.
In each processing line, the ore is ground in the autogenous mill to d80 = 180 microns, then mag-
netite content is separated by cobber LIMS, which is reground in the ball mill to d80 = 35 microns,
and reprocessed by four stages of cleaner LIMS to produce the magnetite concentrate of 68.75–
70% Fe and ≤0.05% P. The rest of this stage is processed by the HGMS to recover the hematite
content which is dephosphorized, using flotation method to produce the hematite concentrate of
60–67% Fe and ≤0.05% P. The final concentrate which is the mixture of magnetite and hematite
concentrates with ≥67.5% Fe and ≤0.05% P, is used in direct reduction plants, at Isfahan an Ahvaz.
The by-product of the processing lines is phosphate concentrate that is produces by flotation from
the HGMS tailings.
5 TAILING REPROCESSING
During the past 12 years of plant operation, about 73 Mt of iron ore with 54.15% Fe is processed,
producing about 46 Mt of concentrate with 67.82% Fe and 27 Mt of tailings with 30.80% Fe. The
X-RD examination of the tailing sample indicates the presence of the following minerals:
Hematite, goethite, ankerite, clinochlore, biotite, dolomite, albite, anorthite, quartz, fluorapatite,
kaolinite, amphibole.
A representative portion of the sample is screen analyzed and the different size fractions
are studied, using microscope method. This study showed that in coarse fractions, hematite is
336
Table 1. Flotation results of HGMS concentrate.
Grade
Weight Recovery
(%) Fe % P% Fe %
Feed (representative sample of tailing) 100 33.85 2.204 100

HGMS concentrate 34.20 54.89 0.596 55.46
HGMS tailing 65.80 22.91 3.040 44.54
Flotation concentrate 24.09 60.0 0.19 42.70
Flotation tailing 10.11 42.71 1.563 12.76
Figure 2. Size distribution of feed, overflow and underflow of de-sliming hydrocyclone.
interlocked with gangue minerals, therefore liberation of hematite needs grinding of such material
to d80 = 25µm.
Processing the sample in a HGMS, produce a concentrate with 55.89% Fe and 0.590% P.
To increase the iron grade and reduce the phosphorus grade, the HGMS concentrate should be
processed by flotation method, under the following conditions:
– pH: 10 (adjusted by soda ash)
– water glass: 800 g/t
– water glass: 800 g/t
– fatty acid: 600 g/t
– fuel oil: 200 g/t
The result of HGMS and flotation tests are shown in table 1.
The above product could be considered as convenient material for blast furnace.
Since, numerous direct reduction plants are active in Iran, and the feed to these plants should
contain more than 67.5% Fe and less than 0.05% P, the studies are carried out to obtain a concentrate
convenient for such plants.
One of the obstructions to modify the concentrate quality is the slime content of the ore. So, a
de-sliming stage is followed to the grinding stage. The de-sliming is carried out by a hydrocyclone
with a d50 of 4 µm. The size distribution of ground material, slime and de-slimed fractions are
shown in Figure 2.
The de-slimed material is passed through HGMS, followed by flotation. The results are shown
in Table 2.
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Table 2. Results of processing of de-slimed material.
Grade
Weight Recovery
(%) Fe % P% Fe %
Feed (representative sample of tailing) 100 33.54 2.278 100

Slime 39.75 34.98 1.576 41.46
De-slimed feed 60.25 32.59 2.741 58.54
HGMS concentrate 27.81 55.63 0.653 46.12
HGMS tailing 32.44 12.84 4.531 12.42
Flotation concentrate 20.66 63.31 0.058 39.00
Flotation tailing 7.15 33.44 2.372 7.12
Figure 3. Suggested simplified flowsheet for reprocessing of tailings.
Based on the above obtained results, the simplified flowsheet for the tailing reprocessing is
suggested as is shown in figure 3.
6 CONCLUSION
Some deficiencies in design of Chador-Malu Iron Ore Concentration Plant has resulted in encoun-
tering problems in all four existing production lines. Consequently, part of iron minerals is not
liberated, therefore, final iron ore recovery is relatively low and the Fe grade of final tailing is high.
To solve the problem, modification of existing produc-tion lines is not recommended, as the major
problem arises from the size and power of grinding mills and there is no enough space in the Plant
to add another mill to the line.
A research program is carried out on the tailing, deposited during last 12 years. Reproc-essing
of the tailings is possible and feasible by regrinding it to appropriate size (d80 = 25 µm) and
re-processing it by a combination of high gradient magnetic separator followed by flotation process.
By making use of this method, 42.7% of lost iron is recovered as an acceptable iron concentrate.
338
Suncor Pond 5 coke cap – The story of its conception, testing,

and advance to full-scale construction
Patrick Sean Wells

Suncor Energy Inc., Fort McMurray, AB, Canada
Jack Caldwell
Joseph Fournier
ABSTRACT: The Pond 5 Tailings Impoundment at the Suncor Energy Oil Sands Mine north
of Fort McMurray, Alberta, was turned over to the mine’s reclamation department in 2009 for
closure. At the beginning of 2010, construction of a pond-wide coke cap, part of the proposed final
cover, was begun. In the two years preceding construction of the pond-wide coke cap, the authors
undertook extensive laboratory and field trials of a prototype coke cap. This paper describes the
theoretical and practical work done to formulate a viable and safe coke cap—in effect the cap that
is now under construction across almost the entire pond. We describe field testing to characterize
the tailings; laboratory testing undertaken to characterize the response of the tailings to planned
construction procedure; and two prototype covers constructed in the winters of 2008 and early 2009
to test and confirm theoretical analyses and designs.
1 INTRODUCTION
Suncor Energy, Inc. plans to close the Pond 5 tailings impoundment at the Suncor oil sands mine
north of Fort McMurray by 2019. This paper describes the design and construction between 2008
and 2010 of a coke cap over the soft tailings; the coke cap will serve as the basal layer of the planned
final cover that will include a thick sand layer, soil, vegetation, drainage swales, and a lake. In
addition, the coke cap provides access to the surface of the tailings for equipment and possible
installation of wick drains that may be used to promote dewatering and hence consolidation of the
tailings.
2 DESCRIPTION OF POND 5
Pond 5 has been in use since the mid 1950s. It is roughly fan-shaped and extends about 3 km
north south and about 5 kilometers east west (Figure 1.) The west and north perimeter dikes were
constructed of tailings sand to a height of upwards of 100 m to enclose a mined-out open pit.
The tailings vary considerably. The upper layer is very soft, low strengths (less than 1 kPa) clayey
materials that are still essentially fluid at void ratios of up to five. The strength and sand content
increase with depth to the bottom of the pond that is deeper than 50 m. (Figures 2 and 3).
3 THE SAFE COVER
In 2008 and 2009 the authors and many others, recognized at the end of this paper, conceived
of what we called the Semi-Anchored, Floating Experimental (SAFE) Cover. We recognized that
there is a large volume of coke available at site and the coke is essentially a waste product. The
coke is light and floats on the fluid tailings.
341
Figure 1. Suncor Tailings Ponds – Fort McMurray, Alberta.
Figure 2. 2009 pond 5 solids section B.
On the basis of successful covering of uranium mill tailings at Wismut, we decided to construct
a prototype cover as follows (Figure 4):
Pack or remove winter snow to induce freezing of the upper tailings
• Place a geotextile over the frozen tailings which constitutes a safe access surface. Adjacent rolls
of geotextile were overlapped.
• Place a geogrids over the geotextile with the long axis of the geogrids perpendicular to the long
axis of the geotextile roll and parallel to the short access of the section. Adjacent rolls of geogrid
were overlapped.
342
Figure 3. Estimated pond-wide void ratio distribution.
Figure 4. 2008 & 2009 access road section.
• Place an initial lift of coke, one-meter thick, using light equipment, primarily SnoCats.
• Place subsequent lifts of coke up to three-meters thick using heavier equipment.
• Along the Access Road thus constructed continue to transport coke using heavy equipment,
including Moxies that weight up to 60 tons fully-loaded.
4 DESIGN ANALYSES
The concept is simple: the coke floats on the upper tailings (essentially at a factor of safety of
one) and the coke is held “together” by the basal geosynthetics. One almost needs no more than
Archimedes Principle to establish the geometry of the floating mass.
In spite of this simplicity, we undertook extensive FLAC analyses of various sections and differing
equipment loads (Figures 5 and 6.) FLAC is a finite element code that enabled us to replicate both
the fluid and soil-like response of the tailings to the loading of the coke cap and imposed equipment.
343
Figure 5. Typical FLAC output showing vertical deformation of the tailings and a result of the presence of
the access road.
Figure 6. FLAC analysis of heavy load on coke access road
5 2008 & 2009 CONSTRUCTION
In 2008 we constructed a series of coke cap access roads out over beach materials at the south west
corner of the pond (Figure 7). In 2009 we extended a coke cap access road out from the west dike
344
Figure 7. 2010 design overview.
Figure 8. 2010 access road – cross section.
of the Pond and over deep, soft tailings. On the basis of the success of these prototypes, a decision
was take to proceed to full-scale construction in the winter of 2010.
6 2010 CONSTRUCTION
To provide for pond-wide coke delivery, it was decided to construct a series of access roads across
the pond (Figure 8). The design of these access roads is essentially as for the access roads of the
2008 and 2009 road, except that a stronger, seamed geotextile was used.
Because the winter was shorter than usual only eleven kilometers of access road was constructed.
It is planned to construct the remainder in the winter of 2010 and 2011. Construction proceeded
without any incidents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge Andy Robertson who knew the Wismut covers and had the insight to apply the
ideas to Suncor. He supported and encouraged us through all phases.
345
Peter Byrne, now a retired UBC professor, and Ernie Naesgaard, and independent consultants
were there to remind us of the basics of fundamental soil mechanics and to undertake the FLAC
analyses.
Gordon McKenna of BGC and Richard Dawson and Erin Olsun of Norwest provided invaluable
peer review and new ideas through all phases of work.
AMEC and their staff compiled the 2010 detailed designs and oversaw construction. We cannot
note them all, so refer to but two: Gordon Pollack and Ed McRoberts who had the courage to take
our small-scale success and turn them into large-scale successes.
None of this would have happened without the Suncor field staff: Neil Jevning and Ivan Decker
who managed all construction, Joseph Fournier who looked after things from his office overlooking
the pond, and the managers of the Suncor reclamation group, Bill Tully and Mat Le Blanc, who
had to manage us and the large budgets.
346
Treatment of fluid fine tailings with silica
R.H. Moffett
E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, DE, USA
ABSTRACT: Management of fluid fine tailings remains an environmental challenge to the oil
sands industry. Recently enacted ERCB directive 074 requires fine tailings be treated to generate
a trafficable surface. The ERCB directive dictates the minimum undrained shear strength of the
deposited fines shall be 5 kPa at 1 year after treatment and 10 kPa after 5 years. Rheological
modification of the fluid fine tailings can be easily accomplished by in-situ polymerization of
silica. Yield stress of the tailings can be increased an order of magnitude within minutes after
treatment. With minimal dewatering the treated tailings can exceed the one and five year shear
strength requirements. Dewatering of the treated tailings can be accomplished by a number of
different techniques. The in-situ silica polymerization treatment has been demonstrated to work
over a wide range of fine tailings compositions. This paper will discuss rheology modification of
oil sands fluid fine tailings using silica and the subsequent dewatering of the tailings.
1 INTRODUCTION
Extraction of bitumen from Canadian oil sands generates vast quantities of fluid fine tailings.
Recently enacted ERCB directive 074 specifies performance criteria for the reduction of fluid
tailings and the formation of trafficable deposits. The directive requires operators to reduce fluid tail-
ings through fines capture in dedicated disposal areas in a manner that creates trafficable deposits.
These deposits must have minimum undrained shear strength of 5 kPa within one year of deposition
and 10 kPa within 5 years.
Historically oil sands tailings have been placed in ponds or impoundments where the fine tailings
consolidate with time into what is termed mature fine tailings (MFT). It is estimated it will take
centuries for the tailings in these ponds to reach the consistency of soft clay (Lord 1998). Even if
the MFT consolidates to 60 wt% solids they yield stress is only about 0.5 kPa which is far short of
the ERCB 1 year requirement (Wells 1997).
Since the 1990’s oil sands operators have sought to create geotechnically stable fine tailings
through the use of NST or CT technology (Non Segregating Tailings and Consolidated Tailings
respectively). Variations exist for these techniques but basically require a specific blend of fine
tailings and coarse sand tailings along with a chemical coagulant to prevent separation of the fines
from the sand after deposition. A number of chemical coagulants have been proposed and tested
through the years. Gypsum (Omotoso 1999) and carbon dioxide (Mikula 2006) have found the
most commercial success for this purpose. Reported drawbacks to the CT and NST process are
the necessity for large volumes of sand which is preferentially used to create dikes, the creation of
ponds and lack of robustness (MacKinnon 2007).
Another approach to fine tailings management has been the use of high molecular weight floccu-
lants to facilitate solid/liquid separation. These organic polymers can be used in conjunction with
mechanical thickeners to generate a more highly concentrated tailings stream to avoid creation of
tailings ponds and MFT. Underflows from thickeners are reported to be as high as about 50 wt%
solids. However at 50 wt% solids, the thickened tailings have a yield strength of only about 50 Pa
and will not meet ERCB yield stress requirements without further drying (Lord 1998). The poly-
mer thickened tailings must have a solids concentration of nearly 75 wt% to achieve a yield stress
approaching 5 kPa.
347
Flocculation of MFT with high molecular weight polymers with subsequent drainage and drying
in thin lifts has been also trialed. Reportedly this approach will allow MFT to self dewater to about
55 wt% solids. However, this treatment technique suffers from requiring very specific mixing
conditions to achieve good drainage of the flocculated MFT. Polymer flocculated tailings are
reported to be very susceptible to shear thinning (Mikula 2006). Mikula also notes that dried
polymer treated MFT will more easily reabsorb rain water than lime/gypsum treated MFT (Mikula
2008a).
Mechanical assisted dewatering of polymer flocculated fine tails has also been evaluated. Cen-
trifugation has been reported to require less high molecular weight polymer compared to thin lift
drying, however the chemical cost savings is offset by the large capital expense of the centrifuges.
What’s more the solids from the centrifuge need to be conveyed or trucked to the disposal area
rather than being simply pumped as the solids cake discharged from the centrifuge is reported to
be quite susceptible to shear thinning. Mikula states the yield stress decreases from approximately
6 kPa to about 0.3 kPa after shearing (Mikula 2008b).
2 SILICA FOR FINES TAILINGS TREATMENT
Silica (SiO2 ) in the form of sand is the major constituent in the mined oil sands ore. Silica may
however take numerous other forms, some of which are water soluble while others are water
dispersible. Many of these silica sources can be made to polymerize into three dimensional chained
networks at relatively low SiO2 concentrations. We have found these silica networks can also
be formed in-situ within the water present in fluid fine tailings (Moffett 2010). The networks
are capable of making major changes in the rheology of oil sands fine tailings at relatively low
silica concentrations. Upon dewatering and/or drying the yield stress of the silica treated tailings
increases.
In-situ silica polymerization and network formation can be initiated by the addition of small
amounts of various chemicals along with the silica source. Totally inorganic treatment systems can
be practiced by initiating silica polymerization by the addition of bi or tri-valent metal salts such
as calcium chloride, magnesium sulfate or sodium aluminate. Alternatively, acids or organic esters
can also be used to initiate silica polymerization. Silica network formation can be accomplished
in seconds or over days depending upon the choice of initiator, dose and silica source and optional
use of accelerants. Perhaps the simplest and safest initiator is carbon dioxide.
The silica network provides strength to the treated MFT while encompassing the water and
solids until dewatering is desired. A small applied pressure will cause the water contained within
the network to exude. The solids however remain trapped within the silica matrix. Water can also
be removed from the network through evaporative drying. The ease of water release allows for
multiple potential methods to dewater the treated tailings. Some dewatering methods that could be
potentially utilized include; in-pit self-weight consolidation, centrifugation, pipe-line dewatering,
belt pressing, and thin lift deposition. Upon loss of water the silica treated tailings consolidate with
significant reduction in volume
3 EXPERIMENTAL
MFT was obtained from a major oil sands producer. Analysis showed the MFT to contain 27 wt%
solids, and 73 wt% water. Particle size distribution was determined by static light scattering using
a Malvern Instruments Mastersizer 2000. Results indicate >90% of the particles are smaller than
44 micron (Figure 1). Yield stress of the MFT was determined to be approximately 5 Pa using a
Brookfield DV-III+ HB rheometer equipped with a vane spindle rotating at 0.1 rpm. The Brookfield
rheometer can measure yield strength up to 8.8 kPa.
MFT was dosed with various amounts of silica in the form of sodium silicate. Silica polymeriza-
tion was initiated within the MFT by addition of gaseous carbon dioxide. The treated MFT samples
were stored in sealed containers to prevent evaporation. Yield stress was measured approximately
24 hours after the treatment (Figure 2). The treated samples were then exposed to the environment
to allow water evaporation. Yield stress and solids concentration of the samples was measured over
time as the water evaporated. The yield stress and solids concentration of an untreated MFT sample
348
Figure 1. MFT particle size analysis by static light scattering.
Figure 2. MFT treated with silica, yield stress versus solids concentration.
was also measured with time. As can be seen in Figure 2 creation of the silica networks significantly
increases yield stress compared to untreated MFT. Yield stress of the silica treated samples rapidly
increases with limited drying. Yield stress values meeting the ERCB 1-year requirement of 5 kPa
are achievable at MFT solids concentrations of <50 wt.
349
Figure 3. Silica treated MFT compared to gypsum/lime treatment.
Thin lift deposition and evaporative drying of MFT has been discussed by Wells (Wells 2007).
To assess the evaporative drying potential of silica treated MFT, 5 and 10 cm thick lifts were poured
onto sand beds in 4 liter plastic beakers and allowed to dry. As a comparison, a 10 cm thick lift of
MFT treated with gypsum and lime following the recipe disclosed by Wells was also prepared. Full
depth core samples of the MFT for moisture analysis and yield stress measurements were taken
over a 9 day period. The drying rate for the silica treated MFT was found to be similar to that
of the gypsum/lime treated material (see Figure 3). However, the yield stress of the silica treated
MFT was approximately an order of magnitude higher than the gypsum/lime treated MFT. For
example, after 7 days of drying the gypsum/lime treated MFT had a moisture content of 50 wt%
and a yield stress of 1414 Pa. Comparatively after the same 7 days of drying the 5 cm silica treated
lift moisture content was 48.2 wt% and the yield stress of >8800 Pa. The 10 cm silica treated lift
moisture content was 43.7 wt% and the yield stress 8520 Pa.
Tailings treated by the CT process dewater through self consolidation. To investigate the potential
of silica treated MFT to dewater via self-weight consolidation a pressure cell was employed. MFT
was treated with sodium silicate at 6.8 kg SiO2 /tonne of MFT solids. Silica network formation was
initiated by CO2 addition and addition of 5.4 kg of gypsum/tonne of MFT solids. The cell was
equipped with a perforated metal plate and coarse filter paper through which water exuded from
the treated MFT could pass (Figure 4). The cell was filled with 7.4 cm of silica treated MFT on
top of the filter paper. A load of 17.9 kPa was then applied and maintained to the top surface of the
MFT while the water passing through the filter paper was collected and weighed. When essentially
no further water was being exuded, the applied load was increased to 38.6 kPa and then finally to a
maximum of 73.1 kPa. MFT solids concentration within the cell at various intervals was estimated
based upon the mass of water collected (Figure 5). Upon completion of the test the pressure cell
was disassembled and the consolidated solids removed. The solids thickness had been reduced by
55% from 7.4 to 3.4 cm. Some free water was found to have drained from the MFT but was trapped
within the pressure cell. This water was not included in the estimated MFT solids calculations. As
a result, the solids concentration of the MFT left within the pressure cell was found to be somewhat
higher than what was estimated based upon the captured water (Figure 4).
In another dewatering experiment 3.7 cm of silica treated MFT was placed between two layers
of water saturated tailings sand to simulate in-pit dewatering. The water saturated sand initially
350
Figure 4. Pressure cell.
Figure 5. Dewatering of silica treated MFT under pressure.
contained 83 wt% solids and 17 wt% water. In this test the cell was immediately pressurized to 10 psi
and this pressure was maintained for 20 hours. After 20 hours the sand and MFT were removed
from the cell and the solids content of both the sand and MFT was determined. The solids content
for both the upper and lower sand layers was found to be 82 wt%. The MFT solids concentration
351
Figure 6. Shear effects on MFT treated with 6.8 kg/tonne SiO2 + CO2 and 5.4 kg/tonne accelerator.
was determined to be 56 wt%. This is essentially the same MFT final solids concentration as shown
in Figure 5. Visual observation indicated the MFT did not significantly penetrate into the sand beds.
Polymer treated tailings have been reported to be very susceptible to shear thinning during
transportation through a pipeline or after deposition. Since the rate of silica network formation can
be controlled over a wide range of time, there is minimal risk of disrupting the silica network in the
pipeline carrying the tailings to the dedicated disposal area. There is however a risk that the treated
tailings could somehow be exposed to shear after they have been placed in the disposal area. To
gage the impact of shear after silica network formation, MFT was treated with sodium silicate at
6.8 or 13.6 kg SiO2 /tonne MFT solids. Silica polymerization was initiated in two different manners:
– By saturation with CO2 plus addition of 5.4 kg/tonne of an inorganic accelerator

– By addition of 27 kg/tonne of an inorganic accelerator
After treatment the samples were stored in sealed containers. Yield stress of the silica treated
MFT was measured at 24 and 48 hours. After 24 hours a portion of the treated MFT was subjected to
intense shear by remixing the solids in a Kitchen Aid planetary mixer for 60 seconds. The remixed
MFT was placed in sealed containers and its yield stress was measured at 5 minutes, 24 and 48 hours.
The tests indicate the CO2 treated MFT recovered approximately 63% of its unsheared yield stress
within 24 hours and was essentially unchanged after 48 hours (Figure 6). The magnesium sulfate
treated MFT recovered approximately 51% after 24 hours and 79% after 48 hours (Figure 7). After
48 hours storage, both the treated MFT and the remixed MFT were exposed to the environment and
allowed to evaporate for 24 hours. The yield stress and solids content were then re-measured. Solids
concentration increased approximately the same in the remixed and the unsheared samples. Yield
stress was also found to be equivalent between the remixed and unsheared samples. The yield stress
of both remixed samples increased by an order of magnitude and was essentially the equal to the
unmixed samples. Evaporative water loss was also equivalent between the unmixed and remixed
samples.
352
Figure 7. Shear effects on MFT treated with 13.6 kg/tonne SiO2 + 27 kg/tonne accelerator.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In situ polymerization of silica offers a unique method to treat oil sand fine tailings streams.
Formation of silica networks within the water phase of fluid fine tailings can significantly increase
the yield stress. Treated tailings can be easily dewatered by a number of methods including self
weight consolidation and evaporation. Laboratory tests indicate 5 kPa yield strength is achievable
with at less than 50 wt% solids which is significantly wetter than what has been reported for polymer
treated tailings in the open literature. Silica treated tailings recover a large portion of their initial
yield strength after experiencing high levels of shear, and fully recover with limited drying.
REFERENCES
Lord, E., Liu,Y. 1998. Depositional and Geotechnical Characteristics of Paste Produced from Oil Sand Tailings,
Fifth International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste ’98, Fort Collins Co, 1998: 147–157.
MacKinnon, M. 2007. Surface Oil Sands Operations Will Affect Water Quality and Impact Options for Water
Management, Part II: Process Effects, Conrad Water Usage Workshop, November 2007.
Mikula, R. J., Omotoso, O. 2006. Role of Clays in Controlling Tailings Behavior in Oil Sands Processing, Clay
Science, 2006, 12 Supplement 2: 177–182.
Mikula, R.J., Munoz, V.A., Omotoso, O. 2008. Water Use in Bitumen Production: Tailings Management in
Surface Mined Oil Sands, Canadian International Petroleum Conference, 2008: 1–8.
Mikula, R.J., Munoz, V.A., Omotoso, O. 2008. Centrifuge options for production of “Dry stackable tailings”
in surface mined oil sands tailings management, Canadian International Petroleum Conference, 2008: 1–8.
Moffett, Robert H. 2010. U.S. patent application publication 2010/0104744 A1.
Omotoso, O.E., Mikula, R.J. 1999. Alternative Consolidated Tailings Chemicals, Canmet division report WRC
99-23, May 1999.
Wells, P.S., Riley, D.A. 2007, MFT Drying – Case Study in the Use of Rheological Modification and Dewatering
of Fine Tailings through Thin Lift Deposition in the Oil Sands of Alberta, 10th International Seminar on
Paste and Thickened Tailings, March 2007.
353
Filtration tests on PVD filter jackets in fine oil sands tailings
Y. Yao, A.F. van Tol, B. Everts & A. Mulder

Section Geo-engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Applied Earth Sciences,
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT: The application of Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) is considered to be one of

the engineering options to accelerate the consolidation of oil sands tailings. However, when installed
in a fine tailings pond, the geotextile filter jacket has a risk of clogging or blinding which can lead to
the significant reduction in the discharge capacity of the PVD. Based on the theory, the clogging or
blinding of filter jackets can be caused by the fine soil particles and/or residual organic matters. The
objective of the present research is to evaluate the filtration and clogging behavior of filter jackets
when applied in oil sands thickened tailings (TT) from Muskeg River Mine, Alberta, Canada.
Filtration column tests on three types of geotextiles jackets were conducted in the laboratory to
study the possible clogging of the filter jackets of PVD. After starting the tests, the discharge flow
rate through the jackets decreased gradually over a period of the tests for 2–3 weeks. The filter
jackets kept on functioning well during the test. It appeared that the permeability of the consolidated
thickened tailings controlled the thickened tailings/geotextile system.
1 INTRODUCTION
Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD), also known as wick drains or band drains, are widely used
to accelerate consolidation of soft clays nowadays. When installed in soft soils, PVD can create a
short path for the trapped pore water to escape and thus speed up the rate of consolidation. PVD
are comprised of a drainage core wrapped in a geotextile filter jacket which has two basic filtration
functions: first to retain soil particles; and second, to allow water to pass from the soil into the
PVD core. As noted by McGown (1976), Bell and Hicks (1980), D.T. Bergado (1996) et al., an
effective geotextile filter jacket in the soil may function as follows, see Figure 1. A small amount
of fine particles moves into or through the filter jacket leaving the coarser particles to bridge and
arch outside of it. The zone of fine particles immediately behind the soil bridge network is called
a “filter cake”. Once the soil filter is established, no further particle movement will occur and the
soil-geotextile jacket system is in equilibrium; hence, the geotextile filter jacket retains the soil
particles and prevents its migration into the PVD core.
According to literature, the establishment of a stable and effective soil filter by the geotextile
filter jacket depends on the following:
1. The physical and mechanical properties of the geotextile filter jacket e.g. pore size, porosity and
compressibility of geotextiles etc.
2. The characteristics of the soil, e.g. particle size distribution, porosity, permeability, and
cohesiveness.
3. External stresses and strains imposed on the soil-PVD system.
4. The prevailing hydraulic conditions, e.g. laminar or turbulent flow, unidirectional or reversible
flow, and dynamic or pulsating flow.
For well–graded soil, the selection of geotextile filter jacket which can function properly is
essential for the successful application of PVD. For fine tailings, the potential migration of fine
particles, as they are not bonded, during the drainage and consolidation presents a higher risk of
clogging of the filter jackets compared with soils. Thus the application of PVD in fine oil sand
tailings needs to be studied.
355
Figure 1. How a filter jacket works (McGown 1976; Bell and Hic.
Oil sands tailings, the waste production of oil sands from the extraction plant, are a mixture
of sand, silt, clay, water and approximately 1% to 2% un-recovered bitumen. Oil sands tailings
are pumped into the tailing ponds where sand is used to build containment structures and beaches
and the clay-sized mineral particles flow with water into a settling basin for settling and water
clarification. Thickening of fine tailings in high rate thickeners has been implemented at the Shell
Albian Sands operations and other technologies such as paste thickened tailings, inline flocculation
of fluid fine tailings, and centrifugation of flocculated fluid fine tailings are in advanced stages of
development. There is a strong interest and incentive to accelerate the rate of consolidation of fine
oil sands tailings deposits and the application of PVD is one of the options. Liu & McKenna (1998)
conducted a pre-feasibility study including laboratory testing and numerical modeling to obtain
parameters for the potential application of PVD in Composite Tailings (CT, oil sands tailings
with a relative high sand content and with added inorganic coagulants (e.g. calcium sulphate,
aluminum sulphate in order to avoid segregation). Wells & Caldwell (2009) presented field tests of
the application of PVD in Fort McMurray in a high fines content tailings deposit produced through
at Suncor operations.
At the Shell Albian Sands oil sands operations tailings are classified by hydro-cyclones in which
the coarse fraction is separated from the tailings. The cyclone overflow, which contains the fines
and water, is further processed in high rate tailings thickeners to recover warm water that can
be immediately reused in bitumen processing while producing Thickened Tailings (TT) slurry.
Compared with CT, TT has much higher fines content (up to 70% of particles finer than 44 µm)
and a high water content which may cause the clogging of the geotextile filter jackets. Bell and
Hicks (1980) present three different clogging mechanisms for geotextile filter jackets, distinguished
as follows:
1. Clogging of the core, by passage through the jackets of too much fine particles;
2. Clogging of the filter jacket by particles trapped within the fabric structure;
3. Blinding of the jackets by formation of a filter cake due to filtration of the sludge.
In addition to above mechanisms, the proper functioning of the PVD in fine oil sands tailings
can also be hammered by
356
Table 1. Properties of thickened tailings sample.
Index Value
Water content∗ ASTM D2216 65.0%

Bulk density of sludge 1.20 g/cc
Density of solid particles Ultra pycnometer 2.29 g/cc
Void ratio 4.3
Liquid limit ASTM D4318 52%
Plastic limit ASTM D4318 15%
Plasticity index ASTM D4318 37%
SFR(44 µm)∗∗ British Standard 0.54
Fines content British Standard 65%
D30 6.3 µm
D50 11 µm
* Water content is defined as the ratio of water mass and total mass, W = w/T.
** SFR = Sand Fine Ratio, The ratio of sand content (>44 µm) and fines content (<44 µm).
Figure 2. Comparison of TT used and classified tailings products plotted in Ternary Plot (Scott & Cymerman,
1984).
4. Decreased permeability of consolidated sludge around the drain.

5. Clogging of the filter jacket by the bitumen in the oil sands tailings.
In order to study the performance of geotextile filter jacket of PVD in oil sands tailings, especially
the TT, laboratory filtration tests were performed to observe the clogging behaviour of filter jackets.
Three types of geotextiles were imposed under different pressures.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Slurry used

The soil used in the test is TT taken from Albian Sands Muskeg River Mine at Fort McMurray,
Canada. Table 1 provides a summary of engineering properties of material used. The water content
is defined as the ratio of mass of water and the total mass. Fines are defines as particles smaller than
44 µm. Figure 2 presents the comparison between TT used in the test and other oil sands tailings
357
Table 2. Properties of geotextiles used in the experiments.
Items TYPAR D165 TYPAR 5417HS LDFD
Material Polypropylene polypropylene polyester

Unit weight (g/m2 ) 165 140 95
Effective area (cm2 ) 60 60 60
Thickness 20 kPa (mm) 0.39 0.40 0.30
Elongation at break (%) MD 50 50 39
Tensile strength (kN/m) 12.9 11.7 6
Opening size O95 (µm) <75 75 75
Opening size O95wet (µm) – 75 <65
Permeability (mm/s) 11 12 39
Permittivity (1/s) 0.3 0.3 –
plotted in the Ternary Plot (Scott & Cymerman, 1984). The TT sample used in the test fits well
within the area of classical classification of TT (Shahid Azam & J. Don Scott, 2005).
2.2 Geotextile used

The filtration tests were conducted with three non-woven geotextiles provided by one of the PVD
manufacturers. The filter jacket samples represent the widely used geotextiles that are applied as
standard filter jacket of PVD in the consolidation of soft soils. Table 2 presents the properties
of geotextile filter jackets used in the tests. These filter jackets are readily distinguished by the
differences in their unit weight and permeability, i.e. white colored polyester geotextile (LDFD) is
light weight and more permeable while the grey colored ones (D165&5417HS) are heavy weight
and less permeable. All the three geotextiles were used without any modifications.
2.3 Apparatus used

The apparatus used for testing was indigenously fabricated in the Soil Laboratory of the Department
of Geotechnology, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. See Figure 3, three Perspex
glass cylindrical moulds, 100 mm diameter each, were mounted on top of each other and tightly
screwed, forming the filtration column. The three major parts of the column are pressure chamber,
filtration chamber and collection chamber with the height of 300 mm, 200 mm and 100 mm sepa-
rately. The system was developed to permit automated measurement of variables monitored during
all phases of a test. The main features of the system consist of the following: (1) Constant pres-
sure and pressure monitoring system,(2) Filtration system, and (3) Flow measurement system. The
constant pressure system using compressed air is maintained at the required value on adjustments
of the pressure controller located on the air pressure panel. Air at the controlled pressure is then
admitted to the bladder in the air/water bladder cell thus pressuring the water without direct contact
between air and water. The pressurized water is then led to the pressure chamber inlets. The filtra-
tion chamber is the part where the thickened tailings remains throughout the test. Tailings in the
filtration chamber is dewatered through a geotextile filter supported by a filter screen (wire mesh)
placed between the filtration chamber and collection chamber. Pressure transducers are installed
in the wall of filtration chamber to monitor the pore pressure in the sludge during the test. The
measurement of outflow is achieved by weighing the accumulative discharged water, collected in
a cup below the outlet. In order to prevent from evaporation, the cup was sealed with plastic paper
with a hole letting the filtrate drop in. The weight of discharged water and the pore pressures in the
tailings are monitored and recorded by a Data Acquisition System.
2.4 Test plan

The magnitude of imposed pressure was to simulate the pressure/potential of the depth where PVD
were installed. The fine tailings are essentially a fluid (Wells & Caldwell, 2009). Therefore the
358
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of filtration column.
driving force which promotes water flow from the tailings into the vertical drain is equal to the
total head (hydraulic potential) within the tailings column, minus the total head within the core of
an individual drain. When the PVDs are installed, for tailings with bulk density (ρt ), the expected
fluid pressure hence potential (P) at a depth (ht ) in the tailings is Ptailings = γtailing ht = ρt ght . Inside
the drain the potential Pcore = γwater hw = ρw ghw . In case that the density of water is less than the unit
weight of the tailings (in this case 12 kN/m3 ), there is a net pressure differential between the outside
and the inside of the vertical drain and hence flow of tailings water from the tailings into the wick
drain. Moreover, this process continues until the soft tailings approach their liquid limits and begin
to generate effective stresses, acting as a soil as opposed to a slurry. Once the fluid-like tailings
begin to experience grain-to-grain contact the hydraulic conductivity of the soil-like tailings begins
to exert an influence on the flow of tailings water into the wick drain. This is the phenomenon
referred to as consolidation. The above mentioned pressure conditions are applicable as long as
there is no grain-to-grain contact between the soil particles.
The structure of the apparatus used in this test, is such that once the valve is opened, the water in
the collection chamber is directly connected to open air. Thus the pressure imposed on the bottom
side of the geotextile filter jacket is constantly zero. The pressure on the filtration chamber side of
the filter equals to the pressure applied on top of the sample plus the self-weight of sludge. In the test
the pressures imposed on the sludge samples with geotextile of LDFD and 5417HS were constant
20 kPa and 10 kPa respectively. For geotextile of D165, however, the pressure was set initially to
10 kPa and doubled when the flow rate became stable. The pressures imposed on the filter jackets
were approximately representing the pressure difference of PVDs at the depth between 5 m and
10 m in the pond. Tests were stopped when the flow was negligible or some abnormal phenomenon
occurred. The duration of the tests varied from 20 to 40 days.
2.5 Test procedure

Performing the filtration tests the following sequential procedures are applied:
1. Preparation of the sample
Tailings samples were prepared by mixing for half an hour until a homogeneous fluid was
obtained. Geotextile filter jackets were saturated with the help of vacuum pump to expel the air
bubbles before the use.
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2. Installation of apparatus
First the valve of the collection chamber is closed and filled with de-aired water. The filter
screen, the geotextile filter jacket and O-ring are placed on the top surface of the chamber.
Next, the filtration chamber, the middle mould that contains tailing sample is connected to the
collection chamber with rubber O-ring preventing from sidewall seepage. When the mould is
fully filled with sludge, place a plastic sheet on the top surface of it and install the next chamber.
The plastic sheet is used to temporarily separate the sludge from the water added later. After the
top chamber is full of water, the sheet is cut without disturbing the sample. Last, the filtration
column is sealed and the water inlet is connected to the pressure system.
3. Application of pressure
After setting up the filtration system, the pressure controller is switched on the air pressure panel
and the water pressure is adjusted to the required value. Because of the sensitivity of compressed
air supplier, the actual pressure is always gently fluctuating, which needs to be monitored and
adjusted if necessary.
4. Measurement
During the tests, the height of sludge, the pore pressures at two horizons and the amount of
discharged water are monitored. After completion of the tests, the water content of the sludge
samples and the increased weight of geotextiles are determined.
3.1 Observations
Figures 4(a)–(c) illustrate the flow behavior of each filter sample and Figures 5 (a)–(c) show
the variation of pore pressures at different depth in the tailings sample with time. In Fig.4c, the
transducer Port 1 was replaced by Port 2.
According to the data, similar trends are observed for all tests. In the first several seconds there
was a continuous flow coming out from the outlet, followed by a sharp decrease of flow finally
resulting in a decreasing. After 10 to 15 days the discharged flow rate became almost constant
in each test. The filtrated water contained some fines at the beginning but remained completely
clean after a while, which demonstrated that the jacket functioned correctly, not allowing too much
of fines to get into the core of the drains. The two pore pressure transducers measured the pore
pressure at the different levels in the sample. The initially recorded small difference is due to the
difference in hydrostatic pressure. In a later stage the effect of bottom drainage and consolida-
tion was reflected in the decreasing pressure at the lowest transducer. The average duration of
the tests is no less than 3 weeks (Test 1 was only 2 weeks). At the end of each test, the flow
rate increased as well as the pore pressure of lowest port. For Test 1 the rate of discharged flow
even increased by a factor of 10. The explanation of this phenomenon can be found by the obser-
vation of the cracks in the sample along the wall of cylinder (Figure 6). It is assumed that the
cracks increased the permeability of soil dramatically as a result of the formation of a shortcut
for drainage. On the other hand, at the outer surface some gas bubbles were seen. These gas bub-
bles might have disturbed the pressure measuring by the transducer because of poor contact with
the sample.
Comparing (a) and (b) in Fig. 4, we can see that after 10 days both of the flow rate figures were
identical with a value around 18 ml/day in spite of the significant difference in the permeability of
geotextiles as well as the different pressure applied. However, for long-term performance of filter
jacket illustrated in (a) and (c), the higher imposed pressure (20 kPa, relative to 10 kPa) resulted
in a slightly higher flow rate. Moreover, we notice that the flow rate in (c) increased dramatically
when the pressure was doubled. Finally, according to Fig. 5, the pore pressures are still decreasing
at the end of the tests.
3.2 Analysis of soil sample

Figure 7 provides the water content distribution of the soil samples with different geotextile filter
jackets at the end of the tests. Due to sedimentation and consolidation the maximum solid content of
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Figure 4. The flow behavior of each filter sample: (a) LDFD (b) D165 (c) 5417HS.
soils was obtained at the bottom part near the filter jacket and the height of soil samples decreased
from 20 cm to 9.5 cm. The solid content on the surface (top of sample) was the lowest, almost equal
to the initial value.
Figure 8, taken from Sobkowicz & Morgenstern, (2009) presents the void ratio and permeabil-
ity of fine tailings plotted in the Ternary Plot of Oil Sand Tailings (Scott & Cymerman, 1984)
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Figure 5. The pore pressures of the sludge with each filter sample: (a) LDFD (b) D165 (c) 5417HS.
respectively. In this test, at the initial water content of 65% the void ratio of soil is about 5 and the
permeability is 10−4 cm/s which equals to 10−6 m/s. However, at the final water content of 30%
(void ratio about 1) the permeability significantly decreases to 10−7 cm/s = 10−9 m/s which differs
a factor of 1000 (Fig. 8b). It can be summarized that due to the consolidation a layer of consolidated
material with extremely low permeability is formed and controls the flow rate.
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Figure 6. The shrinkage and cracks occurred on the surface of soil sample.
Figure 7. Distributions of water content along the height of soil sample after the test (distance measured from
original top of the sample; 20 cm is bottom of sample).
Figure 8. Void ratio (a) and hydraulic conductivity (b) of fine tailings plotted in the Ternary Plot of Oil Sand
Tailings (Scott & Cymerman, 1984).
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Figure 9. Geotextile filter jacket before (left) and after the test (right): (a) LDFD (b) 5417HS.
Table 3. Weight comparisons of filters before and after the test.
Geotextile filters LDFD 5417HS D165
Dry weight before test (g) 1.49 1.92 2.33

Dry weight after the test (g) 1.77 2.28 2.76
Increased by (%) 18.8 18.8 18.5
3.3 Analysis of geotextile filters

Figure 9 compares the clogging phenomenon of filters before and after the use. It is visible that
some bitumen was accumulated at the edge of the filter named LDFD, which is due to the rubber
O-ring used in the first test. This ring was not thick enough to prevent seepage between filter jacket
and sidewall. For the following tests a double O-ring was used and the seepage was successfully
avoided (Fig. 9b). It seems that the filters were not seriously clogged; only the color in the effective
area was darkened by soil particles.
Table 3 compares the dry weight of all the filter jackets before and after the test. The increasing
weight of filters during the test demonstrated a certain amount of soil particles were trapped
among the geotextile fibers. Additionally, it is interesting to find that for all the filters, the relative
increments are almost identical, which may prove that in this test the difference of the three
geotextiles does not affect the clogging behavior.
The authors planned to use the same test apparatus to measure the hydraulic conductivity of the
filter after the completion of the test using constant head method, however, it was found impossible
to determine the flow rate with sufficient accuracy because the filter was still too permeable.
Therefore the permeability of the jacket does not play a role in the consolidation process.
The performances of filter jackets with respect to the possible clogging mechanisms in the test
as mentioned before are evaluated as follows:
1. The geotextile filter jackets were able to retain the tailings particles. Only a few fine particles
migrated through the filter jackets during the beginning of the test. Clogging of the cores of
PVDs is very unlikely to happen in reality.
2. The increased weight of filter jacket after the test demonstrates that some particles were trapped
among the fibers of the geotextile jackets, however, this phenomenon was not significant to
seriously reduce the permeability.
3. Blinding of the filter jackets by formation of a clear filter cake that stuck to the surface of the
filter jackets was not found when the samples were dismantled from test apparatus.
4. The solid content around the filter jackets increased during the drainage and consolidation and the
permeability of the soil decreased along with the void ratio. After the completion of the tests
the permeability was reduced by a factor of about 1000. Whether the compressibility of this
consolidated soil decreased with a similar or a minor order has not yet been determined. This
phenomenon will determine the consolidation coefficient during the test and finally determine
the duration of the consolidation process and the performance of the PVD system. To conclude
on this important point a proper analysis of the consolidation process has to be made.
5. The residual bitumen did not accumulate on the filter jackets after the test. This was concluded
after visual inspection of jackets.
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Finally, the fact that the used filter jackets were still very permeable after the tests confirms that
they are not clogged by oil sands TT in the filtration tests.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of oil sands thickened tailings with different geotextiles have been studied. The
following major conclusions may be derived.
1. Permeability of the sludge/geotextile system decreases with increasing solid content of soil
sample irrespective of the type of geotextile used and pressure applied on the system.
2. The bitumen as well as the fines in the sludge do not cause serious blinding or clogging of filter
jackets. During the test period as long as 40 days of application, the filter jackets functioned
properly.
3. The layer of consolidated fine tailings adjacent to the jackets decreases the permeability of the
system dramatically, but does not effect functioning of the filter jacket. In other words, it is the
consolidation behavior controlling the permeability characteristics of TT; the filter jackets do
not control the long-term filtration performance of the system.
4. The soil sample under higher pressure gains higher solid content compared with others with the
same filter jacket. There is no direct relation found in the test between the pressure difference
and clogging behavior of filters.
5. In this study it is found that gas production may occur, but the produced gas will escape soon
and not hamper the consolidation process in a considerable way.
This study which evaluates the performance of geotextiles with oil sands fine tailings has practical
significance in the design of PVD for tailing pond applications.
REFERENCES
ASTM (2000)annual book of standards. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials.
Azam, S. & Scott, J. D. 2005. Revisiting the ternary diagram for tailings characterization and management.
Waste Geotechnics, December 2005:43–46.
Aziz, A.A., Mohammed, T.A. Omar, H. 2008. Filtration performance of a silt/geotextile system within a triaxial
permeameter. Proceedings of the 4th Asian Regional Conference on Geosynthetics, 2008:415–419.
Liu, B.Y. & McKenna, G. 1998. Application of Wickdrains in consolidated tailings (personal communication).
McGown, A. 1976. The properties and uses of permeable fabric membranes. Proceedings of the Workshop on
Materials and Methods for Low Cost Road, Rail and Reclamation Works, Lee, Ingles and Yeaman, Eds.
published by the University of New South Wales, Leura, Australia, September, 1976: 663–710.
Pollock, G.W., Mc Roberts, E.C., Livingstone, G., Mc Kenna, G.T. Matthews, J.G. 2000. Consolidation
behaviour and modelling of oil sands composite tailings in the Syncrude CT prototype, Tailing and Mine
Waste ’00. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Rao, G.V., Gupta K.K. Pradhan, M.P.S. 1991. Long-term filtration behavior of soil-geotextile system.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol.15, No.3: 238–247.
Sobkowicz, J.C. & Morgenstern, N.R. 2009. A Geotechnical perspective on oil sands tailings. Tailings & Mine
Waste ’09. Edmonton: University of Alberta.
Scott, J.D. & Cymerman, G.J. 1984. Prediction of viable tailings disposal methods. ASCE Proceedings of a
symposiuim on sedimentation and consolidation models: 522–544. San Francisco, California, USA.
Wells, P. S. & Robertson, J. C. Vertical “wick” drains and accelerated dewatering of fine tailings in oil sands.
Tailings & Mine Waste ’09. Edmonton: University of Alberta.
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Suncor oil sands tailings pond capping project
Gord Pollock & Xiteng Liu

AMEC Earth & Environmental, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Ed McRoberts
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Keith Williams
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Denver, Colorado, USA
Patrick Sean Wells & Joseph Fournier

ABSTRACT: After successful field trials, Suncor began construction in January 2010 of a floating
cover on Pond 5. The surface area of the soft tailings in Pond 5 is approximately 200 Ha. The cover
is intended to provide a trafficable surface which will facilitate further reclamation activities,
ultimately leading to the closure of Pond 5. The cover is being constructed with geosynthetics and
petroleum coke. Coke is a byproduct of the oil sands process, and has the benefit of being lighter
than typical earthen materials thereby allowing a cover to be placed over low strength tailings. This
paper will provide an overview of the design, initial construction progress, and lesson learned to
date.
1 INTRODUCTION
As part of the extraction process at the Suncor Oil Sands Mine, various tailings management
facilities have developed over time. Pond 5 is being reclaimed and the placement of a coke cap
is the first step towards obtaining a trafficable surface to allow further reclamation activity to be
conducted. This paper discusses the design of the coke cap, the construction during the 2010 winter,
and assessment of the performance of the construction to date.
2 POND 5 OVERVIEW
Figure 1 shows an aerial photo taken in the summer before construction of the cap commenced.
Pond 5 is contained by dykes and the Waste Dumps overlying perimeter pit walls to the southwest.
Pond 5 contents historically consisted of a water cap overlying a layer of gypsum enriched mature
fine tails (MFT), underlain by CT. In preparation for pond reclamation by the engineered coke cover,
some of the MFT in Pond 5 was replaced with tailings sand. The removed MFT was transferred to
Pond 6. Prior to starting the construction of the coke cap, the water cap in Pond 5 had largely been
eliminated. The key parameters for Pond 5 tailings coke capping project are solids content and
strength. AMEC reviewed information provided by Suncor that were collected in 2008 and 2009 to
make the following conclusions. Pond 5 as exposed has a surface layer of MFT at solids contents of
typically 40% to 60% grading to a Soft-CT of 70% solids content or more at depths of 20 to 40 feet.
Typical sections through the contents of Pond 5 developed from the 2008 data collected by Suncor
are shown on Figure 2. A summary of all direct measurements of MFT solids contents expressed
as bulk density for field sample sites from the 2008 field campaign is provided in Figure 3. It can
be seen that at any given location the densities with depth are variable, and relative to the coke cap
densities (∼1.3 t/m3 ) the variations can be significant. The figure also indicates three trend lines
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Figure 1. Pond 5 aerial photo (June 1, 2009).
Figure 2. Pond contents from Suncor block model.
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Figure 3. Tailings density with depth.
(lower, median and upper bound) of density with depth which have been used for several design
purposes.
The CPTu and vane shear data from 2008 and 2009 indicate that the MFT and soft CT mobilize
very little to no effective stress. Summary plots of the CPTu and vane data with depth are shown on
Figure 4 for 2008 and 2009 data. (Also included on Figure 4 is the relationship used in the FLAC
analysis discussed below).
3 FIELD TRIALS
Suncor conducted two field trials prior to the design and construction of the full scale coke cap. The
Phase 1 trial was conducted on a beach at the South-East corner of Pond 5 as shown on Figure 1.
The Phase 2 trial at the west end of Pond 5 was conducted on MFT which was more representative
of the foundations conditions which would be encountered for the full scale operation. A detailed
discussion of these trials is presented in a companion paper at this conference (Caldwell, Wells &
Fournier, 2010).
The cover for the trial areas consisted of a light weight geosynthetic to act as a barrier between
the MFT and overlying road fill. A layer of geogrid was placed on the geosynthetic. The road fill
on top of the geosynthetics consisted of 3.5 m to 4 m of coke. Coke is a byproduct of the oil sands
process, and has the benefit of being lighter than typical earthen materials with high strength (in
the order 40◦ to 45◦ ) making it an ideal material for a tailings cover.
Primary findings from the trials influencing the full scale design included:
• It is possible to construct up to 3.5 m to 4 m of coke on geosynthetic over MFT and back a coke
loaded 40 ton articulated haul truck on to it.
• Coke sinks to a level not much higher than the surrounding MFT for both 3.5 m and 1 m lifts.
• Field bulk densities of coke measured varied from 0.99 t/m3 to 1.40 t/m3 with an average of
1.23 t/m3 .
• Woven geotextile seems to act as a semi-impermeable barrier, retaining MFT fines, which then
develop a consolidated skin impeding water flow.
• Where coke was not compacted by heavy truck traffic, it became untrafficable under light vehicle
traffic when saturated.
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Figure 4. CPT and vane data with depth for 2008 and 2009.
The differences between the field trials and the full scale operation which need to be accounted
for in the design include:
• Scale. The Phase 2 field trial (which occurred on MFT) represents an area of approximately
17,000 m2 , compared to the more than 2,000,000 m2 which will eventually need to be covered.
• Up to 4 m of coke was placed and the commercial design was to be based on 3 m.
• During the trial, a single haul truck was used, was operated at a very low speed, and was backed
out on to the trial area to eliminate the need for turning. During the construction of the full scale
cap, it was necessary to design for multiple trucks which would travel at a reasonable speed
(15 km/hr to 25 km/hr) and would be turning around for each dump load.
• Rate of construction for the full scale cap would be significantly faster than for the field trial.
• Given the large area to be covered, there will be varying foundation conditions potentially giving
rise to differential settlements and induced stresses. It was unclear whether the trial foundation
tailings represented a lower bound of MFT densities that will be encountered over the pond.
4 DESIGN BASIS AND APPROACH
The design of the full scale cover also utilized coke because of its beneficial properties for capping
such as its light weight with a high friction angle. The specific gravity of coke particles varies
according to the amount of vugs or entrained air does vary according to coke particles size. Testing
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reports specific gravities of 1.41 for raw coke and 1.46 and 1.47 for particles crushed 1 to 4 times.
As coke particles typically have a specific gravity greater than that of water they will therefore sink
in water. The dry unit weight of coke at Optimum SPD is in the region of 1.0 t/m3 or a unit weight
of 9.8 kN/m3 , and for a specific gravity of 1.45 the void ratio (excluding vugs) would be 0.45. At
this void ratio water saturated coke has a density of 1.310 t/m3 or a unit weight of 12.9 kN/m3 . If
coke becomes saturated with MFT which has a density greater than water, then the density of the
coke/MFT system can be greater than MFT. Therefore it can be understood that on a self weight
basis water saturated coke will sink to some level in MFT. For example, coke voids saturated with
MFT at a solids content of 40% and density of ρ = 1.34 t/m3 , the coke/MFT mixture would have a
total bulk density of ρ = 1.42 t/m3 or 13.93 kN/m3 . Thus the coke/MFT mixture would sink into the
MFT if fully MFT saturated, but would float on MFT at 40% solids content if saturated just with
water. Based on available testing coke has been assigned strength parameters of c = 0, = 40
degrees.
The design approach was predicated on several simple premises. Firstly that coke has a lower
bulk density than most of the soft tailings in Pond 5 and if “encapsulated in a bag” will sink to a level
consistent with the coke bulk density and superimposed vehicle weight. This invokes Archimedes’
principle. The local stability of the coke at the edge of the road, under vehicle loadings, and mud
wave drag is obtained by containing the coke in a continuous geosynthetic layer. Construction
is facilitated by placing the geosynthetic on temporarily frozen tailings, consistent with practice
elsewhere. The identified instability mechanisms that the design must consider are lack of buoyancy,
particularly under the types of dynamic loading imparted by construction equipment, which can
cause the road to sink into the underlying MFT, MFT intrusion into the coke, and hydraulic fracturing
of the coke causing MFT upflow into and over the coke. In order to maintain buoyancy required
for cap integrity, MFT intrusion or upflow into the coke must be prevented by the inclusion of
a suitable geotextile to separate the coke from the underlying MFT. MFT can also be deformed
laterally from a loaded area creating mud wave drag on the base of the geosynthetic layer. This
could cause separation of overlapped seams or tearing of poorly stitched seams.
Instability of the coke cap could be induced by some combination of excessive settlement of
cap into tailings, mudwave drag, differential movement of the soil and geotextile, local punching
shear from haul equipment, impacts from frozen tailings that subsequently thaw, failure of the
sewn geotextile seams, pond surface slope causing long shallow skin flow type movements, and
degradation of the geotextile over time by the underlying tailings (likely not an issue, given the
composition of the tailings and the type of geotextile specified in the design). Preventing the
geotextile from tearing generating a long rip is of particular importance as a tear could result in a
very brittle failure, with little time to react with obvious safety concerns.
The design criteria for the Pond 5 coke cap roads include both objective and subjective criteria,
as follows:
Overall Performance Objective: Maintain structural integrity of the road, and keep it above the
surrounding MFT, while continuing to provide a trafficable surface and safe access across Pond 5
for the specified construction equipment (current design basis being a coke loaded 40 ton truck).
Factor of Safety (FoS): Although only applicable to certain loading conditions and not the overall
system, a factor of safety of 1.5 was applied to the loading that the geotextile must resist, including
at seams. The loading by haul trucks must consider dynamic effects, and an empirical load factor
of 2.0 was used in the design to account for this and all other physical interactions between the
truck tires and the coke road that cannot be modeled directly in the 2-D FLAC model.
Drainage of Coke: While a drainpipe system was planned for the coke roads, the design assumed
that all coke except for the top 0.5 m was saturated.
Settlement of Coke: Settlement of coke along the road should not be more than the elevation of
the mudwave outside of the coke road edge. This is to prevent back-flow of MFT over the road.
Construction Direction: In order to guard against overall instability of the road system, con-
struction should proceed “uphill” against the regional dip of the pond bottom/exposed MFT
surface.
Geotextile: In addition to the tensile capacity, the geotextile and seams must prevent intrusion
of MFT into the coke. While some coke gradations might be expected to prevent intrusion, speci-
fication of a suitable particle size gradation was not practical. Visual inspection of the coke is to be
undertaken on a continual basis to ensure that the coke is well graded to provide a backup against
the MFT penetrating into the coke in the event of a geosynthetic flaw.
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Observational Method: The fluid nature of the fine tailings creates a design section of coke,
geosynthetic and MFT which all have significantly different strength and stiffness characteristics
from one another. The very nature of this cover, combined with the variability of the MFT deposit’s
strength and density across Pond 5, necessitates a design approach that includes analyses, obser-
vation and periodic adjustment. Therefore, the Observational Method was considered to be a key
component of the design which, at minimum, requires performance monitoring during construction
as part of the construction QA/QC process, and the ability to invoke changes to the design section,
if required, on a contingency basis.
Key variables affecting the coke thickness required for the road design section include:
• MFT profile (density, strength, frozen/thawed)

• Final loading scenario, including:
o Size, operating speed and braking of trucks and other required equipment
o Requirements for trucks to end-dump, turn and/or park temporarily
• Geosynthetics at the base of the road only or the ability to include additional geogrid higher
up within the coke section (which may allow the use of larger trucks and/or higher operating
speeds)
• Geosynthetic tensile strength and stiffness
• Interface strengths between the various components of the design section (i.e. coke/geogrid,
geogrid/geotextile, geotextile/MFT)
• Coke width and saturation levels
Depending on observed field performance in relation to predicted behaviour through modeling,

the primary adjustment that could be made in the field is the coke thickness. The geosynthetic at
the base of the road will already be in place, and must be selected in advance to be sufficiently
strong (including across seams) for the expected loads in order that it will not tear under loading.
However, additional geosythetics could be considered higher up in the coke section, if required to
meet the performance objectives.
The basic method of analysis used in design was stress analysis using FLAC. It was recognized
from the outset that the MFT (or sludge) would not behave as a typical soft soil as MFT at the low
densities encountered mobilizes very low strength and essentially zero effective stress, and large
deformations were expected. FLAC could also combine various instability mechanisms such as
mud wave drag, punching shear failure from haul equipment, and tensions induced by differential
movement, as these effects could be additive. The FLAC model allows one to evaluate buoyancy,
estimate the maximum coke settlement and predict the tension induced in the geotextile. The
FLAC software was selected because it has the capability of handling both large strain and material
interfaces. Several of the mechanisms listed earlier that could cause tension to be induced in the
geotextile are embraced in the FLAC procedures, but a good understanding of the mechanisms
is required in order to interpret FLAC results. Buoyancy of the coke road and an estimate of
the maximum coke settlement that will occur can also be evaluated through the 1-D application
of Archimedes’ principle. This allows one to evaluate the amount of road that will be above the
tailings (or conversely how much will be submerged) as a function of tailings density and assumed
coke density. The amount of coke above the surrounding tailings can vary significantly depending
on the density of the tailings. The Archimedes approach does not consider strength of the tailings,
but is considered to work well for coke roads over MFT because the truck loads will overcome the
shear strength of the MFT, given the thixotropic nature of MFT.
Significant simplifications that were made in analysis included using theoretical elastic solutions
to convert 3-D truck loads into 2-D line loads, modeling geofabrics as beam elements with zero
flexural stiffness and using a Mohr-Coulomb constitutive model with residual strength to model
MFT. Effort was taken in allowing for slippage (relative movement) at the coke/geotextile and
geotextile/MFT interfaces to occur. Theoretically, all coke could be placed on unfrozen MFT with
the use of geotextile as a separator. The construction of the coke cap was modeled in FLAC in
accordance with the expected construction sequence. However, to improve the numerical stability
of the FLAC model, the model was constructed by placing the initial 1 m thick lift of coke on frozen
MFT and then placing the consecutive coke lifts with all MFT assumed to be thawed.
The selection and placement of the geosynthetic materials was based on FLAC analysis but
constrained by overall schedule, operational requirements and judgement The products selected
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Figure 5. Plan view of road and cell layout.
were a High Strength Woven Geotextile [HSWG] overlain by a geogrid. The ultimate tensile
strength of the HSWG and geogrid were 82.5 and 27.5 kN/m respectively. The HSWG provided
both a strength function, the ability to be stitch-seamed, and a reliable barrier against MFT intrusion
into the coke. By itself the HSWG with perfect seams was modeled as being acceptable for the 40
tonne truck design load. However as the work was to be executed in the coldest winter months over
ice a geogrid was also placed over the HSWG as an additional line of defense.
Once a road is built, a primary direction of instability is across the road from vehicle wheel
loading. However the geosynthetic must “float” the road and traffic in both directions spreading
out truck weight in a snow-shoe effect. In addition underlying mud wave drag along the road
towards the working face can also put considerable tension into the geosynthetic in that direction.
A clear advantage of a HSWG is the ability to stitch-seam the rolls. “Seaming” geogrid by insertion
of a bar was not considered practical. Governance literature clearly establishes the necessity for
stitched seams for covering low density sludges. It was considered that an unseamed geotextile will
develop little friction on an overlap joint. If pressurized MFT intrudes into the overlap there will
likely be little to no strength mobilized. Therefore part of the design required that the HSWG be
stitched.
5 ROAD AND CELL APPROACH
A road and cell approach has been adopted for the cover as opposed to a full frontal advance
method. The intent behind the design is to construct the roads initially, preferably in the winter
time, followed up by construction of the cap in the cell areas. The roads still need to be able to
support loaded truck traffic, however the cells need only to support the wick drain equipment. The
roads would be placed in a rectangular configuration as shown on Figure 5. The spacing between
roads is governed by maximum push distance for snow cats and is 700 ft centerline to centerline.
Cross roads will be placed at about 1350 ft as currently indicated, but could be revised once cell
cover issues are resolved. The total rib width is 100 m (330 ft) with a central 30 m (100 ft) main
road and two – 30 m (100 ft) wide support roads.
The road and cell approach has been adopted for the following reasons:
1. Geotextile Stitching In order to make the maximum placement progress, winter field geotextile
stitching can be significantly reduced by concentrating on road development.
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Figure 6. Road design cross section (vertically exaggerated).
2. Squeezing to Cells By leaving cells to be infilled at a later date, there is improved potential of
lateral “squeezing” of mobilized material into a cell, rather than displacing MFT towards a dyke
or beach as with a full frontal advance.
3. Removing MFT By leaving uncovered MFT in cells, if locally very low solids MFT is
encountered then it may be possible to access cells to pump out this material and move it
elsewhere.
4. Geotextile placement over cells Geotextiles could be pulled across the cells from one road to the
adjacent one. This may further reduce the amount of field stitching required. The best method
to pull geotextile across MFT has not yet been determined and may require some trial and error.
5. Reduced Coke Volumes The amount of coke needed in a cell is only the minimum required to
support the equivalence of the wick drain installer. The amount of coke needed has not been
finalized pended obtaining all details of the potential equipment to be used in the wick drain
installation.
The best method to cover the cells and connect the cell geotextile to the road geotextile has yet
to be determined. The construction for the first season focused on the roads. The connection may
be stitched or over-lapped with a geotextile/coke/geotextile overlap.
6 DESIGN CROSS SECTION AND OTHER DETAILS
The cross section for the roads is shown on Figure 6.

The main elements of the design are:
• High Strength Woven Geotextile directly on the tailings
o 100 m wide. 5 m extra on each side for mud wave development.
o 4.5 m × 100 m long panels seamed perpendicular to road alignment
o 82.5 kN/m strength including seams
o Seams are to be stitched
• Biaxial Geogrid on the geotextile
o 75 m wide (single roll)
o Overlapped 1 m with ties only
• 3 m of Coke on Geosynthetics
o Constructed in 1 m lifts
o Bottom lift is 90 m wide
• Corrugated HDPE drain pipe along centerline of roads
o 36 inch diameter sumps installed at each intersection
o Water removed with portable pumps as required
7 CONSTRUCTION
As discussed above, with the road and cell approach, the initial construction focused solely on
the roads. To provide a construction platform for geosynthetic installation, the construction was
commenced during freezing conditions.
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Figure 7. Photo showing coke placement with 40 ton truck and D6 dozer.
Winter construction activities began by packing snow on the pond surface in December 2009.
HSWG anchor construction began on January 16, 2010 and continued to March 11, 2010, when
the road alignment NS-2 was completed. All construction activities were suspended in late March
2010 due to the early warm spring weather. Visual inspections, installation and monitoring of the
instrumentation, dewatering and monitoring of the water levels, and surveying continued. In early
March, dewatering of the pond surface water was initiated to coincide with the onset of the early
freshet to maintain a trafficable and safe working surface so that the construction activities could
continue.
There were several phases of construction that occurred simultaneously and in some cases sequen-
tially where only one or two tasks could be performed at a single time. Items of work included the
following:
• Ice thickening and snow compaction
• HSWG anchors,
• Installation of HSWG,
• Installation of geogrid,
• Installation of drainage pipework and sumps,
• Installation and monitoring of instrumentation,
• Placement of coke material, and;
Figure 5 provides an aerial view of the Pond 5 coke roads that were completed during the 2010
winter construction season. Figure 7 shows the dumping of the coke with a 40 ton articulated truck
and the spreading of the coke on the geosynthetics with a D6 dozer. Good performance of the roads,
likely due to ice, led to the haul trucks being permitted to travel on 2 m of coke.
The following quantities were placed during the construction season:
• Roads: 4,500 m (area of 450,000 m2 )
• Coke: 844, 077 m3
• Geotextile: 550,000 m2
• Geogrid: 510,000 m2
• Pipe: 4500 m
The following is summary of the observations and lessons learned during the 2010 winter
construction season:
1. The presence of ice allowed for a good working surface to install geosynthetics (HSWG and
geogrid) and resulted in a better than anticipated support for placement of coke material on the
roads. Based upon empirical evidence from the construction works, if the thickness of frozen
layer was over 15-inches (0.38 meters) thick, it provided an adequate working surface and if the
layer was less than 10-inches (0.25 meters) thick, cracking and breaking occurred.
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2. In general, installation of HSWG went well (high quality materials, seam strengths exceeded
strength requirements) and was not a limiting factor during construction of the roads. Hand held
sewing machines proved to be more versatile for field seaming of the HSWG.
3. The installation time for geogrid was quite small in comparison to the HSWG installation and
coke material placement. Based on field observations, it was important to make sure that the
geogrid was shingled correctly and that the advancing coke placement was placed in the shape
of a crescent moon to avoid wrinkling. By pushing out coke material out on the edges first, the
weight of the coke material would minimize wrinkling in the middle of the geogrid. This also
helps trap MFT under the coke.
4. The effort and time required to install the drainage collection system (collection pipe and sumps)
was minimal compared to other activities and was not a limiting factor on the overall progress
of the road advancement. Sump construction was delayed until after the placement of coke to
avoid slowing the production of coke placement along the roadway.
5. Due the large volume of coke material required to cover the roads and the necessity to use
relatively small haulage trucks, placement of coke material became the limiting factor for the
construction schedule. To increase the advancement of coke, trial tests were performed that
allowed for increased haul speeds and decreased distance between the lifts as well as the use of
larger dozing equipment to place the coke material. It should be noted that these approvals were
based on having an adequate frozen layer below the access roads and were subject to change if
the frozen tailings layer became thinner or if it was observed that the frozen tailings capable of
safely bearing the loads. These changes significantly increased the rate in which the coke could
be hauled and placed along the road alignment, thereby increasing the rate of road advancement
as well as the volume of material that could be hauled.
8 MONITORING
Instrumentation was installed and read by MDH Engineered Solutions. AMEC personnel conducted
regular visual monitoring on a continual basis. The following instrumentation and monitoring was
undertaken both during the winter construction season and continuing into the post-construction
summer season.
• Visual observations (including ruts, excessive deformation cracks, potholes, MFT intrusion to
the surface, mud wave development)
• Surveying the surface of the coke
• Surveying Settlement Plate Markers to measure the elevation of the base of the coke
• Remote Cell Markers to measure the heave in the cell areas
• Measuring water levels within standpipes and sumps
• Measuring deflections in Shape Accelerometer Arrays
• Measuring stresses in pressure plates
• Measuring strains in optical strain gauges
A research station was installed in one of the roads which included pressure plates, optical strain
gauges, piezometers, and SAA’s were installed. Loading trials were conducted at the research
station. A discussion of the results are beyond the scope of this paper and will be the subject of a
future paper.
9 PERFORMANCE
Given the purpose and function of the coke cap described above, the performance of the road
was assessed with respect to two main categories: settlement and trafficability. Other categories
in which the performance was also evaluated, which in certain ways are subsets of the above two
categories, include: integrity of the geosynthetics, MFT intrusion, mud wave activity, and water
levels.
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Figure 8. Profile along NS2.
Figure 9. Cross section at south end of NS2.
9.1 Settlement
One of the main performance criteria for the successful construction of the coke roads was whether
the roads established during frozen pond conditions remained floating while subjected to loading
by coke and the haul trucks. The road was designed to maintain the surface of the coke above
the surrounding MFT levels at all times; that is, submergence of any section of road would not
meet design intent. Surveying was done during and after construction for comparison with design
estimates of deformation behavior.
Figure 8 shows the top of the coke profile along NS1 with the top of the tailings at the side of the
road. Figure 9 is a vertically exaggerated cross section at the south end of NS2 showing the surface
of the coke plotted with the measurements from the settlement plates. Both of these figures are
typical of the plots generated from the surveying data and indicate that the surface of coke roads
remained above the tailings at all times.
Figure 10 shows a typical settlement plot with time at one section on NS2. Also shown on the
plot are different events with time including coke placement and thaw.
Figure 11 shows a comparison of the range of measured settlements measured at each station
relative to the FLAC and 1D Archimedes predictions. Two things are evident from the figure:
• There is a wide range of measured settlement over the project. It is possible that this is due to
the variability of the tailings and the variability in truck traffic.
• While the models in the range of the measurements, they slightly under predict the settlement.
This is possibly due to deformations caused by repetitive loading which is not modeled by
Archimedes and only partially modeled by FLAC.
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Figure 10. Settlement with time on at station 09 on NS2.
Figure 11. Comparison of measured to predicted settlements.
Further work is ongoing to determine the influence of the variability of the tailings properties
as well as the influence to repetitive loading.
9.2 Trafficability
The other main performance criterion was whether the road remained trafficable for the nature of
equipment being used both after construction and after thaw. That is, were there significant cracks
and/or soft spots which caused travel along the road to be unsafe or impede traffic in any fashion
during non-winter (frozen subgrade) conditions? Visual monitoring was done on a continuous basis
to evaluate compliance with this criterion.
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During the winter construction season, the roads performed very well, likely aided by the ice
and frozen tailings. Due to the good performance, construction was allowed to proceed with the
40 ton haul trucks driving on the 2 m lift as opposed to the 3 m lift as per the design. Only one soft
area was encountered, which was later on correlated to thin tailings underneath.
After the frost had left the tailings, a coke loaded 40 ton truck was used to proof roll the 2 m
thick road. The vast majority of the road exhibited excellent behavior with two exceptions, one
being the area just mentioned.
9.3 Geosynthetic integrity

Although direct measurement of the stress level in the geosynthetics is still a work in progress,
general observations indicate that the geosynthetics performed their intended function. That is,
strength to support coke and haul trucks, as well as, in the case of the geosynthetics, a barrier to
prevent MFT from intruding into the coke.
10 CONCLUSIONS
Coke roads were successfully constructed across Pond 5 at the Suncor oil sands site as part of the
first stages of establishing a cap for reclamation purposes. The roads performed as intended with
respect to settlement and trafficability under heavy truck loads.
The light weight, high strength combination of the coke makes it a very useful material for
capping the low density, weak tailings encountered at the Suncor site.
The geosynthetics performed their function with respect to tailings separation and road support.
At this time it is not clear what the exact level of stresses were that were mobilized in the geosyn-
thetics. However, work is ongoing (including load trials and further instrumentation) to obtain
additional data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to recognize the valuable contributions of the following individuals on this
project:
Mr. Matt LeBlanc (Suncor Energy Inc., Fort McMurray, AB)
Mr. Bill Tully (Suncor Energy Inc., Fort McMurray, AB)
Dr. Michael Davies (AMEC, Vancouver, BC)
Mr. Dave MacDougall (AMEC, Fort Mcmurray, AB)
Mr. Ayman Abusaid (AMEC, Edmonton, AB)
Mr. Matt Haley (AMEC, Denver, CO)
REFERENCE
J. Caldwell, P.S. Wells & J. Fournier, 2010. Suncor Pond 5 Coke Cap – The story of its conception, testing,
and advance to full-scale construction, Proceedings from Tailings & Mine Waste ’10 Conference, CRC
Press/Balkema, Vail, Colorado, Oct 2010.
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Review of oil sands tailings technology options
C.B. Powter
Oil Sands Research and Information Network, School of Energy and the Environment,
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
K.W. Biggar & M.J. Silva

BGC Engineering Inc., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
G.T. McKenna & E.B. Scordo

BGC Engineering Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
ABSTRACT: The Oil Sands Research and Information Network commissioned BGC Engineer-
ing Inc. to conduct a review of 34 oil sands tailings technology options. BGC’s report provided an
overview of oil sands processing and tailings characteristics and: summarized what is known and not
known about each option; described the state of commercial readiness of the technology; and identi-
fied gaps in the knowledge. The 34 technologies fall into five main categories: Physical/Mechanical
Processes, Natural Processes, Chemical/Biological Amendments, Mixtures/Co-disposal, and Per-
manent Storage. The review concluded that there is no single method of dewatering which works
well for all tailings. Similarly, experience has shown that there is unlikely to be one unique solution
to the problem of tailings disposal.
1 STUDY BACKGROUND
Environmental management of oil sands tailings is a key challenge for industry and provincial
regulators. Although industry has made progress, through significant investments in research and
demonstration, regulators took a major step in 2009 to drive more rapid technology adoption. The
Energy Resources Conservation Board’s Directive 074 (ERCB 2009) requires that oil sands opera-
tors deposit a significant portion of their annual production of fine tailings in Designated Disposal
Areas, which must be formed in a manner that ensures trafficable deposits. The performance criteria
are based on the strength of the deposit. The minimum undrained shear strength of 5 kilopascals
(kPa) must be attained for the material deposited in the previous year, and the deposit must be
ready for reclamation within five years after active deposition has ceased. The deposit will have the
strength, stability, and structure necessary to establish a trafficable surface. The trafficable surface
layer must have a minimum undrained shear strength of 10 kPa.
1.1 The issue

Four active oil sands processing facilities (Suncor Energy Inc., Syncrude Canada Ltd., Shell Canada
Limited, and Canadian Natural Resources Limited) are currently producing tailings at mines north
of Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada. Additional mines are in various stages of the regulatory
or planning process. As of 2008, about 750 million cubic metres of Mature Fine Tailings exist
within the tailings ponds. If there is no change in tailings management, the inventory of fluid
tailings is forecast to reach one billion cubic metres in 2014 and two billion in 2034 (Houlihan and
Haneef 2008). As of the end of 2009, there are more than 130 square kilometres of tailings ponds
(Government of Alberta n.d.). The media and environmental organizations frequently make note
of the fact that these tailings ponds are so large they can be seen on satellite photos and can easily
be found on Google Earth.
The main objective in treating the oil sands tailings is to remove water so that a trafficable load-
bearing surface can be produced within a reasonable time-frame to allow subsequent reclamation.
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Many technologies have been suggested and tried, but they have been rejected for lack of technical
or economical feasibility. However, technologies that were previously thought to be uneconomic
may now be seen as a viable option given the requirements of Directive 074 and changing economic
conditions.
The search for a viable tailings dewatering technology will intensify as the industry is required to
meet the objectives of Directive 074, the already large quantities of liquid waste products generated
by the oil sands industry grows and tailings storage facilities fill nearer to capacity. With no unique
and acceptable solution yet in sight, research is now focusing on schemes which utilize more than
one technology and combining them into a disposal package.
1.2 Previous reviews

Industry reviews tailings management options as part of environmental impact assessment work and
regulatory applications. Recent examples include Syncrude Canada Ltd. (2008), Suncor Energy
Inc. (2009) and Total E&P Joslyn Ltd. (2010).
In addition to these company-specific assessments there have been a few comprehensive assess-
ments of technology options (Devenny 2009, Fine Tailings Fundamentals Consortium 1995, Flint
2005, Fuhr et al. 1993).
1.3 OSRIN and BGC

The Oil Sands Research and Information Network (OSRIN) is a university-based, independent
organization that develops the best available knowledge about returning landscapes and water
impacted by oil sands mining to a natural state and gets that knowledge into the hands of those who
can use it to drive breakthrough improvements in reclamation regulations and practices. OSRIN is
a project of the University of Alberta’s School of Energy and the Environment and was funded by
two grants from the provincial Department of the Environment and one from the Canada School of
Energy and the Environment Ltd. One of the core areas that OSRIN is focused on is reclamation of
oil sands tailings, with particular emphasis on reducing the footprint and impact of tailings ponds
and disposal areas.
Part of OSRIN’s function is to identify gaps in knowledge or work at undertaking a comprehensive
review of the available knowledge. To do this, OSRIN will commission scoping studies – studies
which look at the potential technologies and approaches that offer solutions to challenges in oil
sands reclamation. A scoping study provides an overview of the key information relating to an
issue or research need.
BGC Engineering Inc. (BGC) is an international consulting firm specializing in geotechnical
and water resources engineering and applied earth sciences. Their core services are mining, energy
and transportation. BGC’s mining team offers a comprehensive range of services for the industry
covering every phase of mining and has worked on a wide variety of mineral, metal and coal mines
located in diverse project settings and environments.
1.4 Terminology
The following terms are used in this paper.
ConsolidatedTailings: A non-segregating mixture of chemically amended fine and coarse tailings
that consolidates relatively quickly into solid landforms. The purpose of producing Consolidated
Tailings is to consume both legacy fines (Mature Fine Tailings) and new fines (Thin Fine Tailings)
to create a land surface reclaimable to predominantly upland vegetation. To this end, Consolidated
Tailings has a sand:fines ratio that is less than about 5.5:1 (to permit useful levels of fines capture)
to greater than about 3:1 (to allow rapid consolidation). Consolidated Tailings starts as a slurry and
ends as a semi-solid, loose, silty sand deposit that is dense enough and strong enough to support
hydraulic sand capping.
Disposal Area: An area dedicated solely to the deposition of captured fines using a technology
or a suite of technologies.
Fines: Solid grains with diameters less than 44 µm grain size (as measured with a wet sieve).
Mature Fine Tailings: Fine tailings that have settled and dewatered to approximately 30 wt%
solids over a period of about three years after deposition. The rate of consolidation beyond this
point is substantially reduced. Mature Fine Tailings behave like a viscous fluid.
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Oil sands: A sand deposit containing a heavy hydrocarbon (bitumen) in the intergranular pore
space of sands and fine-grained particles. Typical oil sands are composed of approximately 10 wt%
bitumen, 5 wt% water, 85 wt% coarse sand (>44 µm) and a fines (<44 µm) fraction, consisting of
silts and clays.
Sand:Fines Ratio: The weight of dry sand (>44 µm) to the weight of dry fines (<44 µm).
Shell: Shell Canada Limited
Suncor: Suncor Energy Inc.
Syncrude: Syncrude Canada Ltd.
Tailings: A by-product of oil sands extraction typically comprised of process water, sands and
clays, with minor amounts of residual bitumen.
Thickened Tailings: Tailings with added flocculant to cause the active minerals to bind together
and settle rapidly.
Thin Fine Tailings: The segregating fines portion of the conventional tailings that are carried
into the tailings pond from the tailings slurry deposition point with the process water, which are
predominantly clay or clay sized (<2 µm) particles.
Whole Tailings: The complete tailings stream that exits the plant, comprised of water, sands,
fines and residual bitumen.
2 OIL SANDS PROCESS AND TAILINGS
Athabasca oil sand (McMurray Formation) is a mixture of bitumen, mineral matter and water in
varying proportions. The bitumen content ranges from 0 wt% to 19 wt%, averaging 12 wt%; water
varies between approximately 3 wt% to 6 wt%, increasing as bitumen content decreases; mineral
content, predominantly quartz sands and silts, and clay, varies between approximately 84 wt% to
86 wt%. Clays are present in the McMurray bitumen-containing deposits in discontinuous beds or
bands varying from 1 cm to 15 cm in thickness (Chalaturnyk et al. 2002).
Oil sands processing begins with crushing of the excavated ore. The crushed ore is then condi-
tioned with warm to hot water, steam, and process aides such as caustic (NaOH) or sodium citrate
(Shell only) and hydrotransported via pipeline to the extraction plant. Bitumen is separated from the
coarse fraction as a floating froth in large gravity-separation vessels. The bitumen froth is further
processed to remove fine solids. Typical bitumen recoveries range from 88% to 95% depending on
oil sands grade and origin (Beier et al. 2009). Tailings include a mixture of solids (sand, silt and
clay), water and residual bitumen. It is a common practice for the surface mined oil sands industry
to define fines as mineral particles smaller than 44 µm, whereas geotechnical fines are defined as
smaller than 75 µm. The tailings slurry is approximately 55 wt% solids (with the solids comprising
82 wt% sand [Suncor and Syncrude, Shell’s tailings contain more sand] and 17 wt% fines). Upon
deposition, the tailings stream segregates with the coarse fraction forming beaches and the fines
flowing with the water stream (8 wt%) into the settling basin where the solids settle gradually to
form a densified zone of fine tailings at depth (known as Thin Fine Tailings). After a few years the
fines settle to 30 wt% to 35 wt% and are referred to as Mature Fine Tailings. Mature Fine Tailings
will remain in a fluid-like state for decades because of their very slow consolidation rate (Kasperski
2001, MacKinnon 1989). Significant portions of the fines remain in suspension after deposition
resulting in a tailings management challenge for the industry.
Oil sands tailings are not a consistent product. The volume of solids, fines and bitumen can vary
over a wide range, depending on variations in the ore from the mine, and on various operating
and upset conditions within the extraction plant. In summary, for every unit volume of bitumen
recovered, there are 7 to 8 volume units of wet sand and Mature Fine Tailings that need to be
handled, and 10 volume units of water (recycle and make up) that are pumped around the system
(Flint 2005). About 65% of the water used in the extraction process is recycled. The balance –
about three cubic metres of water per cubic metre of bitumen – is trapped in the tailings pond (Flint
2005). This water is responsible for continually rising pond volumes.
The major clay components of the McMurray Formation are 40 wt% to 70 wt% kaolinite; 28 wt%
to 45 wt% illite and 1 wt% to 15 wt% montmorillonite (Chalaturnyk et al. 2002). It is believed that
montmorillonite and illite clays are responsible for the processing and compaction problems in
oil sand extraction and tailings disposal. These two clays, degraded by weathering or the action
of caustic soda additives, and coated with bituminous residues appear to be the main cause of the
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gel-like structure formation in the hot water extraction tailings and for the ion exchange mechanism
in the tailings ponds (Chalaturnyk et al. 2002).
Clay minerals, in the presence of caustic soda, possess an enhanced negative surface charge which
promotes dispersion of the particles, inhibiting their settling and consolidation. Addition of sodium
hydroxide in the extraction process, therefore, results in a paradox. Dispersion of the clays, which
is necessary for efficient bitumen extraction by flotation, prevents rapid dewatering (sedimentation
and consolidation) of the tailing’s clays. Adding sodium ions to the oil sand extraction process
essentially creates a very undesirable condition as far as tailings disposal is concerned.
The dispersant effect of sodium ions (monovalent) can be counteracted and controlled to some
extent by the addition of calcium ions (divalent). This cation exchange process, and the affinity of
calcium ions for the clay surface, plays an important role in almost all tailings treatment strategies
(Mikula et al. 2008).
The water holding capacity of Mature Fine Tailings, or the slow consolidation rate, is governed
by the surface properties of the minerals. The forces that affect colloidal particles in suspension and
determine the final settled volume, permeability, and strength of the material have four essential
components (Fine Tailings Fundamentals Consortium 1995): electrostatic, steric, Van der Waals,
and hydration. A knowledge and understanding of these components will help explain why so many
conventional solutions to the clay tailings disposal problem have been unsuccessful in the oil sands
industry.
Some basic geotechnical properties of Mature Fine Tailings are summarized as follows (Fine
Tailings Fundamentals Consortium 1995):
– The mean particle size of the fine tailings is between 5 and 10 µm;
– The average solids content of Mature Fine Tailings is about 33 wt% which is an average void
ratio of 5;
– The permeability of the Mature Fine Tailings is in the range of 1 × 10−6 to 1 × 10−9 m/s which
accounts for its slow rate of consolidation;
– The liquid limit ranges from 40% to 75%;
– The plastic limit ranges from 10% to 20%;
– The viscosity varies from 0 to 5000 cP and it increases as time passes (after it is disturbed or
deposited); and
– Typical values of shear strength (primarily from vane shear tests) vary from 0.2 to 2.5 kPa.
3 STUDY METHODS
OSRIN commissioned BGC to conduct an in depth scoping study of the state of knowledge related
to oil sands tailings treatment technologies. The objective of the scoping study was to help facilitate
research and information sharing among a variety of stakeholders and establish an understanding
of the status of tailings treatment technology in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region.
BGC reviewed peer-reviewed literature and grey literature to gather information on the tech-
nologies. A key observation from the initial information gathering phase of the project was that
while a large amount of work has been undertaken by various research organizations and oil sands
mine operators to characterize oil sands tailings materials and techniques for efficiently removing
waters, much of this work is not easily accessible to the public so these extensive efforts are not
properly acknowledged. A number of these scientific and engineering advances are published in
diverse journals and specialized conferences making it a challenge to compile the important litera-
ture. Other work has not been published in the open literature, but rather is contained in reports that
may be more difficult to locate and obtain. Other components of the research information gathered
by the oil sands operators from field demonstration tests are proprietary and not accessible to the
public.
Thirty four technologies were identified for analysis. They fall into five main categories, with
many of the technologies representing variations on a theme:
– Physical/Mechanical Processes,
– Natural Processes,
– Chemical/Biological Amendments,
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– Mixtures/Co-disposal, and
– Permanent Storage.
BGC produced a report (BGC in prep.) that includes an overview of the oil sands extraction
process that produces tailings, an overview of tailings properties, and for each of the 34 technologies:
– A brief description of the technology;
– Pros, including benefits and advantages;
– Cons, including challenges and disadvantages;
– Knowledge gaps, including an assessment of what is missing and what research needs to be
conducted to take the technology to the next level or stage. The information provided is based
on available published literature and the authors’ opinions; and
– Stage of Technology: providing an assessment of the maturity of the technology. Four stages are
considered: Basic research, Applied research and demonstration, Commercial demonstration,
and Mature (operates commercially).
The report also contains a bibliography with over 175 references.
4 THE TAILINGS TECHNOLOGIES
A brief overview of the category and the key technologies in each category is provided below;
details are presented in BGC (in prep.).
4.1 Physical/mechanical processes

Physical/mechanical processes involve the use of a variety of technologies to separate the water
from the solids. The 12 processes reviewed include:
– Filtered whole tailings: Filtering can take place using pressure or vacuum force. Drums, hori-
zontally or vertically stacked plates and horizontal belts are the most common filtration plant
configurations.
– Cross flow filtration of whole tailings: In cross flow filtration, the feed is passed across the
filter membrane (tangentially) at positive pressure relative to the permeate side. A proportion
of the material which is smaller than the membrane pore size passes through the membrane as
permeate or filtrate; everything else is retained on the feed side of the membrane as retentate.
With cross flow filtration the tangential motion of the bulk of the fluid across the membrane
causes trapped particles on the filter surface to be rubbed off. This means that a cross flow filter
can operate continuously at relatively high solids loads without blinding.
– Filtered coarse-fraction tailings: This technology consists of filtering and dry stacking of the
coarse fraction (cyclone underflow tailings) of the tailings slurry. Variants include adding some
fines to the mix prior to filtration. Cyclone underflow tailings are usually stripped of some fines
and water, and are not too dissimilar, although somewhat more variable, in composition than
composite/consolidated tailings (Sobkowickz and Morgenstern 2009).
– Filtered thickened tailings: This technology includes filtration and dry stacking of thickener
underflow (predominantly fines). Other fine tailings streams may include centrifuge fine tailings
and Mature Fine Tailings. This technology has been proposed, but seems impractical due to the
high fines content.
– Centrifuge: Centrifuges are used extensively in oil sands froth treatment, but they have not
been used to process Mature Fine Tailings. Centrifuge technology to produce dry tailings was
evaluated in the past with some success, but the cost was unacceptable at that time. A better
appreciation of the long term costs of Mature Fine Tailings storage has prompted a re-evaluation
of this technology. The use of additives to improve centrifuge performance has significantly
improved the results which can be achieved. Centrifuge technology has been developed at bench
scale at CANMET (Mikula et al. 2008, 2009) on Athabasca oil sands fluid fine tailings and has
been successfully piloted in demonstration plants on Syncrude’s Mature FineTailings (Fair 2008).
– Thermal drying of Mature Fine Tailings: This technology consists of heating Mature Fine Tail-
ings in an oven/kiln to reduce the moisture content of Mature Fine Tailings. Thermal drying can
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remove water from tailings to a significantly higher degree than all other dewatering processes.
Solids reaching 90 wt% are attainable, but the tailings are typically dewatered to a minimum of
18 wt% to 20 wt% solids before being directed to the drying facility (BCI Engineers & Scientists
2007). This technology has been suggested, but not seriously researched because it is considered
impractical in cold regions.
– Electrical treatment: This technology is the application of a direct current electric field to a clay
slurry. The electrical field causes negatively charged clay particles to migrate to the positive
(anode) electrode, resulting in accelerated sedimentation.
– Blast densification: Blast densification is predominantly used by the geotechnical community
to pack loose, saturated, medium to coarse materials. Explosive compaction is carried out by
setting off explosive charges in the ground. The energy released causes liquefaction of the soil
close to the blast point and causes cyclic straining of the soil. This cyclic strain process increases
pore water pressures and, provided that strain amplitudes and numbers of cycles of straining
are sufficient, the soil mass liquefies (i.e. pore water pressures are temporarily elevated to the
effective vertical overburden stress in the soil mass so that a heavy fluid is created) (Gohl et al.
2000). Liquefaction of the soil, followed by time-dependent dissipation of the excess water
pressures, causes re-consolidation within the soil mass.
– Wick drains: Prefabricated vertical drains (also called wick drains or band drains) greatly facili-
tate the dewatering process, by providing a suitable conduit to allow the pore water to escape very
quickly. Vertical wicks can be economically installed in tailings deposits at close spacing, short-
ening the flow path of the water, and thereby expediting the consolidation process. Consolidation
of soft cohesive soils using wick drains can reduce settlement times from years to months.
– Surcharge loading: Surcharge loading offers a time-tested procedure for accelerating the consol-
idation and dewatering process and increasing the rate of strength gain of poorly-consolidated
clays, but the low shear strength of high water content tailings usually makes it difficult to apply
the surcharge without causing a stability failure and consequent mud wave. Surcharging has
been theoretically interesting but totally impractical as a process for dewatering and compaction
of tailings.
– Placement of Consolidated Tailings under Mature Fine Tailings: Placing Consolidated Tailings
under Mature Fine Tailings changes the release water composition by reducing the concentra-
tions of calcium and sulphate ions, and the electrical conductivity; the Mature Fine Tailings has
a steady densification rate; and the Consolidated Tailings densification rate remains the same.
– Increasing tailings density: This technique aims to reduce segregation by increasing solids con-
tent of tailings sand slurries in the pipeline prior to beaching. This technology has been suggested,
but not seriously researched.
Dewatering using physical/mechanical processes (centrifuges, filter presses, vacuum filters,
thermal drying, electrical, etc.) involves costly machinery/equipment and the results are often
poor. In particular, oil sands tailings have both high fines and residual bitumen so that it is difficult
without chemical reagents to effectively dewater by pressure filtration. High investment costs are
necessary to obtain satisfactory results. There are also two little-considered drawbacks which are
common to all mechanical dewatering processes; they produce a cake which must be transported
to the disposal site and the cake must be stacked on arrival at the disposal site. The long term
objective of this class of technologies is to develop stackable tailings, with significant benefits
for land reclamation. From this group, centrifugation, and wick drains combined with surcharge
loading seem to have good potential for dewatering tailings at a large commercial scale. Syncrude
is currently conducting a field research demonstration using centrifuge dewatering technology.
Suncor is testing the use of wick drains on one of their Consolidated Tailings ponds.
4.2 Natural processes

Natural processes involve using environmental or geophysical processes to remove water from
solids. The five processes reviewed include:
– Sedimentation/self-weight consolidation: Sedimentation and consolidation are natural dewater-
ing processes that use the force of gravity to separate the suspended solids from the tailings
stream.
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– Evaporation/drying: This technology consists of depositing Consolidated Tailings or Mature
Fine tailings in thin lifts and allowing the lifts to desiccate (remove moisture) by evaporative
drying. Promotion of natural drying is generally considered the most cost-effective means of
dewatering fine-grained material.
– Accelerated dewatering: This technology involves the deposition of a large volume of Mature Fine
Tailings in a dedicated cell and the subsequent use of evaporation and rim ditching to accelerate
dewatering to create a final deposit of suitable density to support dry landscape reclamation.
The process relies on the evaporation rate from the Mature Fine Tailings deposit exceeding the
rate of water release, thereby allowing a crust to form on top of the deposit (Lahaie 2008). This
crust in turn allows a ditching network to be established that promotes further dewatering and
crust thickening as the ditch is worked toward the bottom of the deposit.
– Freeze/thaw: This technology consists of depositing Consolidated Tailings or Mature Fine Tail-
ings in multiple thin layers which are allowed to freeze and then the frozen mass is allowed to
thaw the following summer. The freezing cycles causes consolidated soil-like “peds” to form,
developing a fissured structure throughout the deposit which quickly drains when thawed. A
considerable amount of water is released when thin layers (5 to 15 cm) of Mature Fine Tailings
are subjected to freeze-thaw cycles (Dawson & Sego 1993, Proskin 1998).
– Plant (evapotranspiration) drying: Suitable plant species can dewater tailings by transpiration
through the leaves and associated root systems (Silva 1999). Plants can transpire large quan-
tities of water during the growing season; the rate of water loss may exceed that of free water
evaporation and continue long after the surface has become dry.
Natural dewatering technologies are looked upon more favorably than most since they are depen-
dent on the use of natural processes for their effectiveness, which essentially provides free energy.
However, Fort McMurray’s northern location with its associated cold weather and moisture deficit
make success of these technologies very unpredictable.
Sedimentation and self-weight consolidation give only limited densification because the low
stress imposed by the low buoyant weight of the fined-grained particles is insufficient to overcome
the gel strength of the thixotropic tailings structure. The rate of dewatering is therefore slow and the
extent of dewatering may be poor within a reasonable time-frame. Dewatering of fines by gravity
processes actually appears to stop completely at approximately 30 wt% solids content. Development
of a high solids content material which could be strong enough for use as a self-supporting mine
back-fill is not viable solely by self-weight consolidation of current tailings streams.
Evaporation/Drying and Accelerated Dewatering offer considerable promise especially when
they are considered as part of a treatment package. These technologies rely on solar radiation and
wind action to accelerate the rate of water evaporation from soils. Accelerated dewatering uses the
rim-ditching technique to enhance the evaporation of tailings layers. Low pressure vehicles pulling
ploughs can be used to increase the exposed surface area and promote surface drainage by creating
shallow ditches and encourage desiccation by evaporation. Syncrude is currently conducting field
tests to evaluate the suitability of the Accelerated Dewatering technology. Suncor is conducting
field tests of the evaporation/drying dewatering technology.
Freeze-thaw seems ideally suited to the geographical location of Fort McMurray. This technique
may be useful as an adjunct to other processes, such as evaporation and accelerated dewater-
ing. However fluid management at very cold temperatures and vagaries of the weather remain a
challenge.
4.3 Chemical/biological amendments

Chemical/biological amendments involve changing the properties of the tailings to remove water.
The seven technologies reviewed include:
– Thickening process: Thickened tailings technology involves rapid settling and sedimentation of
suspended fines within a process vessel through the addition of chemicals that aid in flocculating
the fines solids. Thickeners incorporate moving components, such as rakes, which shear flocs
and promote removal of entrapped water. Normal thickener processing yields a density of about
30 wt% solids. Higher densities are reported but may be due to the addition of sand.
– In-line thickening of tailings: This technology consists of injecting and mixing coagulants into
the high fines content cyclone overflow tailings in an in-line multi stage fashion. Conceptually
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by binding fine particles at low solids content into flocs, the hydraulic conductivity is increased,
tortuosity is decreased and the mass of the failing flocs is increased.
– Whole tailings coagulation: In this technology, a coagulant is added into the tailings pipeline to
generate whole-tailings Consolidated Tailings or partially segregating Consolidated Tailings.
– Whole tailings flocculation: In this technology, a flocculant is added into the tailings pipeline to
generate whole-tailings Consolidated Tailings or partially segregating Consolidated Tailings.
– In-situ biological treatment: In this technology, inoculation or enhancement of bacterial action
are used to densify Mature Fine Tailings or fine tailings. Biological methane production can
accelerate densification of Mature Fine Tailings by generating channels in the tailings where
gas bubbles rise. These channels can then allow drainage of water due to excess pore pressures
within the tailings mass.
– In-situ chemical treatment: This technology consists of injecting and mixing chemical reagents
into Mature Fine Tailings in situ. Chemical additives injected in tailings ponds can increase the
efficiency of the consolidation process by changing the pH or by promoting coagulation and/or
flocculation.
– Reduce dispersion of fines in process: This technology consists of changing the tailings water
chemistry to reduce the amount of fines dispersion and trap more fines within the tailings sand.
Chemical amendment technologies appear to offer a unique benefit because they are capable
of altering the properties of the clays responsible for tailings formation and thus they offer a
new dimension in dewatering technology. Chemical amendment may also be used to assist other
dewatering methods. For example, the rate of sedimentation during mechanical thickening and
centrifugation may be accelerated significantly by the use of coagulants and flocculants. The use of
chemical additives has been studied for many years, but this technology has not been accepted for
reasons of operational practicability and cost-effectiveness. Recent research conducted on polymers
has show promise that this technology can be effective to dewater tailings. Suncor and Syncrude
are using polymers in their centrifuge, thickener and evaporation/drying field tests to improve the
performance of the technologies. There remain uncertainties regarding the potential environmental
impacts of chemical additives, especially polymers.
4.4 Mixtures/co-disposal
Mixtures/co-disposal technologies involve mixing tailings streams with a variety of available soil
materials and waste products to increase tailings density. The seven technologies reviewed include:
– Consolidated Tailings: technology involves mixing densified extraction tailings (coarse sand
from cyclone underflow tailings) and Mature Fine Tailings with an amendment (typically gyp-
sum) to create a non-segregating slurry, with subsequent discharge into a tailings pond to form
a rapidly consolidating, soft, cappable deposit.
– Mature Fine Tailings spiked into whole tailings: This technique consists of injecting Mature
Fine Tailings into a fresh tailings stream to form a segregating slurry with a high fines content.
The concept is that a high proportion of fines can be captured in the beach formation following
hydraulic discharge.
– Mixing Mature Fine Tailings with Clearwater overburden: This technology consists of mixing
Mature Fine Tailings with Clearwater clay to form a semi-solid mixture suitable for storage in
polders. The Clearwater formation clay is very dry and has a considerable affinity for water.
– Mixing Mature Fine Tailings with other overburden: This technology consists of mixing Mature
Fine Tailings with glacial materials (tills, clays, sands) to form a semi-solid mixture suitable for
storage in polders. This technique is similar to the previous one, but the glacial materials have
a lower water absorption capacity.
– Mixing Mature Fine Tailings with reclamation materials: This technology consists of mixing
Mature Fine Tailings with salvaged peat soils to form a semi-solid mixture suitable for early
reclamation.
– Mixing Mature Fine Tailings/Consolidated Tailings with coke: This technology consists of
mixing Mature Fine Tailings/ Consolidated Tailings with coke from the bitumen refining process.
– Mixing thickened tailings with sand: This process involves mixing tailings sand with thickened
tailings to form a non-segregating mix suitable for poldering. The deposit would be further
dewatered via evaporation and then capped with a layer of overburden and seeded.
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From the mixture/co-disposal group, only Consolidated Tailings is operating commercially
(Suncor in 1995 and Syncrude in 2000). However, operators have experienced difficulty mak-
ing, transporting and placing on-spec Consolidated Tailings; there is a tendency for the fines to
segregate leaving a weak, low sand:fines ratio material that is difficult to reclaim. The other issue
is that supplemental sources of sand will likely be needed to treat the legacy Mature Fine Tailings.
Consolidated Tailings is the most mature technology currently in practice. Suncor is planning to
replace this technology with their Tailings Reduction Operation and Mature Fine Tailings drying
technology in the near future (Suncor 2009).
4.5 Permanent storage

Permanent storage technologies acknowledge the complexity and cost associated with tailings
treatment and instead opt to store tailings above or belowground in their original form. The three
technologies reviewed include:
– Mature Fine Tailings water-capped lake: This involves placement of Mature Fine Tailings in
a mined out pit, followed by introduction of a water cap over this deposit. The water used in
the cap may range from natural surface waters to various blends of fresh and process-affected
waters. The water is initially at least five metres in depth, but increases over time as Mature Fine
Tailings consolidate.
– Pit lake storage: The Pit Lake technology is similar to the Mature Fine Tailings water capping
concept. The difference is that the Pit Lake will have three distinct layers: a bottom substrate,
soft tailings (on top of the bottom substrate, it can be Consolidated Tailings, Mature Fine Tailings
or Thickened Tailings), and the water cap.
– Storage of Mature Fine Tailings in underground caverns: This technology consists of injecting
Mature Fine Tailings in underground caverns or deep wells where future contact with humans
is unlikely. It is doubtful whether government regulatory bodies would approve this technology.
This technology has been suggested, but not seriously researched.
Syncrude will be the first operator to demonstrate the Mature Fine Tailings water-capped lake
technology with their Base Mine Lake site. The water cap will be placed in 2012 and detailed
monitoring will begin aiming to answer many uncertainties regarding function and success includ-
ing water quality and toxicity, sustainability and liability. Other pit lakes have been proposed
to permanently store Mature Fine Tailings, Consolidated Tailings or Thickened Tailings creating
self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems (Clearwater Consultants 2007).
5 CONCLUSIONS
A number of technologies have been considered for treatment and/or storage of oil sands tailings
(whole tailings or the individual tailings components). Consolidated Tailings is the primary treat-
ment method for the majority of the tailings currently produced although other technologies such
as use of flocculants are also being used. A demonstration of the Mature Fine Tailings water-capped
lake will be started in 2012.
Selection of viable technologies must consider the trade-offs between of a number of factors,
including:
– Technical feasibility (does it work?);
– Dewatering efficiency;
– Optimizing moisture content for pumping or other types of transport;
– Winter operation (Fort McMurray’s long term mean annual temperature is 0.7◦ C, with January
being the coldest month (−18.8◦ C) and July the warmest (16.8◦ C);
– Provision of an appropriate substrate for subsequent, quick reclamation;
– Operational practicability (is it practicable on a large scale?);
– Does it address legacy tailings or only those currently produced;
– What is the quality of the water expressed from the tailings (is it suitable for recycle and use in
the production plant or for discharge to the environment);
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– Cost-effectiveness (is it affordable?) – costs are often expressed in $/bbl to allow comparisons
between technologies and an assessment of the incremental impact on profit margins;
– Robustness (can it deal with the variability in the tailings consistency); and
– Does it produce impacts that are worse that the original problem (i.e. are there unintended
consequences such as the production of more saline water or the potential impacts of chemical
additives).
BGC provided an assessment of the knowledge gaps for each technology (BGC in prep.). Below
are listed general technology gaps identified in the overall tailings treatment processes (some of
them proposed by Flint 2005):
– Quantification and modeling of fine tailings dispersion caused by the addition of sodium
hydroxide in the extraction process;
– A unified sedimentation-consolidation model to predict settlement of material deposited in
tailings ponds;
– Mature Fine Tailings morphology and characteristics;
– Sand, clay, organics and water interactions in tailings;
– Role of chemical additives (polymers) in modifying tailings properties;
– Pumping of high solids content materials;
– Better mechanical dewatering means;
– Pond emission quantification, characterization and reduction; and
– Quality of the water expressed from tailings as it impacts use in the extraction process or discharge
to the environment.
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review and summary report. Prepared for: St. Johns River Water Management District, Palatka, Florida,
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and Mine Waste ’09. Banff, Alberta, Canada. University of Alberta, Department of Civil & Environmental
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Chalaturnyk, R.J., Scott, J.D. & Ozum, B. 2002. Management of oil sands tailings. Petroleum Science and
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Dawson, R.F. & Sego, D.C. 1993. Design concepts for thin layered freeze-thaw dewatering systems. Canadian
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and Environmental Engineering. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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Case study: Sand capping of weak tailings at Suncor’s Pond 1
E. Olauson & R. Dawson

Norwest Corporation, Vancouver, BC, Canada
P.S. Wells
Suncor Energy, Inc., Fort McMurray, AB, Canada
ABSTRACT: As one of the final phases of surface closure operations on Pond 1, due to be
completed in 2010, Suncor has been undertaking the capping of an 11 ha area of soft tailings. After
several years of investigation using cone penetration test methods and sampling to determine the
general geotechnical properties of the tailings (strengths in the range of 1 to 8 kPa were measured),
a mechanically placed, geogrid-reinforced sand cap was designed for the area. The objective of the
cap was to create a trafficable surface on the pond and to apply a surcharge to promote consolidation
of the underlying material. The design basis included carrying out the construction work in the
winter months, when the benefits of frozen tailings could be realized. Construction progressed
from January to April 2010 and involved using small equipment (D3 and D6 dozers) to place the
two 1 m sand lifts. The cap provides a trafficable surface for carrying out reclamation activities
and monitoring tailings consolidation and strengthening.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Suncor Energy, Inc. (Suncor) oil sands operation is located approximately 25 km north of Fort
McMurray, Alberta. As part of the initial start-up operation in 1967, Pond 1 was constructed on the
shores of the Athabasca River with the first containment structure extending from the shoreline and
across an island known as Tar Island. Now known as Tar Island Dyke, this forms the east and south
containment structures of Pond 1 as shown in Figure 1. Pond 1 is the first tailings pond in the oil
sands industry and was in active use between 1967 and 1999. Seeding and planting of the outer dyke
slopes was conducted in the 1970’s and 80’s as part of early reclamation trials. Following several
years of closure planning and infilling trials, full scale closure operations began in 2007. Dredging
of Mature Fine Tailings (MFT) and replacement with hydraulically placed sand was completed in
late 2009. These efforts were part of Suncor’s commitment to achieve the closure of Pond 1 to a
trafficable surface by the end of 2010.
One area of the pond that was not suitable for dredging and replacement operations is known
as the Plant 4 beach, as shown in Figure 1. These tailings are the result of froth treatment and
are characterized by predominantly silt-sized particles, very low consolidation rates, and elevated
hydrocarbon contents. It was decided to keep the deposit in place rather than dredge it to another
location, and this required improving the trafficability of the materials in order to provide a long
term, stable surface for final reclamation. Several methods of improving the trafficability were
examined. The focus of this paper is on the characterization of the weak froth tailings, the trials to
improve the strength of the tailings, and the final cap design and construction activities carried out
as part of the capping work.
2 BACKGROUND CAPPING STUDIES
Suncor has been carrying out research and development activities for several years to evaluate
practical tailings capping alternatives for their tailings ponds. Suncor conducts annual investigations
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Figure 1. Suncor pond 1.
of its tailings ponds, which include surveys of the pond bottom using spiked weights, as well as
detailed sampling and geotechnical vane strength measurements at several predetermined locations.
Data from these investigations has been used to develop several tailings capping research projects
and has helped to guide reclamation planning.
In 2007, Norwest Corporation carried out a series of experiments related to weak tailings capping,
tailings stabilization, and tailings dewatering. These experiments focused on methods of creating
a trafficable surface on the weak tailings and techniques for decreasing the consolidation time of
the tailings by enhancing drainage and applying surcharge loads. The experiments and results are
summarized below.
1. Coke capping: Petroleum coke was rained-in through a water cover over weak tailings (44%
solids with no measurable vane strength) in a small test cell. The density of the coke cap was
less than the underlying tailings, thus the cap was able to float on the tailings, which essentially
behaved as a heavy fluid.
a. Plate bearing tests: These tests were carried out on the coke cap to determine the strength
of the floating cap system. The results showed that for a given cap thickness, the ultimate
bearing pressure decreased rapidly as the size of the bearing plate increased. When these tests
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were conducted on stronger tailings (70% solids and vane strengths ranging from 2 to 8 kPa),
the ultimate bearing capacity was about two times greater than for the weaker tailings.
b. Dewatering: Prefabricated vertical drains (or wick drains) were investigated to determine
their ability to dewater the tailings beneath the coke cap. An increase in the solids content
of the tailings directly adjacent to the wick drain (within 2.5 cm) was observed, however no
further dewatering of the tailings was noted.
2. Sand capping: A sand cap was hand shoveled over tailings at 39% solids with no measurable
vane strength. Geotextile and geogrid were placed at the tailings surface as reinforcement and
wick drains were installed through the geosynthetic reinforced sand cap. During installation,
MFT began squeezing up through the holes created by the mandrel until eventually the entire
sand cap was overlain by a shallow pool of MFT.
3. In-situ stabilization: Shallow soil mixing is a proven technique for remediating industrial slurries.
A series of field trials was carried out using imported fly ash and in-situ mixing with an excavator
in small 5 m by 5 m test cells. The work was carried out under the auspices of a commercial soil
mixing contractor, using experienced operators and proven methods. It was demonstrated that
these techniques could produce caps of varying strength, depending on the mix design (uniaxial
compressive strength values in the range of 170 to 650 kPa were measured). The high cost of
importing the ash along with transportation logistics were considered to be impediments to large
scale applications.
During 2008 and 2009, Robertson GeoConsultants Inc. and Suncor completed further research
and trials into floating coke caps and tailings dewatering (Wells & Caldwell, 2009). Small-scale
coke caps were placed over approximately 2 ha of weak tailings contained in Suncor’s Tailings
Pond 5 during the winter months, using geogrid and geotextile as reinforcement. Wick drain fields
were installed and target depths were varied to determine how the flow changed with the various
gradients. This work helped to develop the design basis for Suncor’s mechanically placed Pond 5
coke cap, constructed over approximately 100 ha of weak tailings during the winter of 2010. This
work is not discussed in this paper.
3 TAILINGS CHARACTERIZATION
Figure 2 shows the sand capped area with the zones of weakest tailings identified, along with a
generalized strength profile from a hole near the centre of the pond, and Figure 3 shows a generalized
cross-section. The area was characterized through several investigations using cone penetration test
methods, vane strength measurements, and sampling. Table 1 summarizes the general geotechnical
properties of the identified tailings.
The Plant 4 tailings are a froth treatment tailings deposit and are generally composed of a
very narrow range of silt sized particles (between approximately 0.08 and 0.015 mm), with minor
amounts of clay and sand. Mineral contents in the hydraulically placed deposit are typically around
50% near surface and gradually increase with depth. The Plant 4 tailings contain significant amounts
of bitumen, ranging from 7 to 20%. Consolidation behaviour of this material may be difficult to
predict given the multi-phase pore fluids. Undrained strengths range between about 1 and 8 kPa.
The Plant 4 tailings at the surface formed a drying crust that could produce mounds up to 1 m in
height. Figure 3 shows that in the centre of the pond, the Plant 4 tailings extend from surface to
approximately 10 m below the tailings surface.
MFT was identified below the Plant 4 tailings in most areas, and along some of the edges of
the pond. The MFT is more fluid-like and contains more clay than the Plant 4 tailings, and ball
penetrometer and vane strengths measured were around 0 to 2 kPa. The MFT is up to 14 m thick,
with typical mineral contents of 35–50% near the surface.
4 CAP DESIGN BASIS
There were two primary goals for the Plant 4 tailings capping design. The first was to create a
trafficable surface by the end of 2010 upon which reclamation cover materials could be placed.
The second was to apply a surcharge load to promote consolidation of the underlying tailings.
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Figure 2. Sand capped area and typical strength profile through the centre of the pond.
Figure 3. Generalized cross-section A-A’.
While petroleum coke best meets the trafficable surface criteria, the low bulk density coupled with
the potential for chemical interactions between the froth tailings pore fluids and the coke made
it unsuitable for use. As such, the cap was designed with sand as the capping material, placed
mechanically over frozen tailings using small equipment (D3 and D6 size dozers).
There is significant experience with the use of ice covers on lakes and rivers for transportation
purposes (reviews of this experience provided by Gold, 1971 and US Army Corps of Engineers,
1996). Failures in ice covers largely occur due to the stresses associated with the maximum bending
moment, where the ice cover floating on water can be considered as a plate on an elastic foundation.
The ice thickness required for a given load is related to the square root of the load by a constant,
A, as shown in Equation 1.
where h = ice thickness; A = empirical constant; P = load.

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Table 1. Summary of typical Plant 4 tailings and MFT properties.
Property Plant 4 MFT
Bitumen content, % 15 5
Mineral content, % 50 35–40
Silt content, % 85 50
Clay content, % 15 50
Undrained shear strength, kPa 2–5 0–1
Figure 4. Access guidelines for frozen materials.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between ice thickness and applied load derived from guidelines
produced by Work Safe Alberta (2009), for A values of 3.5 and 6. The A value of 3.5 represents
a “low risk” according to Work Safe Alberta and requires minimal hazard controls (manual ice
measurements and quality assessments, routine worksite observations, and repairs and maintenance
as needed). Gold compiled data on observed failures of ice covers and found that an A value of 3.5
envelopes more than 90% of the case histories. The design line used for the construction of the sand
cap on Pond 1 follows the line calculated with an A value of 3.5, which shows that for a D3 dozer,
0.5 m of ice is required. Ice thicknesses were frequently measured as the cap placement progressed
across the entire pond. The authors have experience at other oil sands operations showing that the
ice guidelines are suitable for some frozen tailings materials.
Geogrid reinforcement was rolled out over the entire frozen tailings surface prior to the place-
ment of the first sand lift, and a second layer was placed between the first and second lifts. The
specified grid was Tensar BX1200, with manufacturer specified ultimate tensile strengths of 19.2
and 28.8 kN/m in the machine and cross-machine directions, respectively. Design calculations for
a reinforced cap on thawed ground showed small deformations for light-weight equipment loading
conditions; thus the geogrid provides additional support in case of weak frost and/or thin frost
ground conditions.
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Figure 5. Ice thickness measurement locations.
5 CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Construction of the sand cap began in mid-January 2010, when daily high temperatures in Fort
McMurray had averaged around −15◦ C for over a month. Ice thicknesses were measured prior to
starting work and throughout the construction period. The results are shown on Figure 5 and show
that there were some areas where frost thicknesses were less than the specified 0.5 m.
Geogrid was deployed using argos, from the east and west sides of the pond, and progressed
north. Overlaps were specified as 1 m and 6 m, for the sides and ends of the rolls, respectively, and
zip-ties were used to hold the overlaps in place. Six metres of geogrid was also deployed on the
beach and covered with piles of sand, to act as anchors. Sand placement using D3 dozers followed
shortly after the geogrid was rolled out. Sand stockpiles were placed around the perimeter of the
pond and the dozers pushed the sand from both the east and west sides (up to 150 m), progressing
toward the north.
During sand placement, a small heave in the ice was consistently noted in front of the advancing
sand push. This heave would crack at some locations, as shown in Figure 6, when an area with thin
frost was confined by the sand pushes, but was capped with minimal change to the construction
method. It was determined that pushing an initial lift of approximately 0.6 m was the preferred
method by the dozer operators, as it would generally not crack the ice and was also a manageable
quantity of sand to push out the significant distances required. An additional technique learned
during the construction phase was to continuously advance the sand lift as one front, avoiding
creating long roads or peninsulas out into the pond. These peninsula roads were less stable and
significant cracking was observed around them.
The 1 m sand cap was completed at the beginning of March 2010. A second layer of geogrid was
rolled out and then covered with a second metre of sand. A slotted pipe was placed down the centre
of the capped area to act as a drainage conduit and three vertical riser pipes were placed along this
pipe to act as collection points, where water could be pumped out.
The second sand layer was placed mainly with D6 dozers, as it was determined with some initial
trials that there was minimal deflection (less than 5 cm) in the first lift with this heavier equipment.
398
Figure 6. Example of typical deformation and cracking in front of sand lift that was successfully covered.
Deflection testing also showed minimal deflection with loaded 40 ton dump trucks near the edges of
the capped area. This allowed for dumping at the crest of the cap instead of at the base, significantly
increasing productivity.
The final approximately 1 ha of the second metre sand cap was completed using D3 dozers, as
increased movement and cracking was observed in the first metre lift at the north end of the pond,
where thinner frost zones had been noted. This cracking and deformation can likely be attributed
to some melting of the frozen tailings. During the construction of the first lift, temperatures rose
above 0◦ C for a period of approximately two weeks. These temperatures combined with sunny
conditions and the exposed black geogrid likely contributed to the melting. The last area to be
covered with the second sand lift was also likely composed of the weakest tailings, pushed to this
area by the surrounding sand cap. These weak tailings were not able to support D6 traffic and as
such, deformed and cracked.
6 CURRENT POND STATUS
Since completion of the sand cap in early April 2010, Suncor has proceeded with placement of
approximately 0.5 m of reclamation cover material over the capped area, using D3 and D6 dozers
to spread the material. The reclamation strategy is to seed this material with a selection of native
grasses.
Piezometers have been installed in the upper portions of the sand capped tailings, to monitor
the temperature and pore pressures beneath the cap and a settlement monitoring program is also
being developed. This program will help to predict the consolidation times and total settlement
of the deposit, as well as identify the multi-phase pore fluids that may be expelled during the
consolidation process. It is expected that the capped area will settle significantly and will require
additional material placement, to avoid creating a topographic low that will collect water.
7 SUMMARY
A trafficable surface was successfully constructed over 11 ha of weak tailings in Pond 1. The weak
tailings deposit was up to 24 m thick and in-situ testing and sampling showed near surface solids
contents of approximately 50% and strengths in the range of 1 to 8 kPa. The cap was designed to
be placed with light equipment over a 0.5 m frost cap. It consists of two 1 m thick layers of sand
separated by biaxial geogrid reinforcement. The cap provides a trafficable surface for carrying out
reclamation activities and monitoring tailings consolidation and strengthening.
399
REFERENCES
Gold, L.W., 1971. Use of ice covers for transportation. Can. Geotech. J. 8: 170–181.
Government of Alberta, Work Safe Alberta, 2009. Best Practice for Building and Working Safely on Ice Covers
in Alberta. Publication No. SH010, October 2009.
Wells, P.S., Caldwell, J. 2009. Vertical “wick” drains and accelerated dewatering of fine tailings in oil sands.
Proceeding of the 13th International Conference on Tailings and Mine Waste, 1–4 November 2009, Banff,
Alberta, Canada.
US Army Corps of Engineers, 1996. Engineering and Design, ICE ENGINEERING. Department of the Army,
Manual No. 1110-2-1612, December 31, 1996. Washington, DC, United States.
400
The use of geosynthetics in the reclamation of an oil sands

tailings pond
Chris Athanassopoulos
CETCO, Hoffman Estates, Illinois, USA
Patrick Sean Wells

Suncor Energy Inc., Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada
Serg Trinca
Nilex, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
William Urchik
CETCO, Pendleton, New York, USA
ABSTRACT: Suncor Pond 1, near Fort McMurray, Alberta, serves as an industry milestone — the
first surface reclamation of an oil sands tailings pond. During the design and infill operations, a low-
permeability hydraulic barrier was identified as an element of the reclamation cap needed to limit
percolation. A plastic-laminated Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL) was selected as the barrier layer
in lieu of a traditional compacted soil liner. The GCL was selected for several reasons, including:
low hydraulic conductivity (5 × 10−10 cm/sec), material consistency and quality control, simplicity
and speed of installation, and ability to install in extreme cold temperatures. The paper will discuss
each of these design and installation considerations, as well as providing performance data from
other similar applications. Construction of the geosynthetic capping system began in late 2009,
with capping operations to be completed in 2010.
1 BACKGROUND
Full scale closure and reclamation activities have been underway at Suncor’s Pond 1 since 2007.
Densified tailings (DT) sand has been beached from north to south, progressively displacing mature
fine tailings (MFT) to the south end of the deposit for pumping to other ponds. Infilling was
completed in late 2009, with landform construction and capping progressing into 2010.
The Pond 1 reclamation landscape will feature a small shallow wetland in the southwestern
corner of the site connected to a series of swales intended to collect surface water from throughout
the pond and transport the flows to the wetland and eventually away from the area. Hummocks and
mounds at various scales will promote surface water drainage between the swales as well as add
landscape diversity to the beach area. These features are shown in Figure 1, with a reclamation cap
area of approximately 244 hectares. Reclamation material will be placed over the site to promote
plant growth and establish a boreal forest environment and also provides the primary barrier against
infiltration of water from the surface. The cap cross-section consists of (from top to bottom), a
500-mm thick vegetated cover soil layer, a 610-mm coarse sand layer, a low-permeability layer,
and a prepared sand subgrade (Figure 2). The intent of the low-permeability layer was to limit
surface water percolation into the capped sands until the vegetation and reclamation soil layers
are sufficiently established. Initially, the design called for the low-permeability layer to be a thick
compacted soil liner, with a hydraulic conductivity of 1 × 10−7 cm/sec. However, a geosynthetic
clay liner (GCL) was selected as the hydraulic barrier layer in the Pond 1 reclamation cover in lieu
of the compacted clay liner. A technical comparison of two types of hydraulic barrier layers, and
the rationale for selecting a GCL, is presented in the following sections.
401
Figure 1. Site map.
Figure 2. Typical cap cross-section.
2 COMPACTED CLAY LINERS
Compacted soil liners have been traditionally used as barrier layers in landfill and mine closures to
limit the infiltration of surface water into the buried waste. Soil liners are often selected because an
adequate borrow source is located nearby. Assuming a clay-rich soil, a low hydraulic conductivity
liner can be achieved if the soil is compacted within a specific range of water contents and dry
unit weights. Compacted clay liners are generally thick, usually between 0.6 to 0.9-meters thick,
and cannot be accidentally punctured, like thinner geosynthetics can. However, compacted clay
402
liners can be difficult to construct and are subject to deterioration from various factors, including
differential settlement, desiccation, and freeze-thaw action (Koerner and Daniel, 1993).
A factor of particular importance in cold weather regions like Northern Alberta is resistance
to freeze-thaw cycles. Numerous studies have shown that freezing of compacted clay liners can
produce significant increases in hydraulic conductivity [including, Erickson et al. (1994), Benson
and Othman (1993), and Kraus and Benson (1994)]. Kraus and Benson performed hydraulic
conductivity tests on specimens obtained from compacted clay liner test plots before and after
a winter season. Results indicated that the compacted clay liners had an increase in hydraulic
conductivity of several orders of magnitude, from approximately 1 × 10−8 cm/sec to greater than
1 × 10−5 cm/sec. Extensive crack networks were present in the after-winter specimens. These
cracks serve as preferential flow paths and are the primary cause of the high measured hydraulic
conductivities. During freezing, cracks form in the clay due to the formation of ice lenses. As the
temperature increases, the ice thaws, and voids in the clay are left behind, allowing preferential
pathways for flow. Similarly, Benson and Othman (1993) found that clay hydraulic conductivity
increased by 2 orders of magnitude after three to five freeze-thaw cycles. Erickson et al. (1994)
saw increases in CCL field test pads of up to 4 orders of magnitude.
Even without such long-term environmental factors, soil liners are susceptible to erratic field
performance due to the many hard-to-control variables involved in their construction. Factors
such as borrow source characteristics (e.g., clay variability, clay clods, or excessive amounts of
gravel), moisture content, compaction equipment/procedures, inter-lift bonding, and slopes, cause
practical difficulties which result in fluctuating permeability values in the field. For example,
Rogowski (1990) constructed a homogeneous compacted clay liner over a small, 0.05-acre area,
using specifications commonly used in constructing liners. Based on leakage rate measurements
through the clay, the actual hydraulic conductivity of the liner varied by 4 orders of magnitude
throughout the test area.
3 GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS
Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are bentonite clay-based liners that often used as a substitute
for compacted clay in solid waste and mining applications. Koerner and Daniel (1993) evaluated
the differences between GCLs and compacted clay in terms of three technical issues: Hydraulic;
Physical/Mechanical; and Construction. They determined that GCLs are equivalent, or superior
to, compacted clays in regards to hydraulic issues and physical/mechanical issues. In regards
to construction issues, the authors determined that, because they are thinner, GCLs are more
susceptible to puncture damage and lateral squeezing/thinning during construction than compacted
clay. However, they also noted that this type of installation damage can be limited with sound
construction practices.
A plastic-laminated GCL was selected as the hydraulic barrier layer in the Pond 1 reclama-
tion cover. The GCL consists of 3.6 kg/m2 (0.75 lbs/ft2 ) of sodium bentonite clay, needlepunched
between woven and nonwoven geotextiles. A 0.1-mm (4-mil) HDPE plastic geofilm was laminated
to the nonwoven geotextile for improved hydraulic performance. Overall, the GCL was selected
for several reasons, including: low hydraulic conductivity (5 × 10−10 cm/sec), lack of nearby clay
borrow sources, material consistency and quality control, simplicity and speed of installation, and
ability to install in extreme cold temperatures. These considerations are discussed in more detail
below.
3.1 Hydraulic performance

The theoretical hydraulic performance (i.e., leakage) of either a compacted clay liner or a GCL can
be estimated using Darcy’s Law, which states that the flow through a porous medium is proportional
to the hydraulic head and the hydraulic conductivity. Figure 3 presents the results of these theoretical
calculations. The compacted clay liner was assumed to have a thickness of 0.6-m and a hydraulic
conductivity of 1 × 10−7 cm/sec. The plastic-laminated GCL was assumed to have a thickness of
1 cm and a hydraulic conductivity of 5 × 10−10 cm/sec. A comparison of the graphs in Figure 3
shows that a GCL is the superior hydraulic barrier, expected to only allow a small fraction of
the percolation expected through a conventional compacted soil cover. Although these are only
403
Figure 3. Theoretical percolation estimates through selected cap alternatives.
theoretical calculations, based on several assumptions, the calculated values do seem consistent
with measured field data, as discussed below.
3.2 GCL field performance at past similar sites

Benson et al. (2007) present a case history describing the hydraulic performance of a final cover
for a coal ash landfill, where the barrier layer consisted of a composite GCL in lieu of a compacted
clay layer. The site, which is located in southwestern Wisconsin, receives 892 mm of precipitation
per year. The composite GCL installed at the Wisconsin site is very similar to the material used
to cap Suncor Pond 1. The GCL contained 3.6 kg/m2 of granular sodium bentonite, was encased
between nonwoven and woven geotextiles, and was laminated with a 0.1-mm thick polyethylene
geofilm. The cover profile consists of a 760-mm-thick vegetated surface layer (silty sand), the
GCL, and a 150-mm-thick layer of interim cover soil (silty sand) placed over the ash.
Two 4.3 × 4.9 m pan lysimeters were installed beneath the cover to monitor the percolation rate
(discharge from the base of the cover). The lysimeters were filled with pea gravel and drained
to a still well, which was periodically pumped to determine the volume of water collected by the
lysimeter. Two separate plots were constructed: the first had the laminated GCL installed with
the geofilm downward; the second had the geofilm oriented upward. Percolation rates remained
low in both lysimeters. Over a five-year period, the average measured percolation rates for the
two lysimeters were 2.6 mm/yr and 4.1 mm/yr. These percolation rates represent less than 0.5%
percent of precipitation, indicating that the GCL is serving as a very effective hydraulic barrier at
the Wisconsin landfill site.
3.3 GCL cold weather performance

Northern Alberta has long, very cold winters, with an average winter temperature of −19◦ C, and a
record low temperature of −50◦ C. Clearly, the ability to withstand and perform in cold weather were
important considerations when selecting the low-permeability liner for Pond 1. Kraus et al. (1997)
found that after being frozen and thawed 20 times, GCLs maintained a low hydraulic conductivity.
A similar evaluation of freeze-thaw resistance of GCLs was performed in 2006 by the Idaho National
404
Table 1. Cold-weather testing results.
Room temperature Cold weather

Property (22◦ C) (−40◦ C)
Puncture resistance 552 N 640 N

(ASTM D4833) (σ = 35 N) (σ = 18 N)
Tensile strength 480 N 561 N
(ASTM D6768) (σ = 45 N) (σ = 9 N)
Brittleness temperature by Impact – Passed
(ASTM D1790) (no signs of cracking)
Low temperature flexibility – Passed
(ASTM D1970) (no signs of cracking)
Engineering Environmental Laboratory (INEEL). GCL samples were exposed to repeated freeze-
thaw cycles in the laboratory at pressures encompassing final cover (20 kPa) and bottom liner
(60 kPa) applications. Samples were tested in the laboratory after 3, 9, 15, 21, 30, 45, 75, 100, 125,
and 150 freeze-thaw cycles. Hydraulic conductivity testing found no appreciable changes, even
after 150 freeze-thaw cycles. Examination of the GCLs while frozen and after thawing reveal that
ice segregation does occur in GCLs, but the cracks formed during ice segregation close when the
bentonite thaws because the thawed bentonite is very soft and compressible.
Additionally, to determine whether the plastic-laminated GCL could be handled and installed
in extreme cold temperatures without undue risk of damage, Precision Geosynthetic Laboratories
was contracted to perform a low-temperature testing program on the material in their Anaheim,
California laboratory. Specifically, the following tests were performed:
• ASTM D6768, Tensile strength. Tests performed at both room temperature and after cooling
to −40◦ C.
• ASTM D4833, Puncture strength. Tests performed at both room temperature and after cooling
to −40◦ C.
• ASTM D1790, Brittleness temperature of plastic sheeting by impact. Samples were first cooled
to −40◦ C, wrapped in a closed loop on an anvil, struck with a 6-lb swinging arm, and then
checked for signs of cracking.
• ASTM D1970, Low-temperature flexibility. Samples were cooled to −40◦ C, bent repeatedly
around a 1-inch mandrel, and then check for signs of cracking.
The laboratory test results in Table 1 show that samples of the plastic-laminated GCL cooled
to subzero temperatures (40◦ C) did not experience any reduction in tensile or puncture strength,
and passed both the ASTM low-temperature brittleness and flexibility tests. These data, together
with the freeze/thaw data cited in the literature, indicate that GCLs can withstand the rigors of
cold weather installation. Installation of a compacted clay liner or a polyethylene geomembrane
would not likely have been possible for temperatures less than 0◦ C. The use of a GCL therefore
allowed construction to proceed through the cold winter months, reducing the overall construction
schedule, as discussed further below.
4 OTHER PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In addition to the technical considerations outlined above, the GCL also offered several practical
benefits:
• Freight. GCLs are packaged and delivered in rolls. One truckload of GCL rolls can cover
approximately 3,350 square meters (36,000 square feet). By comparison, over 200 truckloads of
clay, hauled from a borrow source 10 km away, would have been required to cover the same area
with a 0.6-meter thick compacted clay liner. Over the entire Pond 1 cap area, this represents a
dramatic difference in the number of trucks; tens of thousands of truckloads of clay compared
405
Photograph 1. GCL installation.
to only a few hundred truckloads of GCL. In addition to the obvious safety and logistical issues
involved with routing such a large number of trucks to the job site, time was also a factor: The
majority of the GCL was delivered within a 1-month timeframe, which would not have been
possible with clay.
• Speed/Ease of Installation. Since GCLs are supplied in large rolls that are simply unrolled into
4.57-m × 45.7-m rectangular panels in the field, they are more straightforward to install com-
pared to compacted clay liners, which require careful moisture conditioning and compaction.
GCLs are seamed by overlapping adjacent panels 0.15- to 0.3-m and applying supplemental
granular bentonite (0.4 kg/m) to the overlap area. In addition, a pneumatically-powered geosyn-
thetic installation device was used to deploy the GCL at Suncor Pond 1. The installation device
was mounted on a large-capacity tractor, as shown in Photograph 1. As the tractor operator drove
forward, a ground operator used a control cable to unroll the GCL onto flat panels. Using this
equipment, more than a hectare per day of GCL was safely deployed.
• Quality Control. Since GCLs are manufactured under controlled factory settings, they are much
more consistent materials requiring less on-site quality control testing compared to compacted
clay liners. Manufacturing quality control testing is performed at the plant in accordance with
ASTM D5889, Quality Control of GCLs. In contrast, compacted clay liners have high inherent
variability, requiring numerous and frequent field tests, including Atterberg limits and soil
particle size (1 every 800 m3 ), water content and density (13 tests per hectare per lift), and
hydraulic conductivity (3 tests per hectare per lift).
• Schedule. A major project driver was schedule. As indicated previously, at low ambient tem-
peratures, it would have been possible to construct a compacted clay liner. Cold weather delays
related to compacted clay would have pushed the project completion date well past 2010. The
use of a GCL allowed construction to proceed through the cold winter months, reducing the
overall construction schedule.
5 SUMMARY
Geosynthetics were critical in successful design and completion of the Suncor Pond 1 reclamation
project. A GCL was selected as the low-permeability hydraulic barrier in the cover system for
several reasons, including: low hydraulic conductivity (5 × 10−10 cm/sec), lack of nearby clay
406
borrow sources, material consistency and quality control, simplicity and speed of installation, and
ability to install in extreme cold temperatures. Construction of the geosynthetic capping system
began in late 2009, with capping operations to be completed by September 2010. Because of the
tight deadline, much of the construction activities took place during the cold winter months in
late-2009 and early-2010. This would not have been possible if a traditional compacted clay liner
was used.
REFERENCES
Benson, C.H., and Othman, M.A. (1993). “Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Clay Frozen and Thawed
In-situ,” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 2, pp. 276–294.
Benson, C., Thorstad, P., Jo, H., and Rock, S. (2007), Hydraulic performance of geosynthetic clay liners in a
landfill final cover. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 133(7), 814–827.
Erickson, A.E., Chamberlain, E.J., and Benson, C.H. (1994). “Effects of Frost Action on Covers and Liners
Constructed in Cold Environments,” Proceedings of the 17th International Madison Conference, Madison,
WI, pp. 198–220.
Koerner, R.M., and Daniel, D.E. (1993). “Technical Equivalency Assessment of GCLs to CCLs,” Proceedings
of the 7th GRI Seminar, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 255–275.
Kraus, J.F., and Benson, C.H. (1994). “Effect of Freeze-Thaw on the Hydraulic Conductivity of Barrier
Materials: Laboratory and Field Evaluation,” Environmental Geotechnics Report 94-5, University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
Kraus, J.F., Benson, C.H., Erickson, A.E., and Chamberlain, E.J. (1997). “Freeze-Thaw Cycling and Hydraulic
Conductivity of Bentonitic Barriers,” ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
Vol. 123, No. 3, pp. 229–238.
Podgorney, R. K., and Bennett, J. E. (2006) “Evaluating the Long-Term Performance of Geosynthetic Clay
Liners Exposed to Freeze-Thaw,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 132,
No. 2.
Rogowski, A.S. (1990). “Relationship of Laboratory- and Field-Determined Hydraulic Conductivity in Com-
pacted Clay Layers,” EPA/600/S2-90/025, USEPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Cincinnati,
OH.
407
A new approach to oil sand tailings management
L. Lawrence & Z. Ali

Suncor Energy Inc. Fort McMurray, AB, Canada
ABSTRACT: This paper describes Suncor’s operational scheme change from a Consolidated
Tailings (CT) based operation to a Tailings Reduction Operation (TRO) which incorporates MFT
drying as a fines capture technology. The risks associated with CT operations and the benefits of
this new approach at Suncor will also be discussed. By adopting this new tailings management
strategy Suncor believes it will not only address the challenges of a CT operation but will also
satisfy the objectives of Directive 074 (D074) which was approved by the Energy Resource and
Conservation Board (ERCB) of Alberta on February 3rd, 2009. The success of the TRO concept
will prove beneficial for large scale, long term economic investment in the oil sands industry by
reducing the impact on the environment associated with oil sand mining operations.
1 INTRODUCTION
One of the primary challenges facing the oil sands industry is the production of Mature Fine
Tailings, commonly known as MFT. This is one of the waste products resulting from the bitumen
extraction process. MFT is a fluid tailings which forms when tailings from the primary extraction
process is discharged into tailings ponds. The coarse sand settles out while the clay particles or
fines remain suspended in water to form MFT comprising 30% solids and 70% water by weight.
If left untreated, the continuous production of oil sand will result in an increasing MFT inventory
and therefore an increasing need for additional tailings containment (i.e. additional tailings ponds)
through the life cycle of an oil sand operation. This in turn results in an expanding environmental
footprint through increasing land disturbance and numerous tailings ponds which are costly to
reclaim within the timeframe of the operation’s life cycle.
Recognizing this risk, the Energy Resource Conservation Board (ERCB) of Alberta issued
Directive 074 which set out the new requirements for the regulation of tailings operations with the
following objectives:
• To minimize and eventually eliminate long-term storage of fluid tailings in the reclamation
landscape;
• To create a trafficable landscape at the earliest opportunity to facilitate progressive reclamation;
• To eliminate or reduce containment of fluid tailings in an external tailings disposal area during
operations;
• To reduce stored process-affected waste water volumes on site;
• To maximize intermediate process water recycling to increase energy efficiency and reduce fresh
water import;
• To minimize resource sterilization associated with tailings ponds; and
• To ensure that the liability for tailings is managed through reclamation of tailings ponds.
In 1995 Suncor identified MFT management as a strategic priority and addressed the issue of
an increasing MFT inventory by implementing the production of Consolidated Tailings (CT) as
a fines capture technology. CT is formed by combining coarse sand with MFT recovered from
a settling pond at a defined sand to fines ratio (SFR) together with a small amount of gypsum.
The resulting mixture, which is hydro-transported to a CT disposal pond, forms a non-segregating
deposit. Although CT has been relatively successful in capturing fines to date, Suncor has decided
to convert from a CT based operation to a Tailings Reduction Operation.
409
This paper discusses the long term tailings management risk associated with CT and the benefits
of TRO at Suncor’s oil sand operation. It is believed the concept of TRO will increase the environ-
mental and economic sustainability of Suncor and the oil sands industry by minimizing the impact
on the environment.
2 THE IMPACT OF CT ON SUNCOR’S OIL SAND OPERATION
The application of CT to manage the MFT inventory at Suncor offered the following benefits:
• The CT process liberates water bound in the MFT as CT release water. The return of this water to
free water inventory results in less water demand (i.e. less water withdrawal from the Athabasca
River, per unit of ore mined).
• MFT incorporated into CT occupies less volume than in its previous state (because of the
liberation of bound water) and thereby adds to the tailings storage capacity.
However, CT also presented significant risk to Suncor’s long term tailings management plan in
terms of cost and the availability of overburden dyke construction material. Since CT relies on
tailings sand for fines capture, the construction of overburden dyke structures was a necessity
to meet the long term demand for fluid tailings containment. Not all overburden material can
be utilized as dyke construction material and therefore Suncor developed an overburden material
classification system which categorizes the various types of overburden or waste material according
to geological horizon and compaction specification. The overburden material types are defined in
the table below:
Overburden
Material Dyke and Structure
Classification Material Characteristics Material Location Construction Suitability
G-spec Low shear strength, high moisture Muskeg and upland Not suitable: Requires
content Pleistocene silts, sands soils between 15% and 20%
and clayey tills K or B spec padding for
equipment accessibility
K1-spec Up to 50% high plastic Clearwater Top of the Clearwater Suitable except in cases of
or Clearwater derived till material, formation down to high moisture content
blended with low plasticity the top of the Upper
materials (tills and lean oil sands) McMurray
K2-spec Up to 100% plastic Clearwater
derived till material
B1-spec Blend of low to medium plastic clay Top of the Upper Suitable
tills, lean oil sands and gravels, McMurray to the top
less than 30% Kcw and less than of mineable ore
10% high plastic Clearwater
of Clearwater derived till material
B2-spec Blend of low to medium plastic
clay tills, lean oil sands and
high fines sandy tills, less than
30% Kcw and less than 10%
high plastic Clearwater of
Clearwater derived till material
Figure 1 below shows the percentage of overburden material type available on average within
the Millennium pit footprint at Suncor’s current oil sand operation.
As can be seen, a large portion of the overburden is classified as G-spec material which is
unsuitable for dyke construction. Therefore in order to expose sufficient B and K spec material
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Figure 1. Average overburden waste percentage.
required for dyke construction to form an in-pit CT pond that satisfied Suncor’s tailings containment
requirements, significant volumes of G-spec material had to be mined in advance. This resulted in
long hauls of the G-spec material to large external waste dumps to maximize the tailings containment
of the in pit pond thereby significantly increasing operating costs.
In addition to the high cost of external waste dumping Suncor had to contend with the issue of
material utilization which is defined as follows:
B + K PLACED
MATERIAL UTILIZATION =
B + K + G MINED
Material utilization is the percentage of overburden that is placed in B-spec or K-spec zones
of tailings dyke structures and in order for Suncor to meet its tailings containment requirements,
a minimum material utilization target of 35% was required to be achieved. However as the mine
developed and more overburden information became available through operational experience and
geological modeling, a shortfall of B and K spec material available for dyke construction was
identified. This was due to:
• Lower than expected K-spec capture resulting from poor shovel footing;
• High inherent moisture content resulting in non-compliant dyke-spec material,
• Higher than planned weather events resulting in placement delays,
• Higher than planned volumes required for other requirements (i.e. dump padding, in-pit roads
and ramps)
In light of this shortfall, material utilization had to be reduced to 25% by reducing the height of
one of its in-pit CT tailings pond from 370 to 350 masl. The 20 m reduction in dyke elevation
significantly reduced the volume of dyke-spec overburden required to construct the required dykes
for containment which brought the dyke-spec demand in line with availability. This however,
resulted in a smaller tailings pond and insufficient tailings containment to meet Suncor tailings
containment requirements in the long term.
Suncor therefore decided to adopt a new tailings management strategy to address the risk and
increased cost associated with its CT operation by converting to TRO which incorporates MFT
Drying (MFTD) as a fines capture technology. This conversion also afforded Suncor the opportunity
to adopt a tailings management strategy in line with the objectives as set out in D074.
3 TRO AT SUNCOR’S OIL SAND OPERATION
Under TRO, extraction tailings will be deposited as segregating tailings (also called Regular Tailings
or Conventional Tailings) into in-pit beaching areas initially enclosed by overburden starter berms.
As the regular tailings is continuously discharged the coarse sand settles out to form beaches which
is sequentially raised over time through the step-over cell construction technique to form a solid
sand structure or sand dump. The remainder of the fines will segregate to form Thin Fine Tailings or
TFT (5% solids by weight) which will be transferred to a settling pond for maturation to form MFT
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Figure 2. TRO material flow diagram.
(30% solids by weight). After maturation, MFT will be subjected to the MFTD process which is
operated independently of ongoing beaching operations and is sized to consume all of the ongoing
MFT generation as well as some legacy MFT. In the MFTD process, MFT is mixed with a polymer
flocculent and then deposited in thin layers over beaches or other suitable areas. These designated
areas are called Dedicated Disposal Areas or DDA’s. The deposit initially dewaters to approximately
60% solids by weight through flocculation which then further dries through evaporation to form a
deposit which is approximately 80% solids by weight. The dried MFT can either be reclaimed in
place or rehandled to waste dumps as defined by the Mine and Tailings Plan. Figure 2 below shows
a basic illustration of the TRO process.
The MFTD process is considered to be a technological breakthrough that will enable Suncor to
directly and proactively address one of the biggest challenges of the oil sands industry which is the
liability of increasing MFT inventories. MFTD results in the treatment of fines in DDA’s eliminating
the risk of fluid tailings in the long term associated with oil sands operations. The benefit of DDA’s
are that they can be located in areas already disturbed by mining and tailings operations which
minimizes the impact on the environment. Figure 3 illustrates current and planned DDA’s (yellow
areas) part of Suncor’s current TRO Mine and Tailings plan. Areas considered suitable for MFTD
operations include:
• Exposed beaches on existing tailings ponds (Ponds 5, 6, 8a and STP)

• Cleared areas within the mining footprint ahead of mining (DDA1), and
• Future areas on top of Sand dumps constructed to full height (Sand Dump 8 and Horseshoe)
In order for Suncor to adopt this new tailings management approach, the tailings infrastructure
will be modified from the current CT operation to a Tailings Reduction Operation as shown in
Figure 4. Regular Tailings will be deposited in pit behind the mining operation from two Extrac-
tion plants to construct the first sand dump (Sand Dump 8). The TFT will be transferred to STP
which will serve as a settling pond where the TFT will mature to form MFT. Water will then be
transferred to Pond 7 where it will be distributed to Upgrading for cooling and then distributed
to Extraction as part of the Hot Water Process. Once Sand Dump 8 (SD8) is complete new sand
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Figure 3. Planned and established DDA’s at Suncor’ oil sand operation.
dumps (SD9 and SD10) will continuously be constructed behind the advancing mining operation
infilling the mined out void. Although the cost of implementing this change is significant, Suncor
believes the benefits of TRO far outweigh the cost. The adoption of this approach will be extremely
beneficial to Suncor in terms of its commitment to sustainable development which is one of
its core values.
4 THE BENEFITS OF TRO
The fundamental difference between TRO and CT is that TRO largely eliminates the need for large
overburden dyke structures for containment and enables the independent management of sand and
fines through:
1. The construction establishment of DDA’s which allows for the direct treatment of MFT fluid
tailings into reclaimable deposits
2. The construction of Sand Dump structures which eliminates the need for large overburden dyke
structures
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Figure 4. TRO infrastructure layout.
This in turn decouples the mining operation from the tailings operation resulting in tailings
containment no longer being dependent on the availability of overburden which eliminates the risk
of material utilization and expensive pre-stripping associated with CT operations at Suncor.
A further benefit of TRO is that Sand Dumps and DDA’s do not require consolidation time as
is the case with CT ponds and can easily be incorporated into the reclamation landscape thereby
facilitating progressive reclamation. Figure 5 clearly shows the relative difference in the time
required to reclaim the landscape affected by surface mining between a TRO and CT operation. In
the case of TRO, the operation’s life cycle can be reduced from approximately 30 years to 10 years,
from the time mining commences to the time that a landscape is available for replanting and full
reclamation, by constructing sand dumps and DDA’s as opposed to tailings ponds.
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Figure 5. CT vs. TRO life cycle.
5 CONCLUSION
The implementation of TRO will reduce Suncor’s tailings management risk profile while affording
the opportunity to adopt a tailings management strategy in line with the objectives of D074 with
the following benefits:
• It reduces the need for long term storage of fluid tailings
• It reduces the need for external fluid containment
• It enables the progressive reclamation of the disturbed landscape rapidly increasing the pace
of reclamation
It will ultimately lead to the long term economic and environmental sustainability of Suncor and
the oil sands industry making the previously perceived “dirty” oil a lot more attractive to the public,
environmental groups, potential investors and international stakeholders.
REFERENCE
ERCB, (2009). Directive 074 – Tailings Performance Criteria and Requirements for Oil Sands Mining Schemes.
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Environmental issues
A landscape design approach for the sustainable reclamation activities

of a post-mining area in Cartagena, SE Spain
Sebla Kabas, Ángel Faz, Dora M. Carmona, Silvia Martínez-Martínez & Raúl Zornoza
Technical University of Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
Jose A. Acosta
Technical University of Cartagena, Murcia, Spain
University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT: Utilization of Cartagena-La Unión Mining District (SE Spain) for more than 2500
years created deleterious effects on the environment and human health because of its chemical and
physical characteristics. These effects can be ameliorated by the help of sustainable reclamation
activities which can be seen as a required solution in order to return the mining area to an acceptable
environmental condition. Sustainable reclamation activities, which require an extensive ecological
knowledge, have to consider landscape values and functionality of the area, with the attention to
the historical, socioeconomic and cultural aspects.
1 INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, mining has created landscapes of both wasteland and wonder, profoundly
altering the earth’s surface. The necessity to reclaim these post-mined landscapes raises important
issues of ecology, society, and aesthetics. Planning for ecological processes or new land uses were
absent in the process of mining reclamation, but today, however, with new regulations and height-
ened environmental concern for post-industrial and mined lands, designers are beginning to play
a vital role in the design of reclaimed mines. Consequently, new challenges for both scientists and
designers include rethinking reclamation strategies across disciplines, and designing for evolving
social and ecological landscapes that confront our perception of mining and its reclamation (Fisher,
2006).
Cartagena-La Unión Mining District is one of the post-mining areas in Iberian Peninsula in which
intense metal mining activity had been under operation for more than 2500 years. The activities
were ended in 1991. The area is located in Murcia Province, SE Spain (Fig. 1) and covers 50 km2 ,
including five population nuclei with around 20,000 total populations. The surroundings of the
mining area have a population of more than 200,000 inhabitants, including the city of Cartagena
and the rest of its Municipality. During the summer, the population dramatically increases because
of tourists who come to the Mar Menor Lagoon and Mediterranean Sea beaches. In the north, agri-
cultural areas; in the west, petrol refinery; in the south, Mediterranean Sea; and in the north-east,
one of the most important lagoon of Mediterranean Area, Mar Menor, is located. The altitudes
of the area occur between 0 and 500 m above sea level. The climate is semiarid Mediterranean,
long warm summers and short moderate winters with mean annual temperature of 18◦ C and mean
annual rainfall of 275 mm.
Formation of the area and regional climate conditions determine a natural flora adapted to
drought and high temperatures which are only found only in hills and small sites that contain small
formations of pine trees (Pinus halepensis) and groups of typically Mediterranean brushes with
xerophytic characteristics. Some of the thicket plant species are endemic in this zone and therefore
have a high botanic interest (Conesa et al. 2008).
The mines constituted the only economic activity during hundred of years for local people.
Mining-dependence caused a lot of population fluctuations with a decline from 30,000 citizens in
1900 to 13.900 in 1991 when the mining activity ceased.
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Figure 1. Cartagena-La Unión Mining District (Conesa, 2008).
But the environmental impacts of the long-history of mining activities in southeast Spain include
large areas of soils characterized by strong acidification processes, high salinity and accumulation
of metals. These mining activities have generated high amounts of sterile materials for many years;
the wastes are accumulated in pyramidal structures called tailing ponds. Throughout the area there
are 85 tailing ponds which contain materials of high Fe-oxyhydroxides, sulphates, and potentially
leachable elevated contents of heavy metals (mainly Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn) due to extreme acidic
conditions.
As a consequence, these mine soils have scarce or null vegetation due to very poor properties
of soil such as extremely low organic matter, and most of the natural vegetation formations are
degraded due to the atrophic use of the soil. While unvegetated tailings have been exposed to eolian
dispersion in the semiarid climate conditions of the region, on the other hand for a long time, these
mine residues have been transported downstream during periods of high rainfall and runoff; as a
consequence the pollutants have migrated long distances.
It is also possible to see some deleterious examples related to the public safety. For example in
the year 1972, the mine tailing Brunita collapsed due to the strong rainfalls, spreading the materials
in nearby areas and killing one person (Orozco et al. 1993). According to Ortega (1993) some of
the mine tailings are more than 20 m in height and cover an average area of 40,000 to 80,000 m2 ,
are unstable and difficult to eliminate. Close to two children school, one acid mine tailing was
reported with high concentrations of zinc, lead and arsenic (Conesa et al. 2008). Because of the
waste from mining operations was discharged directly into the inner part of the bay for more than
30 years, polluting the Mediterranean Sea for a radius of several kilometers, Portman Bay was
reported the most contaminated bay in the entire Mediterranean by Martinez-Frias (1997).
Remediation of these areas is required as these sites present an environmental hazard, especially
for agricultural and fisheries in the surrounding area. Recently the use of plants for removing heavy
metals from soil has received increased attention which is generally called phytoremediation (García
et al. 2003). But some soils are so heavily contaminated, like in Cartagena-La Unión, that removal of
metals using plants would take an unrealistic amount of time, so that an alternative phytoremediation
technique phytostabilization has been emerged. Phytostabilization is the use of metal tolerant plant
species to immobilize heavy metals through absorption and accumulation by roots, adsorption
onto roots, or precipitation within the rhizosphere, creates a new ecological condition in the area,
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prevents erosion and spreading of pollution, reduces metal mobility and bioavailability for entry
into the food chain. Using metal-tolerant species for stabilizing mine spoils also could provide
improved conditions for natural attenuation (Wong, 2003). Phytostabilization needs to use the native
plant species in which the mine tailings are found, appropriate to the harsh climate of semiarid
environments and native plants also avoid introduction of nonnative and potentially invasive species
that may result in decresing regional plant diversity (Mendez & Maier, 2008). Utilization of natural
plant species, especially in post-mining areas, is also necessary for landscape design for creating
a self-sustainable system. There is a growing evidence that phytostabilization can facilitate the
restoration of mining degraded land (Li, 2006). Several phytostabilization experiments held in the
area showed successful results such as recuperation of some soil properties. In Zanuzzi et al. (2009),
Carmona et al. (2010), it is possible to see the information related to phytostabilization trials in
the area and their results. Though the objective of the phytostabilization studies on the area mostly
relies on the achievement of recuperation of soil properties, the final object is to create a new
land use. By considering this in our aspect we tried to combine landscape design with solutions or
solution processes of environmental risks. Based on this knowledge; our purpose is to try to provide
a general approach related to the integration of landscape design and reclamation techniques.
2 MINE RECLAMATION & SUSTAINABILITY
Within the mining concept, reclamation refers to the general process whereby the mined wasteland
is returned to some forms of beneficial use. Other similar concepts, which are used as synonyms
of reclamation, are restoration and rehabilitation; in the abstract have different meanings.
While restoration refers to reinstatement of the pre-mining ecosystem in all its structural and
functional aspects; rehabilitation means the progression towards the reinstatement of the original
ecosystem. In fact; restoration and rehabilitation are impossible to realize in abandoned mining
areas, because turning back to their historical trajectory, especially in an area such as Cartagena-La
Unión Mining District, very old and full of human prints, can only be an imaginary way of thinking
(Mchaina, 2001; Fisher, 2006). According to Schulz & Wiegleb (2000), a pre-mining situation
does not exist and even if it did, it could never be restored. However reclamation does not attempt
to restore the landscape to its historical trajectory; rather it converts the land to a new land-use
and creates new ecological conditions. So that the concept of “reclamation” combines all measures
needed to make surface-mined landscapes productive and visually attractive again (Mchaina, 2001;
Fisher, 2006).
Mine reclamation has to be formed an integral part of the planning process which includes
feasibility studies and environmental impact assessment for new mines. Following objectives have
to be provided by the help of reclamation (Mchaina, 2001):
1. To allow a productive and sustainable post-mining use of the site which is acceptable to all
stakeholders
2. To protect public health and safety
3. To alleviate or eliminate environmental damage and as a result encourage environmental
sustainability
4. To conserve valuable attributes, and
5. To minimize adverse socio-economic impacts.
Accomplishment of these objectives by mine reclamation is directly related to the sustainable
character of mining reclamation activities.
The definition of sustainability, approved by FAO in 1998, is the handling and conservation of
natural resources and the orientation of technological and institutional change so as to ensure the
continuous satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations (Leitão & Ahern, 2002).
IUCN (1992) states; sustainable development is widely accepted as a strategic framework for
decisions on the future use of land. The principles of sustainable development imply that in develo-
ping land, ecological, social and economical functions are balanced in space and time to maintain
their potential to deliver goods and services to future generations (Termorshuizen et al. 2007).
In this context, decision making is, in the first place, on attributing targets for nature conservation,
quality of life or economic welfare to the landscape region. Secondly, it includes the assessment of
421
ecological, social and economic values and their interactions. Thirdly, decisions are made on the
allocation of land use functions (Termorshuizen et al. 2007).
3 LANDSCAPE VALUE & FUNCTION
To evaluate a specific form of resource management, for example, the maintenance of valuable
cultural landscapes, the contributions of many different viewpoints related to history, inhabitants,
legislations and etc. must be considered (Gómez-Sal et al. 2003). Landscape reclamation and design
is also the subject of resource management and requires the consideration of landscape values such
as natural value, historical value, productive value, socio-economic value.
The natural components of the landscape form the basis of all resources and ecological function-
ing of the landscape. Increasing fragmentation and losing their connectivity causes malfunctioning
and, consequently, restructuring of the environment. Many natural values remain as isolated relicts
lost in the superimposed landscape structured by man in a different way. For example, industrial
changes deform the structures, and thus their functioning, of the existing landscapes. In some
places, the landscape was even wiped away entirely to create a completely new landscape. Eco-
nomical rationalization controls it and all regional diversity and the identity of landscapes become
unrecognizable. The spirit or the character of the place is lost. Conservation of biological and
geological/geomorphologic remains is a first value to protect. This can be achieved by creating
buffer zones and connected isolated units by corridors in order to keep their functioning going. Land-
scape reclamation and creation are, therefore, additional instruments (Antrop, 2000). Sklenicka
et al. (2004) also supports the value of natural components by asserting biological diversity (at
all levels) and speed (success) of revitalization are the two key criteria for post-mining landscape
reclamation.
Many abandoned mines, despite their altered natural characteristics, have significant historical
value and should be protected from destruction, vandalism, and theft. The U.S. National Historic
Preservation Act established the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) as a federal listing of
cultural resources worthy of preservation. The NHRP is maintained by the National Park Service,
and to be eligible for listing, abandoned mine lands must be demonstrated to have significance
to history, architecture, engineering, or culture. The NHRP nomination process uses additional
criteria in order to determine the historic significance of sites, buildings, structures, and objects.
Besides meeting one or more of the NHRP criteria, a mine site generally must also be at least
50 years old, and have integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and
association in order to be eligible for inclusion. If a site has been compromised by significant
alterations, it may not be eligible (CAM, 2000). According to Antrop (2000) landscapes that are
made by society reflect the changing society and attitude towards the environment. Landscapes
reflect the superposition of all attempts man makes to adapt the environment to improve living
conditions. The landscape is full of past memories, which still have a strong symbolic value. This
can be seen clearly when they are exploited as tourist attractions.
Related to the historical-cultural value of Cartagena-La Unión Mining District several authors
asserted different ideas. Manteca & Berrocal (1997) related the mining elements with archaeo-
logical and geological value in order to justify the creation of a geo-mining and archaeological
park in the region. According to those authors the mining heritage elements in the Mining District
have two components regarding to their value: 1) an educational value to raise public awareness
about cultural, natural and historic resources and to a didactic tool for researchers and 2) their
socio-economic value, since they can constitute an important tourist attraction because of their
geographic situation near an important tourist focus. Rodríguez-Estrella et al. (2003) proposed the
use of mine tailings in didactic works because in these structures it is possible to identify sedimen-
tary structures very similar to old rocks although the age of the tailing is less than hundred years.
As a consequence, these authors consider these tailings like “natural laboratories with high didactic
and scientific interest”. The most important proposal, mentioned in La Verdad de Cartagena (2005)
and has already been made real, is based on the creation of a thematic park about mining, that is
considered the local mining heritage site with highest historic interest (Conesa et al. 2008).
Aesthetics and ecological sustainability are also two highly regarded landscape values (Gobster,
1999). In developed societies aesthetics plays a relevant role in public acceptance of landscape
interventions. The understanding of aesthetic aspects of landscape and clarification of its relation
422
to sustainable principles in a reclamation project presents itself as a useful tool, resolving potential
conflicts between ecology and sustainability principles and public perceptions and expectations
(Rodrigues-Ramos & Panagopoulos, 2007).While the sense for beauty is universal, the expression
of beauty may differ between regions, cultures and periods. Aesthetics are also found in the way
society organized the landscape during history. The most striking examples are found in gardening;
landscapes that are considered having ‘outstanding beauty’ are appreciated, receive a special legal
status and are sometimes protected. Cleanness and a well-maintained appearance of the landscape,
the durability which is expressed in its old age (represented by monuments) and its naturalness (as
a symbol for the slow evolution and growth) are positive landscape characteristics and generally
appreciated by people. For example, degraded and derelict land is without order, is not clean and not
well maintained, so it receives only a poor value and ‘attracts’ spontaneous waste dumping of any
kind and, thus, reinforces the degraded character (Antrop, 2000). Positive landscape characteristics
can provide an easier adoption of the local people to the new land use. Once adoption is provided,
protection and maintenance can be realized by the pleasure of local people.
High level ecosystems have a multifunctional feature which often serves more than one function.
But generally, there are one or two functions outstanding. Biological production function includes
cultivation, forestry, stock raising, fisheries and other agricultural production-oriented uses of land.
Cultural support function includes urban constructional purposes, such housing and infrastructure
uses. Environmental service function includes greening and tourist areas. Though such activities
are generally not part of pre-mining land uses, they are an important part of holistic land-use plans
and serve to implement the environmental service function of the landscape system. This function
is applied to degraded areas where agriculture cannot be developed, like in our case. Green area
development and rehabilitation supports the implementation of the environmental service function,
whose fundamental aim is to eliminate pollution in the mining area. Owing to the special status
given to green areas, special technology guarantees and meticulous care are needed at each stage of
development from feasibility analysis to land levelling, species selection, planting and managing. If
tourism function can be concentrated in those areas, it can also be possible to supply local industry
(Wang et al. 2001).
In order to create a successful and sustainable reclamation design it is important to recognize and
interpret the historic and cultural significance of the landscape, collaboration of different ecological
disciplines and to understand how “landscape ecology and design can invent alternative forms of
relationships between people, place, and cosmos, so that landscape design projects become more
about invention and programs rather merely corrective measures of restoration”. Without ecological
knowledge, new sustainable landscapes cannot be achieved (Hüttl & Gerwin, 2005; Loures &
Panagopoulos, 2007).
4 DESIGN STRATEGY
Derelict and degraded industrial areas can be filled with a new spirit and can be made worth living by
keeping visible the spirit of existing site, by applying design strategies that contribute to economic
prosperity, social cohesion and environmental quality (Loures & Panagopoulos, 2007). Punter
(2002) draw the limits with five fundamental principles that have to be integrated by landscape
reclamation design: protect and conserve the quality of landscapes; develop a clear vision and
strategy for an area; apply collaborative design principles; allow resources for long-term aftercare
of new landscapes; enhance biodiversity, social stability and economic development (Loures et al.
2006). While these principles aim to preserve the innate medium by giving a new vision to the area,
also they present the necessity of sustainability.
At this point also it is important to indicate that planning of land use cannot be restricted to the
determination of the uses of each field or land parcel. Landscape is not something to be used only
by the landowners, but also by temporary visitors: recreants, tourists, and neighbors. Landscape
is multifunctional and the design must be taken into account as a whole as well. Because each
element only gets its meaning, significance or value according to its position and relationship
with the surrounding elements. It should not be forgotten that changing one element always means
changing the whole in some way (Antrop, 2000).
Leitão & Ahern (2002) after their comparison related to several ecology based plannings, col-
lapsed the stages included by each method into five basic phases: (1) setting goals and objectives,
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Figure 2. Scheme of the landscape design approach in problematic areas.
(2) analysis, (3) diagnosis, (4) prognosis, and (5) syntheresis, or implementation. Some included
more recent planning methods and tools such as spatial modeling and GIS, alternative scenarios
and simulation techniques, monitoring, and the participation of stakeholders and public in general
into the planning process were found fundamental components of sustainable landscape planning.
Design strategy in our case (Fig. 2) has a similar mechanism with the ecology based plannings
that are mentioned above. But in our approach determination of objectives takes place after the
step of diagnosis instead of being in the beginning, because objectives are wanted to be established
related to the characterization of the area. This consideration can be explained with an approach
which can be applied in a situation of illness. Priorities should be directed to the recovery of the
person or living organism. On the other hand determination of the objectives without knowing the
characterization of the area can hinder the emerging of optimal potential land use. Giving a function
to the area according to its present situation is the base idea. Determination of landscape values
by examining landscape components is one of the step leads us to the function, but also solution
ways for environmental risks can canalize us to the same point. This feature can come forward in
problematic areas, like in Cartagena-La Unión, and can be formed according to the feature of the
problem.
The problematic features of the area can be transformed to a functional stage by providing their
association with landscape components. With a controlled usage such as tampon zones, fences
etc., physical character of tailing ponds or color of acid mine drainage pools can be seen aesthetic
and can provide a touristic attraction centre in the region. Solutions for environmental risks can be
combined with the main landscape value or specifically with one of the landscape components. For
example in our case phytostabilization can be seen the way of solution for various environmental
problems of the area, which can immobilize the heavy metals, thus prevent spreading of pollutants
to the surroundings and while the new vegetation cover creates a new ecological condition also it
can get erosion and participation of heavy metals to the food chain under control. Phytostabilization
process itself has a didactic value which can be utilized in a thematic park in order to improve the
knowledge of visitors. Also mining elements (tools, shafts, etc.) can be represented by providing
their safety; their educative and museum effect can be helpful in the reforming of the area. In this
424
situation didactic value can be the main value of the area which is prominent in all, or a sub-value
which is auxiliary for the main value.
Transformation of the ultimate decision of function to the landscape design has to be realized
delicately by professions from different disciplines.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Cartagena-La Union Mining District because of its fragmented land form has a potential for different
kinds of land use. But related to the physical and chemical hazards in the tailing ponds while
agriculture cannot be developed, environmental service function which includes recreational and
tourist areas emerges as an alternative land use for these ponds. With these alternative land uses
it is possible to carry out the elimination of pollution in the area simultaneously. Regarding to
phytostabilization which is planned to use in our case in order to eliminate pollution and achieve
self sustainable revegetation, it is thought to make a combination between potential land values and
resolution advisories for environmental risks. According to the values and solutions, recreational
area can serve for different aims such as thematic park or geo-mining and archaeological park etc.
Each tailing pond can have its own characteristics and has to be investigated in order to determine
the potential abilities.
Beside the considerations such as recovery of environmental conditions, generation economic
opportunities, maintenance of historic and cultural values, development of aesthetic values; land-
scape design and planning has to establish relationships between people, place, and cosmos. Study
areas have to be taken into account with their surroundings regarding to the holism principle.
Landscape design approach, which is emerged related to phytostabilization studies in Cartagena-
La Union Mining District, required associations between landscape values and solutions. By
considering this association a general approach was tried to explain in order to light the way
for similar cases.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been funded by the Project No: CP-IP 213968-2 IRIS, funded by the European Union
FP7. R. Zornoza acknowledges a “Juan de la Cierva” contract from the Ministry of Science and
Innovation of the Government of Spain. J.A. Acosta acknowledges a grant from Fundacion Seneca
of Comunidad Autónoma de Murcia (Spain).
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Priority setting in Idaho’s Coeur d’Alene Basin
Bill Adams
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Daniel R. Pitzler
CH2M HILL
ABSTRACT: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region 10 is in the process of
developing a comprehensive cleanup plan in the Upper Basin of the South Fork Coeur d’Alene
River. The cleanup is a complex project addressing widespread contamination from over a hundred
years of mining activity of multiple constituents over a broad geographical area in hundreds of
locations affecting land and water, with significant uncertainty and many stakeholders. This paper
reports on the approach EPA is using to make decisions and prioritize actions for this project, which
includes three main elements: 1). the adaptive management paradigm, in which future actions are
refined based on what is learned from initial actions; 2). a Multi-attribute Utility Model (MAU)
which prioritizes actions in accordance with multiple objectives; and 3). a predictive analysis to
estimate water quality goals at a distant point after remedial actions are taken.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Bunker Hill Mining and Metallurgical Complex Superfund site (“Bunker Hill Superfund site”)
is located in Coeur d’Alene Basin of northern Idaho and eastern Washington (Figure 1). Mining
and smelting in the Coeur d’ Alene Basin began in the 1880s, and the area became one of the
leading silver-, lead- and zinc-producing areas in the world. After over 100 years of mining,
milling, smelting and related activities, the Coeur d’Alene Basin now contains high levels of
mining contamination in the soil, sediment, surface water, and groundwater. The site was listed
on the National Priorities List (NPL) in 1983. It includes mining-contaminated areas in the Coeur
d’Alene River corridor, adjacent floodplains, downstream water bodies, tributaries and fill areas.
The metals contamination poses both human health and environmental risks.
As a result of past mining, milling, and smelting practices, substantial portions of the Basin
contain elevated concentrations of lead, zinc, cadmium, and other metals. Elevated concentrations
of metals resulted primarily from the discharge or erosion of over 62 million tons of mill tailings
and other mine-generated wastes into rivers and streams which, in turn, carried these wastes into
downstream streambeds, floodplains, and shorelines throughout the Upper and Lower Basins.
Contaminated media include surface water, groundwater, soil, and sediments. Contaminants of
concern are metals, particularly lead, arsenic, cadmium, and zinc. Some significant details on the
history of milling and tailings disposal practices in the Basin are summarized below.
• Approximately 62 million tons of tailings were discharged to the Coeur d’Alene Basin after
mining began.
• Tailings were frequently used as fill material for residential and commercial construction
projects.
• Until 1968, tailings tended to be discharged directly into the South Fork of the Coeur d’Alene
River (SFCDR) or its tributaries. Most of the tailings were transported downstream, particularly
during high-flow events, and deposited as solid tailings or as tailings/sediment mixtures in beds,
banks, and floodplain areas. Since 1968, all mill tailings have been placed in impoundments or
returned as fill to provide structural support to active mines.
• Mining activities generated large volumes of waste rock and discharged water from mine
openings (adits) that contained high concentrations of metals.
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Figure 1. Bunker Hill Superfund Site Location.
• Particulates released to the air from smelting operations contained high concentrations of metals.
The particulates were transported by the wind and were deposited throughout the Bunker Hill
Box area (Box). (The Box is a 21-square-mile area surrounding the former smelter complex.)
• High concentrations of metals are pervasive in the soil, sediments, surface water and groundwater
in the Basin; these metals pose substantial risks to the people, plants, and animals that inhabit
the Basin.
• Elevated blood levels in children living in the Basin have been documented for more than 15
years.
• Migratory birds and mammals have died due to ingestion of lead-contaminated soil and sediments
in the Basin.
• Contamination from mining activities to surface water, soil, sediments, and biotic tissues have
caused increased mortality and decreased survival, growth, and reproduction to various plant
and animals, particularly fish and waterfowl (Stratus 2000; EPA 2001b, c).
EPA has been conducting cleanup actions at the site since the 1980s. To date, remedial activities
at the Bunker Hill Superfund Site have focused primarily on human exposure. Remedial actions
have included, but are not limited to:
• Hillside erosion control work, hydroseeding, terracing, and revegetation (over 1,000,000 trees
planted since 1992).
• Source removal and creek restoration and reconstruction.
• Surface drainage improvements.
• Upgrades to the Central Water Treatment Facility (CTP).
• Removal and consolidation of approximately 4 million cubic yards of contaminated materials.
• Demolition of industrial complex structures.
• Capping of more than 800 acres to eliminate direct exposure to contaminants.
• Removal of approximately 1.4 million cubic yards of contaminated materials from stream banks,
mine sites, and floodplains, and placement in repositories.
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• Institutional controls have been put into place in the Upper Basin and other areas to ensure the
protection of the human health remedies.
• Cleanup of over 5,000 residential properties and rights-of-way.
2 PROPOSED CLEANUP PLAN
Over the past two years, EPA and its partners have been evaluating Bunker Hill Superfund site
cleanup activities in operable units (OUs) 1, 2 and 3 to develop a comprehensive, prioritized
cleanup approach for the Upper Coeur d’Alene Basin. The Upper Basin includes the South Fork of
the Coeur d’Alene River and its tributaries downstream to where they combine with the North Fork,
and the Box. The new cleanup approach is being undertaken in part to address National Academy of
Sciences recommendations, to incorporate improved knowledge of the Upper Basin and Box and to
move forward on OU 2 Phase II cleanup activities. For example, additional data have been collected
during the ongoing monitoring program, actions completed as selected mine and mill sites, and
site-specific studies (EPA 2004). This effort led to development of a Focused Feasibility Study
(EPA 2010), and will identify and select additional remedial actions for the Upper Basin and Box
in an amendment to the record of decision (ROD) for the site (EPA 2002). The ROD amendment
is also planned to include actions to protect the human health remedy by addressing local drainage
issues. Implementation of the new cleanup plan will provide a framework for reducing the amount
of metals getting into streams and meeting environmental benchmarks that are necessary to protect
fish, wildlife and provide a better quality of life for residents.
This plan is intended to be more comprehensive in nature in order to provide for human and
ecological protection for surface water. This plan will include actions at a larger number of Mine
and Mill sites and sources areas (over 300 sites), removals of tailings in floodplains, protection
of existing remedies, treatment of groundwater from selected areas in order to reduce metal load-
ing to surface water, and hydraulic controls to isolate contaminated groundwater for extraction.
Simultaneously with this work, EPA is collecting additional information for the Lower Basin. This
work begins to address the complex interactions of sediment transport and deposition; sources
and mobility of lead; river, lake, and floodplain interactions; and their relevant to environmen-
tal risk and remediation. This work could lead to a future ROD Amendment for this portion of
the site.
The outcome of this effort will be an Implementation Plan that will prioritize and guide the
actions selected in the Upper Basin ROD Amendment. This will be a separate “living document”
that will lay out a strategy for identifying priority projects that would be implemented in the near
term. The Implementation Plan will be a component of an overall Adaptive Management Plan
for the Upper Basin. Adaptive management is a process in which decisions are made as part of
an ongoing science-based process. It involves testing, monitoring, and evaluating applied strate-
gies, and incorporating new knowledge into management approaches that are based on scientific
findings. The Implementation Plan and the Adaptive Management Plan will be tools to help EPA
and others make better decisions as more information becomes available on the effectiveness of
initial cleanup actions, and will provide the framework for the implementation of future actions.
The Implementation Plan will be updated and modified on a regular basis to guide future decision
making and to determine when sufficient actions have been taken to meet the objectives of the
Upper Basin ROD Amendment.
The Implementation Plan will consider a number of key factors such as metals loading to surface
water, the potential for recontamination of clean areas, and the degree to which each remedial action
is expected to reduce risks to human health and the environment. Other factors to be considered
include whether water treatment would be required, whether repository space is needed, whether
restoration work is planned, construction staging and design needs, coordination with local infras-
tructure or public works projects, potential environmental issues associated with the actions (e.g.,
the impacts of access roads), erosion potential, accessibility to children, and local community and
stakeholder input. Another important consideration will be the amount of funding available on
an annual basis. Consideration of these factors will help guide this important cleanup work and
provide transparency on how cleanup decisions will be made, the expected outcomes, and progress
towards meeting the objectives of the Upper Basin ROD Amendment.
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3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
EPA faces a number of challenges as it seeks to prioritize a large list of sites that represent primarily
a risk to the environment, including:
• Where to start
• How to take action when significant uncertainty is present
– Contaminant pathways and recontamination potential
– The extent of contamination at individual sites
– The effectiveness and cost of various treatment options
– The amount of money that will be available for cleanup
• How to ensure that it gets the “most bang for the buck”
• How to make use of lessons learned from cleanup actions and incorporate most recent data
For the ecological remedy, EPA identified three priority issues for environmental protection that
focus cleanup activities on reducing exposures to dissolved metals (particularly zinc and cadmium)
in rivers and streams, lead in floodplain soil and sediment, and particular lead in surface water.
3.1 Sites
The ecological cleanup consists of more than 300 sites. Over the course of many years, EPA
has developed a database with information about each site including its location, access issues,
ownership, distance to water bodies, habitat, contaminant levels, proposed remedy, projected
remedy effectiveness, and estimated costs. One key issue is the enormity and cost of characterizing
that many sites to a level sufficient for decision making. There is considerable uncertainty about
much of the available information about the sites.
The remedies proposed range from passive and active water treatment, excavation of waste
rock, tailings, and floodplain sediments, hydraulic isolation of contaminated materials, capping,
regarding, and revegetation of consolidated wastes, and stream and riparian improvements.
3.2 Stakeholder objectives

Additional complexity was added to the ecological cleanup by the many different organizations and
individuals with stakes in the outcome. These stakeholders represent a wide range of views on what
factors are the most important for prioritization of the cleanup work in the basin. EPA works closely
with a wide range of stakeholders, including state and federal, tribal, and local governments and
communities, to identify and implement cleanup actions in the Coeur d’Alene Basin. This includes
coordination with the Coeur d’Alene Basin Environmental Improvement Project Commission (the
Basin Commission), which was established by the Idaho State Legislature. The Basin Commission
is composed of federal, state, tribal, and local governmental stakeholders, and its purpose is
coordination of cleanup activities, environmental restoration, and related measures in the Basin.
Stakeholder Committees include a Citizens Coordinating Council (CCC), Technical Leadership
Group, Project Focus Team (PFT) that provided technical and citizen perspectives into the decision
making process. EPA serves as the federal government’s representative to the Basin Commission.
EPA will continue to be responsible for seeing that cleanup actions in the Coeur d’Alene Basin
meet the goals and requirements of decision documents and the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA).
3.3 Development of the adaptive management and structured decision making framework
The uncertainties and complexities of this project noted above resulted in many challenges at the
onset of the project to develop a unified understanding of key project issues and an effective frame-
work for evaluation. In response, EPA used structured decision techniques from the field of decision
analysis. A series of facilitated workshops were held with senior staff to explore objectives, key
decisions, data availability and quality, boundary conditions, stakeholder roles, and uncertainties.
The results of these workshops was a significant improvement in the understanding of the problem
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at hand, and a roadmap and framework for subsequent action, including the use of adaptive man-
agement and a structured approach to decision making that includes multi-attribute utility (MAU)
for prioritization.
4 ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING APPROACH
4.1 Background and the case for adaptive management

The Comprehensive Remedy for the Coeur d’Alene Basin identifies EPA’s best estimates regarding
implementation of and expenditures for final human health and environmental cleanup actions for
OU 3 (Grandinetti 2007). It recognizes that additional actions beyond the human health remedy
will be required for protection of the environment. Thus, EPA developed a comprehensive remedy
approach to ecological protection in the Basin. EPA faces a number of challenges in managing
remedy implementation and prioritization of actions, including the following:
• Budgets are relatively well known for any current budget cycle but are highly uncertain in future
years. Increased funding levels are likely, but the magnitude and duration of that increase is
unknown.
• The final, available budget and the number of years required for implementation is uncertain.
• While much study has been done, there is still much to learn about contaminant sources, methods
of contaminant transport, and the cost and effectiveness of remedies.
In light of these uncertainties, EPA evaluated various evaluation frameworks (CH2M HILL 2008),
and embraced MAU and the adaptive management paradigm under which decision making will be
iterative (i.e., results will be evaluated and actions adjusted on the basis of what is learned). EPA’s
ecological cleanup priorities will be addressed as follows:
1. Develop MAU model to prioritize the Upper Basin ecological cleanup actions outlined in the
Comprehensive Remedy and those identified for the Box.
2. Adjust the results of the MAU model to account for other factors such as implementation effi-
ciency, recontamination potential, developing fish corridors vs. pristine habitat, opportunity
sites with pending development proposals, potential for revised actions to remove additional
metals, stakeholder impacts, and human health benefits.
3. Adjust activities and funding levels in a manner that reflects the MAU model results and best
meets long-term objectives based on the judgment of EPA staff.
4. Modify and adjust the approach and workplan after consulting with EPA management and key
stakeholders, such as the State of Idaho.
5. Modify the approach at appropriate times as EPA learns more about the uncertain aspects of the
cleanup.
EPA’s implementation plan will address near-term resource needs for three main categories of
activities:
– Monitoring (including status/trend and project effectiveness)
– Predesign (including studies and developing the Lower Basin CSM)
– Remedial design
4.2 Multi-attribute utility model

MAU is a quantitative technique for making decisions that involve multiple financial, environmen-
tal, and social objectives (Keeney & Raiffa 1976). MAU is a useful framework for prioritization
because it is theoretically sound, relatively simple in concept, and it provides insight to decision
makers and stakeholders. It provides an explicit understanding of why one action is preferred over
another—that is, the extent to which an action is consistent with the preferences of the decision
maker. It is also an excellent approach for communicating with external stakeholders. EPA involved
stakeholders in the MAU approach, including discussions about the objectives hierarchy, scoring
of actions against objectives, and the relative importance of objectives. The output from the process
is visual and communicates results clearly.
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Table 1. Objectives hierarchy and performance measures.
Objectives Hierarchy Performance Measure
1. Reduce dissolved metals (zinc) in surface waters to (Reduction in metal loading by remediating the
protect ecological receptors (fish) source) × (river miles from source to Harrison,
Idaho)
2. Reduce particulate metal (lead) in soils/sediments in
lakes, wetlands, riparian, and riverine areas to protect
ecological receptors (waterfowl, other wildlife)
2a. Protect receptors in vicinity of source area Acres of lake, wetland, riverine, or riparian habitat
addressed by the action
2b. Protect receptors downstream (Pounds per day of particulate lead removed by
remediating the source) × (river miles from
source to Harrison, Idaho)
The MAU prioritization approach consists of the following steps:

1. Define objectives for prioritization.
2. Determine the list of activities to be prioritized.
3. Develop a method of measuring how well each activity meets the objectives, then score each
activity accordingly and normalize each score on a 0–1 basis.
4. Develop weights that represent the relative importance of each objective.
5. Develop a total score for each activity, representing the total “value” of that activity toward
cleaning up the Basin, calculated as a weighted average of scores and weights (assuming linear
value measures).
6. Prepare a value-cost ratio for each activity.
7. Rank each activity on the basis of value and value-cost ratio.
8. Test the sensitivity of the rankings to differences in relative weights.
The model is a spreadsheet-based tool that can be updated easily as new data are developed,
adjusted to reflect different opinions about the importance of various factors, and can be used to
show benefit to dollar spent. The objective of the MAU model is stated as follows:
Prioritize remedial actions in the Upper Basin and Box to identify a smaller number of sites for
near-term implementation and provide insight into managing this project.
The objectives hierarchy and performance measures for the model are shown in Table 1. As
indicated, the model will identify those sites that have the highest potential for improving surface
water quality for ecological receptors by reducing dissolved metals and improving soil sediment
quality for ecological receptors by reducing particulate metal. The assessment of how well each
action performs on these criteria was developed using the projected results of proposed remedies
at each site based on existing data.
The initial weights assessed by the project team, and validated with the PFT, are approximately
a 60–40 split of relative importance for the two main objectives. Sub-objective 2b was viewed
as being slightly more important than Objective 2a. The sensitivity of results to changes in these
weights is an important part of the initial MAU analysis.
The resulting value score for each action is divided by the current estimate of the long-term life
cycle cost of each action (in present value terms) resulting in a value-cost ratio. Actions are then
ranked in descending order of value-cost ratio.
As indicated above, there are a number of other factors that are important to consider when
deciding which actions should be undertaken first, and how much money should be spent on
remedial actions versus monitoring, predesign, and design. These factors are considered when
developing specific implementation plans. As time goes on, better information will be available
to refine value scores and costs. This framework is flexible and can be updated and modified
consistent with the principles of adaptive management.
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4.3 Predictive tool
A predictive tool was developed during the Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) for
the Coeur d’Alene Basin (EPA 2001a), to provide point estimates of post-remediation surface water
quality. Specifically, the tool predicted average dissolved zinc loading in the SFCDR at Pinehurst
and in the Coeur d’Alene River at Harrison, Idaho following the implementation of different
remedial alternatives identified in the RI/FS. However, it would be time consuming and extremely
complex to use the original predictive tool to estimate the combined contribution of hundreds of
contaminated sites on water quality. The process was further complicated by the need to evaluate
the time-frame for achieving the ambient water quality criteria (AWQC) at Pinehurst and Harrison
following remediation. This evaluation also required estimates of source depletion or decay over
time.
As part of remedy planning and implementation, EPA evaluated different uses of the predictive
analysis to help prioritize cleanup actions. EPA recognized the importance of being able to present
the technical basis for prioritizing cleanup actions in a manner that is understood by the public
and other key stakeholders. EPA has assessed additional information, including new data collected
since the RI/FS that could be used to predict cleanup effectiveness and prioritize cleanup actions.
As a result, EPA (2006) developed a simplified approach to the predictive analysis. The simplified
tool allows for the evaluation of source areas and the potential benefits of specific remedial actions
for smaller segments of a stream versus the aggregated source areas and remedial actions evaluated
using the predictive analysis. The simplified version also includes the evaluation of particulate
lead loading. This is of particular importance because a significant amount of particulate lead
transported downstream to the Lower Basin is derived from sources within the Upper Basin. The
goal is for this simplified approach to be more readily understood and reproducible by a variety of
technical staff and interested parties within the Basin. This will be helpful as additional data are
collected and information regarding the impact of sources and remedial actions on water quality
are further refined.
The simplified version of the predictive analysis uses data collected synoptically (during the
same time period) at two monitoring locations to determine the gain in metal loading attributable to
sources located between the upstream and downstream monitoring locations. Similar to the original
predictive tool, sources of dissolved zinc loading associated with adits, seeps, groundwater, and
other discrete discharges are separated out because they represent a direct input of loading to the
stream in the reach. For particulate lead, loading from groundwater is considered to be minimal
based on groundwater quality data collected within the Basin and therefore is not assigned a
contribution to load. In the analysis, if data is not available for a given discrete discharge source,
the contribution of that source is assumed to be zero for both dissolved zinc and particulate lead.
After the removal of the contribution from direct inputs of loading to the stream reach, all
remaining sources between the two monitoring locations are then segregated and identified based
on their source material type. The source material types were identified originally in the predictive
analysis (URS 2001). For each source material type, a relative loading potential (RLP) for dissolved
zinc was developed in the predictive analysis. The RLP of a given source type is an index of the
average contribution of metal load from that source type to the river per cubic yard of source
material. The RLP therefore provides an estimate of the relative propensity of a source type to
contribute metal load to the river. Source types with the highest propensity to contribute metal
load were assigned an RLP of 1.0 and other source types were scaled proportionally. For example,
adits were assigned an RLP of 1.0 because their loading is contributed directly to the river. Table 2
presents the RLPs for source types within the Upper Basin from the predictive analysis. For the
simplified version of the predictive analysis, the RLPs identified in the predictive analysis for
dissolved zinc sources were retained as the best available estimates. The RLPs for dissolved zinc
loading were retained for particulate lead with the exception of deeper floodplain sediments. This
was done because to a degree, the RLPs for dissolved zinc were based on the propensity for source
materials to come into direct contact with surface water and storm water. It is recognized that the
RLPs for particulate lead will need to be revised as data are evaluated, but at this time, it is believed
that they represent the best available RLP estimates for particulate lead.
For each source type, the RLP and the volume of the source type were multiplied to obtain a
relative total volume. From the relative total volume, the percentage contribution and estimated
metal load contribution for each source type were calculated.
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Table 2. Relative loading potentials.
Dissolved Zinc Relative Total Lead Relative

Source Material Type Loading Potential* Loading Potential
Adit Drainage** 1.0 1.0

Floodplain Sediments 0.795 0.795
Deeper Floodplain Sediments 0.166 0
Impounded Tailings, inactive facilities 0.143 0.143
Impounded Tailings, active facilities 0.143 0.143
Unimpounded Tailings 0.404 0.404
Waste Rock with Loading Potential*** 0.059 0.059
Waste Rock without Loading Potential*** 0.003 0.003
* All Relative Loading Potentials from Predictive Analysis (URS 2007), except as noted.
** Includes seeps.
*** Loading potential of waste rock as reported in the RI/FS (URS 2001).
Table 3. Remedial effectiveness factors.

Source Type and Remedial Action Dissolved Zinc Remedial Effectiveness Factor*
Adit Drainage
Passive Treatment 0.11
Active Treatment 0.01
Floodplain Sediments
Excavation/disposal in repository 0.01
Hydraulic isolation at discrete facilities 0.18
Hydraulic isolation of stream reaches 0.25
Tailings: Impounded, Inactive Facilities
Hydraulic Isolation 0.22
Tailings: Unimpounded
Cap 0.05
Waste Rock: With Loading Potential
Regrade/cover 0.46
Cap 0.05
Waste Rock: upland, little loading potential
Regrade/cover 0.46
*Dissolved Zinc Remedial Effectiveness Factors from Predictive Analysis (URS 2007).
For each source, the remedial actions and their associated remedial effectiveness factors were
identified. Dissolved zinc remedial effectiveness factors were developed as part of the predictive
tool and are summarized by source type and remedial action in Table 3. The remedial effectiveness
factors indicate the degree to which loading from the contaminant source will be present following
remediation on a scale from zero to 1. Therefore, remedial actions anticipated to be the most
effective are assigned remedial effectiveness factors closer to zero and for sources where no action
is selected a remedial effectiveness factor of 1.0 is assigned.
Remedial effectiveness factors for particulate lead are also presented in Table 3. The remedial
effectiveness factors for particulate lead were revised from the dissolved zinc remedial effectiveness
factors based on professional judgment to reflect the estimated impact of remedial actions on the
release of particulate lead from source materials. Remedial actions involving the removal and
capping of source materials would be expected to have the greatest impact on reducing particulate
lead releases from source materials. Actions that focus on limiting the transport of metals through
groundwater/surface water interaction or groundwater movement (such as, hydraulic isolation and
434
groundwater cutoff walls) would not be anticipated to have an appreciable impact on particulate
lead release. Lead is typically either not present or present at low concentrations in groundwater
and then only in areas with relatively acidic groundwater conditions.
The estimated dissolved zinc load contribution for each source is then multiplied by the remedial
effectiveness factor for the selected remedial action to estimate the dissolved zinc loading associated
with each source that would be expected to remain following remediation. The resulting zinc and
lead load potential for each remedial action were used as inputs to the MAU model.
4.4 Stakeholder engagement

The EPA and State used a variety of different forums to communicate with stakeholders including
regular meetings with the CCC and PFT, newsletters, public open houses, and public service
announcements in local newspapers and radio stations. The PFT and Natural Resource Trustees
were engaged on a regular basis during development of the predictive tool and MAU model to
provide guidance and feedback on objectives and how the models are used. Many PFT and Trustee
members had intimate knowledge of sites, the likely effectiveness of remedial action, and the
potential for win-win solutions that could also result in habitat restoration. Their input led to many
modifications and adjustments to help ensure that actions taken will result in as much benefit as
possible.
In addition to stakeholder input, EPA’s National Remedy Review Board has reviewed the Basin
FFS and recognized the importance of an Implementation Plan for such a large project. The Board
also commented that final decision documents should include a description of the procedures for
developing and updating an implementation plan.
4.5 Implementation approach

Implementation plans were developed for two assumed funding streams: $15 m/year; $25 m/year.
The plans were established by year for the first five years, under the assumption that future plans
would be developed based on lessons learned during the initial five years. The plans were developed
using MAU principles accounting for other important factors such as: implementation efficiency,
Recontamination potential, developing fish corridors vs. pristine habitat, opportunity sites with
pending development proposals, potential for revised actions to remove additional metals, stake-
holder impacts, and human health benefits. A diagram that shows the process that will be used to
manage implementation is shown in Figure 2.
The initial plans were modified and adjusted after consulting key stakeholders, TLG, CCC,
Community etc., then adaptive management principles are used to monitor and modify as more is
learned.
The plans assume that BEMP for monitoring would continue each year. Development of a
regional repository was placed on the critical path because it is needed for cleanup of many mine-mill
sites: a new repository was assumed to be online in 3–4 years.
Remedy protection was also a high priority during implementation. There are some remedies
that are at risk of failure during flood events. Priority areas for protection were developed using
criteria developed by EPA, DEQ, and local officials.
Water treatment is required to manage the largest zinc loading sites. This will require an expansion
of the Central Treatment Plant (CTP) and developing an Upper Basin Influent Pipeline. The CTP
expansion is on the critical path so that two key actions (the Box drains and Woodland Park drains)
can proceed. The influent pipeline is somewhat less critical because it is needed for somewhat more
remote sites requiring water treatment.
Mine and mill sites are addressed as funds are available. However, some sites are included in
the initial five-year plan to “show progress” and obtain data about cleanup effectiveness that can
inform future actions. The sites included show high value and value to cost ratio in the MAU model.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The ecological cleanup of the Coeur d’Alene Basin is complex with significant uncertainty about
individual sites and remedy effectiveness, substantial costs that are also uncertain, engaged
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Figure 2. Implementation plan approach.
stakeholders, and multiple, conflicting objectives. EPA used a predictive tool, a MAU model,
and structured venues for receiving stakeholder feedback to develop an approach for initial imple-
mentation. These processes and tools have proven to be effective methods of prioritizing actions in
the face of daunting complexity and uncertainty. As actions are completed, EPA will use adaptive
management to monitor the effectiveness of those actions and refine the predictive tool and MAU
model for use in subsequent implementation planning.
REFERENCES
CH2M HILL. 2008. Coeur d’Alene Basin Comprehensive Remedy: Overview of Planning and Prioritiza tion
Tools, Technical Memorandum. Prepared for U.S. EPA. September 12, 2008.
EPA. 2001a. Coeur d’Alene Basin Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study. Prepared by URS-Greiner Inc.
and CH2M HILL. October 2001.
EPA. 2001b. Human Health Risk Assessment for the Coeur d’Alene Basin Extending from Harrison to Mullan
on the Coeur d’Alene River and Tributaries. Prepared by Terragraphics Environmental Engi neering, Inc.
June 2001.
EPA. 2001c. Technical Memorandum, Interim Fisheries Benchmarks for the Initial Increment of Remed iation
in the Coeur D’Alene Basin, Final. September 2001.
EPA. 2002. Record of Decision, Bunker Hill Mining and Metallurgical Complex Operable Unit 3 (Coeur
d’Alene Basin), Shoshone County, Idaho. EPA DCN:2.9. September 2002.
EPA. 2004. Basin Environmental Monitoring Plan – Bunker Hill Mining and Metallurgical Complex, OU3.
March 2004.
EPA. 2006. Analytical Tools to Assess Benefits of Cleanup Alternatives on Surface Water Quality in the Future –
Strawman Concept and Proposal. November 27, 2006.
EPA, 2010. Draft Focused Feasibility Study Report for the Coeur d’Alene River, Bunker Hill Mining and
Metallurgical Complex Superfund Site.
436
Grandinetti, C. 2007. Report of the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s Comprehensive Cleanup
Approach for the Coeur d’Alene Basin. June 14, 2007.
Keeney, R. & Raiffa, H. 1976. Decisions with Multiple Objectives. Cambridge University Press.
URS. 2001. Probabilistic Analysis of Post-Remediation Metal Loading, Technical Memorandum (Revi sion 1).
Prepared for U.S. EPA. September 2001.
Stratus Consulting. 2000. Report of Injury Assessment and Injury Determination: Coeur d’Alene Ba sin Natural
Resource Damage Assessment. Prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Forest Service, and the Coeur d’Alene Tribe.
URS. 2007. A Predictive Analysis for Post-Remediation Metal Loading, Coeur d’Alene Basin RI/FS Technical
Memorandum. Prepared for U.S. EPA. October 2007.
437
Acid mine drainage as a sustainable solution to eliminate risk

and reduce costs
James Cormier
Xstrata Zinc, Brunswick Mine, New Brunswick, Canada
ABSTRACT: Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is used to geochemically sequester dissolved sulfides
in process water. The sulfides are a product of sulfide reduction in a reclaim process water pond.
They create sustainable development risks as they produce hydrogen sulfide, other Total Reduced
Sulfur compounds (TRS), and increase the alkalinity of the water.
1 DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY
Brunswick Mine commenced operations in the early 1960’s and to date has extracted more than
135 million tonnes of ore from the deposit. Located 20 kilometers southwest of Bathurst, New
Brunswick, Canada, the site continues to be one of the largest lead/zinc mines in the world,
producing zinc, lead, copper and bulk concentrates. Brunswick Mine employs 950 people, and is
expected to cease operations within 2 years, when the orebody is depleted.
Currently, Brunswick operates at a planned mining and milling rate of 9,200 tonnes per day of
complex lead, zinc, copper and silver sulphide ore. Four concentrates are produced by selective
flotation.
The major mining methods at Brunswick were summarized with the assistance of Barb Rose,
P.Eng, Senior Design Engineer; Brunswick’s mining methods have progressed from blast hole open
stoping during the 1960’s, to cut-and-fill mining in 1970, and open stoping method with primary
stopes and secondary pillars in 1985. A modified Avoca method has also been employed in areas
with weak wall rock. Since 1996 the operation has been in transition to the use of smaller stopes
and pillarless mining. This enables better control of the ground around the open stopes, and limits
stress concentrations that in the past have led to instability of the remaining pillars. The use of paste
backfill has allowed full pillarless mining as well as destress blasting of highly stressed ground
with access via tunnels in paste to recover the remaining ore (Rose, personal communication, June
2010).
In 1998, a Semi-Autogenous Grinding (SAG) Mill replaced the crushing, rod mill and primary
ball mill circuits in the concentrator. In 2000 implementation of a paste backfill process enabled
the conversion of the backfill quarry to a retention pond to increase the amount of reclaim water
used for the milling process. In 2005, another project was executed to expand the storage volume
of the “reclaim quarry” to allow for a sustainable treatment of thiosalts.
Figure 1 provides a simplified flow sheet for the concentrator. The overall flow sheet involves
SAG milling, secondary ball milling, selective flotation, and dewatering by thickening, filtering
and drying. The complexity of the flow sheet evolves from the requirements for extremely fine
grinding and the production of the four concentrates: Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu) and Bulk
(Pb + Zn) through metallurgical beneficiation (Deredin, 2008).
Since 2005, consumption of pH modifying reagents used in the ore milling process has con-
sistently increased. During 2007 and 2008, odors of total reduced sulfur compounds from the
reclaim quarry became an issue as these odors impacted the air quality in the underground work-
ings, through the ventilation system. During 2009, the concentrations of these odors increased to
a level where the entire mine site, as well as the surrounding community (distance of 13 km) were
impacted for several weeks, until a solution was developed.
439
Figure 1. Concentrator flow sheet (Roberts, 2008).
2 WATER QUALITY
2.1 Recycling rate

Over the years, Brunswick Mine has evolved their processes to reduce the fresh water consumption
of the milling processes. Jean-Guy Paulin, Six Sigma Black Belt and Energy Management has
been appointed to champion the processes related to water management. The evolution of water
use at Brunswick has included the implementation of recycling loops, directing the tailings to the
tailings basin as a 30% solids solution, and the water is reclaimed back to the mill, for re-use.
Prior to 2001, the reclaim system had very limited storage capacity and the mill’s ability to recycle
water was constrained by the flow from the tailings decant tower. To remove this constraint and to
maximize the recycling rate, a reservoir was required to balance the peak flow requirements, and
ensure the milling requirements would not be compromised. In 2001, a paste backfill system for
filling underground voids was constructed. This made the rock quarry redundant, and enabled it to
be converted to a reservoir for the storage of process water. This quarry measures approximately
500 meters by 500 meters, to depth of 20 meters. Storage of 1.25 million Cubic meters (m3 ) was
achieved using a depth 5 meters of process water. This enabled the mill to increase the recycling
rate from 48% to 64%, while reducing the fresh water withdrawal rate from the Nepisiguit River by
20%. This recycle rate increase also contributed to a step change in concentrations of parameters
in the mill process water, since the reduction in fresh water used reduced the dilution of the process
water (Roberts 2008).
2.2 Thiosalts
The milling process creates partially oxidized intermediate sulfur compounds, these compounds,
−2
(thiosalts) are in the form Sn O−2
m . The majority of thiosalts are Thiosulphate (S2 O3 ), Trithionate
(S3 O−2
6 ), and Tetrathionate (S O
4 6
−2
). Thiosalt neutralization is not achieved in the conventional lime
neutralization process used in the Brunswick Mine Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP). Technology
to treat thiosalts in water involves completion of the reaction by oxidation to stable sulfates, and
neutralizing the resulting acidic solution. During the spring and summer months, the thiosalts are
oxidized in the receiving water of the Brunswick Mine effluent. This oxidation resulted in pH
depression in the natural environment, and consequently impacted Little River.
440
Figure 2. Average volumetric flow rate (l pm) and recycling rate (Paulin, personal communication, June,
2010).
Figure 3. Site water balance (Roberts, 2008).
441
Figure 4. Alkalinity in the reclaim water (Cormier, 2010).
In 2005, a thiosalt concentrations management project commenced to reduce the risk of pH

depressions downstream of the effluent discharge. This project consisted of increasing the level in
the reclaim quarry to 10 m, and storing up to 2.5 million m3 of process water until the concen-
trations of thiosalts could be effectively treated with hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) which completes
the oxidation of the thiosalts prior to treatment at the ETP. A proportional trend showed Thiosalt
concentrations have increased as the recycling rate has increased over the years.
2.3 Sulfates
The process water used in the milling process has a high concentration of sulfates. In 2001,
sulfate concentrations in process water were measured at 2 g/L (2,000 mg/L). Over time, these
concentrations gradually increased to the 2010 levels measured at 4 g/L (4,000 mg/L).
2.4 Alkalinity
Measurements of alkalinity in the reclaim water began in the fall of 2001. The reduction in fresh
water, and increase in recycling rate had a slight effect on the alkalinity of the reclaim water, but
concentrations were relatively stable at 200 mg/L. In 2004, the alkalinity decreased as the quarry
level was raised and more water was put into storage. The alkalinity remained at a low level until
early in 2007, when the alkalinity increased steadily from less than 50 mg/L to the peak values
measured in the fall of 2009 at over 1000 mg/L. Figure 4 portrays the historical alkalinity values.
The peak alkalinity values measured in the fall of 2009 resulted in risks to production. The
quantity of soda ash required for the milling process was threatening to exceed the rate at which
soda ash could be delivered. Although production shutdowns due to lack of reagent availability
did not occur, a difficult situation was created for procurement to manage. It is possible that if the
rate of increasing consumption had continued the delivery and availability of pH modifiers would
create a constraint to production rates.
2.5 Comparison of plant tailings and quarry reclaim concentrations

Historically, the quarry reclaim water is lower in thiosulfate concentrations than the concentrations
of thiosulfate in the plant tailings. The relative difference remains constant over time, sulfate
442
Table 1. Concentrations of thiosulfate and sulfate in the reclaim quarry and tailings
streams (Cormier, 2009).
Thiosulfate Sulfate in Thiosulfate Sulfate

in Quarry Quarry in Tailings in Tailings
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
April 2002 500 2263 983 2212

Sept 2005 1314 3470 1501 3500
Sept 2009 1870 4722 2233 5121
levels are relatively consistent. The concentration has increased consistently in both thiosulfate and
sulfate, resulting in double the concentrations in 2009 compared to the concentrations in 2001.
2.6 Other parameters

Research and data compilation indicates that the pH of the reclaim system does not show any
significant trends. Occasional measurements made for dissolved oxygen have indicated anoxic
conditions in the lower layer of the reclaim quarry.
3 REDUCED SULFUR
For many years, odors of total reduced sulfur (TRS) compounds were detected in the immediate
vicinity of the reclaim quarry. In the fall of 2007, the concentrations of these odors increased which
resulted in TRS odors, including H2 S which were detected throughout the mine site. These odors
resulted in production impacts, since the ventilation system for the underground operations was
withdrawing air from the surface that contained concentrations of TRS compounds that were above
human threshold detection levels of 20 parts-per-billion (ppb) (Gerits 2009). Within a few days,
the concentration of TRS odors returned to lower levels, before the determination of cause was
completed. A similar episode occurred in the fall of 2008.
The growth cycle of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) begins in the lag phase (a period of slow
growth when the cells are adapting to the high-nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth).
The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates, as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced.
The second phase of growth is the exponential phase. The exponential (log) phase is marked by
rapid exponential growth. During log phase, nutrients are metabolized at maximum speed until one
of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth. The final phase of growth is the stationary
phase and is caused by depleted nutrients.
The concentrations of nutrients Sulfates and Thiosalts in this biosystem (reclaim quarry) were
increasing over time. This was due to the fact that the minimum operating low level in the quarry
contained 40% of the volume. Another factor was the lack of dilution of fresh water addition.
The effect of increased recycling rates has reduced the fresh water consumption. As a result, the
concentrations of sulfates and thiosalts increased more than double their concentrations than in
2001.
The conditions in the quarry (concentrations of sulfates and thiosulfates, lack of dissolved
oxygen, pH, and temperature) enabled the Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) populations to reduce
sulfate in large amounts to obtain energy and expel the resulting sulfides as waste; this is known
as dissimilatory sulfate reduction.
Sulfides are formed by disproportionation of Thiosulfates (Gerits 2009):
Or sulfate reduction:
443
Figure 5. Concentrations over time of thiosulfate (left) and sulfate (right) in plant tails and reclaim quarry
(Cormier, 2010).
Figure 6. H2 S(g) in quarry water and air at (H2 S) of 0–300 mg/L (Gerits, 2009).
In the fall of 2009, following an unseasonably dry August, the concentration of TRS gases from
the reclaim quarry were much higher concentrations that had been observed in previous autumns.
The concentrations were at such levels that inquiries were received at the mine site for the local
community (>10 km South of the mine site), depending on wind direction. All employees on the
mine site were easily able to detect these TRS odors, as the odor threshold of 20 ppb was exceeded
on a regular basis.
The decrease in thiosalt concentrations between the plant tailings and reclaim quarry indicate
a disproportionation of thiosulfate (S2 O−23 ) is occurring. The rate of reduction of concentration
of thiosulfate is relatively constant over the years, but the concentration has doubled since 2001,
resulting the twice the quantity of thiosulfates available for reduction by SRB to dissolved sulfides.
The average monthly reduction in thiosalts of 500 mg/L (95% CI 461, 561) represents a tremendous
quantity of thiosulfates available for reduction by SRB to dissolved sulfides.
This resulted from concentrations of dissolved total sulfides (passing 0.45 micron) in the reclaim
water at 280 mg/L. Thiosulfate and sulfate concentrations also reached the peak measured values.
The sulfide concentrations grossly exceeded the solubility in water, and TRS odors were detected
downwind of the Mine for several kilometers.
The reported partial pressure (atm) and volumetric concentration (ppm) of H2 S(g) in the air
refer to a closed system. At the time TRS odors from the quarry was detected in the surrounding
444
community, the dissolved sulphide concentration in the quarry water had reached 280 mg/L cor-
responding to a concentration of 2440 ppm in the air (closed system). This implies that even after
approximately 1:2 million times (i.e. 1,926,230) dilution in the air, the H2 S(g) from the quarry
could still be detected in the surrounding community (Gerits 2009).
4 INCIDENT MANAGEMENT
4.1 Health and safety

Completion of a risk assessment determined that the risk of these TRS odors entering the under-
ground work environment was high. Employees in the underground environment rely on their
olfactory system to detect the stench gas (ethyl mercaptan) released to alert them of an emergency.
The TRS odors also could be confounded to be odors from a fire in the underground environment.
The concentrations measured on site were as high as 200 ppb instantaneous, with an hourly average
peaking at 20 ppb. These concentrations are below published exposure limits, but short term expo-
sures at these concentrations have been reported to cause headaches and nausea. The Joint Health
and Safety implemented a code of practice to reduce these risks of confusion over the odors, and
actions to take when odors were detected. An employee communication program was developed.
All employees were informed of the situation, and the code of practice. During September and
October there were more than 30 hours of lost production impacted by the odors, which resulted
in a calculated loss of $300,000.
4.2 Environment & Community

A full disclosure presentation was made to the New Brunswick Department of the Environment.
Several inquiries were received from residents at Nepisiguit Falls, 8 km south of mine site and
Rose Hill 10 km. On September 17th 2009, reports of TRS odors in Allardville (25 km East) were
received. Prevailing winds from the mine site are from the West and Northwest, causing TRS odors
to be carried downwind to the communities East and Southeast of the Mine.
Sulfide concentrations in water can be acutely lethal to fish, (Smith, 1974), and are recognized
to be contributors to toxicity observed in effluent failing to meet the 96-Hour acute lethality test,
required by the Metal Mining Effluent Regulations (MMER). The concentrations of sulfides were
also a risk to compliance with the MMER. The reclaim quarry level is lowered in the fall and
winter seasons, which enables adequate storage water in the reclaim quarry for the spring freshet.
The water is typically pumped and/or siphoned into the water management system. The water
management system consists of a series of collection ponds, which discharge into an 820,000 m3
buffer pond. The water is pumped from the buffer pond to the high density sludge (HDS) effluent
treatment plant. The ETP is capable of treatment rates as high as 60,000 lpm. Treatment consists
of lime neutralization and clarification prior to discharge to the Little River.
5 DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLUTION
The response from the employee communication sessions was overwhelming, many employ-
ees offered suggestions for potential solutions. A list of the opportunities was developed which
included aeration, oxidation, chemical treatment, sulfide specific chemicals, odor masking agents,
de-odorizers. All solutions presented risks, including cost and effectiveness uncertainties. Per-
sonnel from Brunswick, Xstrata Zinc, and a 3rd Party environmental consulting firm CH2MHill
collaborated to analyze the options. During the analysis of these options it was it was discovered
that acid mine drainage (AMD) could treat the aqueous sulfide which was produced by the sulfate
reducing bacteria. It has been recognized for many years that sulfide bioreactors could successfully
be used to treat AMD. At Brunswick Mine, AMD has been treated by the HDS process. A full
scale SRB bioreactor has never been developed. The natural sulphide production by SRB in the
quarry created an opportunity to reduce sulfide concentrations with AMD. This was confirmed in
consultation with CH2MHill’s Associate Consultant Robert (B.T.) Thomas, Ph.D.
445
Brunswick Mine has two sources of AMD, the underground operations at the Brunswick #
12 mine, and the Brunswick # 6 open pit, which has been closed since 1984. Bench tests were
conducted with reclaim water and AMD, and odors were eliminated at concentrations as low as
0.1% (v/v) AMD. AMD from # 6 open pit typically contains 1,100 mg/L dissolved iron (400 mg/L
Ferrous), and 200 mg/L dissolved zinc with a pH level of 3.0. AMD can be effective in removal
of sulfides in water, due to the fact that sulfide has a naturally high affinity for complexing with
certain metals, thereby causing an immediate reaction producing stable metal sulfides. The reaction
of dissolved metals (Ferrous Iron and Zinc) and aqueous sulfides produces insoluble metal sulfides
ZnS and FeS. Removal of dissolved sulfides in water would eliminate the odors, by lowering the
sulfide concentration below the solubility levels in water. Bench testing showed that concentrations
at 5% (v/v) AMD lowered sulfide concentrations to 100 mg/L, and maintained the pH near neutral
(pKa of H2 S is 7).
The concept of adding AMD from the # 6 open pit to the quarry was evaluated through a risk
assessment approach, and it was determined that the overall risk ranking was very low. An interim
system was quickly implemented to re-direct theAMD from the pipe discharge to the reclaim quarry,
a distance of 5 km. During the installation of this system, trucks were contracted to transport the
AMD. Jan Gerits, Ph.D, Senior Environmental Geochemist with LORAX Environmental visited
the site on September 24th, shortly after AMD additions had started, and developed a technical
memorandum on the remediation of the reclaim water. In November, the pumping system at the
# 6 pit was de-commissioned for the winter. A project was developed to permanently pump the
AMD from # 12 underground mine. This system was commissioned on February 25th, 2010. It was
capable of delivering 1000 l pm of AMD, containing typical concentrations of Iron at 1,000 mg/L
(600 mg/L Ferrous) and 1,500 mg/L Zinc.
6 RESULTS
6.1 Chemistry
The addition of AMD to the quarry had an immediate positive effect. The TRS odors were imme-
diately reduced and eventually eliminated. The only constraints were mixing and volumetric flow
rate. The color of the water changed from an opaque black to a light orange. Concentrations of sul-
fides were reduced by 40% as of June 30th, 2010, reaching concentrations of 150 mg/L. Alkalinity
was also reduced (−66%) with levels reaching 350 mg/L while suspended solids levels remained
constant.
Dissolved concentrations of Fe and Zn were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. pH levels have remained
near 7 despite the addition of 1,000 l pm of AMD at pH 3. Figure 7 shows the pH fluctuating between
6.8 and 9 the alkalinity and sulfides have been reduced significantly.
Concentrations of both thiosulfates and sulfates have also reversed their increasing trends, and
have been declining steadily since the AMD additions were implemented. This tread is illustrated
in Figure 5, where the concentrations of both thiosulfates and sulfates had been increasing, prior
to October 2009, and decreasing since.
Biweekly samples at 4 locations, and at 3 meter depth intervals revealed stratification below 6
meters from the surface. At these depths anoxic conditions exist and Sulfide levels are 200 mg/L.
This remains a risk for a short-term episode if an annual mixing event were to occur as the reclaim
quarry behaves like a meromitic lake. Water quality parameter levels in the water column at 6 meters
depth are consistent throughout the reclaim quarry. Alkalinity and sulfide concentrations show
a strong linear correlation and the reduction in sulfides results in alkalinity levels returning to
concentrations similar to 2007 levels. The addition of 1000 lpm of AMD has not significantly
impacted the pH of the reclaim quarry water, as shown in Figure 7, but the AMD additions have
reduced the sulfide concentrations, which has resulted in decreased alkalinity.
7 EFFLUENT QUALITY
The sulfide concentration in the reclaim quarry will have an effect on the sulfide concentrations
in the ETP effluent, when the level in the reclaim quarry is lowered. In November, when the # 6
446
Figure 7. Alkalinity and sulphide concentrations (Cormier, 2010).
Figure 8. Annual consumption of sulfur dioxide (Cormier, 2010).
447
Figure 9. Annual consumption of soda ash (Cormier, 2010).
Open Pit pumping system was de-commissioned for the winter, sulfide levels had reached a low of
211 mg/L. In the elapsed time between the de-commissioning of the # 6 Open Pit pumping system,
and the commissioning of the # 12 Mine pumping system on February 25th, the dissolved sulfide
concentrations were measured at 250 mg/L. The variation of sulfide concentrations in the reclaim
quarry is shown in Figure 7.
In March 2010, an effluent sample collected from the discharge of the ETP did not meet the
requirements for the 96-Hour acute lethality test. An Acute Lethality Response Protocol (ALRP)
investigation conducted with Lesley Novak, M. Sc., Vice President, Senior Aquatic Toxicologist,
Aquatox Testing and Consulting of Guelph, Ontario determined that dissolved sulfide concentra-
tions in the effluent were the root cause of the toxicity (Novak, Personal Communication, March
2010).
Shortly after the # 12 Mine pumping system was fully operational, the concentrations of sulfides
returned to the previous minimum concentrations of 210 mg/L and by the end of March concen-
trations were 200 mg/L. Also at the end of March concentrations of sulfides in the ETP Effluent
were less than the detection limit of 0.02 mg/L. Samples collected from the effluent showed mor-
tality in the 96 Hour test to have dissolved H2 S concentrations of 3–5 mg/L (Novak, Personal
Communication, March 2010).
7.1 Reagent consumption

The reduction in alkalinity (60% as of June 30th) has resulted in a huge impact on the consumption
of pH modifying reagents used in the milling process. Sodium Carbonate (Na2 CO3 ) and Sulfur
Dioxide (SO2 ) were reduced by 20 and 25% respectively. This reduction has resulted in a cost
savings of $ 970,000 at the end of the 2010 second quarter, and is projected to save approximately
$ 1 million in the 3rd and 4th Quarters, for an annual savings of $ 2.0 million. Further reductions
in alkalinity should continue to positively impact savings in the future.
Addition reagent consumption reductions were observed at the effluent treatment plant (ETP).
The removal of dissolved Fe and Zn, as well as the reduction in alkalinity of the reclaim quarry
water has reduced the lime demand at the ETP. This has resulted in an additional savings of $ 30,000
through June 2010 from reduction of lime consumption.
448
8 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT SOLUTION
A health, environmental, community and production risk was not treated effectively and an extended
incident occurred. The sustainable solution to eliminate this risk was treatment with a waste. The
treatment with a waste was very effective in eliminating the risk and also resulted in an improvement
in water quality for water recycled in the milling process. The improved water quality significantly
reduced consumption of chemicals. The reduction in consumption of these chemicals has reduced
operating costs by $ 970,000 in the first 6 months of 2010. This is a prime example of what William
McDonough principles of design for sustainability, with one of his foundations of a cradle-to-cradle
design, waste equals food (McDonough 2002).
9 CONCLUSION
This case study exhibits a successful application of the principles of sustainable development in
mining. Although the details of the application are specific to Brunswick Mine, the strategy used
to develop a solution is applicable to any sustainable development risk.
Many components of Xstrata’s sustainable development management system were applied.
Effective communication and engagement throughout the incident management process led to
the development of a list of potential solutions. Evaluation of the potential solutions using a rig-
orous risk and change management system led to the selection of a sustainable solution. Effective
assessment of the solutions resulted in the determination of the best option of using a technol-
ogy that was well established in mining, (sulfide bioreactors are used to treat AMD). In this case
some counter-intuitive thinking was required to apply the process in reverse and use AMD as the
treatment for the un-intended product of the reclaim quarry sulfide bioreactor.
As a matter of sustainable development, the use of a waste to treat the waste from another process
is classic use of the “waste equals food” concept. As a matter of sustainable development, the use
of a waste to treat the waste from another process is classic use of the “waste equals food” concept.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people contributed to the success of this project, including but not limited to the following:
employees at Brunswick Mine, Robert (BT) Thomas (CH2MHill), Florian Reher (Venture Engi-
neering and Construction), Lesley Novak (Aquatox Testing and Consulting), Paul Deveau (Xstrata
Zinc Canada), Rick Schwenger (Xstrata Zinc Canada) and Christina Vink (Memorial University).
449
Chemical compound forms of cadmium in uranium tailings

of Schneckenstein
T. Naamoun
Faculty of Sciences, Sfax, Tunisia
B. Merkel
TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: To outline the behaviour of any hazardous heavy metal in soils and hence its toxicity
toward terrestrial biota, an understanding of the ways of its binding or of its specific chemical forms
in the material of investigation are required. The present study sought to evaluate the release and
mobility of cadmium from abandoned uranium residues. For that purpose, a seven steps sequential
chemical extraction was the tool to define its different compound forms in the processed sediments.
The results show that most of cadmium seems to be bound to the host minerals such as hornblende
and chlorite. Also, from 16 to 69% the non residual cadmium is in association with the biogenic
phase. Eleven to 35% is linked to carbonates. Nineteen to 100% of cadmium is exchangeable.
1 INTRODUCTION
Between 1947 and 1957, the German Democratic Republic (DDR) developed the third largest
uranium mining province of the world after the US and Canada. During peak times, the German
Company “Wismut produced 7000 tonnes of uranium per year. And, its total production was in the
order of 220,000 tonnes. After the German unification at the end of 1990, uranium mining was
shut down. Hundreds of millions of tonnes of radiating waste rock and uranium mill tailings are
left over, presenting health risks through release of radon gas and contaminated seepage.
According to Salvarredy-Aranguren, et al., (2008) and Nriagu, (1996), mining activities are
known to be a major source of environmental heavy metal contamination. As a result water course;
stream sediments and alluvial plains have been and continue to be contaminated with metals.
Thus, the German Federal government funded a remediation program with a budget of about
9.3 billion US$.
The evaluation tailing area at the Schneckenstein site was carried out between 1995 and 1997
within the frame of a technical cooperation between the Chair of Hydrogeology of the Technical
University of Mining and Technology Freiberg and the department of Ecology and Environmental
Protection of the Technical University Dresden. The investigation includes measurements of pre-
cipitation and evaporation as well as surface runoff and the chemical analyses of the surface and
ground water. Also the project was extended and co-financed by the German research community.
Different measurements including physical properties of soils; radioactive elements determination
as well as geochemical exploration are carried out.
The behavior of metals in soils (e.g., mobility, bioavailability) cannot be reliably predicted
on the basis of their total concentrations (Tack & Verloo, 1995; Van Peijnenburg et al., 1997;
Krishnamurti & Naidu, 2003; Meers, et al., 2007). Also, the uptake and toxicity of many metals
show marked dependence on speciation of the metals and these responses often correlate best with
the activity of free metal ions (Laxen & Harrison, 1981; Knight & McGrath, 1995; Parker & Pedler,
1997; Prokop et al., 2001). The process of identifying and quantifying these different species of
metals in a sample is referred to as speciation. According to the findings of Janssen et al. (1997)
and Janssen et al. (1997), the bioavailability of metals in soils or sediments is often expressed in
terms of concentration in a water phase.
451
Figure 1. The area of investigation, uranium tailings, Schneckenstein.
The present study sought to outline the chemical behaviour of contaminant cadmium in tailing
sediments. This paper focuses on the chemical fractionation of cadmium in uranium residue by
using extraction chemical procedure.
2 THE STUDY AREA
The area of investigation, the uranium tailing Schneckenstein, is located in the Boda valley north
of the village of Tannenbergsthal/county of Vogtland, southwest of Saxony (Figure 1).
The Boda valley is boardered by the Runder Hübel (837 m above sea level) and the Kiel (943 m
a.s.l) to the Northwest and Southeast respectively. The area is situated within the southern branch
of the Boda valley at an altitude of 740 to 815 m above sea level.
Geologically, the area belongs to the transverse zone of the southern Vogtland and the western
Ore Mountains; a subunit of the anticlimal zone of the Fichtelgebirge – Ore Mountains. It is located
on the Southwest border of the Eibenstock granite, a biotite -syenogranite which belongs to the
younger granites (J G 1). It is medium to coarse-grained, serial-porphyric and tourmaline bearing.
Its intrusion is related to the Upper Carboniferous series.
Also, the investigated sites lie in the area of the watershed between the Zwickauer basin and the
Eger. It belongs to the highest precipitation area of the entire Erzgebirge region. Depending on the
altitude, 960 to 1160 mm precipitation fall annually and the study area receives an average annual
precipitation of 1053 mm.
3 METHODOLOGY
Based on the contrast of their mineral contents and metal concentrations, nine samples were selected
for the procedure. They were freeze dried. To avoid any contamination, a polyethylene spoon was
used. They were ground in an agate mortar till to a size of ≤ 63 µm and homogenised. A seven steps
extraction procedure was used following the Salomon & Forstner (1984) findings. The leaching
scheme and reagents are illustrated in Figure 2.
452
Figure 2. Sequential extraction – scheme.
The total cadmium content ranges from 0.23 and 6.8 ppm in the sediments. Between 5 and 100%
of this concentration is of lithogenous origin and most of the cadmium seems to be bound to the
host minerals such as hornblende and chlorite (Figure 3).
Further, although there is an appreciable affinity of Fe oxides for cadmium (Kinniburgh, 1976;
Pickering, 1979; Cronan, 1976; Li, 1982; Tiller et al., 1984) at high pH values, cadmium was
not found in association with the nodular hydrogenous fraction and this may be due to its higher
tendency for complexation with other species other than Fe and Mn oxides and hydroxides.
Despite the absence of cadmium in the carbonatic phase in two samples, a high amount of its non
residual fraction is found in association with the phase in the range ∼11 to 35%. This is due mostly
to the tendency of cadmium in its cadmium2+ ionic form to co-precipitate with CaCO3 (McBride,
453
Figure 3. Uranium tailings schneckenstein selective extraction procedures (cadmium Element).
Figure 4. The relationship between Sulphur and the cadmium amount bounds to the Sul./Org. phase
(Cr = 0.86).
1994) and to precipitate in form of cadmiumCO3 as well (Brookins, 1988; McBride, 1994) at pH
above 7. These results show the high affinity of Cadmium to carbonates.
A considerable amount of the non residual fraction of cadmium is associated with the exchange-
able phase varying from ∼19 to 100%. These findings are in agreement with that of Andersson,
(1975); Stover et al., (1976); Salomons & Forstner, (1980) & Forstner, (1986) affirming the sig-
nificance of cadmium in the mobile fraction which is due to the high selectivity of clays for
cadmium2+ .
In addition, at neutral to alkaline medium cadmium tends to precipitate into sulfide minerals or
as CadmiumCO3 and to co-precipitate with CaCO3 as well. Its solubility under the above conditions
is low. Therefore not any cadmium is in connection with the pore water phase.
454
5 CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that most amount of the non residual Cadmium is associated to the high soluble
phases; carbonatic and exchangeable. Also, an alkaline chemical medium reduces the concentration
of Cadmium in pore waters. This is because at high pH values, cadmium tends to form carbonate
complexes. As well, anoxic conditions reduce the solubility of cadmium. Under these conditions,
it tends to form cadmiumS complex independent of the pH values.
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455
Uranium residue impacts on ground and surface water resources at the

Schneckenstein site in East Germany
T. Naamoun
Faculty of Sciences, Sfax, Tunisia
B. Merkel
TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany
ABSTRACT: In the former uranium mining areas of Saxony and Thuringia there are still many
sources of possible contamination due to uranium, thorium, radium and other heavy metals and
metalloids. Due to the increase concerns about the environmental pollution problems, it is so
important in waste disposal management to perform an accurate chemical monitoring. This paper
summarizes groundwater and superficial water analyses as well as geochemical modelling of
uranium and other pollutants which were undertaken in order to evaluate the contamination risk of
groundwater in the vicinity of the Schneckentein site.
1 INTRODUCTION
Uranium mines discharge voluminous residues. Generally, they are impounded behind large dams,
and when mining ceases, these impoundments are capped, revegetated, and left as permanent fea-
tures on the landscape (Ritcey, 1989). Because the tailing impoundments are long-term repositories,
the chemical processes occurring within them are of environmental significance because they gov-
ern the chemistry of the discharges from the impoundments. Once the tailings have been capped,
it becomes difficult to infer the nature of these internal chemical processes (Craw, 2003). Also,
mining waste can continue to adversely affect the environment for centuries after the abandonment
of the mine itself, contaminating the soil in the immediate vicinity and also being dispersed by
both surface and ground waters (Sarmiento et al., 2009). Sharma, (1994) stated that mining of
mineral ores and disposal of resulting waste pose a significant risk to the groundwater. According
to Johnson and Hallberg, (2005) groundwater pollution from sources such as waste disposal sites,
is a worldwide problem. In 1989, approximately 19,300 km of rivers and 72,000 ha of lakes and
reservoirs throughout the world were severely affected by mining effluents. The long-term envi-
ronmental impacts of mine tailing leachates have increasingly raised public concern. It is of prime
importance to assess their potential environmental risks and toxicity as well to establish a proper
pollution management plans (Lee, 2006).
In the southwest of Saxony in eastern Germany, the Mining Company WISMUT processed
approximately 1.2 Mt of uranium ore between opening in 1947 and final closure in 1957. The
Schneckenstein mill produced 660 tons of uranium at a capacity of 150.000 tons of ore per year.
The resultant 1.96 Mt of tailings had been deposited in an elevated 108-ha two decantation basins
adjacent to the site. The total volume of the residue is about 700,000 m3 (Merkel, et al (1998).
These tailings may act as a storage pool for toxic elements, which get into the surrounding rivers
by drainage and to the groundwater by infiltration.
In the nineties, after the German reunification, an extensive research program was undertaken
to improve the understanding of the geochemical evolution of uranium tailings and to develop
more effective predictive and remedial techniques for the environmental problems associated with
uranium tailings (Hurst & Glaser, 1998).
This paper presents results from investigation of groundwater and superficial water pollution at
the Schneckenstein site.
457
Figure 1. The area of investigation, uranium tailings, Schneckenstein.
2 THE SCHNECKENSTEIN AREA
2.1 Location
The Schneckentein tailings are located in the southwest of Saxony, in the Boda valley approximately
3 km from the village of Tannenbergsthal county of Vogtland, Germany (Figure 1). The Boda valley
is bordered by the Runder Hubel (837 m a.s.l) and the Kiel (943 m a.s.l) to the Northwest and
Southeast respectively.
2.2 Geology
The area belongs to the transverse zone of the southern Vogtland and the western Ore Mountains;
a subunit of the anticlinal zone of the Fichtelgebirge – Ore Mountains. The area of investigation
is located on the southwest border of the Eibenstock granite. The Eibenstock granite could be
considered a biotite-syenogranite and belongs to the group of the younger granites (JG1). It is
medium to coarse-grained, serial-porphyric and tourmaline bearing. Its intrusion is related to the
Upper Carboniferous series. The Eibenstock granite is covered with a weathered surface layer.
Southwest of the tailings follows the contact zone with quartz-schist.
2.3 Hydrogeology
The site of investigation lies in the area of the watershed between the Zwickauer basin and the
Eger basin. It belongs to the highest precipitation area of the entire Erzgebirge region. It receives
an average annual precipitation of 1050 mm. The Boda Bach is considered as the most important
Receiving River and all other streams flow into it and subsequently into the ‘Pyra’ river in the
Tannenbergsthal area (Figure 2).
3 EXPERIMENTAL
3.1 Field activity and sampling

Water samples were taken at several sampling points as indicated in the Figure 3; Table n◦ 1. Eh
and pH were measured in the field with a pH/Eh -meter (WTW® pH 323) in a closed flow-cell.
The pH-meter was calibrated with Merck buffer solutions (CertiPUR, pH 7.00 and 10.00). The
Eh -meter controlled against a redox buffer solution (Mettler Toledo, Eh 439, accepted tolerance
5%) and corrected for temperature and to the standard hydrogen electrode. Total alkalinity was
determined by titration (Hach® titrator). All samples were filtered (0.2 µm; regenerated cellulose),
anion sample aliquots were stored at +4◦ C in darkness prior to analysis. For cation analyses, sample
aliquots were acidified to pH < 2 with HNO3 (Suprapure®) and stored frozen.
458
Figure 2. The water network, above and subterranean hinterland of the tailings sites (scale: 1:50.000).
3.2 Activities in laboratories and analytical methods

Due to the low permeability of most of the processed material, only the tailings cover was analysed.
Thus, no more than three water samples were extracted by means of a high pressure device. The
electrical conductivity, the redox potential and the pH values were immediately measured. Also
the samples were filtered by a 0.2 µm membrane filter as well stabilised by diluted nitric acid
(1 ml acid/100 ml water) until a pH ∼ 2 and finally filled in polyethylene bottles then stored in a
refrigerator. The metal contents were determined by means of ICP-MS equipment. Their detection
limits are given in the table n◦ 2.
3.3 Hydrochemical model

The computer program PHREEQC (Parkhurst, 1995) windows version was used. The software is
designated for the simulation of a wide range of geochemical reactions including mixing of water,
dissolving and precipitating phases to achieve equilibrium with the aqueous phase and effects
of changing temperature. Also, it indicates mineral species and provides estimates of element
concentrations which had not been determined analytically as well as of molalities and activities
of aqueous species, pH, pe and saturation indices.
459
Figure 3. Geographical water samples positions.
4.1 Surface water and groundwater

4.1.1 pH-value
For most surface waters, the lowest pH values were recorded during the winter season. This is
may be due to further acidification of rain waters caused by air pollution attributable to sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide. A remarkable increase of pH is recorded after the winter. Independent
460
Table 1. The geographical position of the sampling points.
Sampling point Coordinate (Bessel) Altitude (m; a.s.l) Description
PNP1 4532825 815 Hanggraben

5587620
PNP2 4532825 825 GWM1
5587590
PNP3 4532440 765 GWM2
5588360
PNP4 4532530 741 GWM3
5588510
PNP5 4532490 752 Spring
5588450
PNP6 4532680 772 Drainage IAAI
5588430
5588435
PNP8 4532590 748 Drainage IAAI*
5588480
PNP9 4532560 745 Drainage IAAI*
5588485
PNP10 4532540 745 Drainage IAAI/Spring*
5588480
PNP11 4532510 747 Drainage IAAI/Spring*
5588470
5588330
PNP13 4532540 740 Bodabach “middle-sprint”
5588540
PNP14 4532580 732 Bodabach “lower reaches”
5588580
PNP15 4532660 780 Drainage IAAII
5588180
PNP16 4532680 805 Influx Hanggraben
5587940
PNP17 4532920 774 Bach Vergleichstal
5588660
PNP18 4532670 722 Spring
5588670
PNP19 4532630 810 Spring
5586890
PNP20 4532555 735 Spring
5587535
PNP21 4532845 693 Spring
5588240
PNP23 4532725 753 Hanggraben
5587375
of the season, drainpipes supply near neutral waters. In addition, the localisation of the discharge
of the drainage water is well demonstrated by near neutral pH throughout the year at the sampling
point PNP14 (Bodabach “lower reaches”), where the water-mixing between rain and drainage water
occurs. The measured pHs (pH < 5) at the two groundwater sampling points (PNP2, PNP3) indicate
the mobilisation of heavy metals such as Mn, Ni, Zn, and Al.
4.1.2 Electrical conductivity

At the sampling point PNP1 (Hanggraben), the average EC is around 80 µS/cm. Thus, the mentioned
water is classified after Hutter (1990) as rain water; snowmelt. At the other surface water sampling
461
Table 2. Detection limits of each element.
Element Limit of Detection
(µg/l)
Al
As 10
Ba 1
Cd 1
Co 1
Cr 1
Cu 1
Fe 100
Mg –
Mn 1
Ni 1
Pb 1
Th 1
U 1
V 1
Zn 10
points (PNP5, PNP16, PNP17 and PNP18) the recorded EC is slightly more and the average EC
varies between 120 µS/cm at PNP17 to 160 µS/cm at PNP5. These waters are classified as poorly
mineralised superficial waters (Hutter, 1990). The drainage waters show a remarkable increase in
the EC values. The recorded average EC vary from ∼215 µS/cm at the sampling points PNP10
(pipe 7) and PNP15 (drainage IAAII) to ∼690 µS/cm at the sampling point PNP8 (pipe 4). These
waters are slightly mineralised (Hutter, 1990). At the surface water sampling point PNP14, the
average EC is ∼250 µS/cm and the analysed water is also classified as slightly mineralised. This
is probably due to the water mixing between the surface water and drainage water at the sampling
point. The groundwater at the GWM1 (PNP2) indicate a low EC with an average of 45 µS/cm and
is classified as rain water; snowmelt (Hutter, 1990). The GWM2 and GWM3 show an increase of
EC. It reached an average of 205 µS/cm and 155 µS/cm at GWM2 and GWM3 respectively. These
ground waters are slightly mineralised (Hutter, 1990).
4.1.3 Redox potential

According to Gotschalk, (1997), at all surface waters, the measured Eh values are below 400 mV.
These conditions reduce iron, nitrate and manganese. However, high Eh values were recorded for
some of the sample points (PNP13, PNP14, PNP18, PNP20) all the year round (Kutschke, 1998).
The values range from 422 mV at PNP 14 to 590 mV at PNP18. Therefore the reduction of nitrate
and manganese are expected. At other sampled points (PNP1, PNP21, PNP23), the reduction of
iron is probable since Eh values are below 400 mV.
Using sample point PNP7, it was possible to monitor the level of iron reduction throughout the
sampling period. The Eh value is below 400 mV the year round and iron is highly mobile (Gotschalk,
1997). The groundwater samples show a variable redox potential: The Eh ranges from 277 mV at
GWM (2; 3) to 547 mV at GWM 2 and from 195 mV at GWMIV to 590 mV at GWM 2 (Gotschalk,
1997; Kutschke, 1998). Therefore depending on the climatic factors such as temperature as well
as on the season, the reduction of iron together with manganese and nitrate can occur for most
investigated waters.
4.1.4 Major components

4.1.4.1 Sodium
For all sampling points, the recorded sodium concentrations by Gotschalk, (1997) and Kutschke,
(1998) were nearly the same. At the Hanggraben (PNP1) as well at PNP19, the Na+ content
is comparable to that of the rain water of the Freiberg region. The average concentrations are
equal to 2.4 and 2.9 mg/l at PNP1 (Gotschalk, 1997; Kutschke, 1998). At PNP19 the average
462
Na+ concentration is 3.7 mg/l (Kutschke, 1998). At the other superficial waters (PNP13, PNP15,
PNP16, PNP17, PNP18) the Na+ content is slightly higher and its concentration lies between
3.2 mg/l at PNP17 and 5.0 mg/l at PNP18 (Gotschalk, 1997). At PNP20 and PNP21, the averages
are 10.2 and 13 mg/l respectively. The variation in content is probably due to the slight weathering
of the silicates. The mixing water at PNP14, shows an increase in the Na+ concentration attaining
an average of 19.6 mg/l.
In the drainage waters, the Na+ content increases remarkably. For instance at PNP9; 10; 11;
12, its average concentrations ranges from 17.5 mg/l at PNP10 to 50.5 mg/l at PNP9, whereas at
PNP6; 7; 8, it is considerably higher varying between 89.9 mg/l at PNP8 to 100 mg/l at PNP6. This
is may be due to the drainage water contact with high soluble Na+ containing minerals like halite
(NaCl). The relative high Na+ concentration is one of the factors that cause the increase of EC at
these points as mentioned previously.
At GWM1, the Na+ concentrations are very low with an average value roughly 1.7 mg/l. This is
close to that of rain water, whereas at GWM2 and GWM3, the average contents of Na+ are nearly
the same reaching 8.8 mg/l at the first mentioned point (GWM2) and 11.3 mg/l at the second one
(GWM3). These values lie in the range of the Na concentration of the ground waters of the Freiberg
region (Kolitsch, 1996).
4.1.4.2 Potassium
Although the potassium content is remarkably higher in the drainage waters, its measured values are
very close to each other and very low in most sampling points. The maximum average concentration
of 6.5 mg/l was recorded at PNP6. The average concentration of 0.4 mg/l recorded at GWM1 does
not exceed the potassium content in rain waters and it is lower than the concentration in ground
waters estimated by Hutter, (1990). This is due to the low solubility of potassium containing
minerals such as potash feldspar as well as due to the high adsorption capacity of the grounds for
potassium by cation exchange.
4.1.4.3 Calcium
The average Ca concentration is almost the same in most superficial waters varying between
7.2 mg/l at PNP1 and 12 mg/l at PNP18. It is slightly more at the GWM2; 3 reaching 14.5 and
12.4 mg/l respectively. However, at GWM1 it is close to 3 mg/l which coincide with the Ca level
in the rain waters. In drainage waters it is remarkably higher, ranging between 29 mg/l at PNP7
and 71.3 mg/l at PNP9. This is probably due to the weathering of plagioclase. At PNP14; 16, the
average Ca contents are 26 and 18 mg/l respectively and this is may be due to the mixing of water
with different Ca contents. And Ca is the main cation in all waters.
4.1.4.4 Magnesium
In most surface water and groundwater samples, its average content lies under or slightly exceeds
its maximum concentration in the rain water. It varies between 1.5 mg/l at the GWM1 and 6.1 mg/l
at GWM2. In drainage waters, it is relatively low, ranging between 4.1 mg/l at PNP10 and 20.8 mg/l
at PNP9.
4.1.4.5 Sulphate
In the surface waters, the concentration varies from 17 mg/l at Hanggraben (PNP1) to 80 mg/l at
PNP14. At GWM1, these values lie in the range of the sulphate content in the rain water in the
Freiberg region. It doesn’t exceed 4.3 mg/l (Winkler, 1998). At the other two points; GWM2 and
GWM3, the recorded average concentrations are 70.2 and 45.8 mg/l respectively. These two values
are in the range of its content in the groundwaters of Freiberg and its environs (Baacke, 1995). In
drainage waters, the concentrations are remarkably higher and this is probably due to the solubility
of some sulphide containing minerals such as iron sulphides. The recorded mean values in these
points vary between 55.7 (PNP10) and 330 mg/l (PNP6).
4.1.4.6 Nitrate
The measured values vary between 2.2 mg/l (PNP8) and 11.5 mg/l (GWM1), whereas at PNP7, the
concentration doesn’t reach its limit of detection (0.5 mg/l). All these values lie in the range of its
content in the rain waters of Freiberg and its surroundings (Winkler, 1998).
463
Figure 4. Classification of water quality using piper diagram according to the data of Gotschalk (1997).
4.1.4.7 Chloride
At all sampling points, the chloride content is very low and lies in the range of rain waters (Scheffer
& schachschabel, 1992). In superficial waters, the average concentration ranges from 2.6 mg/l
at PNP1 to 6.0 mg/l at PNP14, whereas in drainage waters, it is slightly higher varying between
5.2 mg/l (PNP10) and 14.5 mg/l (PNP8). In groundwaters, the concentration lies between 2.1 mg/l
at GWM1 and 6.9 mg/l at GWM2.
4.1.4.8 Fluoride
The average content varies between 0.1 mg/l (PNP1; 13) and 1.3 mg/l (PNP7). At PNP2, 6; 15; 16;
17; and 18 the concentration was below detection limit. However, at PNP9 the concentration is
2.5 mg/l.
4.1.4.9 Hydrogen carbonate

The average content of hydrogen carbonate in the area is low in most analyzed samples. In the
superficial waters, it varies between 18.3 mg/l (PNP5; 18) and 53.7 mg/l (PNP14), whereas in
ground waters it ranges from 21.4 mg/l (GWM2) to 24.4 mg/l (GWM1). In the drainage waters it
is clearly higher, varying from 21.4 mg/l at PNP15 to 139.3 mg/l at PNP8.
4.1.4.10 Classification of water quality using piper diagram

Based on the trilinear diagram and according to the data recorded by Gotschalk, (1997), water
samples from locations PNP6, PNP7 and PNP8 belong to the same water type “alkaline water”
with prevailing sulphate-chloride (Figure 4). In addition, according to Morgan & Winner, (1962)
and Back, (1966), the above waters are of sodium or potassium type. On the other hand, so far
as the potassium and chloride contents are negligible with regard to that of sodium and sulphate
respectively, these samples may be classified as alkaline waters with prevailing sulphate-sodium.
On the basis of the two classifications, GWM1 belongs to the water type with prevailing
bicarbonate. This is due mostly to the reaction of carbon dioxide with carbonates.
464
According to Morgan &Winner (1962), the PNP15 is classified as normal earth alkaline water
with prevailing sulphate.
Also, almost all other samples belong to the earth alkaline water with prevailing sulphate and
chloride. As well, according to Morgan & Winner (1962) and Back (1966), the samples from
locations PNP15, PNP16, PNP17 and the PNP18 may be classified as calcium sulphate type.
It is noteworthy to point out that almost all samples show low salinity as demonstrated by the
low chloride content in these samples.
Generally, the data recorded by Kutschke, (1998) shows the same trend for most analyzed
samples.
4.1.5 Trace Metals

4.1.5.1 Aluminum
At GWM1: 2 as well as at superficial waters, under the recorded pH and Eh values, aluminium is
highly mobile. At drainage waters, most of the aluminium is in the form of the Al(OH)3 compound.
The recorded Al average concentration varies between 0.2 mg/l at PNP10 and 1.50 mg/l at PNP8.
However, at PNP21 and PNP23 the Al concentration lies in the range of Al uncontaminated water
with values of 0.11 and 0.05 mg/l respectively.
4.1.5.2 Arsenic
In surface waters, the average arsenic concentration varies between 2.9 µg/l (PNP13) and 12.3 µg/l
(PNP1). In groundwater, it ranges from 0.82 µg/l (GWM1) to 8.0 µg/l (GWM3). In the drainage
waters, arsenic is considerably higher at PNP7 and PNP8 varying between 4.4 µg/l at PNP12 and
126 µg/l. At the sampling point PNP14, however, about 21 µg/l of arsenic was recorded and this is
due to the water mixing as mentioned above.
Based on Brookins, (1988), under the recorded pHs-Eh conditions, most of the arsenic in
groundwater is expected to be H2AsO4 -.
4.1.5.3 Barium
In all analysed samples, the Ba content is very low. It varies between ∼16 µg/l (PNP1) and 29 µg/l
(PNP4). According to Brookins, (1988), the recorded pH and Eh values favour the formation of
the immobile BaSO4 compound.
4.1.5.4 Cadmium
The pH and Eh conditions of the study area favour the presence of cadmium on its mobile form
around the year. In groundwater samples, its concentration varies between 0.6 µg/l (GWM1) and
2.3 µg/l (GWM2). At PNP17 and PNP18, it attains 7.7 µg/l and 4.4 µg/l respectively. At PNP6; 7;
and 8 the recorded values range from 3.3 µg/l (PNP8) to 4.6 µg/l (PNP7).
4.1.5.5 Chromium
The maximum recorded Cr concentration doesn’t exceed 5 µg/l. This is due to the pH and Eh
conditions of the area that favours its presence in very insoluble form Cr2 O3 . Moreover, at the pH
range ∼5–13.5, most of chromium tends to crystallise to the mentioned compound.
4.1.5.6 Copper
In superficial water, the average copper content varies between 10 µg/l (PNP13) and 139.4 µg/l
(PNP1), whereas in groundwater, it ranges from ∼8 µg/l (GWM1) to 93 µg/l (GWM2). In drainage
water, it has remarkable great variation between 23 µg/l at PNP10 and 345 µg/l at PNP6.
4.1.5.7 Manganese
Although, the Eh -pH conditions of the area favour the high mobility of Mn i.e. its presence in the
Mn2+ ionic form, the average manganese concentration is not important in all superficial water
samples. It varies between 26 µg/l (PNP18) and 156 µg/l (PNP15). In groundwater, it is also
relatively low ranging from 88 µg/ l at GWM1 to 559 µg/l at GWM2 and the last value slightly
exceed the maximal Mn concentration recommended by the WHO, (1996). In drainage water, it
increases remarkably, attaining 732 and 1220 µg/l at PNP8 and PNP7 respectively. This is due
465
probably due to the solubility of Mn bearing minerals, whereas at other points it varies between
44 µg/l at PNP10 and 495 µg/l at PNP9.
4.1.5.8 Nickel
The pH-Eh conditions of the study area favour the presence of nickel in its mobile Ni2+ ionic form.
In superficial water, Ni varies between 3 µg/l at PNP17 and 34 µg/l at PNP5; 14. In groundwater
samples, the values range from 3 µg/l (GWM1) to 51 µg/l (GWM2), whereas in drainage waters,
it varies between 7 µg/l at PNP10 and 251 µg/l at PNP9.
4.1.5.9 Lead
Under the pH-Eh conditions of the area Pb tends to combine with sulphate or carbonate ions to
form PbSO4 (Anglesite) or PbCO3 (Cerussite). In superficial water, it varies between 0.01 µg/l
at PNP13 and 2.8 µg/l at PNP17. In groundwater, it ranges from 0.6 µg/l (GWM3) to 1.5 µg/l
(GWM1), whereas at drainage water, it varies from 0.3 µg/l at PNP11 to 12 µg/l at PNP7.
4.1.5.10 Zinc
At superficial waters, its average content lies between 77 µg/l (PNP1) and 664 µg/l (PNP17). In
groundwater samples, it varies between 34 (GWM1) and 246 µg/l (GWM2), whereas, in drainage
water it ranges from 97 µg/l at PNP7 to 600 µg/l at PNP9.
However, according to Brookins, (1988), the pH-Eh conditions of the prospected area, most of
Zn is expected to be in the ZnS (Sphalerite) immobile form.
4.1.5.11 Thorium
Due to the low solubility of thorianite (ThO2 ) and ability of thorium ion to be absorbed by particulate
surfaces, the solubility of thorium in natural waters is extremely low (Ivanovitch & Harmon, 1992).
Therefore, the average thorium content is very low in all analysed samples varying between 0.02 µg/l
at PNP11; 16 and 0.21 µg/l at PNP8.
4.1.5.12 Uranium
In superficial water, the average uranium content varies between 0.4 µg/l at PNP2 and 193 µg/l at
PNP14. In groundwater, it ranges from 0.4 µg/l (GWM1) to 8.3 µg/l (GWM2). In drainage water
samples, it lies between 47 µg/l (PNP15) and 1254 µg/l (PNP8). These values emphasise the high
mobility of uranium in the area and therefore a potential source of contamination.
4.2 Extracted pore water

4.2.1 pH Values
The three analyzed samples show a near neutral pH (Figure 5). It increases slightly with depth. It
varies between 7.4 and 8.4 with a mean value of 7.9. These recorded values are close to that of the
drainage water. Also, the increase of pH is probably due to the increase of the carbonate content
with depth. Thus, these values state that for the first five meters of depth, the analyzed water is
in contact with only untreated heap material. Moreover, under these chemical conditions, most of
major and trace metals have a low solubility.
4.2.2 Redox potential

The Eh value ranges from 406 to 430 mV with a mean value around 420 mV and a standard deviation
of 12 mV. According to Wagman et al., (1982), the measured Eh –pH values favour the mobility
of arsenic in its HAsO2−4 ionic form. Under the same conditions, cadmium and nickel are highly
mobile onto their Cd2+ and Ni2+ ionic forms respectively (Wagman et al., 1982), whereas cobalt
and chromium are immobile. Cobalt tends to form CoCO3 and Co3 O4 complexes (Garrels & Christ,
1965). Chromium tends to be in its very insoluble Cr2 O3 form (Wagman et al., 1982). Also, under
these conditions, copper and zinc are high mobile. As said by Garrels & Christ, (1965), copper
tends to precipitate onto its CuO immobile form. According to Wagman et al., (1982), most of the
Zn content should be in its immobile ZnCO3 and ZnO complexes but some zinc may be in its Zn2+
ionic form.
466
Figure 5. The change with depth of pH values.
Figure 6. The change with depth of EC.
4.2.3 The electrical conductivity

The electrical conductivity values lie between 530 and 1014 µs/cm with a mean value close
to 717 µs/cm (Figure 6). Based on Hutter (1990), the analysed water is a good mineralised
groundwater.
4.2.4 Major components

The hydrogen carbonate content lies between 24.4 and 42.7 mg/l with a mean value of 32.5 mg/l
and a standard deviation of 9.3 mg/l.
The fluoride concentration varies between 1.4 and 1.8 mg/l with a mean value of 1.6 mg/l and a
standard deviation of 0.2 mg/l.
The chloride ranges from 3.2 mg/l to 7.7 mg/l with a standard deviation of 2.2 mg/l. The mean
value of the nitrate content is 0.9 mg/l with a standard deviation of 0.4 mg/l.
The sulphate content ranges from 150 to 250 mg/l with a mean of 198 mg/l and a standard
deviation of 50 mg/l.
The sodium and potassium contents vary from 8.9 to 19 mg/l and from 2.7 to 13 mg/l with mean
and standard deviation values of 14 and 7 mg/l and 5 mg/l for both elements.
The calcium and magnesium concentrations range 40 to 69 mg/l and 13 to 30 mg/l with mean
values of 57 and 22 mg/l and standard deviation of 15 and 8 mg/l respectively.
467
4.2.5 Heavy and trace metals
The aluminum concentration varies between 275 and 1030 µg/l with a mean value of 571 µg/l and a
standard deviation of 403 µg/l. Some of its content seems to be in the form of aluminium-hydroxide
particles in the water solution despite the process of filtration. Thus, in spite of the low mobility of
aluminium under the recorded pH, its content is found to be high in all samples.
The arsenic concentration lies between 49 and 105 µg/l with a mean value close to 82 µg/l and
a standard deviation of 29 µg/l.
Cadmium content decreases with depth varying between 6 and 19 µg/l with a mean value of
11 µg/l and a standard deviation of 7 µg/l.
The manganese concentration is found to be high. It lies between 1319 and 4000 µg/l with a
mean value roughly 2806 µg/l and a standard deviation of 1364 µg/l. This may be a sign of chemical
reducing conditions. Also, it may reflect the presence of a high bacterial activity.
As expected, the nickel content is relatively high. It decreases with depth. It varies between 83
and 149 µg/l with a mean value of 107 µg/l and a standard deviation of 36 µg/l.
The Lead content is slightly high. It ranges from 6 and 21 µg/l with a mean value of 11 µg/l and
a standard deviation of 8 µg/l.
Uranium is under oxidizing conditions. Thus, its content is found to be tremendously high. It
increases with depth. It varies between 55 and 949 µg/l with a mean value of 423 µg/l and a standard
deviation of 467 µg/l.
Under the recorded chemical conditions, barium tends to form BaSO4(S) (Brookins, 1988). Its
concentration ranges from 153 µg/l and 186 µg/l with a mean value of 173 µg/l and a standard
The cobalt content is low and nearly the same in the different samples and decreases with depth.
It ranges from 37 to 47 µg/l with a mean value of 42 µg/l and a standard deviation of 5 µg/l.
The Chromium content varies between 5 and 17 µg/l with a mean value of 9 µg/l and a standard
The copper concentration ranges from 108 to 186 µg/l with a mean value of 144 µg/l and a
standard deviation of 39 µg/l. These recorded values assert the expected behaviour of Cu under the
above mentioned conditions.
The iron concentration decreases with depth. Its total content varies between 60 and 150 µg/l
with a mean value of 90 µg/l and a standard deviation of 52 µg/l. Also, the measured Eh values are
in agreement with the iron species determination. And iron is under oxidising conditions.
As expected, the water solutions do not show any Zn enrichment. Its content varies between
199 µg/l and 1370 µg/l with a mean value of 930 µg/l and a standard deviation of 637 µg/l.
4.3 Hydrogeochemical model

As illustrated in (Figure 7), for the three extracted pore water samples, the calculated Eh values are
considerably lower than the measured ones. In addition, the tailing environment becomes under
post aerobic or reducing conditions with depth mainly at the interval of depth that coincide with the
beginning of the processed material. This is due probably to the presence of an appreciable amount
of humic substances in the processed material on one hand, and to the absence of any supplying of
oxygen on the other. The considerable difference between the recorded and the calculated values
is probably due to the influence of the climatic factors onto such measurements.
5 CONCLUSIONS
It may be concluded that for the first five meters of depth, the water is in contact with only untreated
heap material with a near neutral pH. Also the Eh -pH conditions favour the solubility of As, Cd and
Ni. Al, Mn, Ni, Pb and U contents were obviously high. However, the Eh value is the main factor
controlling the solubility of Mn, Fe and U. The EC values are remarkably higher in the processed
material than in the heap material. The hydrochemical model PHREEQC shows high solubility of
most elements. It also shows the change in chemical conditions between the heap materials and
the tailing sediments characterised by the considerable decrease of the Eh values with depth, which
indicates the change of the medium to post aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
468
Figure 7. The change with depth of Eh; Calculated and measured values.
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TAILINGS AND MINE WASTE ’10

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 14TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON TAILINGS AND MINE

Tailings and Mine Waste ’10

© 2011 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company, Chennai, India

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

ISBN: 978-0-415-61455-9 (Hbk)

Author index 471

Daniel Overton Engineering Analytics, Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado

Improving the safety of mine waste impoundments

2 RECENT HISTORY OF MAJOR FINDINGS

Name (Place) Country Year

Sebastião dos Äquas Claras Brazil 2001

3 IMPROVEMENTS IN CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY

4 IMPROVEMENTS IN REGULATORY RESPONSIBILITY

5 DAM SAFETY AND THE ALBERTA OIL SANDS

6 TAILINGS DAM REVIEW BOARDS

History and developments in the treatment of oil sands fine tailings

2 HISTORICAL TAILINGS MANAGEMENT

2.1 Tailings and water storage imperatives

2.2 Out-of-pit tailings ponds

2.3 In-pit tailings ponds

3 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE TREATMENT OF OIL SAND FINE TAILINGS

3.1 General comments

Year Mine applications and start-up Other events

1967 GCOS mine start-up (later became Suncor)

3.2 Chronology of mine applications and start-ups, and related events

Year Out-of-pit storage of fine tailings In-pit storage of fine tailings

1967 GCOS discovers that fluid fine tailings

3.3 Chronology of R&D on in-pit and out-of-pit storage of fine tailings

Year Filtration Spiking MFT into WT

Late 1960’s GCOS obtains patent for flocculation

3.5 Chronology of R&D on non-segregating tailings and of the implementation of CT

3.6 Chronology of R&D on TT and on biogenic methods of increasing MFT density

Year CT at Suncor CT at Syncrude

Early 1980’s McGill University researches treating Experimental work at Syncrude

3.7 Chronology of R&D on in-line flocculation of WT and of centrifuging MFT

Year TT Biogenic activity

Year In-line flocculation of WT Centrifuging MFT

3.9 Chronology of freeze-thaw consolidation of MFT and of Rim ditching

Table 8. Chronology of R&D on Rim Ditching and freeze-thaw consolidation of MFT.

Year Rim Ditching Freeze-thaw

1998 Sand capping of CT protype area in NW corner of

3.10 Chronology of R&D on capping of soft tailings deposits

3.11 Chronology of R&D on other tailings treatment techniques

1970’s GCOS obtains a patent to capture MFT in the bottom

3.12 Reclamation and closure of tailings deposits

4 ERCB TAILINGS DIRECTIVE 074

4.2 Impact on industry

4.3 Roles and responsibilities of the regulator and the operators

4.4 Can the directive be improved?

4.4.1 An alternative to the 5 kPa strength criteria

4.4.2 Improved performance measures

5.1 Promising tailings treatment technologies

5.2 The shift in storage/treatment focus from tailings to water

5.3 What is on the horizon?

Tailings impoundment failures, black swans, incident avoidance,

J. Caldwell & L. Charlebois

2 THE BLACK SWAN

7 OTHER POSTULATED REASONS FOR FAILURES

8 HOW TO AVOID FAILURES OR AVOIDING THE BLACK SWAN

New directions in tailings management

1 BRIEF HISTORY OF TAILINGS DISPOSAL

1.1 Initial operations