Palynology

ISSN: 0191-6122 (Print) 1558-9188 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tpal20

A new Late Miocene to Pleistocene palynomorph

zonation for the western offshore Niger Delta

Peter A. Adeonipekun, M. Adebisi Sowunmi & Keith Richards

To cite this article: Peter A. Adeonipekun, M. Adebisi Sowunmi & Keith Richards (2015): A new
Late Miocene to Pleistocene palynomorph zonation for the western offshore Niger Delta,
Palynology, DOI: 10.1080/01916122.2015.1107652

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2015.1107652

Published online: 24 Dec 2015.

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 Palynology, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2015.1107652

A new Late Miocene to Pleistocene palynomorph zonation for the western offshore Niger Delta
Peter A. Adeonipekuna*, M. Adebisi Sowunmib and Keith Richardsc,d
a
Laboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Nigeria;
b
Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria; cKrA Stratigraphic Ltd, Deganwy, Conwy, LL31
9YY United Kingdom; dInstitute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Existing biozonation schemes for the Niger Delta are mainly qualitative with zonal intervals too large to record subtle
events. This has made it necessary to look for additional palynological events to enable recognition of shorter, more
refined interval zones to improve stratigraphical definition. Hitherto unrecognised occurrence trends of palynomorphs
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were discovered and used to construct a new zonation scheme that can be applied in the offshore delta area. Late
Miocene to Early Pleistocene sediments have been divided into five principal assemblage zones: FF1, Anthoceros
abundance zone; FF2, Elaeis guineensis Echiperiporites icacinoides zone; FF3, Lycopodium Retibrevitricolporites
obodoensis/protrudens zone; FF4, Cyperaceae abundance zone; and FF5, Echitriletes pliocenicus Podocarpus
milanjianus zone. The zones are further subdivided into 16 sub-zones based on quantitative events with some having
finer subdivisions into (a) and (b). Examples of the zonations applied to three exploration wells from the western
delta region are provided.
Keywords: Niger Delta; palynology and palynostratigraphy; bio-zonation; palynomorphs; pollen and spores
Miocene; Pliocene

1. Introduction house tool of Shell Petroleum Development Company.

The Niger Delta is situated on the continental margin
of the Gulf of Guinea in equatorial West Africa
between latitudes 3 and 6 N and longitudes 5 and 8 E.
Detailed palynology is indispensable for biostrati-
graphic and sequence stratigraphical studies of the
delta (Adegoke 2002) because pollen, spores and other
palynomorphs are present in most formations and
stratigraphical intervals, even in those with sand-prone
lithologies, and successions are often poor in age-diag-
nostic foraminifera and nannofossils.
In a bid to demonstrate the regional value of paly-
nological correlation in the tropics, Germeraad et al.
(1968) worked on many wells from the equatorial
regions of the Caribbean, Africa and Asia, and encour-
aged the development of palynological research in Ven-
ezuela and later the Niger Delta. Subsequently, Evamy
et al. (1978) and Legoux (1978) developed independent
but complementary palynological zonation schemes.
The scheme of Legoux (1978) is based on data from c.
70 exploration wells and utilised specific marker taxa
and their relative abundances, with several new pollen
types described. Evamy et al. (1978) presented a sum-
marised zonation, with coded zones and subzones,
which they integrated with petroleum geology. Details
of the individual marker pollen types, however, were
not formerly published, and the scheme remains an in-
Furthermore, neither of these studies provided any
detailed information on the Pliocene and Pleistocene
intervals. Morley (1986) introduced the concept of
modelling high-resolution climate-driven packages
using acmes of Rhizophora and Poaceae pollen
(Monoporites annulatus), and this was followed by Pou-
mot (1989) who used palynoecological groups to inter-
pret ‘palynocycles’ and ‘mega-palynocycles’ for Late
Miocene to Pliocene sections of the Niger Delta. The
Poumot (1989) study is useful mainly for interpretation
of depositional environments, successional change and
sequence recognition, but has little direct application
for dating and stratigraphical correlation. Morley &
Richards (1993) also used fluctuations in the relative
abundances of charred graminoid cuticle and Poaceae
pollen as an indication of vegetation and climate
change in the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene of the
Niger Delta. The first attempt to integrate climate fluc-
tuations with first appearances and extinctions of index
palynomorphs was presented by Morley & Rosen
(1996), followed by an unpublished report to the Niger
Delta Stratigraphical Commission by Morley &
Richards (1997). This was subsequently published as
range charts, proposing 16 zones (M1-2, P0-7 and Q1-
6), but without detailed explanation of zones, by Mor-
ley (2000) and Morley et al. (2003). This integrated

*Corresponding author. Email: aadeonipekun@unilag.edu.ng

Ó 2016 AASP The Palynological Society

 2 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
palaeoclimate/evolutionary change-based scheme has
been successfully applied in relatively shallow-water
settings where planktonic foraminifera and calcareous
nannofossils are less common due to freshwater dilu-
tion from the River Niger and its tributaries. Other
studies include those of Adebayo (2013) and Adeigbe
et al. (2013) who present localised zonations based on
single well studies, but they are of limited value for
wider correlation. Sequence stratigraphical observa-
tions based on palynology, vegetation and climate
were first suggested by Morley (1996a, 1996b) and later
by Adebayo & Ojo (2014). Of the existing palynologi-
cal zonation schemes for the Niger Delta, the schemes
of Germeraad et al. (1968), Evamy et al. (1978) and
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Legoux (1978) are based mainly on evolutionary
parameters (i.e. qualitative occurrences), whereas the
schemes of Morley & Richards (1993) and Morley
(2000) include palaeoclimatic controls and are quanti-
tative. All work well in different parts and age intervals
within the delta. The scheme of Evamy et al. (1978) can
be applied across the entire delta region, although the
zones and sub-zones are too large to capture subtle pal-
ynological events. The zonation of Morley & Richards
(1993) and Morley (2000) provides further refinements,
including quantitative events, but is less reliable in the
western part of the study region.
To resolve these problems, a search for new palyno-
logical features to aid the recognition of shorter interval
zones, identify subtle events and improve the palynos-
tratigraphical resolution within the delta was under-
taken. New events and features were identified and the
ranges and occurrence trends of the palynomorphs uti-
lised have been tested in over 100 exploration wells
from across the offshore Niger Delta. These have helped
in recognising missing sections and enabled improved
stratigraphical modelling through the application of
sequence stratigraphical techniques. The study has led
to the recognition of five principal palynological assem-
blage zones: FF1 (Anthoceros abundance zone), FF2
(Elaeis guineensis Echiperiporites icacinoides zone),
FF3 (Lycopodium Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/pro-
trudens zone), FF4 (Cyperaceae abundance zone) and
FF5 (Echitriletes pliocenicus Podocarpus milanjianus
zone). These zones range in age from Late Miocene to
Early Pleistocene and can be further subdivided into 16
sub-zones. Examples of the zonations applied to three
exploration wells in the western delta region (Figure 1)
are provided in this paper.
2. Regional setting
2.1. Geology
Formation of the Niger Delta began in the Eocene,
with the first deltaic sediments deposited to the south
and east of the former Cretaceous coastline in the
‘northern delta depo-belt’ (Reijers 2011). Many trans-
gressive and regressive events have subsequently taken
place (Short & Stauble 1967; Evamy et al. 1978) result-
ing in the delta complex being deposited farther and
farther offshore to the south (Reijers 2011). Lithologi-
cally, three formations are recognisable, which range
in age from Eocene to Recent (Figure 2). The Akata
Formation is typically made up of deep marine shales
with associated turbidites and fan deposits, and is the
principal source rock in the region. The Agbada For-
mation generally overlies the Akata and is formed of
alternating delta plain sands and shales; the Agbada
sands form the principal oil and gas reservoirs within
the delta. The Benin Formation is made up of thick,
highly porous sandy units with localised lenses of shale
(Short & Stauble 1967; Avbovbo 1978). The main types
of sediments deposited are: (i) continental (mainly
freshwater to upper delta plain, alluvial sand and silty-
clay sediments); (ii) transitional (fine-grained brackish
water mangrove deposits of the intertidal zone and
lower delta plain); and (iii) marine (faunal-rich fine
sands, silts and clays from the submerged delta front/
pro-delta). Sedimentation in the delta is controlled by
many factors including fluvial activity in the lower
flood plain, tidal currents from the mangrove belt to
the delta front, long-shore drift (predominantly from
the southwest), the Guinea ocean current and the
north-east trade winds (Reijers 1996).
2.2. Vegetation
Palynomorphs found in the Niger Delta sediments
broadly reflect the composition of vegetation types in
the extensive Niger and Benue catchments, which tra-
verse several vegetation zones (Sowunmi 1981a, 1981b,
1988, 2004) including forest, savanna and montane
types (Figure 3). These vegetation belts occur in a
broadly parallel fashion northwards from the coast in
Nigeria and adjacent areas (Keay 1959; White 1983).
From the south to the north, the principal vegetation
types found in the region are described below. Taxo-
nomic assignments are in accordance with Hutchinson
& Dalziel (1954, 1958, 1963, 1968, 1972) and White
(1983).
(i) Beach vegetation contains herbaceous plants of
genera such as Ipomoea and Sporobolus, together with
Anubias barteri and trees including Dalbergia, Eugenia,
Hibiscus and Phoenix. (ii) Brackish water swamp con-
tains mainly mangrove taxa such as Avicennia, Lagun-
cularia and Rhizophora, with the fern Acrostichum
locally common. (iii) Freshwater swamp forest con-
tains many trees and lianes including the genera
Calamus, Cleistopholis, Crudia, Pandanus, Raphia,
Symphonia and Uapaca, as well as shrubs, epiphytes,
 Palynology
ferns and herbaceous types including Cyperus and
Nymphaea. Open forest flood plain areas often contain
Irvingia gabonensis, Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) and
Uncaria africana (liane) together with ferns, mosses
and lichens. (iv) Guinean lowland rainforest contains
mainly tree taxa including the genera Canthium, Ceiba,
Celtis, and Triplochiton, with members of the Melia-
ceae and Sapotaceae families; leguminous trees and
shrubs also occur including species of Mimosa, Calpo-
calyx and various other Caesalpinaceae and Papiliona-
ceae. (v) Southern and Northern Guinea savanna
includes tree species such as Afzelia africana, Daniella
oliveri, Irvingia gabonensis, Isoberlinia dalzielii, and
Terminalia glaucescens within the Southern Guinea
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savanna, whereas Detarium microcarpum, Parinari,
and Pterocarpus are characteristic of the Northern
Guinea savanna. (vi) Sudan savanna contains genera
such as Acacia, Adansonia digitata, Balanites,
Mitragyna, and Parkia. (vii) Sahel savanna is charac-
terised by Fadogia and Grewia, and grasses such as
Andropogon, Hyparrhenia and Pennisetum. (viii) Mon-
tane and lower montane vegetation is limited to the
highlands of Adamawa, Jos, Mambilla and Mandara
Plateaux regions, as well as volcanic peaks to the east,
and contains plants including the genera Cyathea, Ilex,
Olea and Podocarpus.
These vegetation belts have existed in west Africa,
with little significant change in the main constituent
taxa, since at least 10.5 Ma, at the beginning of the
Late Miocene (Leroy & Dupont 1994; Morley 2000).
Expansions of the mangrove and humid forest belts
have occurred during periods of increased humidity,
whereas the savanna belts extend southwards during
times of drought (Pastouret et al. 1978; Maley 1996).
Montane and lower montane vegetation expands to
lower elevations in response to cooler climates. This cli-
mate-driven cyclicity and comparatively low ‘turnover’
(i.e. appearances and/or extinctions of the principal
taxa) have meant that changes in vegetation composi-
tion over time are reflected in the pollen and spore
records within the delta. These can be recognised
across the study area and form the basis of the new
zonation scheme.
3. Materials and methods
Twenty-five grams from each of 330 cutting samples
from three wells were utilised for this palynological
study. The wells are situated in the shallow offshore
western Niger Delta (Figure 1), and are referred to as
wells A, B and C in this paper. Approximately 6800 m
of section was analysed in total, with an average sam-
ple spacing of approximately 20 m. Samples were proc-
essed for palynology using hydrochloric acid (HCl),
hydrofluoric acid (HF) and acidified zinc chloride
3
(ZnCl2) solutions. Microscopic analysis of recovered
residues was undertaken using published atlases (e.g.
Sowunmi 1973, 1995; Salard-Cheboldaeff 1980, 1981;
Thanikaimoni et al. 1984; Thanikaimoni 1987; Gosling
et al. 2013) and reference slides for palynomorph iden-
tification. For palynological zonation, the works of
Germeraad et al. (1968), Evamy et al. (1978), Morley
& Richards (1993) and Morley (2000) were initially
used. Subsequently, a new zonation scheme was estab-
lished, which is described in this paper. Five principal
zones have been recognised, FF5 to FF1, named in
honour of the late Mr. Femi Fadahunsi. Sixteen sub-
zones (some with further a and b subdivisions) are also
described. Sub-zones within the Late Miocene are
AM2 and AM1 (AM D Adeonipekun Miocene) and
sub-zones AP0 to AP13 are of Late Pliocene to Early
Pleistocene age (AP D Adeonipekun Pliocene/Pleisto-
cene). The sub-zones are based on qualitative and
quantitative occurrences of individual taxa and overall
assemblage composition, and are therefore influenced
by biological evolution/extinction as well as by palaeo-
climatic and ecological factors. Several of the sub-
zones have similar marker palynomorphs and bound-
aries coincident with the scheme of Morley & Richards
(1993), but more detailed descriptions of the distribu-
tions and relative abundances of the constituent taxa
are presented.
4. Results
4.1. Definitions and characteristics of new zones and
sub-zones
The abbreviations used in the following section are
shown in Table 1 and the zonation scheme summarised
in Figure 4. Palynomorphs which have been described
as form taxa are listed with their botanical affinities in
Table 2. Pollen and spore types which are identified by
comparison with modern plants, to family, genus or
species level, are given the suffix ‘pollen’ or ‘spores’.
Where shown below, the ‘equivalent’ relates to the
zone or sub-zone of Morley & Richards (1993) and/or
Morley (2000).
ZONE FF1 Anthoceros abundance zone (Late
Miocene)
Top of zone: Quantitative base (QB) of Retibrevitri-
colporites obodoensis/protrudens.
Base of zone: Not seen in the studied intervals.
Characteristics: FF1 includes high percentages of
Anthoceros spores and irregular occurrences of
Echiperiporites icacinoides and Elaeis guineensis
pollen.
Equivalent: Zones M2 M1.
Sub-zone AM2 (Late Miocene)
 4 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
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Figure 1. Location map showing the study area in the western Niger Delta and simplified bathymetry (after Bakare et al. 2009).
Top of sub-zone: Downhole increase (DI) in Sapota-
ceae pollen and Pachydermites diederixi.
Base of sub-zone: Not reached in the sections
studied.
Characteristics: Abundant Sapotaceae pollen and
Pachydermites diederixi; frequent Zonocostites
ramonae and Anthoceros spores. Common rainfor-
est pollen, spores and freshwater forms. Quantita-
tive top (QT) of Racemonocolpites hians.
Equivalent: Zone M2.
Sub-zone AM1 (Late Miocene)
Top of sub-zone: QB of Retibrevitricolporites obo-
doensis/protrudens and downhole decrease (DD)
Zonocostites ramonae.
Base of sub-zone: DI in Sapotaceae pollen and
Pachydermites diederixi.
Characteristics: First downhole occurrence (FDO)
Racemonocolpites hians; high percentage of Psila-
tricolporites crassus and Polypodiaceiosporites
spp. Low relative proportions of Retibrevitricol-
porites obodoensis/protrudens and Pachydermites
diederixi; irregular occurrences of Echiperiporites
icacinoides.
Equivalent: Zone M1.
ZONE FF2 Elaeis guineensis Echiperiporites icaci-
noides zone (Early Pliocene)
Top of zone: QT of Echiperiporites icacinoides.
Base of zone: QB of Retibrevitricolporites obodoen-
sis/protrudens.
Characteristics: Regular occurrence (RO) of Elaeis-
guineensis pollen and highest relative proportions
of Echiperiporites icacinoides. Peak occurrence
(PO) of Canthium-type pollen, Uapaca staudtii pol-
len, Hygrophila pollen and Sapotaceae pollen. QB
and last downhole occurrence (LDO) of Borreria
pollen. (Retistephanocolpites gracilis).
Equivalent: Zones P7 P3 (lower part).
Sub-zone AP0 (Early Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: Base regular occurrence (BRO) of
Elaeis guineensis pollen.
Base of sub-zone: QB Retibrevitricolporites obodoen-
sis/protrudens and DD Zonocostites ramonae.
 Palynology 5
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Figure 2. Niger Delta lithostratigraphical summary (modified from Short & Stable 1967; Jubril et al. 1998; Tuttle et al. 1999;
Reijers 2011).

Characteristics: Frequent occurrences of Zonocos- sp. 1) and Echiperiporites icacinoides. PO of Hygro-

tites ramonae, Monoporites annulatus and charred phila pollen and LDO of Borreria pollen (irregular
graminoid cuticle. High relative occurrences of occurrence).
Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/protrudens, cf. Equivalent: Zone P7 (lower part).
Cleistopholis patens pollen (Gemmamonocolpites Sub-zone AP1 (Early Pliocene)
 6 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
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Figure 3. Simplified vegetation map of West Africa, including the main Niger and Benue catchment areas (based on Keay 1959;
White 1983).

Top of sub-zone: DI in Zonocostites ramonae. Equivalent: Zone P7 (upper part).

Base of sub-zone: BRO of Elaeis guineensis pollen.
Characteristics: Abundant cf. Cleistopholis patens
pollen and Sapotaceae pollen; consistent or com-
mon Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/protrudens,
Laevigatosporites spp., Zonocostites ramonae,
Monoporites annulatus, Echiperiporites icacinoides,
Retitricolporites irregularis and Pachydermites die-
derixi. LDO of Borreria pollen (regular
occurrence).
Sub-zone AP2 (Early Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: DD in Pachydermites diederixi.
Base of sub-zone: DI in Zonocostites ramonae.
Characteristics: High proportions of charred grami-
noid cuticle and generally low numbers of other
palynomorphs.
Equivalent: Zone P6.
Sub-zone AP3 (Early Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: PO of Pachydermites diederixi.
 Palynology
Table 1. Abbreviations used in the palynological zonation scheme.
Abbreviation
FDO First downhole occurrence (‘stratigraphic top’ or extinction event)
LDO Last downhole occurrence (‘stratigraphic base’ or evolutionary appearance)
QT Quantitative top (an increase in numerical abundance down-section, for example from rare to consistent, or
common to abundant)
QB Quantitative base (a decrease in numerical abundance down-section, for example from consistent to rare, or
abundant to common/consistent).
RO Regular occurrence
TRO Top regular occurrence
BRO Base regular occurrence
DI Downhole increase
DD Downhole decrease
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PO Peak occurrence
TCO Top continuous occurrence
Base of sub-zone: DD in proportions of Pachyder-
mites diederixi.
Characteristics: High percentages of charred grami-
noid cuticle and Zonocostites ramonae. Increased
proportions of Pachydermites diederixi, open
coastal pollen and Monoporites annulatus; lower
proportions of spores and rainforest pollen relative
to overlying sub-zone AP4.
Equivalent: Zone P5.
Sub-zone AP4 (Early Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: DI in Sapotaceae pollen.
Base of sub-zone: PO of Pachydermites diederixi.
Characteristics: Lower relative proportions of
charred graminoid cuticle than in the overlying
sub-zone AP5. PO of Hygrophila pollen, Uapaca
staudtii pollen and Canthium-type pollen.
Equivalent: Zone P4.
Sub-zone AP5a (Early Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: QT Echiperiporites icacinoides/top
regular occurrence (TRO) or top common occur-
rence (TCO) cf. Cleistopholis patens pollen.
Base of sub-zone: DI in Sapotaceae pollen.
Characteristics: High relative occurrences of
charred graminoid cuticle and low relative propor-
tions of Pachydermites diederixi and Sapotaceae
pollen. Abundant Echiperiporites icacinoides and
PO of Borreria pollen.
Equivalent: Zone P3 (lower part)
ZONE FF3 Lycopodium Retibrevitricolporites
obodoensis/protrudens zone (Early Pliocene basal
Late Pliocene)
Top of zone: TRO of Lycopodium spores and/or
Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/protrudens.
Base of zone: QT of Echiperiporites icacinoides.
Characteristics: TRO of Lycopodium spores and
Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/protrudens and
FDO of cf. Cleistopholis patens pollen
7
Definition
(Gemmamonocolpites sp. 1). Highest abundances
of Laevigatosporites spp. and high abundances
of Allophylus africanus pollen. PO Pandanus can-
delabrum and Raphia pollen.
Equivalent: Zone P3 (upper part) P2.
Sub-zone AP5b (Early Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: DD in the proportions of Raphia
pollen.
Base of sub-zone: QT of Echiperiporites icacinoides
and/or TRO/TCO cf. Cleistopholis patens pollen.
Characteristics: High amounts of charred grami-
noid cuticle. Low proportions of Pachydermites die-
derixi and Sapotaceae pollen. Echiperiporites
icacinoides rare or absent.
Equivalent: Zone P3 (upper part).
Sub-zone AP6 (Early Pliocene).
Top of sub-zone: FDO of cf. Cleistopholis patens
pollen (Gemmamonocolpites sp. 1).
Base of sub-zone: DD in Raphia pollen.
Characteristics: Frequent charred graminoid cuticle
and higher proportions of Zonocostites ramonae
than in overlying sub-zone AP7. Common Panda-
nus candelabrum pollen and PO of Psilamonocol-
pites spp.
Equivalent: Zone P2 (lower).
Sub-zone AP7 (Late Pliocene)
Top: TRO of Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/pro-
trudens and/or TRO of Lycopodium pollen.
Base: FDO cf. Cleistopholis patens pollen.
Characteristics: Frequent charred graminoid cuti-
cle, abundant Laevigatosporites spp., common Allo-
phylus africanus pollen and Pandanus candelabrum
pollen. PO of Raphia pollen, Borreria pollen and
Uapaca staudtii pollen.
Equivalent: Zone P2 (upper).
ZONE FF4 Cyperaceae abundance zone/sub-zone
AP8 (Late Pliocene)
 8 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
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Figure 4. New palynostratigraphical biozonation for the Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene of the offshore Niger Delta, based
on pollen and spore distributions and quantitative events and comparison with zonation of Evamy et al. (1978), Morley &
Richards (1993) and Morley (2000).
Note: FDO D first downhole occurrence (‘stratigraphic top’ or extinction event); LDO D last downhole occurrence (‘stratigraphic
base’ or evolutionary appearance); QT D quantitative top (an increase in numerical abundance down-section, for example from
rare to consistent, or common to abundant); QB D quantitative base (a decrease in numerical abundance down-section, for exam-
ple from consistent to rare, or abundant to common/consistent); RO D regular occurrence; TRO D top regular occurrence;
BRO D base regular occurrence; DI D downhole increase; DD D downhole decrease; PO D peak occurrence.
 Palynology
Table 2. List of ‘form taxa’ and botanical affinities.
Form taxon
Echitriletes pliocenicus (informal taxon)
Echiperiporites icacinoides Salard-Cheboldaeff 1975
Echisporites (informal taxon)
Gemmamonocolpites sp. 1 (informal taxon)
Laevigatosporites Ibrahim 1933
Leiotriletes Ishchenko 1952
Monoporites annulatus Van der Hammen 1954
Pachydermites diederixi Germeraad, Hopping & Muller 1968
Polypodiaceoisporites Potoni
e 1956
Psilamonocolpites Van der Hammen & Garcia de Mutis 1965
Psilatricolporites crassus Van der Hammen & Wymstra 1964
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Racemonocolpites hians Legoux 1978
Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis Legoux 1978
Retibrevitricolporites protrudens Legoux 1978
Retistephanocolpites gracilis Regali, Uesugui & Santos 1974
Retitricolporites irregularis Van der Hammen & Wymstra 1964
Zonocostites ramonae Germeraad, Hopping & Muller 1968
Top of zone/sub-zone: LDO of Echitriletes
pliocenicus.
Base of zone/sub-zone: TRO of Lycopodium spores
and/or TRO of Retibrevitricolporites obodoensis/
protrudens.
Characteristics: Abundant Monoporites annulatus
and charred graminoid cuticle, and high relative
frequencies of Cyperaceae pollen. Low proportions
of Zonocostites ramonae. Absence of Echitriletes
pliocenicus and Podocarpus milanjianus pollen.
Equivalent: Zone P1 (lower part).
ZONE FF5 Echitriletes pliocenicus Podocarpus
milanjianus zone (Late Pliocene earliest
Pleistocene)
Top of zone: Not seen in studied sections.
Base of zone: LDO of Echitriletes pliocenicus and
Podocarpus milanjianus pollen.
Characteristics: LDO and QB occurrences of Podo-
carpus milanjianus pollen and Echitriletes plioceni-
cus. High relative proportions of undifferentiated
Acanthaceae pollen, Polygala pollen and Asystasia
gangetica pollen.
Equivalent: Zone P1 (upper part) Q6 (upper).
Sub-zone AP9 (Late Pliocene)
Top of sub-zone: LDO of Podocarpus milanjianus
pollen.
Base of sub-zone: LDO of Echitriletes pliocenicus.
Characteristics: Regular occurrences of Echitriletes
pliocenicus with low frequencies of charred grami-
noid cuticle and generally low numbers of pollen
and spores. FDO of Nypa pollen and Echisporites
spp. close to base of sub-zone. Infrequent spores
9
Botanical affinity
Fern or hornwort spore
Icacinaceae, Iodes
Fern or hornwort spore
Annonaceae, Cleistopholis patens
Pteridophyta (various)
Pteridophyta (various) e.g. Acrostichum aureum
Poaceae (various)
Clusiaceae, Symphonia globulifera
Pteridaceae (various)
Arecaceae (various)
Pellicieriaceae, Pelliciera rhizophorae
Arecaceae, ?Oncosperma
Rubiaceae, generic affinity unknown
Rubiaceae, generic affinity unknown
Rubiaceae, Borreria
Euphorbiaceae, Amanoa
Rhizophoraceae, Rhizophora
e.g. Leiotriletes spp. (cf. Acrostichum). Podocarpus
milanjianus pollen absent.
Equivalent: Zone P1 (upper part) P0.
Remark: DD in Monoporites annulatus separates
sub-zone AP9 into a lower section AP9a and upper
section AP9b.
Sub-zone AP10 (Early Pleistocene)
Top of sub-zone: QB of Echitriletes pliocenicus.
Base of sub-zone: LDO of Podocarpus milanjianus
pollen.
Characteristics: Abundant Anthoceros spores and
Laevigatosporites spp.; infrequent Echitriletes plio-
cenicus. Frequent Polygala pollen and Afzelia afri-
cana pollen. Rare Podocarpus milanjianus pollen.
Equivalent: Zone Q6 (lower) sub-zone A.
Sub-zone AP11 (Early Pleistocene)
Top of sub-zone: QB of Podocarpus milanjianus
pollen.
Base of sub-zone: QB of Echitriletes pliocenicus.
Characteristics: Consistent to common occurrences
of Podocarpus milanjianus pollen and Echitriletes
pliocenicus. More frequent and regular occurrences
of Borreria pollen relative to the underlying sub-
zone AP10. Frequent Laevigatosporites spp. and
Calamus deeratus pollen with Cyperaceae pollen
and Polygala pollen rare or absent. Afzelia africana
pollen present.
Equivalent: Zone Q6 (lower) sub-zones B C.
Remark: Sub-zone further subdivided into lower
AP11a and upper AP11b by a DD in Podocarpus
milanjianus pollen at top of AP11a.
Sub-zone AP12 (Early Pleistocene)
 10 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
Top of sub-zone: DD in Laevigatosporites spp.
Base of sub-zone: QB of Podocarpus milanjianus
pollen.
Characteristics: Regular and locally common
occurrences of Podocarpus milanjianus and Polyg-
ala pollen. Higher proportions of Cyperaceae pol-
len relative to the underlying sub-zone AP11.
Generally reduced proportions of Laevigatosporites
spp. and other palynomorphs.
Equivalent: Zone Q6 (lower) sub-zone C Zone Q6
(upper).
Remark: Sub-zone further subdivided into a lower
AP12a and upper AP12b by a DI in Podocarpus
milanjianus pollen at top of subzone AP12a.
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Sub-zone AP13 (Early Pleistocene)
Top of sub-zone: Not defined.
Base of sub-zone: DD in the proportions of Laevi-
gatosporites spp.
Characteristics: Abundant, common or consistent
occurrences of Podocarpus milanjianus pollen, Lae-
vigatosporites spp., Combretaceae/Melastomataceae
group pollen, Pandanus candelabrum pollen, undif-
ferentiated Acanthaceae pollen, Polygala pollen
and Asystasia gangetica pollen. Infrequent Echitri-
letes pliocenicus.
Equivalent: Zone Q6 (upper).
4.2. Dating of the zonation scheme
The ages assigned to the zones and sub-zones are
shown in Figure 4, which also shows correlations to
the previous schemes of Evamy et al. (1978) and Mor-
ley & Richards (1993), with revisions of some bound-
aries following Morley (2000). The principal zonal and
some sub-zonal boundaries are constrained by calcare-
ous nannofossils which broadly follow the maximum
flooding surfaces recognised by Vail & Wornardt
(1990) and Wornardt & Vail (1991) in the Gulf of Mex-
ico and the Niger Delta (Morley 2000). Sub-zones
AP13 and AP12b (Q6 upper) are characterised by Cati-
naster macintyrei (NN19, Early Pleistocene); sub-zones
AP12a, AP11 and AP10 (Q6 lower) are characterised
by Discoaster brouweri (NN18 NN17, Early Pleisto-
cene) and Discoaster surculus (upper NN16, Early
Pleistocene); AP9b (P0) is characterised by Discoaster
tamalis (mid NN16, Late Pliocene); sub-zones AP9a,
AP8 and AP7 (P1 to P2 upper) are characterised by
Sphenolithus abies (NN15, Late Early Pliocene); sub-
zones AP6 to AP5 (P2 lower to P3) are characterised
by Amaurolithus tricorniculatus (NN14 NN13, Early
Pliocene); sub-zones AP4, AP3, AP2, AP1, AP0 and
AM1 (P4 to M1) are characterised by Ceratolithus acu-
tus (NN12 upper NN11, Early Pliocene Late
Miocene) and zone AM2 (M2) is characterised by Dis-
coaster berggrenii (lower NN11, Late Miocene). The
evolutionary appearance (LDO) of Podocarpus milan-
jianus, which coincides with the base of sub-zone AP10
(Q6 lower), reflects the increase of this gymnosperm
taxon as a result of cooling climates at the onset of the
Pleistocene at around 2.7 Ma (Knaap 1972; Morley
2000).
5. Discussion
Five principal palynological zones were identified,
namely FF5, FF4, FF3, FF2 and FF1. The most
significant indicator taxa (zonal markers) are the
form taxa Echitriletes pliocenicus and Echiperiporites
icacinoides, together with spores of Lycopodium and
Anthoceros and pollen from the Acanthaceae family,
Hygrophila, Pandanus candelabrum, Allophylus afri-
canus and Raphia. Zone FF5 has five sub-zones,
FF4 has no sub-zones, FF3 has three sub-zones,
FF2 has six sub-zones and FF1 has two sub-zones.
Boundaries of the FF zones differ from those of
Evamy et al. (1978) but overlap with the P900 zone
and sub-zones P880, P870 and P860. The sub-zones
described are AP13, AP12 (a and b), AP11 (a and
b), AP10, AP9 (a and b), AP8, AP7, AP6, AP5 (a
and b), AP4, AP3, AP2, AP1, AP0, AM1 and
AM2. Most of the sub-zones derived from this
work share similar boundaries with those of Morley
& Richards (1993) and Morley (2000), namely Q6
Upper, Q6 Lower C, Q6 Lower B, Q6 Lower A, P0,
P1, P2 Upper, P2 Lower, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, M1
and M2. Several finer scale subdivisions were, how-
ever, identified in the present study. Morley &
Richards’ (1993) zone P7 is subdivided into two:
AP1 and AP0; zone P3 is subdivided into AP5 (a
and b); zone P1 is equivalent to sub-zone AP8 and
AP9 (a). Also, the four Q6 zones and sub-zones of
Morley & Richards (1993) can be refined further
into six new sub-zones, AP10, AP11 (a and b),
AP12 (a and b) and AP13. Using a quantitative
approach, the scheme of Morley & Richards (1993),
with supplementary information from Morley (2000)
and Morley et al. (2003), is further enhanced in the
eastern and central Niger Delta offshore where it
was originally established.
The new palynological zonation scheme can be suc-
cessfully applied across the whole delta region. In this
study, the zonation has been applied to three example
wells in the western delta region, wells A, B and C
(Figure 5). Due to data confidentiality, only the princi-
pal marker taxa are shown semi-quantitatively. Well B
has a more central location and the most complete
 Downloaded by [Library Services City University London] at 18:28 18 March 2016

Figure 5. (Continued)
Palynology
11
 12 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
Downloaded by [Library Services City University London] at 18:28 18 March 2016

Figure 5. Zonation and summary of main palynological markers for wells A, B and C. The width of the bar indicates relative
frequency for the marker taxa. Present: count D 1; rare: count D 2 to 4; consistent: count D 5 to 14; common: count D 15 to 24;
abundant D 25C. “C” D caved; “R” D reworked.
 Palynology
sedimentary record, with all zones and sub-zones
assigned, and is also the least affected by cavings
within the cutting samples. Wells A and C can be corre-
lated to well B using the principal events and zonation
schemes. The scheme uses a combination of
‘stratigraphical tops’ and ‘stratigraphical bases’ as well
as quantitative changes, and, used together, these have
helped to identify caved occurrences in wells A and C.
The zonation scheme provides a reliable basis for
more detailed interpretation of key intervals (e.g.
reservoir horizons) and has been successfully applied
in sequence stratigraphical interpretations. It is
important to note, however, that not all of the
zonal events occur all of the time in all well sec-
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tions, including the A, B and C wells used in this
study.
The botanical and ecological affinities of many of
the recovered pollen and spores types have aided in the
recognition of the various zones and sub-zones. It
is noteworthy that pollen attributed to Allophylus
africanus, Calamus deeratus, Hygrophila, Polygala and
Uapaca staudtii are being used in this type of strati-
graphical work for the first time in the Niger Delta.
Mangrove pollen (e.g. Zonocostites ramonae), Poaceae
pollen (Monoporites annulatus) and various spores are
the dominant palynomorphs recovered in all zones.
These are derived from groups of plants that are pres-
ently widespread in the Niger Delta and further inland
and show that the palynomorphs transported and
deposited offshore have a potentially wide source area
within the catchment. Many of the recorded pollen and
spores, however, are from freshwater and rainforest
vegetation. These include various pteridophyte spores
and pollen attributed to Amanoa, Cleistopholis patens,
Raphia and Symphonia globulifera the families
Sapotaceae and Rubiaceae (e.g. Canthium and Retibre-
vitricolporites obodoensis/protrudens). These indicate
that the coastal Niger Delta is a major source area for
the palynomorphs deposited offshore, and that they
were probably mainly transported by river water.
Exceptions are Podocarpus milanjianus pollen, charred
graminoid cuticle and possibly some Poaceae pollen
that could also have been transported by air to the sites
of deposition from localities within the inland savanna
regions.
6. Conclusion
A new palynological zonation scheme for the Niger
Delta is described, which consists of five principal
assemblage zones: FF1 (Anthoceros abundance zone),
FF2 (Elaeis guineensis Echiperiporites icacinoides
zone), FF3 (Lycopodium Retibrevitricolporites obo-
doensis/protrudens zone), FF4 (Cyperaceae abundance
zone), and FF5 (Echitriletes pliocenicus Podocarpus
13
milanjianus zone). These zones can be further subdi-
vided into 16 sub-zones ranging in age from Late Mio-
cene to Early Pleistocene. Palynological studies of
three well sections from the offshore Niger Delta have
identified newly observed trends in the ranges of key
pollen taxa as well as recognising quantitative trends in
environmentally significant forms such as mangrove
pollen (Zonocostites ramonae) and Poaceae pollen
(Monoporites annulatus).
Hitherto unrecognised occurrence trends of Echitri-
letes pliocenicus, Echiperiporites icacinoides, Lycopo-
dium and Anthoceros spores, and pollen attributed to
Acanthaceae, Allophylus africanus, Hygrophila, Panda-
nus candelabrum and Raphia have enabled refinement
of palynological zonation schemes previously used in
the Niger Delta. The new data have enabled the con-
struction of a new quantitative zonation scheme for
the Late Miocene to earliest Pleistocene which, it is
hoped, will help with future palynostratigraphical stud-
ies in the region.
Acknowledgements
The assistance of the Directorate of Petroleum Resources,
Nigeria (DPR), is greatly appreciated for permission to
work on the samples and for allowing publication of
results. The encouragement from late Dr Ade Oyede, Mr
Chinyere Ewenrem and Mr Kalu of Shell Petroleum
Development Company, Nigeria, is greatly acknowledged.
Also appreciated are the contributions of Mr Wale Yus-
suph of Earthprobe Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, Mr Isaac Ajisafe
of Addax Petroleum Company Ltd., Lagos, Mr Toyin
Bawaalla of Arctic Spatials Ltd. Lagos, Mr Taiwo Phil-
lips, Mr Issa Olatunde and Mr Eric Erigha. Mrs Ife
Oluwa Adeniyi is acknowledged for typing the manu-
script. Mr Femi Fadahunsi and Mr Faleti, both of blessed
memory, contributed immensely to the palynological slide
preparation at the now-defunct Massoil Fields Services
Ltd. Lagos, owned by Mr Bayo Sadare. The manuscript
was significantly improved by comments by Dr Robert
J. Morley and a second, anonymous, referee. Alison
Davies of the Mapping Company, North Wales, provided
the artwork for the text figures.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Author biographies
PETER ADEGBENGA ADEONIPE-
KUN obtained his B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.
D. at the University of Ibadan and is
currently a lecturer in Palaeobotany
and Palynology in the Department of
Botany, Faculty of Science, University
of Lagos, Nigeria. He has twenty-one
years’ experience as a Palynologist/
Biostratigrapher in the Nigerian oil and
gas industry, being involved in regional and multi-well
 14 P. A. Adeonipekun et al.
bio-sequence stratigraphical studies across the Niger delta.
His research interests include Cenozoic and Cretaceous paly-
nology, Bio-sequence stratigraphy, Quaternary Palynology/
Palaeoecology and Aeropalynology. He is a member of the
Nigerian Association of Petroleum Explorationists (NAPE),
Nigerian Mining and Geosciences Society (NMGS), and
Palynological Association of Nigeria (PAN).
PROFESSOR M. ADEBISI SOWUNMI
has been engaged in post-doctoral pal-
ynological research and teaching since
1968. Her fields of interest include
environmental archaeology, palaeoe-
cology, melissopalynology, and pollen
morphology. She has been visiting Pro-
fessor at the Department of African
Downloaded by [Library Services City University London] at 18:28 18 March 2016
Archaeology, Uppsala University,
Sweden, Institute of Archaeology, University College
London, England, and the Departments of African Archae-
ology and African Archaeobotany, Johann Wolfgang
Goethe-Universit€at, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. She is
currently an Adjunct Professor at the Department of
Botany, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
KEITH RICHARDS is a palynologist
with over 25 years’ experience working
on Cenozoic and Mesozoic sediments
from all parts the world, with a particu-
lar interest in tropical Cenozoic paly-
nology, sequence stratigraphy and
deltas. He completed an MSc at Hull
University on West African Holocene
pollen. He is a palynologist with KrA
Stratigraphic Ltd. in the UK and is a Research Associate at
the Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dymanics
(IBED) at the University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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