Basic Electronics Notes For Marine and Eee

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.
in
ENGINEERING COLLEGES
2017 – 18 Odd Semester
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Department of ECE
SUBJECT CODE: EC6701
SUBJECT NAME: RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
Regulation: 2013 Year and Semester: IV/VII

Prepared by
Sl.
Name of the Faculty Designation Affiliating College
No.
Mr. M. Suresh
1 AP/ECE FXEC
Chinnathampy
2 Mr. S. Allwin Devaraj AP/ECE FXEC
Verified by DLI, CLI and Approved by the Centralized Monitoring Team

dated 28-06-2017.
1
Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.in
EC6701 RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LTPC3003

UNIT I TWO PORT NETWORK THEORY 9
Review of Low frequency parameters: Impedance, Admittance, Hybrid and
ABCD parameters, Different types of interconnection of Two port networks,
High Frequency parameters, Formulation of S parameters, Properties of S
parameters, Reciprocal and lossless Network, Transmission matrix, RF
behavior of Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors.
UNIT II RF AMPLIFIERS AND MATCHING NETWORKS 9
Characteristics of Amplifiers, Amplifier power relations, Stability considerations,
Stabilization Methods, Noise Figure, Constant VSWR, Broadband, High power
and Multistage Amplifiers, Impedance matching using discrete components,
Two component matching Networks, Frequency response and quality factor, T
and Pi Matching Networks, Microstrip Line Matching Networks.
UNIT III PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES 9
Terminations, Attenuators, Phase shifters, Directional couplers, Hybrid
Junctions, Power dividers, Circulator, Isolator, Impedance matching devices:
Tuning screw, Stub and quarter wave transformers. Crystal and Schottkey
diode detector and mixers, PIN diode switch, Gunn diode oscillator, IMPATT
diode oscillator and amplifier, Varactor diode, Introduction to MIC.
UNIT IV MICROWAVE GENERATION 9
Review of conventional vacuum Triodes, Tetrodes and Pentodes, High
frequency effects in vacuum Tubes, Theory and application of Two cavity
Klystron Amplifier, Reflex Klystron oscillator, Traveling wave tube amplifier,
Magnetron oscillator using Cylindrical, Linear, Coaxial Voltage tunable
Magnetrons, Backward wave Crossed field amplifier and oscillator.
UNIT V MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS 9
Measuring Instruments : Principle of operation and application of VSWR meter,
Power meter, Spectrum analyzer, Network analyzer, Measurement of
Impedance, Frequency, Power, VSWR, Q-factor, Dielectric constant, Scattering
coefficients, Attenuation, S-parameters.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
2
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Reinhold Ludwig and Gene Bogdanov, “RF Circuit Design: Theory and
Applications”, Pearson Education Inc., 2011
2. Robert E Colin, “Foundations for Microwave Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons
Inc, 2005
REFERENCES:
1. David M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, Wiley India (P) Ltd, New Delhi,
2008. 2. Thomas H Lee, “Planar Microwave Engineering: A Practical Guide to
Theory, Measurements and Circuits”, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
3. Mathew M Radmanesh, “RF and Microwave Electronics”, Prentice Hall, 2000.
4. Annapurna Das and Sisir K Das, “Microwave Engineering”, Tata Mc Graw
Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, 2005.
3
EC6701 RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LTPC3003

1. Aim and Objective of the subject:
 To inculcate understanding of the basics required for circuit
representation of RF networks.
 To deal with the issues in the design of microwave amplifier.
 To instill knowledge on the properties of various microwave components.
 To deal with the microwave generation and microwave measurement
techniques
2. Need and importance for the study of the subject
The students will be able to:
 Explain the active & passive microwave devices & components used in
Microwave communication systems.
 Analyze the multiport RF networks and RF transistor amplifiers.
 Generate Microwave signals and design microwave amplifiers.
 Measure and analyze Microwave signal and parameters.
3. Industry Connectivity and latest developments
Industry Connectivity
Some of the companies involved in design, manufacture of RF and microwave
components are: L & T Tech services ltd, Bangalore, Adacell Technologies (P)
Ltd, Gurgaon, ANANYA SIP RF technologies Pvt.Ltd, Hyderabad, Jagat RF
solutions (P) ltd, Gujarat.
Latest developments
1. Direct digital synthesis
2. 5G Technology
3. Wearable Technology
4. GaN discrete transistors and Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits
(MMICs)
Industrial Visit (planned if any)
 Planned to visit ANANYA SIP RF technologies Pvt.Ltd, Hyderabad at the
end of August 2016.
4
SCAD GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
Detailed Lesson Plan

Name of the Subject and Code: EC 6701 – RF AND MICROWAVE
ENGINEERING
Name of the faculty:
1. Mr. M. Suresh Chinnathampy, AP/ECE, FXEC
2. Mr. S. Allwin Devaraj, AP/ECE, FXEC
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Reinhold Ludwig and Gene Bogdanov, “RF Circuit Design: Theory and
Applications”, Pearson Education Inc., 2011. (Copies Available in
Library: Yes)
2. Robert E Colin, “Foundations for Microwave Engineering”, John Wiley
& Sons Inc, 2005. (Copies Available in Library: Yes)
REFERENCES:
1. David M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, Wiley India (P) Ltd, New
Delhi, 2008. (Copies Available in Library: Yes)
2. Thomas H Lee, “Planar Microwave Engineering: A Practical Guide to
Theory, Measurements and Circuits”, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
(Copies Available in Library: Yes)
3. Mathew M Radmanesh, “RF and Microwave Electronics”, Prentice
Hall, 2000. (Copies Available in Library: Yes)
4. Annapurna Das and Sisir K Das, “Microwave Engineering”, Tata Mc
Graw Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, 2005. (Copies Available
in Library: Yes)
5
WEEK No. Page No

Sl. of Te
Topics
No. hou xt
rs
UNIT – I : TWO PORT NETWORK THEORY
Review of low frequency 153-160

1 parameters-impedance, 2 T1
admittance, hybrid and ABCD.
Different types of interconnection 153-160
2 of two port networks High 1 T1
WEEK frequency parameters
3 1 Formulation of S parameters 2 T1 168-171
TI 168-171
4 properties of S parameters- 2
Reciprocal and lossless networks R1 175-178
5 Transmission matrix 1 R1 188-193
WEEK RF behaviour of resistors, 10-24

6 1 T1
2 Capacitors and Inductors
UNIT-II : RF AMPLIFIERs AND MATCHING NETWORKS
7 Characteristics of amplifiers - 1 T1 464-468

Amplifier power relation
8 WEEK stability considerations 2 T1 470-480
3
9 Stabilization methods 1 T1 480-483
10 noise figure, constant VSWR 2 T1 502-510
11 Broadband, High Power and 1 T1 511-529

multistage amplifiers
6
WEEK No. Page No

Sl. of Te
Topics
No. hou xt
rs
WEEK Impedance matching using 406-425

4 discrete components, two
12 component matching networks, 2 T1
frequency response and quality
factor
13 T and Π matching networks, 2 T1 426-444

microstrip line matching networks
UNIT-III : PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES
14 Terminations, Attenuators , phase 2 T2 394-434

Shifters , Directional Couplers
15 Hybrid junctions, power dividers 1 T2 435-449
16 Circulators, isolators 2 T2 466-475

WEEK
Impedance matching devices- 81,110-
17 5 tuning screw , stub and quarter 1 T1 113
wave transformer
18 Crystal and schottkey diode 1 293-296

T1
detector and mixers
WEEK
PIN diode switch , Gunn diode T1 296-300
19 6 2
Oscillator
T2 831-836
20 IMPATT diode oscillator and 1 T1 305-307

amplifier
Varactor diode, Introduction to MIC T1 302-305
21 1
R4 158-161
UNIT – IV : MICROWAVE GENERATION
22 Review of conventional vacuum 1 338-340

R5
triodes, tetrodes and pentodes
7
WEEK No. Page No

Sl. of Te
Topics
No. hou xt
rs
23 High frequency effects in Vacuum 1 398-405

R5
tubes
WEEK
Theory and application of Two 678-690
24 7 cavity klystron amplifiers, Reflex 2 T2
klystron Oscillator
25 Travelling wave tube amplifiers 2 R5 398-405
Magnetron oscillator using 448-454

26 cylindrical , linear, coaxial voltage 2 R4
WEEK tunable magnetrons
8 Backward wave crossed field 454-458
27 1 R4
amplifier and oscillator
UNIT – V : MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
Measuring instruments – Principle 573-576

28 of operation and application of 2 R4
WEEK VSWR meter, power meter
29 9 1 R4 576-577
Spectrum analyzer
30 Network analyser 1 R4 577-579
31 Measurement of impedance 2 R4 579-595

,frequency, power, VSWR,Q-factor
32 Di electric constant, scattering 2 R4 596-608

WEEK coefficients
33 10 Attenuation , S-parameters 1 R4 608-612
Total Periods: 49
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO TITLE PAGE
NO
UNIT – I : TWO PORT NETWORK THEORY
PART A 11-13
PART B
1 Low frequency and high frequency parameter 13-21
2 Property of S-Matrix 21-23
3 Reciprocal and Lossless Network 23-25
4 Transmission [T] Matrix 26-27
5 Passive components behaviour at RF 27-30
6 Problem 30-33
7 Interconnection of two port network 33-36
UNIT II : RF AMPLIFIERS AND MATCHING NETWORKS
PART A 37-38
PART B
1 Amplifier-power relations 38-42
2 Stability considerations and Stabilization methods 43-46
3 Impedance Matching Using Discrete Components 46-51
and Microstrip line matching networks
4 Noise figure 51-53
5 Frequency response and quality factor 53-55
6 Problems 56-59
UNIT III : PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES
PART A 60-62
PART B
1 Hybrid junctions (E-Plane Tee & H-Plane Tee, 62-67
Magic-tee)
2(i) Four Port Circulator 68-69
2(ii) Isolator 69-70
9
3(i) Directional Coupler 70-73

3(ii) Varactor diode 73-75
4 Gunn diode oscillator 75-77
5(i) IMPATT diode oscillator and amplifier 77-79
5(ii) PIN diode switch 80-81
6 Terminations, Power dividers, Stub and quarter wave 81-83
transformer
7 MMIC 83-86
UNIT IV : MICROWAVE GENERATION
PART A 87-90
PART B
1 Reflex klystron oscillator 90-94
2 Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) 95-96
3 Two Cavity Klystron 96-103
4 Magnetron 104-109
5 Linear, coaxial, linear voltage tunable magnetrons 110-113
6 Backward wave crossed field amplifier and oscillator 113-115
UNIT V : MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
PART A 116-117
PART B
1 VSWR meter and Power meter 118-120
2 Spectrum analyser and Network analyser 121-124
3 Power measurement and VSWR measurement 124-134
4 Impedance measurement and Frequency 134-141
measurement
5 Q factor, Dielectric constant, Scattering coefficients 141-150
And Attenuation
Previous Year university Question 151-167
10
UNIT I TWO PORT NETWORK THEORY

PART – A
1. List any four reason for the wide use of RF. [May/June-2014]
 It can carry large quantities of information.
 Because of shorter wavelength, it requires small size of antenna.
 Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.
 Increased reliability and bandwidth availability.
 Less Maintenance.
2. Mention the limitation in measuring Z, Y, H and ABCD parameters at
microwave frequencies. (Or) Give the reason for using S parameters in
microwave. [Nov/Dec-2011]
 Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total
current at the ports of the network.
 Short circuit and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a wide range
of frequencies.
 Presence of active devices make the circuit unstable foe short or open
circuit.
3. Give the relationship between [S] and [Z]. [May/June-2014]
1
1  1 
[ S ]   [ Z ]  [U ]  [ Z ]  [U ]
 Z0   Z0 
4. Draw the high frequency equivalent circuit of the resistor and inductor.
[Apr/May-2015]
For resistor for Inductor
5. Name the property of S parameters. [Nov/Dec-2012]

 Under perfect matched condition, the diagonal elements are zero.
 [S] is a Symmetry matrix.
 [S] is Unitary matrix.
 [S] is always a square matrix of order (nxn)
6. Define skin effect.
As frequency increases the electrical signals propagate less and less
inside of conductor. The current density increases near the outside perimeter
of the wire. So that the impedance increases. This phenomenon is known as
skin effect.
11
7. Express power input and power output under matched conditions for a
two Port network in terms of wave components.
Microwave circuits are analyzed using [S] parameters which linearly
relate the reflected wave’s amplitude with those of incident waves.
1
Input power at nth port, Pin 
2
an
2
Where a n =normalized incident wave amplitude at nth port
1
Reflected power at nth port, Pout 
2
bn
2
Where bn =normalized reflected wave amplitude at nth port
8. What is ESR? [Nov/Dec-2013]
Practical capacitors and inductors are used in electric circuit not ideal
components with only capacitance or inductance. The ideal capacitances and
inductors are in series with resistance. This type of resistance is called
Equivalent series resistance.
9. Why the S-parameters are used in microwaves?
The H, Y, Z and ABCD parameters are difficult at microwave frequencies
due to following reasons.
 Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total
current at the ports of the networks.
 Short circuit and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a wide range
of frequencies.
 Presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable for short (or)
open circuit.
10. Write the applications of inductors.
 Resonance circuits
 Filters
 Phase shifters
 Delay networks and
 RF chokes.
11. Define- Lossless Network
In lossless passive network, the power entering the circuit is always equal
to power leaving network which leads to the conservation of power.
12
12. Define reciprocal and symmetrical networks.

Reciprocal network:
A reciprocal network is one in which the power losses are same between
any two ports regardless of direction of propagation.
Symmetrical network:
A network is said to be symmetrical if the input and output ports can be
interchanged without altering the voltages and currents.
0 1 
13. Which component is represented by the scattering matrix  ?
1 0
Ans: Perfectly matched two port network.
14. Mention any four differences between low frequency and high
frequency microwave circuits. [Apr/May-2015]
Sl.No Low frequency Circuits High Frequency Circuits
1 Circuit elements are lumped Circuits elements are
distributed
2. Analysis based on kirchoff’s Analysis based on
and ohm’s law electromagnetic field theory
3. Power handling capacity is Power handling capacity is
less high
4. Losses increases with Losses depends on other
frequency factor
PART-B
1. Explain in detail about Low frequency and high frequency parameter.
Low frequency parameter [Nov/Dec-2013]
a. Impedance (Z) Parameter
The Z parameters of a network are defined as inter-terminal impedances
under open circuit conditions. Hence it is called open circuit parameters. In Z
model the two currents i1 and i 2 are assumed as known parameters and
unknown parameters are v1 and v 2 .
To analyze the components, ohms law is mostly used at low frequency.
Therefore, ohms law is used to derive the Z-parameters.
The matrix form of ohms law is
[V]=[Z][I]
v1  Z11i1  Z12i2 …………………… (1.1)
v2  Z 21i1  Z 22i2 …………………… (1.2)
13
The above two equation can be written in matrix form

 v1   Z11 Z12   i1 
v    Z   …………………. (1.3)
 2   21 Z 22  i2 
The net voltage, net current, and overall Z-matrices are given by
v  i   Z11 Z12 
[V ]   1 ; [ I ]   1 ; & [Z ]    ………….. (1.4)
v 2  i2   Z 21 Z 22 
By open-circuiting either input or output terminals the Z parameters Z11,
Z12, Z21 and Z22 are derived from the equations (1.1) and (1.2) as follows.
From equation (1.1)
v1  Z11i1  Z12i2
v1 v1
Z 11  & Z 12  …………………….. (1.5)
i1 i2  0
i2 i1  0
Where
Z11 -open circuit input impedance
Z12 -Open circuit reverse transfer impedance.
From equation (1.2)

v2  Z 21i1  Z 22i2
v2 v2
Z 21  & Z 22  …………………. (1.6)
i1 i2  0
i2 i1  0
Where
Z 21 -open circuit input impedance
Z 22 -Open circuit reverse transfer impedance.
The Z parameters are measured by open circuiting any one of the port.
Therefore it is known as open circuit parameters. The impedance matrix
representation of a two port network is shown in figure.
For N –network
For N-port network, impedance matrices are NxN in size. There are 2N2
independent quantities for an arbitrary N-port network.
14
The Z parameters for N port network is given by

v1  Z 11i1  Z 12i2  ........  Z 1N i N
v 2  Z 21i1  Z 22i2  ........  Z 2 N i N
.
…………………….. (1.7)
.
.
v N  Z N 1i1  Z N 2 i 2  .......  Z NN i N
The matrix form of above equation is

 v1   Z 11 Z 12 . . . Z 1N   i1 
v  Z Z 22 . . . Z 2 N   i2 
 2   21
 .   . . . . . .   .  ………………………. (1.8)
   
 .   . . . . . .  . 
 .   . . . . . .  . 
    
v N   Z N 1 ZN2 . . . Z NN  i N 
The overall voltage, current and impedance can be written as

 v1   Z11 Z12 . . . Z1 N   i1 
v  Z Z 22 . . . Z 2 N  i 
 2  21  2
 .   . . . . . .  .
[V ]    ; [Z ]    ; and [I ]   
 .   . . . . . .  .
 .   . . . . . .  .
     
v N   Z N 1 ZN2 . . . Z NN  i N 
b. Y-Parameters
The Y parameters of a network are defined as inter terminal admittance
under short circuit conditions. In the Y-Model the two voltages v1 and v 2 are
assumed as known parameters and unknown parameters are i1 and i 2 .
Here ohms law is mostly used to derive the Y-parameters.
The matrix form of ohms law is
[I]=[Y] [V]
i1  Y11v1  Y12v2 …………………… (1.9)
i2  Y21v1  Y22v2 …………………… (2.0)
The above two equation can be written in matrix form
 i1  Y11 Y12   v1 
i   Y   …………………. (2.1)
 2   21 Y22  v 2 
The net voltage, net current, and overall Z-matrices are given by
15
v  i  Y11 Y12 
[V ]   1 ; [ I ]   1 ; & [Y ]    ………………….. (2.2)
v 2  i2  Y21 Y22 
By short-circuiting either input or output terminals the Y parameters Y11, Y12, Y21
and Y22 are derived from the equations (1.1) and (1.2) as follows.
From equation (1.9)
i1  Y11v1  Y12v2
i1 i1
Y11  & Y12  ………………….. (2.3)
v1 v2  0
v2 v1  0
Where
Y11 -short circuit input Admittance
Y12 - Short circuit reverse transfer Admittance
From equation (2.0)
i2  Y21v1  Y22v2
i2 i2
Y21  & Y22  …………………. (2.4)
v1 v2  0
v2 v1  0
Where
Y21 -short circuit input Admittance
Y22 - Short circuit reverse transfer Admittance.
The Y parameters are measured by short circuiting any one of the port.
Therefore it is known as open circuit parameters. The Admittance matrix
representation of a two port network is shown in figure.
For N –network
For N-port network, the Y-parameters can be expressed as follows
i1  Y11v1  Y12v 2  ........  Y1N v N
i2  Y21v1  Y22v 2  ........  Y2 N v N
.
…………………….. (2.5)
.
.
i N  YN 1v1  YN 2 v 2  .......  YNN v N
16
The matrix form of above equation is

 i1   Y11 Y12 . . . Y1N   v1 
 i  Y . Y2 N   v 2 
 2   21 Y22 . .
.  . . . . . .  . 
    ……………………. (2.6)
.  . . . . . .  . 
.  . . . . . .  . 
    
i N  YN 1 YN 2 . . . YNN  v N 
The overall voltage, current and impedance can be written as

 v1   Y11 Y12 . . . Y1N   i1 
v  Y . Y2 N  i 
 2  21 Y22 . .  2
 .   . . . . . .  .
[V ]    ; [Y ]    ; and [I ]   
 .   . . . . . .  .
 .   . . . . . .  .
     
v N  YN 1 YN 2 . . . YNN  i N 
c. Hybrid Parameters
The h-parameters are widely used at RF frequencies. The h-parameters
are obtained by short-circuiting the out-put port and open circuiting the input
port. In the hybrid model v 2 and i1 are assumed to be known parameters and
unknown parameters are v1 and i 2 .
The hybrid parameters are
v1  h11i1  h12v2 ………………… (2.7)
i2  h21i1  h22v2 ………………… (2.8)
The above two equations can be written in matrix form as follows
v1   h11 h12   i1 
 i   h   …………… (2.9)
 2   21 h22  v2 
Therefore the overall h-matrix can be written as follows
 h11 h12 
[h]  
h21 h22 
The h-parameters h11 and h21 can be found by short circuiting the output port.
Equation 2.7 and 2.8 gives
v1 i2
h11  & h21  ……………… (3.0)
i1 v2  0
i1 v12  0
Where h11 -short circuit input impedance.
17
h21 -short circuit forward current gain.
The h12 and h22 can be found by open circuiting the input port.
v1 i2
h12  & h22  ………………… (3.1)
v2 i1  0
v2 i1  0
Where h12 -open circuit reverse voltage gain

h22 -open circuit output admittance.
d. ABCD Parameters
The Z and Y parameters are useful to characterize N-port network,
however not useful for characterizing the cascade connection of two or more
two-port networks.
The 2x2 matrix is used to define ABCD-matrix of any two-port network.
These ABCD parameters are more convenient for cascade connection of two-
port networks. It is also called transmission matrix.
The overall ABCD-parameters of a cascade networks are obtained by
multiplying the ABCD matrices of the individual ports.
In ABCD model v 2 and i 2 are assumed to be known parameters and
unknown parameters v1 and i1 by
v1   A B   v2 
 i   C D  i  …………………. (3.2)
 1   2 
The parameters A, C are obtained by open-circuiting the output-port as follows
v1 i1
A & C ………………… (3.3)
v2 i2  0
v2 i2  0
Where A-open circuit inverse voltage gain.

C-open circuit transfer Admittance.
The parameters B, D are obtained by short-circuiting the output-port as follows
v1 i1
B & D ..……………….. (3.4)
i2 v2  0
i2 v2  0
Where B-short circuit forward transfer impedance.

D- Short circuit inverse current gain.
Cascaded Transmission Matrix
[ABCD] of cascaded network is obtained simply by multiplying individual
two port networks [ABCD] matrices.
18
The ABCD matrix for first and second network can be written as follows
v1   A1 B1  v2 
 i   C D1   i2 
……………. (3.5)
 1  1
v2   A2 B 2  v 3 
 i   C D2   i3 
……………… (3.6)
 2  2
Substituting of equation (3.6) into (3.5) gives
v1   A1 B1   A2 B2  v3 
 i   C D1  C D2   i3 
 1  1  2 ……………….(3.7)
The above equation clearly shows that the ABCD matrix of the
cascade connection of the two port network is equal to the product of the
ABCD matrices representing the individual two-port networks.
When N number of two port networks are connected together, the
ABCD matrix for a cascaded network is given by
v1   A1 B1   A2 B2  A B N  v N 
 i   C D1  C 2  ……….  N
DN   i N 
 1  1 D2  C N
A B  A1 B1   A2 B2   AN B N  v N 
= …….. C
C D 


 Total C1 D1  C
 2 D2   N DN   i N 
…(3.8)
Advantages of ABCD Matrices
 Easy to build-up library of ABCD matrices.
 Easy to analyze complicated microwave networks.
High Frequency [S] Parameters
Formulation of S parameters
The parameters that linearly relate the incident and reflected wave
amplitude are called scattering parameters or S-parameters.
The incident and reflected amplitudes of microwave at any port are used
to characterize a microwave circuits.
19
For a two port network the relation between incident and reflected waves
are expressed in terms of scattering parameters S ij
b1  S11a1  S12a2 ………………. (3.9)

b2  S 21a1  S 22a2 ……………….. (4.0)
Where
S11 is a reflection coefficient at port 1
S22 is a reflection coefficient at port 2
S12 is a transmission coefficient from port 2 to port 1
S21 is a transmission coefficient from port 1 to port 2
In matrix form
a   S11 S12   a1 
b    S  
   21 S 22  a 2  ……………..(4.1)
Where
b1
S11 
a1 a2  0
b2
S 22 
a2 a1  0
b1
S12 
a2 a1  0
b2
S 21 
a1 a2  0
For a multiport network The S parameters equation are expressed by

 b1   S11 S12 ... S1n   a1 
b   S S 22 ... S 2 n  a 2 
 2   21
.  . . ... .   . 
   
.  . . ... .   . 
.  . . ... .   . 
    
bn   S n1 S n2 ... S nn  a n 
…………..(4.2)
In matrix notation
[b]  [S ][a] …………… (4.3)
20
Where
[b] =reflected waves or outputs
[a]=Incident waves or inputs
[S]=Scattering matrix of order nxn
2. Explain in detail about Property of S-Matrix. [Nov/Dec-2011]
Property1:
Zero diagonal elements for perfect matched network.
For an ideal N-port network with matched termination S ii  0 .Since there
is no reflection from any port. Therefore under perfect matched condition the
diagonal elements of [S] are zero.
Property 2
Symmetry of [s] for a reciprocal network.
A reciprocal device has the same transmission characteristics in either
direction of a pair of ports is characterized by a symmetric scattering matrix.
S ij  S ji i j ........................... (1)
Which results
[ S ]t  [ S ] ............................ (2)
Proof:
For a reciprocal network with the assumed normalization the impedance
matrix equation is
[b]  ([Z ]  [U ]) 1 ([Z ]  [U ])[a] ........................ (3)
Where [U] is the unit matrix.
S-matrix equation for the network is
[b]=[S] [a] .............................. (4)
By combining equation (3) and (4) we get
[S]= ([Z] + [U])-1([Z]-[U]) ........................... (5)
Let [R] = [Z]-[U]
[Q]= [Z] + [U] .............................. (6)
For reciprocal network, the Z-matrix is symmetric.
[R][Q]= [Q] [R]
[Q]-1[R] [Q] [Q]-1= [Q]-1[Q] [R [Q]-1 .................... (7)
[Q]-1[R] =S=[R] [Q]-1
21
Transpose of [S] is now given as,

[S]t= ([Z]-[U]) t ([Z] + [U]) t-1 .................... (8)
Since Z-matrix is symmetrical
([Z]-[U]) t= [Z]-[U] ........................ (9)
([Z] + [U]) t= [Z] + [U] ........................ (10)
Therefore
[S]t= ([Z]-[U]) ([Z] + [U])-1
=[R][Q]-1=[S] ..........................(11)
[S]t=[s]
Thus S-matrix is symmetrical for reciprocal.
Unitary property for a lossless junction:
For any lossless network the sum of the products of each term of any one
row or of any column of the S-matrix multiplied by its conjugate is unity.
Proof:
For a lossless n-port device, the total power leaving N-ports must be
equal to the total power input to these ports.
N N
 bn   an
2 2
n 1 n 1
N n 2 N
  S ni ai   an
2
…………....... (12)
n 1 i 1 n 1
If it only ith port is excited and all other ports are matched terminated, all an  0
except ai.
N 2 N
 S ni ai   ai
2
. ……….......... (13)
n 1 n 1
N 2 N …….............. (14)
 S ni  1   S ni S ni

n 1 n 1
Therefore for a lossless function

N
S

ni S ni =1 ……….......... (15)
n 1
If all an=0, exept ai and ak

N
S

nk S ni  0 ; i  k ………........... (16)
n 1
In matrix notation
[S]*[S]t= [U]
22
[S*]=[S]t-1 ….................... (17)

À matrix[S] for lossless network which satisfies the above three condition of
equations is called Unitary matrix.
Phase shift property:
For a two port network with reference planes 1 and 2 as shown in the figure,
the S-matrix is given by
S S12 
[ S ]   11
 S 21 S 22 
If the reference planes 1 and 2 are shifted outward to 1’ and 2’ by electrical

phase shifts 1  1 L1 and 2   2 L2 respectively, then the new wave variables
are a1e j ,b1 e  j , a2 e j , b2 e  j
1 1 2 2
Now the new S matrix is given by

e  j1 0  e  j1 0 
[S ' ]   [ S ] 
 0 e  j2   0  j2
e 
This property is valid for any number of port and it is called the phase shift
property applicable to shift of reference.
3. Explain and analyze Reciprocal and Lossless Network. [Nov/Dec-2012]
A network is said to be reciprocal network when it satisfies the reciprocity
theorem.
Reciprocity theorem:
It is a theorem stating that the interchange of electromotive force at one
point (e.g. in branch k, v k ) in a passive linear network, with the current produced
at any other point (e.g in branch m, i m ) results in the same current (in branch k,
i k ) when the same electromotive force is applied in the new location (branch m,
v m ); that is
vk vm

im ik
Z km  Z mk
Property of Reciprocal network

For any reciprocal network [S] is a symmetrical matrix.
23
For a two port network S12  S 21 (i.e. Reverse transmission coefficient is

equal to the forward transmission coefficient.)
For an N port network S ij  S ji for i  j
Where i  1,2,3,4....N ; and j  1,2,3....N ;

Symmetrical Reciprocal network
It is a special case of reciprocal network. These networks have identical
size and arrangement for corresponding electrical elements in reference to a
plane.
For any symmetrical network Z in  Z out .Therefore input and output
reflection co-efficient are equal. i.e. in  out. .
Therefore the condition for symmetrical reciprocal network as follows.
For two port network
S11  S 22
S12  S 21
For N port network

S ii  S jj
Where i  j
S ij  S ji
Lossless network
A network that should not contain resistive elements is called lossless
network. The lossy network contains the resistive elements, which always
dissipates power. Therefore the lossless network should satisfies the following
condition.
 It should not contain resistive elements.
 The elements of Z and Y must be purely imaginary.
 The [S] must be a unitary matrix.
 Power entering to the network =Power leaving from the network.
 It delivers only imaginary power. Therefore real power equals to zero.
 The characteristic impedance of all ports are identical.
Lossless network as a unitary matrix
Matrix that satisfies the unity and zero property is called unitary matrix.
Unity property: It states that ‘’for a passive lossless N-port network, the sum
of the products of each term of any one row (or any one column) multiplied by
its own complex conjugate is unity’’. i.e.
24
S S ij  1 , J=1, 2, 3....N
*
ij
From the above equation

S11S11  S 21S 21  1
* *
S12 S12  S 22 S 22  1
* *
If a lossless network is also reciprocal then the above two equation can be
reduced as follows
S12  S 21
S11  S 22
S11  S 21  1
2 2
Zero Property.
It states that ‘’for a passive lossless N-port network, the sum of the
products of each term of any one row(or any one column) multiplied the
complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row or column is
zero’’.
N
S S kj  0
*
ki
k 1
Where ‘k’ and ‘j’ are row and column numbers respectively.
From the above equation
S11S12  S 21S 22  0
* *
S12 S11  S 22 S 21  0
* *
If the lossless network also reciprocal then the above two equation can
be reduced as follows
S12  S 21
S11S 21  S 21S 22  0
* *
S11  S 22
Unitary matrix is one ‘’the matrix which satisfies both the unitary and zero
property’’.
25
4. What is Transmission [T] Matrix? Explain and obtain the relationship

with [S] and vice versa. [Nov/Dec-2012]
At high frequencies the transmission matrix [T] is expressed in terms of
input incident and reflected waves as the independent variables and the output
incident and reflected waves as the dependent variable as shown in fig.
The transmission matrix [T] is also called chain scattering parameters or

T-Parameters.
Express [T] in terms of S-parameters
The transmission matrix for a two port network is given by
a1  T11 T12  b2 
b   T  
 1   21 T22  a 2 
Now consider the [S] matrix for two port network is
 b1   S11 S12   a1 
b    S  
 2   21 S 22  a 2 
The relationship between [S] and [T] parameter can be derived using the
above basic definition as follows
 1  S 22 
T11 T12   S 21 S 21 
T  
 21 T22   S11 S12 
S11S 22 
 S 21 S 21 
The relationship between [S] in terms of [T] matrix

 T21 T21T12 
T22 
 S11 S12   T11 T11 
S  
 21 S 22   1 
T12 
 T11 T11 
Transmission matrix for a cascade of two port network

For a cascade connection of two port network
26
a1  T11 T12  b2 

b   T  
 1   21 T22  a 2 
 a '1  T '11 T '12  b ' 2 

 '  ' '  ' 
b 1  T 21 T 22  a 2 
From the figure
a 2  b1 ' 
b    ' 
 2  a1 
For the combined system

a1  T11 T12  T '11 T '12  b ' 2 
b   T  ' '  ' 
 1   21 T22  T 21 T 22  a 2 
Thus the total [T] matrix is the multiplication of the two matrix.
[T ]tot  [T ][T ' ]
5. Explain in detail about the following passive components behavior at
RF.
(a)Resistor (b) Inductor, (c) Capacitor. [Nov/Dec-2015] (8)
RF behavior of resistors.
The resister are most common circuit element in low frequency. Purpose
of using resistor is simply to resist the flow of current by producing voltage drop.
This will convert the electrical energy into heat.
Types of resistors are
 Carbon resistors
 Wire-wound resistors
 Metal film resistors
 Thin film resistors.
Purpose Resistor
 In transistor bias network, to establish an operating point.
 In attenuators, to control the flow of power
 In signal combiner, to produce a higher output power
 In transmission line, to create matched condition
The equivalent circuit of a resistor at low and high frequency RF
• Equivalent circuit of a resistor at low frequency RF is
27
• Equivalent circuit of a resistor at RF/MW high frequency is
RF Behaviour of an inductor
A wire that is wound (or coiled) in such a manner as to increase the
magnetic flex linkage between the turns of the coil. The increased flux linkage
increases the wire’s self-inductance.
• Equivalent circuit of a inductor at low frequency RF is
• Equivalent circuit of a inductor at RF/MW high frequency is
• At RF/MW frequencies, a inductor L appears as combination of several

elements.
Behaviour of inductor versus MW frequency is shown in figure below.
Case1:f<fr
In this region inductance reactance increases as frequency increased.
Case2:f>fr
In this region inductor behaves like a capacitor, and as the frequency is
increased the reactance decreases.
28
Case3:f=fr
In this region resonance takes place in inductor.
Quality factor:
The quality factor (Q) of an inductor is defined as
X L L
Q 
RS RS
RF Behaviour of a Capacitor
A capacitor is a device that consist of two conducting surface separated
by a insulating material or dielectric. The dielectric is usually ceramic, air, paper,
mica or plastic. The capacitor is the property that permits the storage of charge
when a potential difference exists between the conductors. It is measured in
farads. At RF/MW frequencies, a capacitor C appears as combination of several
elements.
Where C - actual capacitance L - Lead inductance RS - parasitic series

resistance Rp - parasitic insulation resistance
• Behaviour of capacitor versus MW frequency is shown in figure below.
Case 1.f<fr As frequency increases in this region ,the lead inductance’s

reactance goes up gradually,by cancelling the capacitor’s reactance and thus
causing reactance.
29
Case 1.f>fr
In this region the capacitor acts like an inductor.
Quality factor:
The quality factor for a capacitor is given by
XC 1
Q 
REQ CREQ
6. (a)A two port network is known to have the following scattering matrix
 0.150  0.85  45 
[S ]    
0.8545 0.20  
(a)Determine if the network is reciprocal and lossless.

(b)If the port two is terminated with matched load, what is the return loss
seen at port 1. [Nov/Dec-2011]
Solution:
(a)For a reciprocal network
S12  S 21
From the given matrix

0.85  45 = 0.8545
S12  S 21
Thus given network is not a reciprocal network.

For a lossless network.
According to unitary property
S11  S 21  1 OR S 21  S 22 1
2 2 2 2
|0.15|2+|0.85|2=1
0.745  1
Therefore the given network is not a lossless network.
(b)If the port two is terminated with a matched load what is the return loss at
port 1?
S11=0.15
1 1
Return Loss= 20 log (db)  20 log  16.478db
S11 0.15
Return loss=16.5db
6. (b) Problem 2:
Evaluate S parameters from the Z parameters. [Nov/Dec-2015]
30
2  3 j 5 j 
[Z ]   , Z 0  50
 3j  j 
Solution:
Given Impedance matrix is asymmetrical and characteristics impedance
Z 0  50 S parameter computed as
To find Z
Z  (Z11  Z 0 )(Z 22  Z 0 )  Z12 Z 21
Z = (2+3j+50) (-j+50)-(5j) (3j)

Z =2618+98j
To find S11
( Z11  Z 0 )(Z 22  Z 0 )  Z12 Z 21
S11 
( Z11  Z 0 )(Z 22  Z 0 )  Z12 Z 21
(2  3 j  50)( j  50)  (5 j )(3 j )

S11 
2618  98 j
S11  0.906  j110
To find S12
2Z12 Z 0
S12 
Z
2(5 j )(50)
S12 
2618  98 j
S12  0.00714  j191
To find S 21
2Z1 Z 0
S 21 
Z
2(3 j )50
S 21 
2618  98 j
S 21  0.00428  j114
To find S 22
( Z11  Z 0 )(Z 22  Z 0 )  Z12 Z 21
S 22 
( Z11  Z 0 )(Z 22  Z 0 )  Z12 Z 21
(2  3 j  50)( j  50)  (5 j )(3 j )

S 22 
2618  98 j
31
S 22  0.988  0.0402
Answer
The S-Parameters are
S11  0.906  j110
S12  0.00714  j191
S 21  0.00428  j114
S 22  0.988  0.0402
6. (c) Problem 3: [Nov/Dec-2015]
Find the S-parameter for the following circuit.
Solution:
To find Z in
Z in  20  ( j50 || 50)
 j 50  50
= 20 
50  j 50
Z in  23.57  j135
To find Z 0
Z out  j 50 || (20  50)
Z out  23.64  j33.10
To find S-parameter:
Z in  Z 0
S11 
Z in  Z 0
23.57  j135  50
S11 
23.57  j135  50
S11  0.068576  j 0  05673
Z out  Z 0
S 22 
Z out  Z 0
32
 23.64  j33.10  50
S 22 
 23.64  j33.10  50
S 22  1.688  j 0.870
Since the circuit is passive the forward and reverse gains are equal.
2V2 2( Z in  20)
S12  S 21  
Vg Z in  Z 0
2  (23.57  J135  20)

S12  S 21 
23.57  J135  20
S12  S 21  2.0633  j 718862
The S parameters for the given circuits are

S11  0.068576  j 0  05673
S 22  1.688  j 0.870
S12  S 21  2.0633  j 718862
7. Explain in detail about different types of interconnection of two port

network. [Reg-2013]
Series Connection
The network is called series connection of networks when several two-
port networks are connected in series. In this network the individual voltage are
additive while the current remains same.
Figure Series connection of two two-port networks

The overall Z-parameters are calculated by adding the Z-parameters of
the two individual two-port networks.
The individual voltages and currents in a series connection of two-port
networks can be written as follows
33
For a first two-port network
v1  Z11 i1  Z12 i2
, , , , '
v2  Z 21 i1  Z 22 i2
, , , , '
Matrix form the above equation is

 v1'   Z11' Z12   i1 
' '
 '   , '  ' ……….. (1)

v 2  Z 21 Z 22  i2 
For the second two-port network
v1  Z11 i1  Z12 i2
'' '' '' '' ''
v2  Z 21 i1  Z 22 i2
'' '' '' '' ''
Matrix form of the above equation is

 v1''   Z11'' Z12''   i1'' 
 ''    ' ' ''   ''  ………… (2)
v2  Z 21 Z 22  i2 
By adding the equation (1) & (2)
 v1'  v1''   Z11'  Z11'' Z12  Z12   i1  i1 
' '' ' ''
 ' '' 
 , ''   '' 
 Z 21  Z 21 Z 22  Z 22  i2  i2 
'' ' '
 2
v v 2 
 v1   i1 
v   Z i 
 2  2
Parallel connection networks

A parallel connection of two dual port network is shown in figure. For this
network the admittance matrices is expressed as follows.
Figure Parallel connections between two port networks

The Y-parameters of first two port networks are
i1  Y11 v1  Y12 v2
' ' ' ' '
i2  Y21 v1  Y22 v2
' ' ' ' '
34
Matrix form of above equation is

 i1'  Y11' Y12'   v1' 
 '   ' '  '  ………… (3)
i2  Y21 Y22  v2 
The second two-port network Y parameters are
i1  Y1 v11  Y12 v2
'' '' '' '' ''
i2  Y21 v1  Y22 v2
'' '' '' '' ''
Matrix form of the equation is

 i1''  Y11'' Y12 ''   v1' 
 ''    '' ''   ''  ………… (4)
i2  Y21 Y22  v2 
Add the equation (3) & (4)
 i1'  i1''  Y11'  Y11'' Y12'  Y12''   v1'  v1'' 
 ' '' 
 ' ''   ' '' 
 2 2  Y21  Y21 Y22  Y22  v2  v2 

'' '
i i
 i1   v1 
i   Y v 
 2  2
Cascading networks
In cascade connection, two transistors are connected in cascade. The
ABCD parameter description is most suitable for cascading networks.
Figure [ABCD] of cascaded networks

For this network, the output of the first network is equal in magnitude, but
opposite in sign, to the input of the second network. (i.e. i2  i1 )
' '
In this network voltage drop across the first network is equal to the voltage
drop across the second network.
v2  v1
' ''
i.e
For the first network the ABCD representation is
v1  A' v2  B 'i2
' ' '
i1  C ' v2  D 'i2
' ' '
35
In matrix form
v1'   A ' B '   v2 ' 
 ' '   …………. (5)
 i1  C D '   i2 ' 
The ABCD representation of the second network is
v1  A'' v2  B ''i2
'' '' ''
i1  C '' v2  D ''i2
'' '' ''
In matrix form
v1''   A '' B ''   v 2 ' ' 
 ''    ''   ...………. (6)
 i1  C D ''   i2 '' 
For cascading network i1  i1 and v2  v1

'' ' ' ''
…….. (7)
Substituting (7) in (6)
 v 2 '   A '' B ''   v2 '' 
 '    '' '   …………. (8)
 i1  C D '   i2 '' 
Substituting (8) in (5)

v1'   A' B '   A '' B ''   v2 '' 
 ' '    ………… (9)
 i1  C D '  C '' D ''   i2 '' 
v1'   A B   v2 '' 
 '    ………… (10)
 i1  C D  Total  i2 '' 
The overall [ABCD] is equal to the product of the [ABCD] matrices of the
individual networks ABCD parameters.
36
UNIT-II RF AMPLIFIERS AND MATCHING NETWORKS

PART – A
1) Write the function of matching networks? [Nov/Dec-2012]
Matching networks can help stabilize the amplifier by keeping the source
and load impedances in the appropriate range.
2) What is function of input and output matching networks?
Input and output matching networks are needed to reduce undesired
reflections and improve the power flow capabilities.
3) What are the parameters used to evaluate the performance of an
amplifier?
Key parameters of amplifier, to evaluate the performance are
i. Gain and gain flatness (in dB)
ii. Operating frequency and bandwidth (in Hz)
iii. Output power (in dB)
iv. Power supply requirements (in V and A)
v. Input and output reflection coefficients (VSWR)
vi. Noise figure (in dB)
4) Define transducer power gain. [Nov/Dec-2013]
Transducer power gain is nothing but the gain of the amplifier when
placed between source and load.
GT = Power delivered to the load Available power from the source
5) Define unilateral power gain. [Nov/Dec-2012]
It is the amplifier power gain, when feedback effect of amplifier is
neglected i.e.S12=0.
6) What is available Power Gain (GA) at Load? [Nov/Dec-2015]
The available power gain for load side matching (TL = T*out) is given as,
GA = Power available from the network = PN
Power available from the source PA
7) Define Operating Power Gain. [Nov/Dec-2013]
The operating power gain is defined as “the ratio of power delivered to
the load to the power supplied to the amplifier”.
G = Power delivered to the load =PL
Power supplied to the amplifier Pin
37
8) Write a short note on feedback of RF circuit.

i. If |T|>1, then the magnitude of the return voltage wave increases called positive
feedback, which causes instability (oscillator).
ii. If |T|<1, then the return voltage wave is totally avoided (amplifier). It’s called as
negative feedback.
9) Define unconditional stability.
Unconditional stability refers to the situation where the amplifier remains
stable for any passive source and load at the selected frequency and bias
conditions.
10) Define noise figure. [Nov/Dec-2013]
Noise figure F is defined as “the ratio of the input SNR to the output SNR”.
F = Input SNR
Output SNR
PART-B
1. Discuss various aspects of amplifier-power relations for RF
transistor amplifier design.[Nov/Dec-2014] (16)
RF Transistor Amplifier Design
Amplifier designs at RF differ significantly from the conventional low
frequency circuit approaches and consequently require special considerations.
A general single-stage amplifier configuration is shown below.
The amplifier parameters are,

 Gain (dB)
 Operating frequency and bandwidth (Hz)
 Output power (dBm)
 Power supply requirements (V & A)
 Input and output reflection co-efficient
38
 Noise figure
In addition Intermodular Distortion Products, harmonics, feedback and
heating effects all of which affect the amplifier performance.
Amplifier Power Relations
RF Source
There are various power gain definitions that are critical to the
understanding of how an RF amplifier functions.
→ For this reason, power flow relations under the assumption that the two
matching networks are included in between the source and load
impedances.
s → Source Reflection coefficient
in → Input Reflection coefficient
Simplified Schematic of a single-stage amplifier
The source voltage is given by,

√𝑍0
bS = Vs
𝑍𝑠 + 𝑍0
𝑏11 = bs + 𝑎1′ s
bS = 𝑏1′ - 𝑎1′ s
From the amplifier diagram, 𝑎1′ = in 𝑏1′
bS = 𝑏1′ - 𝑏1′ in s
bS = 𝑏1′ (1 - in s) ----- (1)
The incident power wave associated with 𝑏1′ is given as,
39
|𝑏1′ |2 1 |𝑏𝑠 |2
Pinc = = = ----- (2)
2 2 | 1− 𝑖𝑛𝑠|2
The actual input power is the input terminal of the amplifier is composed
of the incident and reflected power waves.
Pin = Pinc (1 - | in|2)
1 |bs |2 ( 1− ins|2 )
Pin = ---- (3)
2 | 1− ins|2
The maximum power transfer from the source to the amplifier is achieved,
if the input impedance is complex conjugate matched (Zin = Zs*) or interms of
the reflection coefficients (in = s*).
Under maximum power transfer condition, we define the available power
PA as,
PA = Pin / in = s*
1 |bs |2 ( 1−| s∗ |2 )
PA =
2 | 1− ss∗ |2
1 |bs |2 ( 1− | s|2 )
=
2 ( | 1− | s | )2
1 |bs |2
PA = ----- (4)
2 ( | 1− | s|2 )
If in = 0, & s  0, it is seen that

Pin = ½ |bs|2
Transducer Power Gain
The transducer power gain GT, which quantifies the gain of the amplifier
placed between source and load.
Power delivered to the load
GT =
Available power from the source
P𝐿
GT =
P𝐴
The power delivered to the load,

1
PL = |b2|2 (1 - | L|2)
2
P𝐿 |b2 |2 ( 1−| L|2 ) 2 (1−| s|2 )

GT = =
P𝐴 2 |bs |2
|b2 |2 ( 1−| L|2 ) (1−| s|2 )

GT = ----- (5)
|bs |2
With the help of signal flow, we establish

S21 a1
b2 = ---- (6)
1− S21 L
40
S21 𝑆12 L
bS = [ 1 − ( 𝑆11 − ) s] a1 ---- (7)
1− S22 L
The required ratio is therefore given by

S21 a1
1− S22 L
𝑏2
=
𝑏𝑠 S 𝑆 L
[ 1−( 𝑆11 − 21 12 ) s ] a1
1− S22 L
S21
1− S22 L
=
( 1− S22 L) ( 1− S11 s) − S12 S21 L S
1− S22 L
𝑏2 S21
= ----- (8)
𝑏𝑠 ( 1− S22 L)( 1− S11 s)− S12 S21 L S
Substitute this value in equation (5)

| S21 |2 ( 1 −|L |2 ) ( 1−|s|2)
GT = ------ (9)
| ( 1− S22 L)( 1− S11 s)− S12 S21 L S |2
Which can be rearranged by defining the input and output reflection

coefficients.
S21 S21 L
in = S11 + ---- (10)
1− S22 L
S12 S21 S
out = S22 + ---- (11)
1− S11 S
With these two definitions, two more transducer power gain expressions
can be derived.
Substitute S12 = 0 in equation (10)
in = S11 + 0
Substitute these values in equation (9)
2
| S21 |2 ( 1 −| L | ) ( 1−| s|2 )
GT = 2 2
---- (12)
| ( 1− S22 L)| | 1 − in S |
Substitute S12 = 0 in equation (11)
out = S22
Substitute these values in equation (9)
2
| S21 |2 ( 1 −| L | ) ( 1−| s|2 )
GT = 2 2
---- (13)
| ( 1− out L)| | 1 − S11 S |
The transducer power gain is called unilateral power gain GTU which
neglects the feedback effect of amplifier (i.e.) S12 = 0.
This simplifies,
( 1 −| L |2 ) ( 1−| s|2 ) | S21 |2
GTU = ------ (14)
| ( 1− L 𝑆22 )|2 | 1 − S11 S |2
41
The above equation is often used as a basis to develop approximate

designs for an amplifier and its input and output matching networks.
Additional Power Relation
The transducer power gain is a fundamental expression from which
additional important power relations can be derived.
For instance, the available power gain for load side matching (L = out*)
is defined as,
G𝑇 ∗
GA = = out
L
Power available from the amplifer
GA =
Power available from the source
Substitute the condition in equation (13)

| S21 |2 ( 1 −| out ∗ |2 ) ( 1−| s|2)
GA =
| 1− out out∗ |2 |1 − 𝑆11 S |2
| S21 |2 ( 1 −| out |2 ) ( 1−| s|2)

=
| 1− | out |2 )2 |1 − 𝑆11 S |2
| S21 |2 ( 1− | s|2 )
GA = ----- (15)
| 1− | out |2 |1 − 𝑆11 S |2
Further, the power, gain is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to
the load to the power supplied to the amplifier.
Power delivered to the load
G=
Power supplied to the amplifier
P𝐿
G=
P𝑖𝑛
Multiplying and Divide by ‘PA’ in the above equation

P𝐿 P𝐴
G=
P𝐴 P𝑖𝑛
P𝐴
G= GT
P𝑖𝑛
Substitute equation (3), (4) in equation (12),

( 1 −| L |2 ) | S21 |2 ( 1 −| S |2 ) 1 |bs |2 2 |1− in S |2
G = x
| 1− S in |2 | 1 − S22 L |2 2 1−| S |2 |bs |2 ( 1−|in |2 )
( 1 − | L |2 ) | S21 |2
G = (1− | in|)2 | 1 − S22 L |2
---- (16)
This example goes through the computation of some of these

expressions for an amplifier with given S-parameters.
42
2. With reference to RF transistor amplifier, discuss the stability

considerations and stabilization methods. [Apr/May-2015](16)
Stability Circles
One of the first requirements that an amplifier circuit is a stable
performance in the frequency range. This is a particular concern when dealing
with RF circuits, which tend to oscillate depending on operating frequency and
termination on operating frequency and termination.
If | 0| > |, then the return voltage increases in magnitude (positive
feedback) causing instability. | 0 | < 1 causes a diminished return voltage wave
(negative feedback.)
The amplifier as a two-port network, characterized through its S-
parameters and external terminations described by L and s.
Stability then implies that the magnitudes of the reflection coefficients are
less than unity.
| L | < 1, | s | < 1 ----- (1)
S11 − L ∆
| in | = | | <1 ----- (2)
1− S22 L
S22 − S ∆
| out | = | | <1 ----- (3)
1− S11 S
Where  = S11 S22 – S12 S21

Since the S-parameters are fixed for a particular frequency, the only
factors that have a parametric effect on the stability are L and S.
The complex quantities are,
S11 = 𝑆11𝑅 + j 𝑆11𝐼 ; S22 = 𝑆22𝑅 + j 𝑆22𝐼
----- (4)
∆ = ∆R + j ∆I ; L = L R + j LI
Substitute this complex quantities in equation (2), resulting after some
algebra in the output stability circle equation.
(LR −CoutR ) 2 + (L I − CoutR )2 = r2out ------ (5)
Where the circle radius is given by,
| 𝑆12 S21 |
rout = | | S22 |2 − | ∆ |2 |
----- (6)
and the center of this circle is located at,

− S∗ ∆ )∗
( S22
Cout = CoutR + j CoutI = 11
| | S22 |2 − | ∆ |2 |
----- (7)
43
Substitute the complex quantities (4) in equation (3), resulting after some
algebra in the input stability circle equation
( sR – CinR)2 – (sI – CinI )2 = 𝑟 2𝑖𝑛 ------ (8)
| 𝑆12 S21 |
Where rin = | | S11 |2 − | ∆ |2 |
----- (9)
and the centre of this circle is located at,

∗ ∆ )∗
( S11 − S22
Cin = CinR + j CinI = ---- (10)
| 𝑆11 |2 −| ∆ |2
The response of the stability circle is shown below,
If L = 0, then | in | = | S11 | and two cases have to be differentiated

depending on | S11 | < 1 or | S11 | > 1.
Unconditional stability
Unconditional stability refers to the situation where the amplifier remains
stable throughout the entire domain of the smith chart at the selected frequency
and bias conditions. This applies to both the input and output ports. For | S11 |
< 1 and | S22 | < 1 it is stated as,
| | cin | - rin | > 1 ----- (11)
| | cout | - rout | > 1 ----- (12)
The stability circles have to reside completely outside the | s | = 1 and
| L | = 1 circles, which is shown in figure (2.5a).
The stability factor (or) Rollett factor (k) is given by,
1− | 𝑆11 |2 − | S22 |2 +| ∆ |2
k = >1 ---- (13)
2 | 𝑆12 | | 𝑆21 |
Alternatively, unconditional stability can also be viewed in terms of the s

I
behavior in the complex out = outR + j out plane. Here | s | < 1 domain
must reside completely within the | out | = 1 circle which is shown in figure
(2.5b).
44
Plotting | s | = 1 in the out plane produces a circle whose center is located at

𝑆12 𝑆21 S11∗
Cs = S22 + ----- (14)
1− | 𝑆11 |2
and the radius of circle is,

| 𝑆12 𝑆21 |
rS = ----- (15)
1− | 𝑆11 |2
Stabilization Methods
If the operation of a FET (or) BJT is found to be unstable in the desired
frequency range, can be made to stabilize the transistor.
| in | > 1 and | out | > 1 can be written in terms of input and output
impedances.
Zin −Z0
| in | = | | >1
Zin + Z0
Zout − Z0
| out | = | | >1
Zout + Z0
Which imply Re {Zin} < 0 and Re {Zout} <0.

One way to stabilize the active device is to add a series resistance (or)
shunt resistance to the port.
’
Above figure shows the stabilization configuration of the input port, we

require
Re {Zin + Rin’ + ZS} > 0 (or)
Re {Yin + Gin’ + YS} > 0
45
Above figure shows the stabilization configuration of output port.

The condition is,
Re {Zout + R’out + ZL } > 0 or
Re { Yout + G’out + YL } > 0
Stabilization through the addition of resistors comes at high expensive,
impedance matching can suffer, increase the loss in power flow and
increasing the noise figure.
3. Explain in detail the concept of Impedance Matching Using Discrete
Components and Microstrip line matching networks.[Nov/Dec-
2013](16)
Impedance Matching Using Discrete Components
Two-Component Matching Networks
To analyze and design the simplest possible type of matching networks,
called two-component networks also known as L – sections due to their element
arrangement.
These networks use two reactive components to transform the load
impedance (ZL) to the desired input impedance (Zin). In conjunction with the
load and source impedances, the components are alternatively connected in
series and shunt configuration shown below, which depicts eight possible
arrangements of capacitor and inductors.
In designing a matched network, two approaches,

i) To derive the values of the elements analytically
ii) To rely on the smith chart as a graphical design tool.
46
The first approach yields very precise results and is suitable for computer
synthesis. Alternatively, the second approach is more intuitive, easier to verify
and faster for an initial design. Since it does not require complicated
computations.
Instead of the method, we can use the smith chart for rapid and relatively
precise designs of the matching circuits. The appeal of this approach is that its
complexity remains almost the same independent of the number of components
in the network.
The generic solution procedure for optimal power transfer includes the
following steps,
i) Find the normalized source and load impedances.
ii) In the smith chart plot circles of constant resistance and conductance
that pass through the point denoting the source impedance.
iii) Plot circles of constant resistance and conductance that pass through
the point of the complex conjugate of load impedance.
iv) Identify the intersection points between the circles in steps ii & iii. The
number of intersection points determines the number of possible L-
section matching networks.
v) Find the values of the normalized reactance and susceptances of the
inductors and capacitors.
Determine the actual values of inductors and cap
T and  Matching Networks
The loaded quality factor of the matching network can be estimated from
the maximum nodal Qn. The addition of the third element into the matching
network produces an additional node in the circuit allows us to control the value
of QL by choosing an appropriate impedance at that node. The design of T and
pi – type matching networks is shown below.
47
The design of a pi-type matching network is developed with the intent to

achieve a minimum nodal quality factor. A low quality factor design directly
translates into a wider bandwidth of the network as required in broadband FET
and BJT amplifiers.
Microstrip Line Matching Networks
The design of matching networks involving discrete components.
However with increasing frequency and correspondingly reduced wavelength.
Micro strip lines are used extensively to interconnect high speed logic
circuits in digital computers. Such several interconnect makes a network and
that is called micro strip line network. It is also used as an alternative lumped
elements and distributed components.
Discrete Components to Micro strip Lines
In the mid GHZ range, mixed approach by combining lumped and
distributed elements. In this matched network contains a number of
transmission lines connected in series and capacitors connected in parallel.
Usually inductors are avoided in such designs, because they have a

tendency to have high resistive losses than capacitors.
Generally only one shunt capacitor with two transmission lines connected
in series on both sides to transform any given load impedance to input
impedance.
It shows wide range of flexibility, when the capacitor value is changed
and placed at different locations along the transmission lines. There are two
types of networks,
48
1) Single stub matching network

2) Double stub matching network
1. Single stub Matching Network
Here the transmission from lumped to distributed elements network is the
complete elimination of all lumped components. That can be constituted by
open and/or short circuit stub lines.
Consider the matching networks that consist of a series transmission
lines connected to a parallel open circuit (or) short circuit stub. Under this
consideration there are two topologies. (b)
(a)
For (a):
Involves a series transmission line connected to the parallel combination
of load and stub. The adjustable parameters are,
Ls → length of the stub
Zos → characteristic impedance of the stub.
For (b):
Involves a parallel stub connected to the series combination of load and
transmission line. The adjustable parameters are,
lL → length of the transmission line
Zol → Characteristic impedance of transmission line
2. Double stub matching networks
Double stub devices consists of two short circuited stub connected in
parallel with a fixed length between them.
49
The length of the fixed section is usually one–eighth, three–eighth (or)

five-eighth of wavelength. These are used to simplify the tuner construction.
Assume, the length of line segment between the two stubs is ‘l2’
3
l2 = ( ) λ
8
For a perfect match, it is required that Zin = Zo.

YA = 1
Since the lines are lossless, the normalized admittance,
YB = YA – jbS2
Which is located somewhere on the constant conductance circle, g = 1 in
smith chart.
Where bS2 → susceptance of the stub
lS2 → Associated length of the stub
3
For an l2 = ( ) λ lines the g = 1 circle is rotated by,
8
𝜋
2βl2 = 3 radians (or) 2700.
2
The admittance, YC needs to reside on this rotated circle g = 1 in order to
ensure matching. In varying the length of ls1 stub can transform point YD in
such a way that the resulting YC is needed to located on the circle g = 1.
This procedure can be done for any load impedance Y0 which is located
inside the circle g = 2. This represents the forbidden region that has to be
avoided.
To overcome this problem in practical applications, commercial double-
stub tuners have input and output transmission lines, where the lengths are
𝜆
related according to l1 = l3 + .
4
In this case if load impedance cannot be matched, the load is connected

to the opposite end of the tuner, which moves YD out of the forbidden region.
50
The difference of the single stub and double stub matching networks are,
 The single stub allows matching between input and load impedances.
 They have a non-zero real part.
 The main drawback is the variable length transmission line between stub
and input port (or) between stub and load impedance.
 In double stub matching network that is overcome by second stub.
4. Explain in detail about Noise figure. [Nov/Dec-2014] (16)
Noise Figure Circles
In many RF amplifiers, the need for signal amplification at low noise level
becomes an essential system requirement. Unfortunately, designing a low
noise amplifier competes with such factor as stability and gain.
For instance, a minimum noise performance at maximum gain cannot be
obtained. It is important to develop a method that allows us to display the
influence of noise as part of the smith chart and observe trade-offs between
gain and stability.
The key ingredient of a noise analysis is the noise figure of a two-port
amplifier in the admittance form.
R𝑛
F = Fmin + | YS – Yopt |2 (or)
G𝑠
G𝑛
F = Fmin + | ZS – Zopt |2
R𝑠
1
Where Zs = is the source impedance.
Y𝑆
When using transistors, four noise parameters are known either through
datasheets from the FET or BJT manufacturers. They are,
 The minimum noise figure Fmin whose behavior depends on biasing
condition and operating frequency. If the device were noise free Fmin = 1.
 The equivalent noise resistance
1
Rn = of the device.
G𝑛
1
The optimum source admittance Yopt = Gopt + j Bopt = . Instead of
Z𝑜𝑝𝑡
impedance or admittance, the optimum reflection coefficient opt is often listed.

The relationship between Yopt and opt is given by
1− opt
Yopt = Y0
1+ opt
51
Since the S Parameter representation is suitable for high frequency.

1− s
YS = Y0
1+ s
( 1− | s |2 )
GS can be written as GS = Y0
1+| s |2
Rn Y0 (1− s) (1− opt ) 2

F = Fmin + Y0 ( 1−| s|2 )
| – Y0 |
( 1+ s ) ( 1+ opt )
| 1+ s |2
2
Rn Y0 (1− s) (1− opt )
F = Fmin + Y0 ( 1− | s|2 )
𝑌02 | – |
( 1+ s ) ( 1+ opt )
| 1+ s |2
2
Rn ( 1+ s ) (1+ opt )−(1−opt)(1+s)
F = Fmin + ( 1−| s|2 )
𝑌0 | |
( 1+ s ) (1+ opt)
| 1+ s |2
2
Rn | 1+ opt− s − s opt−1− s+ opt+ opt s)
F = Fmin + ( 1−| s|2 )
𝑌0 | |
( 1+ s )2 (1+ opt )2
| 1+ s |2
Rn 𝑌0 | 2 opt−2 s |2
F = Fmin +
1−| s |2 ( 1+ opt )2
4 Rn 𝑌0 | opt− s |2
F = Fmin +
1−| s |2 ( 1+ opt )2
4 Rn | s− opt |2
F = Fmin +
𝑍0 ( 1−| s |2 ) ( 1+ opt )2
For s = opt lowest possible noise figure is achieved F = Fmin.

4 Rn | s− opt |2
= F - Fmin
𝑍0 ( 1−| s |2 ) ( 1+ opt )2
| s− opt |2 ( F−F𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) ( 1− | s |2 )

=
( 1+ opt )2 4Rn
𝑍0
( F−F𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) ( 1− | s |2 ) ( 1+ opt )2
| s - opt |2 = 4Rn
𝑍0
| s - opt |2 = QK (1 - | s |2 )
Where,
F − F𝑚𝑖𝑛
QK = | 1 + opt |2 ( 4Rn
)
Zo
Let F = FK
F𝐾 − F𝑚𝑖𝑛
QK = | 1 + opt |2 ( 4Rn
)
Zo
52
| s - opt |2 = QK – QK | s |2
s2 – 2 s opt + opt2 = QK – QK | s |2
s2 – 2 s opt + opt2 + QK | s |2 = QK
| s |2 [ 1 + QK] – 2 s opt + | opt |2 = QK
After some algebra
opt Q2𝐾 + Q𝐾 ( | − opt |2 )
| s − | 2=
1+ Q𝐾 ( 1+ Q𝐾 )2
This is the circle equation in standard form that can be displayed as part
of the smith chart.
| s – dFK |2 = ( SR – d FKR )2 + ( SI – 𝑑FKI )2 = rFK2
The circle centre location dFK denoted by the complex number.
opt
dFK = dFKR + j dFKI =
1+ Q𝐾
The associated radius

opt 2
rFK2 = | s − |
1 + Q𝐾
Q2𝐾 + Q𝐾 ( 1− | opt |2
rFK2 =
( 1 + Q𝐾 )2
2
√Q𝐾 + Q𝐾 ( 1− | opt |2 )
rFK =
1 + Q𝐾
 The minimum noise figure is obtained for FK = Fmin, which coincides with
the location dFK = opt and radius rFK = 0.
 All constant noise circles have their centres located along a line drawn
from the origin to point opt.
5. Explain in detail about Frequency response and quality factor. (16)
Frequency Response and Quality Factor
The frequency responses of these two matched networks in terms of
input reflection coefficient.
Zin − ZS
 in =
Zin + ZS
Vout
and the transfer function H =
VS
53
Frequency response of the two matching network realizations.

In both networks exhibit perfect matching only at a particular frequency f 0
= 1 GHZ and begin to deviate quickly when moving away from f0. The networks
may be described by a loaded quality factor QL, which is equal to the ratio of
the resonance frequency f0’ over the 3 dB bandwidth (BW).
f0
QL =
BW
Where both ‘f0’ and BW are expressed in Hz. For frequencies close to f0
the matching network can be redrawn as a band pass filter with a loaded quality
factor.
The impedance transformation move from one node of the circuit to
another. At each node of the matching network, the impedance can be
expressed interms of an equivalent series impedance,
ZS = RS + j XS (or)
Admittance YP = GP + j BP
Hence at each node, we can find Qn as the ratio of the absolute value of
the reactance ‘XS’ to the corresponding resistance RS.
| XS |
Qn =
RS
(or) as the ratio of the absolute value of susceptance BP to the
conductance GP,
| 𝐵𝑃 |
Qn =
G𝑃
To relate the nodal quality factor Qn to QL and find
54
Qn
QL =
2
This result is true for any L-type matching network is usually estimated
as simply the maximum nodal quality factor.
To simplify the matching network design process even further, we draw
constant – Qn contours in the smith chart. The below figure 2 shows such
contours for Qa valued 0.3, 1, 3, and 10.
Constant Qn contours displayed in the Smith chart.

The normalized impedance can be written as,
1 − r2 − 𝑖 2 2 i
Z=r+jx= +𝑗
( 1− r )2 + i2 ( 1− r )2 + i 2
Thus the nodal quality factor can be written as,

|x| 2 | i |
Qn = =
r 1− r2 − i2
Rearranging the above equation the circle equation is found in the form.
1 1
i2 + ( r + )2 = 1 +
Qn Qn2
Where the ‘+’ sign is taken for positive reactance x, and the ‘-‘sign for
negative reactance x.
With these constant Qn circles in the smith chart it is possible to find the
loaded quality factor of an L-type matching network by simply reading the
corresponding Qn and dividing it by 2.
In Many practical applications the quality factor of a matching network is
of importance. The L-type matching networks provide no control over the value
of Qn and we must either accept (or) reject the resulting quality factor. By
choosing the values of Q that affect the bandwidth behavior of the circuit. Thus
we introduce a third element in the matching network. The addition of this third
element results in either the ‘T’ (or) Pi (  ) network.
55
6. Problems
1) An RF amplifier has the following S- Parameter:
S11 = 0.3 < - 700; S21 = 3.5 < 850; S12 = 0.2 < - 100; S22 = 0.4 < - 450
Furthermore, the input side of the amplifier is connected to a voltage
source with VS= 5 V < 00 and source impedance ZS = 40Ω. The output is utilized
to drive an antenna which has an impedance of ZL = 73Ω. Assuming that the
S-Parameters of the amplifier are measured with reference to a Z0 = 50Ω
characteristic impedance. Find the following quantities.
a) Transducer gain GT, unilateral transfer gain GTU, available gain GA,
operating power gain G and
b) Power delivered to a load PL, available power PA and incident power to
the amplifier Pinc. [Nov/Dec-2011]
Solution:
Zs − Z0
Source reflection coefficient s =
Zs + Z0
40−50
=
40+50
= -0.111
ZL − Z0
Load reflection coefficient L =
ZL + Z0
73−50
=
73+50
= 0.187
S21 S12 L
Input impedance in = S11 +
1− S22 L
S11 = 0.3 < - 700 = 0.102 – j 0.282

S21 = 3.5 < 850 = 0.305 + j 3.49
S12 = 0.2 < - 100 = 0.197 – j 0.035
S22 = 0.4 < - 450 = 0.283 – 0.283 j
(0.305+3.4a j )(0.197−0.035j)(0.187)
in = 0.103 – 0.282 j +
1−(0.283−0.283 j)(0.187)
(0.182+0.677 j)(0.187)
= 0.103 – 0.282 j +
1−(0.053−0.053 j)
(0.947+0.053 j)(0.103−0.282 j)+(0.182+0.677 j)(0.187)
=
0.947+0.053 j
56
0.112−0.262 j+0.034+0.127 j
=
0.947+0.053 j
0.146−0.135 j
=
0.947+0.053 j
in = 0.146 – 0.151 j

S12 S21 S
Output impedance out = S22 +
1− S11 S
(0.197−0.035 j)0.305+3.49 j) (−0.111)
out = 0.283 – 0.283 j +
1−(0.103−0.282 j)(−0.111)
(−0.0202−0.0751 j)
= 0.283 – 0.283 j +
1−(−0.011+0.031 j)
(1.011−0.031 j)(0.283−0.283 j)+(−0.0202−0.0751 j)
=
1.011−0.031 j
0.277−0.295 j−0.0202−0.0751 j
=
1.011−0.031 j
0.257−0.37 j
= out = 0.265 – 0.358 j
1.011−0.031 j
( 1−|L |2 |S21 |2 (1−|S |2 )

GT =
| 1− L out |2 | 1− S11 S |2
(1−| 0.187 |2 ) | 0.305+3.49 j |2 (1−|−0.111 |2 )

= | 1−(0.187)(0.265−0.358 j)|2 |1−(0.103−0.282 j)(−0.111)|2
0.965 [√(0.305 )2 +(3.49 )2 ]2 0.988

=
[ √(0.95)2 +(0.067)2 ]2 x [ √(1.0114)2 +(−0.031)2 ]2
11.701
=
0.931
GT = 12.56 (or) 10.98 dB

(1−|L |2 ) | S21 |2 (1−|S |2 )
GTU =
| 1− L S22 |2 |1− S11 S |2
(1−| 0.187 |2 )10.305+3.49 j |2 ( 1−|−0.111 |2 )

= | 1−(0.187)(0.283−0.283 j )|2 |1−(0.103−0.282 j )(−0.111)|2
11.701
= = 12.71
0.920
GTU = 12. 7 (or) 11.04 dB

| S21 |2 ( 1−|S |2 )
GA =
| 1−| out |2 || 1− S11 S |2
10.305+3.49 j |2 (1−(−0.111 )2 )
= | 1−| 0.265−00.265−058 j |2 | |1−(0.103−0.282 j )(−0.111) |2
12.273 x 0.988
=
0.802 x 1.024
12.126
=
0.821
57
GA = 14.76
GA = 14.76 (or) 11.69 dB
( 1−|L |2 ) | S21 |2
G = | 1−|in |2 | 1− S22 L |2
( 1−| 0.187 |2 ) | 0.305+3.49 j |2
= | 1−| 0.146−0.151 j |2 | | 1−(0.283−0.283 j )(0.187)|2
0.965 x 12.273
=
0.956 x 0.899
11.84
=
0.859
= 13.78
G = 13.78 (or) 11.39 dB
1 | bs |2 √Z0
Pinc =
2 | 1− in S |2
where bS =
ZS + Z0
√s
1 Z0 | VS | 2
= x
2 ( ZS − Z0 )2 | 1− in S |2
50 x 52
=
2 (40+50 )2 |1−(0.146−0.151 j )(−0.111)|2
1250
=
16200 x 1.033
= 0.0747 w
Pinc = 74.7 mω (or) 18.73 dbM
1 | bs |2 1 Z0 | √S |2
PA = =
2 | 1− S |2 2 ( ZS − Z0 )2 ( 1−| S )2
1 50 x 52
=
2 902 | 1−(−0.111)2 |
= 0.0781
PA = 78.1 mω (or) 18.92 dBm
PL = PA GT
= 78.1 x 10-3 x 12.56 = 0.9809
Pl = 980.9 mω (or) 29.91 dbM
2. Investigate the stability regions of a transistor whose S – parameters
are recorded as follows [Nov/Dec-2015]
S11 = 0.7 < - 700; S12 = 0.2 < - 100
S21 = 5.5 < 850; S22 = 0.7 < - 450
Solution:
S11 = 0.239 – 0.658 j
S12 = 0.197 – 0.035 j
S21 = 0.479 + 5.48 j
S22 = 0.495 – 0.495 j
Compute values of K, ||, cin, rin, cout, vout
|−|𝑆11 |2 −| 𝑆22 |2 +|∆ |2
K =
2 | 𝑆12 | | 𝑆21 |
 = S11 S22 – S12 S21
58
= (0.239 – 0.658 j) (0.495 – 0.495 j) – (0.197 – 0.035 j) (0.479 +

5.48 j)
 = -0.491 – 1.507 j
1−| 0.239−0.658 j |2 − | 0.495− 0.495 j |2 +(1.58 )2
K =
2 | 0.197−0.035 j | | 0.479+5.48 j |
1−0.49−0.49+2.512
=
0.22
= 1.15
K = 1.15
∗ Δ )∗
( S11 S22
cin = | S11 |2 −|Δ |2
[ (0.239−0.658j)−(0.495+0.495j)(−0.491−1.507 j) ] ∗
=
10.239−0.658 j |2 −| 1.58 |2
(−0.264+0.331 j )∗
=
−2.022
cin = 0.21 < 520

| S12 S21 |
rin = | |S11 |2 −| Δ |2 |
1 (0.197−0.35 j)(0.479+5.48 j)|

=
| 10.239−0.658 j |2 −(1.58 )2 |
| 0.286+1.063 j |
=
0.49−2.496
1.1
=
−2.006
rin = 0.54
∗ Δ )∗
( S22 S11
cout = | S22 |2 −|Δ |2
( (0.495−0.495 j)−(0.239+0.6758 j)(−0.491−1.501 j) )∗

=
| 0.495−0.495 j |2 − 1− 0.491− 1.507 j |2
(−0.379+0.188 j )∗
=
−2.022
= 0.187 + 0.093
cout = 0.21 < 26.40
| S12 S21 |
rout = | |S22 |2 −| Δ |2 |
| (0.197−0.35 j)(0.479+5.48 j)|
= | |0.495−0.495 j |2 −| 1.58 |2 |
| 0.286+1.063 j |
=
−2.022
1.1
=
−2.022
rout = 0.54
59
UNIT-III PASSIVE AND ACTIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES

PART- A
1. What are ferrites and give its properties? [Nov/Dec-2013]
Ferrites are ceramic like materials. These may by sintering a mixture of
metallic oxides.
Properties
 Specific resistivities may be used as much as 10 14 greater than that of
metals
 Dielectric constants around 10 to 15 or greater
 Relative permeability is 1000
Some examples of ferrite devices:
(i) Isolator (ii) Circulator
(iii) Phase shifters (iv) Modulators
(v) Power limiters
2. What are power dividers?
Power dividers are microwave passive devices used to divide the input
power into a number of smaller amounts of power for exciting the radiating
elements in an array antenna.
3. Give the differences between Isolator and Circulator. [Nov/Dec-2013]
Sl.No. Isolator Circulator
1 It is a 2 port MW device It is a 2 port MW device
2 It cannot be used as It is used as isolator by
Circulator terminating one port
3 If input is given in port 1,output is Each terminal is connected only
obtained at port 2 and vice versa to the next terminal
4. What is the S-matrix for 4 port circulators?
Clockwise
[S] = 0 0 0 1
1000
0100
0010
Anticlockwise
[S] = 0 1 0 0
0010
0001
0010
60
5. Give the applications of directional coupler.

(i) Unidirectional power measurement
(ii) SWR measurement
(iii) Unidirectional wave launching
(iv) Reflectometer
(v) Balanced duplexer
6. What is Faraday’s rotation law? [Apr/May-2015]
If a circularly polarized wave is made to pass through a ferrite rod which
has been influenced by an axial magnetic field B, then the axis of polarization
gets tilted in clockwise direction and amount of tilt depends upon the strength
of magnetic field and geometry of the ferrite. The two microwave devices which
uses faraday rotation principles are Isolator and Circulator
7. What are junctions? Give some examples. [Nov/Dec-2012]
A microwave circuit consists of several microwave devices connected in
some way to achieve the desired transmission of MW signal. The
interconnection of two or more microwave may be regarded as MW junction.
Eg: Magic Tee, Hybrid Ring
8. What is Tee junction? Give two examples. [Nov/Dec-2012]
In MW circuits a wave guide or coaxial junction with three independent
ports is referred to as tee junction. Eg: E- Plane Tee, H-plane Tee
9. Why isolators are called uniline?
An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in one
direction and provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus
isolators are called uniline.
10. What are the applications of Gunn Diode?
The applications are
a) Low and medium power oscillators
b) Used in high pump frequencies
c) Burglar alarms and aircraft rate-of-climb indicators.
11. Define Gunn Effect. [Nov/Dec-2007]
Gunn effect was first observed by Gunn in n-type GaAs bulk diode.
According to Gunn, above some critical voltage corresponding to an electric
field of 2000-4000v/cm, the current in every specimen became a fluctuating
61
function of time. The frequency of oscillation was determined mainly by the

specimen and not by the external circuit.
12. What is negative resistance in gunn diode? [May/June-2014]
The carrier drift velocity increases linearly from 0 to maximum when the
electric field is increased from 0 to threshold value in gunn diodes. When the
electric field is beyond the threshold value of 3000v/cm the drift velocity is
decreased and the diode exhibit negative resistance.
13. What are the factors reducing efficiency of IMPATT diode? [May/June-
2014]
(i) Space charge effect
(ii) Reverse saturation current effect
(iii) High frequency skin effect
(iv) Ionization saturation effect.
14. List the type of circuit used for IMPATT diode circuits.
a) Broadly tunable circuits
b) Low ‘Q’ circuits
c) High ‘Q’ circuits
PART B
1. Explain the operation of Hybrid junctions (E-Plane Tee & H-Plane Tee,
Magic-tee) and derive the scattering matrix for it. [Nov/Dec-2012] (16)
Hybrid Junctions
Hybrid Junctions are used to split or combine the input power. The types
of hybrid junctions are
In microwave circuits a waveguide or coaxial-line junction with three

independent ports is commonly referred to as a tee junction. From the S
parameter theory of a microwave junction it is evident that a tee junction should
be characterized by a matrix of third order containing nine elements, six of which
should be independent.
62
The characteristics of a three-port junction can be explained by three

theorems of the tee junction.
1. A short circuit may always be placed in one of the arms of a three-port
junction in such a way that no power can be transferred through the other two
arms.
2. If the junction is symmetric about one of its arms, a short circuit can
always be placed in that arm so that no reflections occur in power transmission
between the other two arms.
3. It is impossible for a general three-port junction of arbitrary symmetry
to present matched impedances at all three arms.
H-plane tee (Shunt tee)
An H -plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is
"shunting" the E field or parallel to the H field of the main guide as shown in
Figure.
Figure H-Plane Tee

If two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm, the
output wave at port 3 will be in phase and additive. If the input is fed into port 3,
the wave will split equally into port 1 and port 2 in phase and in the same
magnitude.
63
E-plane tee (Series tee)

An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is
parallel to the E field of the main guide
If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm, there are two
different transmission characteristics
It can be seen from Fig. shown below that if the E-plane tee is perfectly
matched with the aid of screw tuners or inductive or capacitive windows at the
junction, the diagonal components of the scattering matrix, S11, S22, and S33,
are zero because there will be no reflection.
When the waves are fed into the side arm (port 3), the waves appearing
at port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in opposite phase and in the
same magnitude. Therefore It should be noted that Eq. does not mean that
S13 is always positive and S23 is always negative. The negative sign merely
means that Sl3 and S23 have opposite signs. For a matched junction, the S
matrix is given by
0 𝑆12 𝑆13
𝑆 = 𝑆21 0 𝑆23
𝑆31 𝑆32 0
Figure E-plane Tee

Two-way transmission of E-plane tee
64
Figure a) Input through main arm b) Input through side arm

From the symmetry property of S matrix, the symmetric terms in above
equation are equal and they are
S12=S21; S13=S31; S23=S32 ~> (1)
From the zero property of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term
of any column (or row) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding
terms of any other column (or row) is zero and it is
Hence 𝑆11 𝑆12 ∗ + 𝑆21 𝑆22 ∗ + 𝑆31 𝑆32 ∗ = 0 and 𝑆13 𝑆23 ∗ = 0
This means that either S13 or S23, or both, should be zero. However, from
the unity property of S matrix, the sum of the products of each term of any one
row (or column) multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity; that is,
𝑆21 𝑆21 ∗ + 𝑆31 𝑆31 ∗ = 1 → (2)
𝑆12 𝑆12 ∗ + 𝑆32 𝑆32 ∗ = 1 → (3)
𝑆13 𝑆13 ∗ + 𝑆23 𝑆23 ∗ = 1 → (4)
Substitution of Eq. (1) in (2) results in
|𝑆12 |2 = 1 − |𝑆13 |2 = 1 − |𝑆23 |2 → (5)
Zero and thus Eq. (4) is false. In a similar fashion, if S 23 = 0, then S13
becomes zero and therefore Eq. (5) is not true. This inconsistency proves the
statement that the tee junction cannot be matched to the three arms. In other
words, the diagonal elements of the S matrix of a tee junction are not all zeros.
In general, when an E-plane tee is constructed of an empty waveguide,
it is poorly matched at the tee junction. Hence Sij * 0 if i = j.
However, since the collinear arm is usually symmetric about the side arm,
|S13| = |S23| and S11 = S22.
Then the S matrix can be simplified to
65
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13

𝑆 = 𝑆12 𝑆11 −𝑆13
𝑆13 −𝑆13 𝑆33
Magic Tee [or] Hybrid Tee
A magic tee is a combination of the E -plane tee and H -plane tee
Figure Magic Tee

The magic tee has several characteristics:
1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1 and
port 2, the output will be zero at port 3 and additive at port 4.
2. If a wave is fed into port 4 (the H arm), it will be divided equally between port
1 and port 2 of the collinear arms and will not appear at port 3 (the E arm).
3. If a wave is fed into port 3 (the E arm), it will produce an output of equal
magnitude and opposite phase at port 1 and port 2. The output at port 4 is zero.
That is, S43 = S34 = 0.
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear arms at port 1 or port 2, it will not
appear in the other collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 because the E arm causes
a phase delay while the Harm causes a phase advance. i.e., S12 = S21 = 0.
The magic tee is commonly used for mixing, duplexing, and impedance
measurements. A magic tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to the
antenna in such a way that the transmitters do not load each other.
The two transmitters should be connected to ports 3 and 4, respectively.
Transmitter 1, connected to port 3, causes a wave to emanate from port 1 and
another to emanate from port 2; these waves are equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase.
Similarly, transmitter 2, connected to port 4, gives rise to a wave at port
1 and another at port 2, both equal in magnitude and in phase.
At port 1 the two opposite waves cancel each other. At port 2 the two in-
phase waves add together; so double output power at port 2 is obtained for the
66
antenna. Therefore the S matrix of a magic tee can be expressed as
Hybrid rings or Rat-Race circuits

A four port MW passive device. Its ports are connected in the form an
angular ring at proper intervals. Such type of MW device is called Hybrid rings
or Rat-Race circuits.
Application of Hybrid Junctions
used as power dividers, power mixer and power combiner
Operation
1) When power is fed into port1 it splits equally into port 2 and 4 and nothing
enters port 3.
2) At port 2 and 4 the powers combine in phase but at port 3 cancellations
occurs.
The Scattering matrix of Hybrid rings is given by
67
2. (i) Explain the construction and working of four port circulator with
reference to Faraday rotation principle.[Nov/Dec-2013](8)
Principle
The rotation of the direction of E field of a linearly polarized wave passing
through a magnetized ferrite medium is known as faraday rotation.
Circulator is a multi-port non-reciprocal ferrite device, where the waves
can flow from one port to next immediate port in one direction only.
Symbol
Operation:
i) During input waves from Port 1,
An input waves at port 1 is splited into two equal amplitude & inphase
waves in the collinear arms b & d of the magic tee T1 , added up and appear
from port 2 of the magic tee T2.
ii) During input waves from Port 2,
A wave at port 2 will be splited into two equal amplitude & out of phase
waves in the collinear arms a & c of the magic tee T2 due to the presence of
180o phase shifter. These out of phase waves added up and appear from port
3 of the magic tee T1.
iii) During input waves from Port 3,In the above similar manner, an input waves
at port 3 will appear from port 4.
Applications
1. It is used as duplexer in radar antenna.
2. It is used in parametric amplifiers and tunnel diode.
68
Scattering matrix
For an ideal lossless matched circulator
|S11| = |S22| = |S33| = |S44|=0. Hence
As per circular property,

|S14| = |S21| = |S32| = |S43|=1 remaining coefficients are “0”. Hence
(ii) Explain the construction working and application of isolator based on

Faraday rotation. [Nov/Dec-2013] (8)
Isolator is a two-port non-reciprocal ferrite device. It is shown in figure
below.
1. It permits wave transmission from port 1 to port 2.
2. But not permits wave transmission from port 2 to port 1.
Symbol Physical Structure
Operation
i) During input waves from Port 1 to Port 2,
The twist introduces 45o phase shift in anti-clockwise direction. Then
ferrite rod introduces 45o phase shift in clockwise direction. Therefore output
waves total phase shift will be 0o.
ii) During input waves from Port 2 to Port 1,
The ferrite rod introduces 45o phase shift in anti-clockwise direction. Then
it enters twist, it can be absorbed by the resistive card since the wave already
having 45o phase shift. So no output wave enters into port 1.
Scattering matrix
For an ideal lossless matched isolator
69
|S21| = 1, |S12| = |S11| = |S22|=0
Applications
1. It is used as a reflected wave protector for any microwave sources.
2. Hence it is used to improve the frequency stability of microwave
sources.
3. (i) Describe in detail about directional coupler and also the operation of
a 2-hole directional coupler. [Nov/Dec-2012](10)
Directional Coupler
A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction as shown in Fig.

It consists of a primary waveguide 1-2 and a secondary waveguide 3-4.
When all ports are terminated in their characteristic impedances, there is
free transmission of power, without reflection, between port 1 and port 2, and
there is no transmission of power between port 1 and port 3 or between port 2
and port 4 because no coupling exists between these two pairs of ports.
The degree of coupling between port 1 and port 4 and between port 2
and port 3 depends on the structure of the coupler.
Assuming that the wave is propagating from port 1 to port 2 in the primary line,
the coupling factor and the directivity are defined
𝑃1
Coupling factor (dB) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
𝑃4
Directivity (dB) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃3
where P1 = power input to port1

P3 = power output from port3
P4 = power output from port4
70
It should be noted that port2, port3, and port4 are terminated in their
characteristic impedances. The coupling factor is a measure of the ratio of
power levels in the primary and secondary lines. Hence if the coupling factor is
known, a fraction of power measured at port4 may be used to determine the
power input at port
1. This significance is desirable for microwave power measurements because
no disturbance, which may be caused by the power measurements, occurs in
the primary line.
2. The directivity is a measure of how well the forward traveling wave in the
primary waveguide couples only to a specific port of the secondary waveguide.
An ideal directional coupler should have infinite directivity. In other words, the
power at port 3 must be zero because port2 and port4 are perfectly matched.
3. Actually, well-designed directional couplers have a directivity of only 30 to 35
dB
S11=S22=S33=S44=0
As noted, there is no coupling between port 1 and port 3 and between port 2
and port 4. Thus
S13=S31=S24=S42=0
Consequently, the S matrix of a directional coupler becomes
Eqn. can be further reduced by means of the zero property of the S

∗ ∗
matrix,so we have 𝑆12 𝑆14 + 𝑆32 𝑆34 =0
∗ ∗
𝑆21 𝑆23 + 𝑆41 𝑆14 =0
Also from the unity property of the S matrix, we can write
∗ ∗
𝑆12 𝑆12 + 𝑆14 𝑆14 =1
The above equations can also be written
|S12||S14| = |S32| |S34|
|S21||S23| = |S41| |S43|
Since S12=S21, S14=S41, S23=S32 and S34 = S43, then
|S12| = |S34|
|S14| = |S23|
Let S12= S34= p
71
Where p is positive and real. Then from eqn.

∗
𝑝(𝑆23 + 𝑆43 ) = 0
Let S23 = S41= jq
Where q is positive and real. Then from eqn.
p2+q2 =1
The S matrix of a directional coupler is reduced to
Two-Hole Directional Couplers
Operation
1) A portion of power traveling from port 1 to port 2 is coupled to port 4 but not
to port 3.
2) A portion of power traveling from port 2 to port 1 is coupled to port 3 but not
to port 4.
3) A portion of power incident on port 3 is coupled to port 2 but not to port 1.
4) A portion of the power incident on port 4 is coupled to port 1 but not to port
2.
A two-hole directional coupler with traveling waves propagating in it is

illustrated in Fig. below. The spacing between the centers of two holes must be
72
A fraction of the wave energy entered into port 1 passes through the holes
and is radiated into the secondary guide as the holes act as slot antennas.
The forward waves in the secondary guide are in the same phase,
regardless of the hole space and are added at port 4.
The backward waves in the secondary guide (waves are progressing from right
to left) are out of phase by (2L/ A8)27T rad and are cancelled at port 3.In a
directional coupler all four ports are completely matched. Thus the diagonal
elements of the S matrix are zeros.
Application
It is used to combining or coupling and also splitting power in a waveguide
system.
(ii) Explain the construction and working of varactor diode with neat
diagram. [May/June-2014](6)
The varactor diode is a semiconductor, voltage dependent variable
capacitor diode. This special diode which is made for the application utilization
of voltage-capacitance variable property hence it is called varactor diode or
Varicaps (or) Voltage cap. It is operated under reverse biased conditions so as
to yield a variable junction capacitance.Varactor diode is useful for MW
oscillations or amplification.
Photo Symbol
73
a) Construction of Basic structure

 N+ - type substrate
 N - type semiconductor such as Ge,Si,GaAs,AlAs and etc.
 P - type semiconductor such as GaAs, GaSb and etc.
 PN semiconductor junction
 Anode and cathode
b) Construction of Internal structure
 A varactor diode is constructed as shown in above figure (a) and (b).
 In this figure n+ denotes heavily doped n-semiconductor.
Operation
(a) and (b) shows varactor diode under forward bias and under reverse bias
respectively.
Tuning / varactor diodes are operated reverse-biased, the thickness of

the depletion zone varies with the applied bias voltage, and the capacitance of
the diode can be made to vary. Usually, the capacitance is inversely
proportional to the depletion region thickness and the depletion region thickness
is proportional to the square root of the applied voltage. Therefore, the
74
capacitance is inversely proportional to the square root of the voltage applied

to the diode.
V-C characteristics of varactor diode under reverse bias
• In above Figure at point1 shows the varactor diode capacitance becomes

maximum when reverse voltage is zero.
• In this figure at point2 shows the diode capacitance becomes minimum when
reverse voltage is maximum.
• In this figure at point3 shows the diode capacitance decrease when reverse
voltage increases.
Equivalent circuit of varactor diode
Where k - constant depends on semiconductor material

VT - Knee potential = Vj
VR - magnitude of the applied reverse potential
n = 1/2 for alloy junctions, and 1/3 for diffused junction
4. Explain in detail about Gunn diode oscillator with neat diagram?
[Nov/Dec-2012]
A N-type heavily doped PN junction diode is called Gunn diode.
• The Gunn diode is named after its inventor J. B. Gunn.
• It has special characteristic of negative resistance region.
• Gunn diode is useful for MW oscillations or amplification.
75
Photo Symbol
Construction
a) Figures consists of
• N+-type substrate
• N-type semiconductor such as Ge,Si,GaAs,AlAs and etc.
• P-type semiconductor such as GaAs, GaSb and etc.
• PN semiconductor junction
• Anode and cathode
b) Construction are
• A Gunn diode is constructed as shown in figure1.2(a) and (b).
• In this figure n+ denotes heavily doped n-semiconductor.
• The operation under forward bias and reverse bias shown in the figure
below
shows Gunn diode under forward bias and under reverse bias
respectively.Working under transferred electron effect or Gunn effect.
Gunn effect
It states that some materials like GaAs exhibit, when biased above a
threshold value of the electric field, the electrons in the lower-energy band will
be transferred into the higher-energy band as shown in figure below.
76
• This behavior is called transferred electron effect or Gunn effect and the device
is also called transferred electron device (TED) or Gunn diode. It is also called
Ridley - watkins - Hilsum (RHW) two valley theory
V-I characteristics curve
The figure shows voltage-current or v-i characteristics of microwave Gunn

diode.
 From point A to B, current increases when increasing forward bias voltage.
 At point B, current reaches peak value Ip at a threshold voltage VT.
 From point B to C, current decreases when increasing bias voltage.
 At point C, output current reaches a minimum value Iv, (valley current) at
a valley voltage Vv.
 From point C to D, current increases when increasing bias voltage.
5. (i) Draw the physical structure and doping profile of IMPATT diode
oscillator and amplifier in detail. [Nov/Dec-2001] (8)
IMPATT diode is short form of Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode.
 IMPATT diode is a transit time device.
 A microwave semiconductor (silicon or gallium arsenide) diode exhibiting
negative resistance resulting from the combined effects of charge-carrier
transit time and impact avalanche breakdown.
77
 This diode is useful for MW oscillations or amplification.

Symbol
Construction
a) Basic structure consists of
+
 N - type substrate
 N - type semiconductor such as Ge, Si, GaAs, AlAs and etc.
+
 P - type semiconductor such as GaAs, GaSb and etc.
 PN semiconductor junction
 Anode and cathode
b) Internal structure consists of
+
 In this figure n denotes heavily doped n-semiconductor.
 Doping profile of step recovery diode is shown in figure below.
+ +
Figure shows that its p -type and n -type materials are doped more
heavily at the component terminals than at the junction.
• This significantly reduces the time required for the component to switch from
on to off, and vice versa.
78
• The operation under forward bias and reverse bias are shown in figure.
Applications
• Typical switching time for an IMPATT diode is in the order of picoseconds
range.
• Hence it is used for ultra-high frequency switching applications.
• This diode are also useful in frequency multipliers.
Advantages
• Switching time for an IMPATT diode is in the order of picoseconds range.
• Low noise, high speed and low power consumption.
Disadvantages
• Higher cost
• Low output voltage.
• No isolation between input and output.
79
(ii) Write short notes on PIN diode switch. [Reg-2013] (8)

PIN diode switch
A switch is an electrical component for opening and closing the
connection of a circuit or for changing the connection of a circuit device. An
“Ideal Switch” exhibits zero resistance to current flow in the “ON” state and
infinite resistance to current flow in the “OFF” state. A practical switch design
exhibits a certain amount of resistance in the “ON” state and a finite resistance
in the “OFF” state.
The use of PIN diodes as the switching element in microwave circuits is
based on the difference between the PIN diode reverse and forward bias
characteristics. At lower microwave frequencies, f<2GHz, the PIN diode
(including package parasitic) appears to be a very small impedance under
forward bias and a very large impedance under reverse bias. It is the difference
in performance between forward and reverse bias states upon which switch
operation relies.
Most switch designs to be considered use a difference in reflection,
rather than dissipation, to obtain switch performance. Very little power is
dissipated by the diode itself, thus permitting small devices to control relatively
large amounts of microwave power. Thus, PIN diode switches are reactive
networks, where losses are a second order effect. In subsequent sections, we
will see that switch circuits resemble filter circuits in many ways.
Fundamental parameters that describe PIN diode switch performance
1. Isolation
Physically, Isolation is a measure of the microwave power through the
switch that is not transferred to the load, both from Attenuation Loss and
Reflection Loss, when the switch is OFF.As a practical matter, Isolation is a
measure of how effectively a PIN Diode Switch is turned OFF. It is determined
by calculating the difference between the power measured at the switch output
port with the switch biased ON and the power measured at the switch output
port with the switch biased OFF.
Isolation (dB) = (Pout)on (dBm) - (Pout )off (dBm)
This equation avoids the problem of accounting for the Transmission Loss
through the physical structure of the PIN Diode Switch (all switches have some
finite Transmission Loss). Transmission Loss is present whether the switch is
ON or OFF.
80
2. Insertion Loss
Insertion Loss (IL) is the Transmission Loss through the physical
structure of a PIN diode switch. In the forward biased case (the ON state), large
values of bias current plus microwave current may flow through the switch
structure, causing significant Ohmic Loss. In the reverse bias case (the OFF or
Isolation state), only small values of leakage current flow through the switch, so
the reverse bias loss is small.
If the switch is mechanically and thermally designed properly, Ohmic
Losses and Thermal Dissipation are minimized and Insertion Loss is relatively
low (IL < 0.25 dB).
Insertion Loss is a particularly critical parameter for the Communications
System designer. Insertion Loss absorbs signal power, causing the system’s
Noise Figure to increase by the amount of the Insertion Loss.
6. Write short notes on [Reg-2013]
1. Terminations
2. Power dividers
3. Stub and quarter wave transformer
1. Terminations:
A termination is a one-port device which absorbs all the incident power,
never radiate and reflects. Its only purpose is to absorb all the incident energy
without causing standing waves. It matches, its impedance with the
characteristic impedance of a given transmission line. It is attached to a certain
terminal of a device to absorb the transmitted power or to establish reference
impedance at that terminal. It is equivalent to terminating the line with its
characteristics impedance.
Types of termination:
(i) Matched load
It provides termination and absorbs all the incident power. It is also
equivalent in terminating the line by its characteristic impedance. This load is
called matched load or matched termination.
(ii) Variable short-circuits
In waveguide form, it consists of short-circuit, usually a resistive card. It
reflects all the incident power. The sliding load motion controls the high degree
of precision through extremely accurate machining techniques. Termination
81
must be a length of /2 at the lowest frequency that enables phase reversal.

Manually move the screw to lock the termination at any position.
2. Power dividers
In most circumstances, power dividers provide equal amplitude and equal
phase splitting, as is depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. Notice that for both power
dividers, the input signal at port 1 splits equally between output ports 2 and 3.
In a resistive power divider, both output signals are 6 dB lower than the input
signal, and they are in phase. In Wilkinson power dividers, the output signals
are 3 dB below the input signal, and they are also in phase (i.e. 0 degree phase
shift between the outputs). The extra 3 dB of path loss in the resistive divider is
caused by the extra voltage drops across the 16.7 resistors. The main
differences between resistive power dividers and Wilkinson power dividers are
that Wilkinson power dividers have 3 dB lower loss and possess the advantage
of isolation between output ports.
Wilkinson power dividers are limited in their low frequency range (fLOW) to
a few hundred MHz while resistive power dividers reach to DC.
1. The T-junction power divider
 lossless divider
 lossy divider
2. The Wilkinson power divider
 even-odd mode analysis
 unequal power division divider
 n-way Wilkinson divider
3. Quarter wave transformer
Figure shows a circuit employing a quarter-wave transformer. The load

resistance RL and the feedline characteristic impedance Z0 are both real and
assumed to be known. These two components are connected with a lossless
82
piece of transmission line of (unknown) characteristic impedance Z1 and length

λ/4. It is desired to match the load to the Z0 line by using the λ/4 section of line
and so make Γ= 0 looking into the λ/4 matching section.the input impedance Zin
can be found as
To evaluate this for βl = (2π/λ)(λ/4) = π/2, we can divide the numerator and
denominator by tan βl and take the limit as βl → π/2 to get
In order for Γ = 0,we must have Zin = Zo ,which yields the characteristic
impedance Z1
as
The quarter-wave transformer is a useful and practical circuit for
impedance matching and also provides a simple transmission line circuit that
further illustrates the properties of standing waves on a mismatched line.
7. Explain MMIC in detail. [May/June-2014] (16)
Like lower-frequency integrated circuits, monolithic microwave integrated
circuits(MMICs) can be made in monolithic or hybrid form. In a monolithic circuit,
active devices are grown on or in a semiconducting substrate, and passive
elements are either deposited on the substrate or grown in it. In the hybrid circuit
active devices are attached to a glass, ceramic, or substrate, which contains
the passive circuitry.
MMIC FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
Monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) can be fabricated by
using different techniques such as diffusion and ion implantation, oxidation and
film deposition,epitaxial growth, lithography, etching and photoresist, and
deposition.
Diffusion and ion implantation
Diffusion and ion implantation are the two processes used in controlling
amounts of dopants in semiconductor device fabrications. The process of
diffusion consists of diffusing impurities into a pure material in order to alter the
basic electronic characteristics of the pure material. Ion implantation is used to
dope the substrate crystal with high-energy ion impurities.
83
Oxidation and film deposition

There are four groups of thin films:
1. Thermal oxides
2. Dielectric layers
3. Polycrystalline silicon
4. Metal films
Epitaxial growth
In epitaxy technology, single-crystal semiconductor layers grow on a single-
crystal semiconductor substrate. The epitaxial process offers an important
means of controlling the doping profiles so that device and circuit performances
can be optimized.
Lithography
Lithography is the process of transferring patterns of geometric shapes
on a mask to a thin layer of radiation-sensitive material, which is known as
resist, for covering the surface of a semiconductor wafer.
Etching and photoresist
In the processes of making MICs, a selective removal of Si02 is
required in order to form openings through which impurities can be diffused.
Deposition
Three methods-vacuum evaporation, electron-beam evaporation, and
dc puttering-are commonly used for making MMICs.
MOSFET FABRICATION
MOSFET Formation
MOSFETs can be fabricated by using the following steps as shown in
Figure.
1. Oxidation: Select the p-type substrate and form a Si02 layer on the
surface.
2. Diffusion: Open two windows by using the photoresist technique and diffuse
an n+ -layer through the windows.
3. Etching: Remove the center oxide region by the photoetching technique.
4. Oxidation: Again expose the entire surface to dry oxygen so that the Si02
covers the top surface.
5. Deposition: Deposit phosphorous glass over the surface to cover the oxide
layer.
84
85
6. Etching: Open two windows above the two n+ -type diffused regions by using
the photo etching method.
7. Metallization: Now see that aluminum metallization is carried out over the
entire surface of the device.
8. Etching: Finally, etch away the unwanted metal and attach the metal contacts
to the diffused gate, drain, and source regions.
86
UNIT-IV MICROWAVE GENERATION

PART-A
1. Give the comparison between TWTA and klystron amplifier.
[Nov/Dec-2014]
Comparison between TWTA and klystron amplifier is,
Sl.No Klystron amplifier TWTA
1. Linear beam or ‘O’ type

Linear beam or ‘O’ type device.
device.
2. Uses cavities for input and output Uses non – resonant
Circuits. wave circuit.
Narrow band device due to use of Wide
3. non – resonant wave
band device because use of resonant
circuit.
cavities.
2. What are the limitations of conventional tubes at microwave
frequency? [Nov/Dec-2015]
 Lead inductance effect
 Inter-electrode capacitance effect
 Transit-time and transit-angle effect
 Gain-bandwidth product
3. Write the classification of microwave tubes.
They are classified into two types
1) O – type microwave tube or linear beam
2) M – type microwave tube
3) Name the two configuration of klystron
There are two basic configurations of Klystron tubes
1) Reflex Klystron – It is used as low power microwave oscillator
2) Two cavity (or) Multicavity Klystron – It is used as low power
microwave amplifier.
4. What is transit time? [Nov/Dec-2014]
The time taken by an electron to travel from the cathode to the anode
plate of an electron tube is known as transit time.
5. Define bunching. [Nov/Dec-2014]
The electrons passing the first cavity gap at zeros of the gap voltage
pass through with unchanged velocity, those passing through the +ive half
cycles of gap voltage undergo an increase in velocity, those passing through
the –ive half cycles of gap voltage undergo an decrease in velocity, As a
87
result of these, electron bunch together in drift space. This is called

bunching.
6. Mention the application of two – cavity. [Nov/Dec-2014]
a. Used in Troposphere scatter transmitters.
b. Satellite communication ground stations.
c. Used in UHF TV transmitters.
d. Rader transmitters.
7. What do you meant by applegate diagram? [Nov/Dec-2014]
The electrons passing through the buncher grids are accelerated /
retarded / passed through with unchanged initial dc velocity depending upon
when they encounter the RF signal field at the buncher cavity gap at positive
/ negative / zero crossing phase of the cycle, respectively, as shown by
distance-time plot. This is called the applegate diagram.
8. Mention the same characteristics and applications of reflex
klystrons. Characteristics: [Nov/Dec-2013]
 Frequency range: 1 to 25GHz
 Power output: It is a low-power generator of 10 to 500mW
 Efficiency: About 20 to 3o%
Applications:
 This type is widely used in the laboratory for microwave
measurements.
 In microwave receivers as local oscillators in commercial and military
applications.
 Also plays a role in airborne Doppler radars as well as missiles.
9. What are the high frequency effects in conventional
tubes?[Apr/May-2015]
The high frequency effects in conventional tubes are
i) Circuit reactance
a) Inter electrode capacitance
b) Lead inductance
ii) Transit time effect
iii) Cathode emission
iv) Plate heat dissipation area
88
10. What are the applications of reflex klystron? [Nov/Dec-2013]

1) Signal source in MW generator
2) Local oscillators in receivers
3) It is used in FM oscillator in low power MW links.
4) In parametric amplifier as pump source.
11. What do you mean by O-type tubes? Name some O-type
tubes. [Nov/Dec-2012]
In O – type tube a magnetic field whose axis coincides with that electron
beam is used to hold the beam together as it travels the length of the tube. It is
also called as linear beam tube.
i) Helix traveling wave tube
ii) Coupled cavity TWT
iii) Forward wave amplifier
iv) Backward wave amplifier
v) Backward wave oscillator
12. State the applications of magnetrons. Why magnetron is
called as cross filed device? [Nov/Dec-2013]
1) Pulse work in radar
2) Linear particle accelerators.
In cavity magnetron, there exists a radial electric field and an axial
magnetic field Perpendicular to each other and hence magnetron is called as a
cross filed device.
13. Write short notes on negative resistance magnetron.
[Nov/Dec-2013]
Negative – resistance magnetrons ordinarily operate at frequencies
below the microwave region. This type of magnetron uses a static negative
resistance between two anode segments but has low efficiency and is useful
only at low frequencies.
14. Write the different configurations available in traveling wave

magnetrons. [Reg-2013]
a) Cylindrical magnetron
b) Linear magnetron
c) Coaxial magnetron
d) Voltage – tunable magnetron
e) Inverted coaxial magnetron
f) Frequency-agile magnetron
89
15. State the power output and efficiency of magnetron. [Nov/Dec-

2013]
 A magnetron can deliver a peak power output of up to 40MW with the dc
voltage of 50KV at 10GHz.
 The average power output is 800KW.
 The magnetron possesses a very high efficiency ranging from 40 to 70%.
 Magnetrons are commercially available for peak power output from 3KW
and higher.
PART-B
1. Explain the working principle of reflex klystron oscillator and derive
the expression for power and efficiency. [Nov/Dec-2013] (16)

Single cavity Reflex Klystron
Reflex klystron
→ The reflex klystron is an oscillator with a built to feedback mechanism.
→ The repeller electrode is a negative potential and sends the bunched
electron beam back to the resonator cavity. This provides a positive
feedback mechanism which support oscillations.
→ Due to dc voltage (V0) in the cavity circuit RF noise is generated in the
cavity. This electromagnetic noise field in the cavity act as cavity resonant
frequency.
→ When the oscillation frequency is varied, the resonant frequency of cavity
and the feedback path phase shift must be readjusted for a positive
feedback.
Applegate diagram
→ When the gap voltage is as positive peak, electron passing at this moment
is called early electron. This electron is accelerated towards repeller and
travels a distance which is large comparatively.
90
Applegate diagram with gap voltage for a Reflex Klystron

→ The electron at natural zero of gap voltage is called reference electron.
When the gap voltage is at positive peak the corresponding electron is
called late electron.
Modes of oscillation
3
The condition for oscillation t0 = ( n + ) T = NT
4
3
Where N = n + and mode of oscillation n = 0, 1, 2, 3, T is the time
4
period at the resonant frequency and t0 is the time taken by the reference
electron to travel in the repeller space.
Velocity Modulation
→ The electron enters into the cavity gap from the cathode at z = 0 and time
t0 is assumed to have uniform velocity.
v0 = 0.593 x 106 √V0 ----- (1)
The same electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d at time t1 with velocity
βi V1 θg
v(t1) = v0 [ 1 + sin (ωt1 − )] ---- (2)
2 V0 2
The same electron is forced back to the cavity z = d and time t 2 by the
retarding electric field E.
Vr + V0 + V1 sin (ωt )
E= ----- (3)
L
The retarding field E is assumed to be constant in the z direction. The

force equation on the repeller region is
Vr + V0
E= where (V1 sin ωt < < (Vr + V0)] ----- (4)
L
Vr + V0
Force of electron = -e E = -e [ ] ----- (5)
L
d2 z
Force of electron = mass x acceleration = m (Z distance)
dt2
91
d2 z
-e E = m Vr → magnitude of repeller voltage.
dt2
E → - ∇ V is used in z direction only

d2 z ( Vr + V0 )
= -e ----- (6)
dt2 mL
Integrating equation (6) with respect to‘t’ and ‘t1’

dz ( Vr + V0 ) t ( Vr + V0 )
dt
= -e
mL
∫t dt = -e mL
(t – t1) + K1 ----- (7)
1
dz
If t = t1 , = v (t1) = K1 then
dt
Vr + V0 t t
z = -e [ ] ∫t (t − t1 ) dt + v (t1) ∫t dt
mL 1 1
t
Vr + V0 t2
= -e [ ] [ ] V(t1) (t – t1) + K2
mL 2
Vr + V0
= -e [ ] (t –t1 t1)2 + v (t1) (t – t1) + K2 ---- (8)
2 mL
At t = t1, z = d = K2 then
− e ( Vr + V0 )
z = (t – t1)2 + v (t1) (t – t1) + d ---- (9)
2 mL
→ The electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d and time t 1 with a velocity of
v(t1) and due to repeller negative potential returns to the gap z =d and time
t2 then at t = t2 , z = d.
( V r + V0 )
0 = -e (t2 – t1)2 + v (t1) (t2 – t1) ----- (10)
2 mL
Transit time
The round trip transit time in the repeller region is given by
2 (velocity)
T’ = ----- (11)
acceleration
The factor 2 in the numerator arises because of the t0 and from journey
of electrons.
2 v (t1 ) 2 mL
T’ = d2 Z
= (t2 – t1) = . v (t1) ----- (12)
e ( Vr + V0 )
dt2
Now the negative sign is not taken as electron bunch travels in the
reverse direction.
Substitute equation (2) in (12)
β1 V1 θg
T’ = T0′ [ 1 + sin (ωt1 − ) ] ----- (13)
2 V0 2
The round trip transit time of the center of the bunch electron
2 mL v0
T0′ = ----- (14)
e ( Vr + V0 )
Multiply the equation (13) by a radian frequency.
92
βi V1 θg
ω (t2 – t1) = ω T0′ + ω T0′ sin (ωt1 − )
2 V0 2
θg
ωT0′ = θ′0 + X’ sin (ωt1 − ) ---- (15)
2
The round trip at transit angle of the center of the bunch electron
θ′0 = ωT0′ ---- (16)
The bunching parameter of the reflex klystron oscillator
βi V1
X’ = θ′0 ----- (17)
2 V0
Output power
→ The maximum amount of kinetic energy can be transferred from the
returning electrons to in the cavity walls.
→ For a maximum energy transfer the round trip transit angle is given by
1
ω (t2 – t1) = ωT0′ = ( n − ) 2π ----- (18)
4
π
= N 2π = 2π n - ----- (19)
2
where V1 << V0 is assumed

n = any positive integer for cycle no and
1
N= n− is the no of modes.
4
The beam current injected into the cavity gap from the repeller region
flows in negative z direction.
The beam current of a reflex klystron oscillator can be written as

i2t = -I0 – 2 I0 Jn (nX’ ) cos [ n (ω t2 – θ′0 – θg)] ----- (20)
I0 → dc beam  current.
The fundamental
n=1 component of the current induced in the cavity by the
modulated e beam is given by (θg << θ0)
-n
i2 = - βi I2
= 2 I0 J1 (X’) cos (ωt2 – θ′0 ). βi ----- (21)
The magnitude of fundamental component
I2 = 2 I0 βi J1 (X’ ) ----- (22)
The dc power supplied by the beam voltage V0
Pdc = V0 I0 ----- (23)
The ac power delivered to the load
V1 I2
Pac = = V1 I0 βi J1 (X’ ) ----- (24)
2
X’ – bunching parameter of reflex klystron.

The bunching parameter
93
θ′0
X’ = βi Vi
2 𝑉0
𝜋
where θ′0 = ωT0′ = 2πn –
2
𝜋
2 v0 X’ = βi V1 ( 2πn − )
2
𝑉1 2𝑋′
= 𝜋
𝑉0 𝛽𝑖 ( 2πn− )
2
2𝑋 ′ 𝑉0
V1 = 𝜋 ----- (25)
𝛽𝑖 ( 2πn− )
2
Substitute equation (25) in equation (24)

2𝑋 ′ 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝛽𝑖 𝐽1 (𝑋 ′ ) 2𝑋 ′ 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝐽1 (𝑋 ′ )
Pac = 𝜋 = 𝜋 ----- (26)
𝛽𝑖 ( 2πn− ) 2πn −
2 2
Efficiency
𝑃𝑎𝑐 2𝑋 ′ 𝑉0 𝐼0 𝐽1 (𝑋 ′ ) 1
η = = 𝜋 x
𝑃𝑑𝑐 2πn − 𝑉0 𝐼0
2
2𝑋 ′ 𝐽1 (𝑋 ′ )
= 𝜋 ----- (27)
2πn −
2
Maximum efficiency
→ The factor X’ J1 (X’) reaches a maximum value of 1.25 at X’ = 2.408 and
J1 (X’) = 0.52
3
The maximum efficiency is obtained when n = 2 or 1 mode
4
Maximum theoretical efficiency is

2 (2.408) 𝐽1 (2.408)
ηmax = 𝜋 = 22.78% ------ (28)
2π(2) −
2
Theoretical efficiency of Reflex Klystron ranges from 20 to 30%.

Output power in terms of repeller voltage VR
→ For a given beam voltage V0, the relationship between the repeller voltage
and cycle number of n required for oscillation is given by
𝜋 2
𝑉0 (2πn − ) 𝑒
2
= ----- (29)
( 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉0 )2 2
8𝜔 𝐿 2 𝑚
The output power can be expressed in terms of VR

𝑉0 𝐼0 𝑋 ′ 𝐽1 (𝑋 ′) (𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉0 ) 𝑒
Pac =
ωL
√2𝑚 𝑉 ----- (30)
0
94
2. Explain the working principle of Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier
(TWTA). [Nov/Dec-2015](16)
Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA)
→ A TWTA circuit uses a helix slow wave non resonant microwave guiding
structure and thus a broadband microwave amplifier.
Helix Traveling Wave Tube
TWT amplifier tube

Operation
→ The electrons beam is focused axially by a static magnetic field and
collected in a collector circuit.
→ The microwave input signal is injected on the helix slow wave circuit
surrounding the electrons beam which produces an axial electric field of
the signal at the center of the helix that can interact with the electrons
beam.
→ The dc beam voltage is adjusted so that the beam velocity is slightly
greater than the axial component of field on the slow wave structure.
→ During transit along the axis the electron beam transfers energy to the
traveling signal wave and thus signal field increases.
Attenuator
→ An attenuator is placed over a part of the helix near the output end to
attenuate any reflected waves due to impedance mismatch that can be
fed back to the input to cause oscillations.
95
Magnet
→ The magnet produces an axial magnetic field to prevent spreading of the
electron beam as it travels down the tube.
→ Need of slow – wave structure (helix tube).
Slow wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave
velocity in a certain direction. So that the electron beam and the signal wave
can interact.
3. Derive the equation of velocity modulated wave and discuss the
concept of bunching effect in two cavity klystron. [May/June-2014]
(16)
Two cavity Klystron Amplifier
→ A two cavity klystron Amplifier is a velocity modulated tube in which the
velocity modulation process produces density modulation process of
electrons. It consists of two cavity bunches (input) & catcher (output)
cavity. The separation between bunches & catcher grids is called drift
space.
Two cavity klystron Amplifier

→ Cathode emits the electron beam. This electrons beam first reach the
anode. The accelerating anode produces a high velocity electron beam.
→ Input RF signal to be amplified excites the buncher cavity with a coupling
loop.
→ The electron beam passing the buncher cavity gap at zeros of the gap
voltage passes through with unchanged velocity.
Velocity Modulation
The variation in electron velocity in the drift space is known as velocity
modulation.
Catcher cavity
The output cavity catches energy from bunched electron beam. It is
called as catcher cavity.
96
→ The electron beam passing the positive half cycle of the gap voltage under
in velocity. In negative half cycle the gap voltage undergo decrease in
velocity. As the electron gradually lunch together so they travel down the
drift space.
→ The first cavity acts as the buncher and velocity modulates the beam.
Thus the electron beam is velocity modulated to form bunches or
undergoes thereby modulation in accordance with the I/P RF single cycle.
→ The ac current on the beam is such that the level of excitation of the
second cavity is much greater than the buncher cavity.
→ If desired a portion of the amplified output can be fed back to the
regenerative manner to obtain self-sustained oscillation.
→ The maximum bunching cavity occur between the second cavity grids
during its retarding phase, thus the kinetic energy is transferred from the
electron to the field of the second cavity.
Velocity modulation Process
→ When electrons are first accelerated by the high dc beam voltage V 0
before entering the buncher grids, their velocity v0 is uniform.
2e V0
vo = √ = 0.593 x 106 √𝑉0 m/s ----- (1)
m
Assume that electrons leave the cathode with zero velocity.

→ When a microwave signal applied to the input terminal of the buncher
cavity the gap voltage between the buncher grids can be written as
VS = V1 Sin wt
V1 → amplitude of signal and assume (V1 << V0) ----- (2)
Average transit time through the buncher cavity grids gap distance d is
d
= = t1 – t0 ----- (3)
V0
The average gap transit angle
ωd
θg = ω = ω (t2 – t0) = ----- (4)
V0
The average microwave voltage in the buncher gap can be written as
1 t1
VS = ∫t0 V1 sin (ωt) at

− V1
Equation (4) = [ cos (ωt1) – cos (ωt0)] ----- (5)
ωτ
ωd ωd
ω(t1 – t0) = ; ωt1 = + ωt0 ----- (6)
V0 V0
97

V1 ωd
= [ cos (ωt0) – cos (ωt0 + )]
ωτ V0
ωd Qg ωd Qg
Let ωt0 + = ωt0 + =A& B= =
2 V0 2 2 V0 2
A – B = ωt0
ωd
A + B = ωt0 + θg = ωt0 +
V0
By using trigonometric relation

cos (A – B) = Cos (A + B) = 2 sin A sin B
V1 ωd ωd
Vs = 2 Sin [ ] sin (ωt 0 + )
ωτ 2 v0 2 V0
ωd
d V1 Sin ( ) ωd
2 V0
Substitute  = = ωd Sin (ωt 0 + )
V0 2 V0
2 V0
θg
Sin ( ) θg
2
VS = V1 θg Sin (ωt 0 + ) ----- (7)
2
2
θg
θg Sin ( )
2
VS = V1 βi Sin (ωt 0 + ) β1 = θg
2
2
where β1 – buncher cavity beam coupling co-efficient of the input cavity
gap.
→ Increasing the θg decreases the coupling between the electrons beam &
buncher cavity, (i.e.) the velocity modulation of the beam for a given
microwave signal is decreased.
→ After velocity modulation the exit velocity from the buncher gap.
2e θg
v(t1) = √ m [V0 + βi V1 sin (ωt 0 + 2
)]
2eV0 βi V1 θg
v(t1) = √ [1 + sin (ωt 0 + )] ----- (8)
m 2V0 2
Thus the electrons in the beam are velocity modulated by the input RF
βi V1
signal with depth of velocity modulation (m) = . Since βiV1 << V0, the
V0
binormal expansion of equation (8).
βi V1 θg
v(t1) = V0 [1 + sin (ωt 0 + )] ----- (9)
2V0 2
It is equation of velocity modulation.

Alternatively the equation of velocity modulation can be given by
98
βi V1 θg
v(t1) = V0 [1 + sin (ωt1 + )] ----- (10)
2V0 2
Bunching process
→ The effect of bunching process produces bunching of electron beam (or)
current modulation.
→ The electron that pass the buncher cavity during the positive half cycles
of microwave input voltage VS travel faster than the electrons that passed
the gap when VS = 0.
→ During the negative half cycle, VS travel slower than the electrons that
passed the gap when VS = 0.
Bunching distance
Bunching distance from the buncher grid to the location of dense electron
bunching for the electron at tb is
∆ L = v0 (td – tb) ----- (11)
π π π
where tC = tb + ; t b = ta + ; ta = tb –
2ω 2ω 2ω
The distance for the electrons at ta and tC are

π
∆L = vmin (td – ta) = vmin (td – tb + ) ----- (12)
2ω
π
∆L = vmax (td – tc) = vmax (td – tb - ) ----- (13)
2ω
From equation (9) (or) equation 10 the maximum & minimum velocities are
βi V1
vmin = V0 (1 – ) ----- (14)
2 V0
βi V1
vmax = V0 (1 + ) ----- (15)
2 V0

π
∆L = vmin ((t d − t b ) + )
2ω
βi V1 π
= v0 (1 – ) ((t d − t b ) + )
2 V0 2ω
99
π V0 βi V1 V0 βi V1 π
= v0 (td – tb) + v0 − (td – tb) −
2ω 2 V0 2 V0 2ω
----- (16)
π
∆L = Vmax ((t d – t b ) − )
2ω
V0 π V0 βi V1 V0 βi V1 π
= v0 (td – tb) + [ − + (t d − t b ) − ]
2ω 2 V0 2 V0 2ω
----- (17)
Applegate diagram
→ It represents the internal operation of two cavity klystron by distance time
plot. It include velocity modulation process, bunching & energy transfer
etc.
From equation (16) & equation (17), the necessary condition for those
electrons at ta, tb and tc to meet at the same distance ∆L is
- (t d − t b ) − =0 ------ (18)
2ω 2 V0 2 V0 2ω
− + (t d − t b ) − =0 ----- (19)
2ω 2 V0 2 V0 2ω
Equating equation (18) & equation (19)
V0 π V0 βi V1 V0 βi V1 𝜋
(t d − t b ) −
2ω 2 V0 2 V0 2𝜔
− V0 π V0 β i V1 V0 βi V1 𝜋
= + (t d − t b ) −
2ω 2 V0 2 V0 2𝜔
V0 π V0 π V0 βi V1 V0 βi V1
+ = (t d − t b ) − (t d − t b )
2ω 2ω 2 V0 2 V0
V0 π V0 βi V1
= (t d − t b )
ω 2 V0
π V0
(t d − t b ) = ----- (20)
ω βi V1
Substitute equation (20) in equation (11) we get the expression for min
distance at which maximum bunching occur
∆L = V0 (td – tb)
V0 π V0
∆L = ----- (21)
ω βi V1
Maximum bunching
→ Now, the spacing between the buncher & catcher cavities in order to
achieve the maximum degree of bunching.
→ The transit time for an electron to travel at distance of L
100
L
T = t2 – t1 = ----- (22)
V (t)
Substitute equation (10) for V(t) in equation (22) and use the binomial
expansion.
(1 + x)-1 = 1 – x for | x | << 1.
L
= β V θg
V0 [ 1 + i 1 sin (ωt1 − ) ]
2 V0 2
βi V1 θg
T = T0 [ 1 + sin (ωt1 − ) ] ----- (23)
2 V0 2
L
Where [ @ T0 = ] is the dc transit time.
V0
→ Bunching parameter & DC Transit angle
In terms of radians, the equation (23) becomes
ω T0 βi V1 θg
ωT = ωt2 – ωt1 = ωT0 – sin (ωt1 − )
2 V0 2
θg
= θ0 – X sin (ωt1 − ) ----- (24)
2
ωL
dc transit angle between cavities θ0 = = 2π N ----- (25)
V0
Where, N is the number of electron transit cycle in the drift space.
The bunching parameter of a klystron.
βi V1
X= θ0 ----- (26)
2 V0
Current modulation
 Beam current in catcher cavity
→ The bunched beam current at the catcher cavity is a periodic wave form of
2π
period about dc current.
ω

i2 = I O + 2 IO Jn (nX) Cos [ωn (t2 –  – T0)] ----- (27)

IO → dc beam
n = 1 current in buncher cavity.
The klystron is generally tuned in fundamental ac component of current
given by
If = 2 IO J1 (X) cos (ωt2 -  - T0) ----- (28)
The fundamental ac component of the beam current at the catcher cavity has a
magnitude
If = 2 IO J1 (X) ----- (29)
101
This fundamental ac component If can be maximum when J1 (X) = 0.582 at

X = 1.841 by adjusting the beam voltage V0. So the optimum distance L at
which the maximum fundamental ac component 01 current occurs.
βi V1 βi V1 ωL
we know that X = θ0 =
2 V0 2 V0 v0
2 X V0 v0
L= ----- (30)
ω β1 V1
In equation (30) L = Lopt when X = 1.841

2 X V0 𝑣0 2 x 1.841 x V0 x 𝑣0
lopt = =
ω βi V1 ω βi V
3.682 V0 v0
lopt = ----- (31)
ω βi V1
Output Power
Equivalent circuit of output power

RSho → Wall resistance of catcher cavity
RB → Beam loading resistance
RL → External load R
RSh → Total equivalent shunt R of the catcher cavity including the load.
 Induced current (i2ind) in the catcher cavity
→ The fundamental component of RF beam current passing through the
catcher cavity gap induces a current in the catcher cavity.
I2ind = β0i2 = β0 2I0 J1 (X) cos (ω (t2 –  – T0)) ----- (32)
= I2 β0 cos (ω (t2--T0) :
Where I2 = 2 I0 J1 (X)
The corresponding RF Voltage V2 = V2 cos (ω (t2 –  – T0) = β2 I2 RSh
β0 → Beam coupling co-efficient
β0 = βi when both buncher & catcher cavities are identical.
The magnitude of the induced current in the cavity is given by
I2 = β02 I0 J1 (X) ----- (33)
The output power delivered to the catcher cavity and the load is given as
(β0 I2 )2
Pout = Rsh ---- (34)
2
V2
where, Rsh =
β0 I2
102
V2 → fundamental component of catcher gap voltage

β20 I22 V2 β0 I2 V2
Pout = x = ----- (35)
2 β0 I2 2
 Efficiency
P𝑜𝑢𝑡 P𝑎𝑐
η = = ----- (36)
P𝑖𝑛 P𝑑𝑐
The dc power supplied by beam voltage Pin = V0 I0 ----
- (37)
β0 I2 V2 1 β0 I2 V2
η = x = ----- (38)
2 V0 I0 2 V0 I0
 Maximum efficiency
β0 I2 V2
η =
2 V0 I0
Substitute equation (33) in above equation
β0 2 I2 J1 (X).V2 β0 J1 (X). V2
= =
2 I0 V0 V0
The efficiency becomes maximum when J1 (X) = 0.582 in X = 1.841
output voltage is V0 (V2 = V0)
β0 V2
ηmax = 0.582
V0
= 0.582%
If the coupling is perfect β0 = 1 then
ηmax = 58.2% ----- (39)
ii) Voltage Gain
The input voltage V1 is the bunching parameter X
2 V0
V1 = X
β0 Q0
V2
We know Rsh =
β0 I2
V2 = β0 I2 Rsh
V2 β0 I2 R𝑠ℎ β0 I2 R𝑠ℎ
AV = | | = = β0 θ0
V1 V1 2 V0 X
β20 θ0 R𝑠ℎ I2 β20 θ0 R𝑠ℎ .2 I0 J1 (X)

= =
2 V0 X 2 V0 X
β20 θ0 R𝑠ℎ . J1 (X)

= = J1
V0
β20 θ0 J1 (X) V0
= . . Rsh (R0 = is the dc beam resistance)
R0 X I0
G𝑚
Av = Gm. Rsh, (or) .
G𝑠ℎ
103
4. Explain the π mode of operation of magnetron. Derive Hull-cutoff
condition with respect to magnetron. [Apr/May-2015] (16)

Cylindrical Magnetron
→ It is a high power microwave oscillator. It is also called as conventional
magnetron. It has several rentrant cavities connected to gaps.
→ The anode is a slow wave structure consisting of several re-entrant
cavities equi-spaced around the circumstance.
→ The dc voltage V0 is applied between the cathode and anode and dc
magnetic flux density B0 is maintained in the positive z direction by means
of a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
→ The electrons emitted from the cathode try to travel to anode but with the
influence of cross fields E&H in the space between anode and cathode
the electron take curved path.
→ When the dc voltage and magnetic flux are adjusted, the electron will
follow cycloidal paths in the cathode anode space under the combined
force of both electric and magnetic field.
Schematic diagram of a Cylindrical Magnetron

Electron Motion (or) Hull Cut Off Voltage
→ The equations of motion for electron in a cylindrical magnetron can be
written as
d2 r dϕ 2 e e dϕ
-r( ) = E𝑟 − r B0 ----- (1)
dt2 dt m m dt
1 d dϕ e dr
(r 2 )= Bz ----- (2)
r dt dt m dt
104
e
Where → charge to mass ratio of electron = 1.759 x 1011 C/kg.
m
@ B0 = BZ is assumed in the positive z direction

d dϕ e rd𝑟
Equation (2)  (r 2 )= Bz
dt dt m dr
1 d (r2 )
= ωc ----- (3) d𝑟 𝑛 dr
2 dt
@ = nrn-1
e dt dt
Where ωc → Bz is cyclotron angular frequency.
m
Integrating equation (3), we get d𝑟 2 dr

= 2r
dt dt
dϕ 1
r2 = ωc r2 + constant ---- (4)
dt 2
dϕ r dr 1 d𝑟 2
At r = a is the radius of the cathode cylinder & = 0dt =
dt 2 dt
1
0= ωc r2 + constant
2
1
@ Constant = − ωc a2 ---- (5)
2

dϕ 1 1
r2 = ωc r2 - ωc a2
dt 2 2
dϕ ωC ωC a2
= -
dt 2 2 r2
→ The angular velocity of the electrons is

dϕ ωC a2
= [1− ] ----- (6)
dt 2 r2
The electron move in direction perpendicular to the mag field the kinetic
energy of the electron is given by
1
mv2 = eV
2
2eV
v2 =
m
The electron velocity has r and ϕ components

2eV
vr2 + vϕ2 =
m
dr 2 r dϕ 2 2eV
( ) + ( ) = ------ (7)
dt dt m
105
At r = b, radius from the center of cathode to the edge of the anode V =

dr
V0 and = 0 for the electrons just graze the anode equation (6) & equation
dt
(7) becomes
dϕ ω𝑐 a2
= [1− ] ----- (8)
dt 2 b2
dϕ 2 2 e V0
(r ) = ----- (9)
dt m

dϕ 2 2 e V0
( ) b2 =
dt m
2
2 e V0 ωc a2
= b2 [ (1 − 2
)]
m 2 b
2 e V0 b2 ω2c a2
= (1 − )2
m 4 b2
2 e V0 b2 e2 B20𝑐 a2
= [1− ]
m 4 m2 b2
V0 e b2 e2 B20𝑐 a2 2
8 = (1 − )
m m2 b2
Boc → cut off magnetic flux density

e a2
2
2
8 V0 = b2 B0𝑐 (1 − )
m b2
m
8 V0
2
B0𝑐 = e
2
a
b2 (1− 2 )2
b
m
½
( 8 V0 )
e
B𝑜𝑐 = 2
----- (10)
a
b (1− 2 )
b
Hull cut-off magnetic equation

→ The electron will just graze the anode and return toward the cathode
½
m
( 8 V0 )
e
depends on relative magnitudes of V0 and B0 B𝑜𝑐 = 2
a
b (1− 2 )
b
----- (11)
This equation is called as Hull cut off magnetic equation.
→ The magnetic field required to return electron back to cathode just grazing
of the anode is called as cut-off magnetic field (or) cut-off magnetic flux
density.
→ If B0 > B0C for a given V0, the electron will not reach the anode.
106
Hull cut-off voltage equation

The cut-off voltage
e a2
V0C = B02 b2 (1 − )2 ----- (12)
8m b2
This equation is called hull cut off voltage equation
If V0 < V0c, the given B0, the electron will not reach the anode.
Cyclotron Angular Frequency
The magnetic field is normal to the motion of electrons that travel in a
cycloidal path the outward centrifugal force is equal to the pulling force.
m v2
= evB ----- (13) Where R → Radius of cycloidal path
R
V → Tangential velocity of electron
The cyclotron angular frequency of the circular motion of the electron
V eB
ωc = = ----- (14)
R m
The period of one complete revolution
2π 2πm
T = = ----- (15)
ω eB
Resonant modes in a magnetron
→ For N resonant coupled cavities of the anode there exist N resonant
frequencies or modes.
→ If there are N reentrant cavities in the anode structure, the phase shift
2πn
between two adjacent cavities can be expressed as ϕn = ----- (16)
N
Where mode of oscillation n = 0, ±1, ±2, …… ± N/2
π mode of operation of an 8 cavity magnetron
N
→ Magnetron oscillators are operated in π mode where n =
2
ϕn = π ----- (17)
→ The successive cavities in anode have opposite phase excitation is
maximum in the cavities.
→ If L is mean separation between cavities the phase constant of the
2πn
fundamental mode field β0 = ----- (18)
NL
The traveling field of the fundamental mode travels around the structure
with angular velocity
dϕ ω
= ----- (19)
dt β0
→ When the cyclotron frequency is equal to

the angular frequency the interaction between
the field and electron occurs & energy is
transferred.
107
dϕ
ωc = β0 ----- (20)
dt
Output power and Efficiency
Equivalent circuit for one resonator of a magnetron

The efficiency and power output of a magnetron depend of the resonant
structure and dc power supply.
Ye → Electronic admittance
C → Capacitance of vane tips
L → Inductance
Gr → Conductance
GL → load conductor of resonator
V → RF voltage across the vane tips
The unloaded quality factor of the resonator
ω0 C
Qun = | at ω0 ----- (1)
Gr
Where angular resonance frequency (ω0 = 2 π fo)

The unloaded Q is a measure of the quality of the resonant circuit.
→ The external quality factor of load circuit.
ω0 C
Qex = | at ω0 ----- (2)
GL
External Q is a measure of degree to which the resonant circuit is coupled

to the external circuiting.
The loaded quality QL of the resonant circuit.
1 1 1
= +
QL Qex Qun
ω0 C
Ql = | at ω0 ----- (3)
Gr + Gl
Circuit efficiency
108
G𝑙 1 1
ηc = = G = Qex ----- (4)
G𝑙 + Gr 1+ r 1+
G𝑙 Q𝑢𝑛
The maximum circuit efficiency is obtained when the magnetron is heavily

loaded for Gl >> Gr.
Electronic Efficiency
P𝑔𝑒𝑛 V0 I0 − P𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
ηe = = ----- (5)
P𝑑𝑐 V0 I0
Where Pgen → RF power induced into anode current

Pdc → V0 I0 power from the dc power supply
V0 → Anode voltage
I0 → Anode current
Plost → Power lost in the anode current.
The RF power generated by the electrons
Pgen = V0 I0 – Plost
m ω20 E2 max
= V0 I0 – I0 +
2e β2 B2Z
1 ω0 𝐶
Pgen = N | V |2 ----- (6)
2 Ql
N → Total number of resonator.
V → RF Voltage across resonator gap
M1 | V |
Emax = is the maximum electric field.
L
δ
Sin ( βn )
2
M1 = δ = 1 for small δ is the gap factor for the n mode operator.
( βn )
2
β → Phase constant,
βz → magnetic flux density
L → Center – to – center spacing of the vane tips.
The power generated by the electronic may be simplified to
N L 2 ω0 C
Pgen = E2max ----- (7)
2 M2i θl
The electronic efficiency may be rewritten as
m ω2
0
1−
P𝑔𝑒𝑛 2 e V0 β2
ηe = =
V0 I0
I0 m M2 θ
1 l
1+
Bz e N L2 ω0 C
109
5. Write in detail about linear, coaxial, linear voltage tunable

magnetrons. [Reg-2013] (16)
Linear Magnetron
Fig; Linear magnetron
The electric field Ex is assumed in the positive x direction and the

magnetic flux density Bz in the positive z direction.
Where e/m = 1.759 x 1011 C/kg is the charge to mass of an electron.

Bz = magnetic flux density in positive z direction
Ex = Electric field in positive x direction
Figure: electron path in a linear magnetron

The Hull cut off magnetic flux density is given by
The Hull cut off voltage is given by
110
Hartree condition
 The Hull cutoff condition determines the anode voltage or magnetic field
necessary to obtain nonzero anode current as a function of the magnetic
field or anode voltage in the absence of an electromagnetic field.
 The Hartree condition can be derived as follows and as shown in Fig.
 The electron beam lies within a region extending a distance h from the
cathode, where h is known as the hub thickness. The spacing between
the cathode and anode is d.
 The electron motion is assumed to be in the positive y direction with a
velocity
Vy = - Ex /Bo = 1 dV/ Bo dx
where Bo = Bz is the magnetic flux density in the positive z direction

V = potential
Coaxial Magnetron
The coaxial magnetron is composed of an anode resonator structure
surrounded by an inner-single, high-Q cavity operating in the TEo11 mode as
shown in Fig. The slots in the back walls of alternate cavities of the anode
resonator structure tightly couple the electric fields in these resonators to the
surrounding cavity.
111
In the π-mode operation, the electric fields in every other cavity are in
phase, and so they couple in the same direction into the surrounding cavity.
The surrounding coaxial cavity stabilizes the magnetron in the desired π
-mode operation.
In the desired TEo11 mode, the electric fields follow a circular path
within the cavity and reduce to zero at the walls of the cavity.
Current flow in the TEo11 mode is in the walls of the cavity in circular paths about
the axis of the tube.
The undesired modes are damped out by the attenuator within the inner
slotted cylinder near the ends of the coupling slots.
The tuning mechanism is simple and reliable.
As the straps are not required, the anode resonator for the coaxial
magnetron can be larger and less complex than for the conventional strapped
magnetron.
Thus cathode loading is lower, and voltage gradients are reduced.
Voltage Tunable Magnetron
It is a broadband oscillator with frequency changed by varying the
applied voltage between the anode and sole.
As shown in Fig. the electric beam is emitted from a short cylindrical
cathode at one end of the device.
112
 Electrons are formed into a hollow beam by the electric and magnetic
forces near the cathode and then are accelerated radically outward from
the cathode.
 The electron beam is then injected into the region between the sole and
the anode.
 The beam rotates about the sole at the rate controlled by the axial
magnetic field and the de voltage applied between the anode and the
sole.
 The voltage-tunable magnetron uses a low-Q resonator, and its
bandwidth may exceed 50% at low-power levels.
 In the π-mode operation, the bunch process of the hollow beam occurs
in the resonator, and the frequency of oscillation is determined by the
rotational velocity of the electron beam.
 In other words, the oscillation frequency can be controlled by varying the
applied de voltage between the anode and sole.
 Power output can be adjusted to some extent through the use of the
control electrode in the electron gun.
 At high-power levels and high frequencies, the bandwidth percentage is
limited. However, at low-power levels and low frequencies, the bandwidth
may approach 70%.
6. Explain the concept of Backward wave crossed field amplifier and
oscillator.[Reg-2013] (8/16)
Figure: Amplitron or Backward wave crossed field amplifier
113
 The anode cavity and pins comprise the resonator circuits.

 A pair of pins and the cavity are excited in opposite phase by the strap
line.
 The electron beam and the electromagnetic waves interact in the
resonant circuits.
 The BWCFA can deliver 3-MW pulse with 10-μ,s duration at S-band, and
the tube gain reaches 8 dB.
 The tube is commonly used in air surveillance radar and military pulsed
radar.
 The tube was used for all high-datarate transmission in the Apollo
program.
Where γo = circuit propagation constant

γ = harmonic wave propagation constant
βe = ω/Vo is the electron-beam phase constant
Vo = is the de electron-beam velocity
Backward-Wave Crossed-Field Oscillator (CARCINOTRON}
The backward-wave crossed-field oscillator of M -Carcinotron has two
configurations:
linear M -carcinotron and circular M -carcinotron.
Linear M-Carcinotron.
The M-Carcinotron oscillator is an M-type backward-wave oscillator. The
interaction between the electrons and the slow-wave structure takes place in a
space of crossed field. A linear model of the M - Carcinotron oscillator is shown
in Fig
Fig: Linear mode of carcinotron
114
 The slow-wave structure is in parallel with an electrode known as the

sole.
 A dc electric field is maintained between the grounded slow-wave
structure and the negative sole.
 A dc magnetic field is directed into the page. The electrons emitted from
the cathode are bent through a 90° angle by the magnetic field.
 The electrons interact with a backward-wave space harmonic of the
circuit, and the energy in the circuit flows opposite to the direction of the
electron motion.
 The slow-wave structure is terminated at the collector end, and the RF
signal output is removed at the electron-gun end.
 Since the M-Carcinotron is a crossed-field device, its efficiency is very
high, ranging from 30 to 60%.
The perturbed electrons moving in synchronism with the wave in a linear
M -Carcinotron are shown in Figure Electrons at position A near the beginning
of the circuit are moving toward the circuit, whereas electrons at position B are
moving toward the sole.
Figure: beam electrons and electric field lines in carcinotron

 Farther down the circuit, electrons at position C are closer to the circuit,
and electrons at position D are closer to the sole.
 However, electrons at position C have departed a greater distance from
the unperturbed path than have electrons at position D.
 Thus, the electrons have lost a net amount of potential energy, this
energy having been transferred to the RF field.
 The reason for the greater displacement of the electrons moving toward
the circuit is that these electrons are in stronger RF fields, since they are
closer to the circuit. Electrons at position G have moved so far from the
unperturbed position that some of them are being intercepted on the
circuit.
 The length from position a through position G is a half cycle of the electron
motion.
115
UNIT-V MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS

PART-A
1. List the sensors used in microwave power measurements. [May/June-
2012]
Schottky barrier diode, bolometer and the thermocouple
2. What are the errors possible in standing wave ratio measurements?
[Nov/Dec 2012, May/June 2013]
1. Vmax and Vmin may be measured in the square-law region of the crystal
detector.
2. The probe thickness and depth of penetration may produce reflections in the
line and also distortion in the field to be measured. Depth of penetration should
be kept as small as possible otherwise values of VSWR measured would be
lower than actual.
3. Mechanical slope between the slot geometry and probe movement may
cause different values of VSWR for measurement at different locations along
the slot
4. When VSWR < 1.05, the associated VSWR of connector produces significant
error in VSWR measurement. Very good low VSWR (< 1.01) connectors should
be used for very low VSWR measurements.
5. If the modulating 1 kHz signal is not a perfect square-wave, microwaves will
be frequency modulated and at each frequency there will be a different set of
standing waves. This causes reduction in the sharpness of voltage minima and
there may be error in the reading of minimum position.
6. Any harmonics and spurious signals from the source may be tuned by the
probe to cause measurement error.
7. A residual VSWR of slotted line arises due to mismatch impedance between
the slotted line and the main line.
3. Define SWR. [NOV/DEC-2013]
VSWR is defined as the ratio between the maximum voltages to minimum
voltage,
S = Vmax/ Vmin
4. What are the errors in impedance measurement? [May/June-2014]
 It is impossible to have an ideal directional coupler with infinite
directivity .Low value of directivity leads to error in impedance
 It is impossible to have constant impedance detectors
 It is very difficult to construct perfectly matched directional
couplers.
116
 The instability of the signal source causes a change of signal power

level during the measurement of input and reflected signal levels
at different instants of time.
5. What is the significance of VSWR measurement? [Nov/Dec-2014]
VSWR and the magnitude of voltage reflection coefficient Г are very
important parameters which determine the degree of impedance matching.
6. What are the methods used to measure the attenuation at microwave
frequency? [Nov/Dec-2015]
1. Power ratio method
2. RF substitution method
7. Mention the disadvantages of using a single bridge to measure the
power? [Nov/Dec-2011]
(1) The change of resistance due to a mismatch at the microwave input port
results in incorrect reading, and
(2) The thermistor is sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature resulting
in false reading.
8. Distinguish between Baretters and thermistor? [Nov/Dec-2011]
Barretter Thermistor
Barretter has a positive temperature Thermistor is a negative temperature
coefficient coefficient
Resistance increases with Resistance decreases with
temperature temperature
Less sensitive More sensitive
Need less bias current Need more bias current
It operates at 100 ohm It operates between 100 ohm to 200
ohm
9. List the disadvantage of calorimeter power measurement techniques.
[Nov/Dec-2011]
 The thermal inertia caused by the lag between the application of
microwave power and final readings.
 It cannot be adopted for low microwave power measurement
 It has low accuracy
10. Limitations of insertion loss measurement technique.
 The crystal detectors are incapable to measure P1, Pr, and P0.
 Non identical directional couplers
 Mismatch between the components.
117
PART-B
1. Write the operation and application of
a. VSWR meter b. Power meter (16) [Reg-2013]
A VSWR meter is a sensitive high gain, high Q, low noise voltage
amplifier tuned normally at a fixed frequency of 1 kHz at which the microwave
signal is modulated. The input to the VSWR meter is the detected signal output
of the microwave detector and the output of the amplifier is measured with a
square law calibrated voltmeter which directly gives the VSWR READING
Vmax/Vmin for an input of Vmin, after the reading is adjusted to unity VSWR for an
input corresponding to to Vmax as shown in figure 5.1. A gain control can be
used to adjust the reading to a desired value. The overall gain is nearly 125 dB
which can be altered in steps of 10dB.
Figure 5.1 VSWR meter

There are three scales on the VSWR meter.
 When the VSWR meter is between 1 and 4, reading can be taken from
the top SWR NORMAL scale.
118
 For VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, bottom of SWR NORMAL is used.
 When the VSWR is less than 1.3 a more accurate reading can be taken
by selecting the EXPANDED scale, graduated from 1 to 1.3.
 The third scale at the bottom is graduated in dB.
b. Power meter
A microwave power meter is a device which measures the electrical
power at microwave frequencies. A microwave power meter will consist of a
measuring head which contains the actual power sensing element, connected
through a cable to the meter proper which displays the power reading. The head
is referred to as a power sensor or mount. Different power sensors can be used
for various frequencies or power levels. Several power sensors can be used for
various frequencies or power levels. Several power sensor mount contain
electronics to create a digital output and can be connected through a USB port
into a PC which acts as the power meter.
Microwave power meters have a wide bandwidth that are not frequency
selective .A spectrum analyser is used to measure the power of a specific
frequency component in the presence of other signals at different frequencies.
Power sensor
Thermistors
Thermocouples Power meter Display
Diode detectors
Substituted DC or
Low frequency equivalent
Block diagram of power meter
Sensor technologies:
Thermal sensor
It is further divided into two main categories, thermocouple power sensors
and thermistor based power sensors.
Thermal sensors depend on the process of absorbing RF and microwave
signal energy, and sensing the resulting heat rise. Therefore they respond to
true average power of the signal, whether it is pulsed, continuous wave AM/FM
or any other complex modulation.
119
Thermocouple power sensors are linear and have a reasonably fast

response time and dynamic range. The microwave power is absorbed in in a
load whose temperature rise is measured by the thermocouple.
Thermistor based power sensors are still the sensor of choice for power
transfer because of their DC power substitution capability.
Diode sensor
Many microwave power heads use one or more diodes to rectify the
incident microwave power, and have extremely fast response. The diode would
generally be used in its square law region and hence give an output voltage
proportional to the incident RF power. In order to extend their dynamic range
beyond the square law region, linearity correction circuits or multiple stacks are
used.
Types of microwave power meters:
The three main types of power meters are
 Average power meter-measures true average power of the signal
 Peak and average power meter-display profile or envelope of the signal
and measures peak, average and peak to average ratio power.
 USB power meter or sensor-a compact, small form factor hardware that
combines the functionality of a meter and a sensor. It can also be divided
into average USB power meter or peak and average USB power meter.
Display:
Power meters generally report the power in dBm, dBw or watts.
There are two main types of RF power meter that are used.
1. Through line RF power meters:
These RF power meters take a sample of the power flowing along a feed
line and use this to indicate the power level. These through line RF power
meters.
Are used on systems, such as radio transmitters and as a check of the outgoing
power.
2. Absorptive RF power meters:
RF power meters absorb the power they measure. They utilize a power
sensor that generates a signal proportional to the power level entering the
sensor. The sensor signal is coupled to the main instrument within the overall
RF power meter to process the results and display the reading.
When selecting a RF power meter or a microwave power meter, it is
important to select the correct type of power sensor.
120
2. Explain the operation of [Reg-2013] (16)

1. Spectrum analyser
2. Network analyser
1. Spectrum analyser
A spectrum analyser is a broad band super head receiver which provides
a plot of amplitude versus frequency of the received signal.
Figure 5.2.Basic block diagram of a spectrum Analyser

The local oscillator is electronically swept back and forth between two
frequency limits at a linear rate. The swept voltage waveform is saw tooth type
with zero flyback time to move the spot on the CRT horizontally in synchronism
with the frequency sweep so that the horizontal position is a function of
frequency of the local oscillator. The amplitude of the input RF signal is obtained
from the vertical deflection of the spot.
The basic design considerations for proper operation are:
 Frequency swept rate
 Frequency sweep range
 Bandwidth of IF amplifier
 Centre frequency of IF amplifier.
For highest resolution, the bandwidth should be kept minimum and
consequently sweep speed should be very low in order to allow time to build up
the voltage in the receiver circuit. The range of frequencies to be converted
should be as small as possible. The IF frequency should be chosen high enough
to avoid the image response. If fi is the image frequency fo is local oscillator
frequency, fif is the IF frequency and fs is signal frequency, then
f i = f0 ± fif = fs ±2fif
121
is the frequency that beats with the L.O. frequency and produces a frequency
difference equal to IF. Thus
f if = fs- f0; fs> f0
= f0- fs ; fs< f0
The bandwidth and hence resolution of the spectrum analyser is
determined by the bandwidth of IF amplifier.
2. Network analyser
The use of the slotted line for microwave measurements has the
disadvantage that the amplitude and phase measurements are limited to single
frequencies. Therefore, broadband testing is very time consuming and
manpower cost is very high.
A network analyser measures both amplitude and phase of a signal over
a wide frequency range within a reasonable time. The basic measurements
involve an accurate reference signal which must be generated with respect to
which the test signal amplitude and phase are measured. A schematic block
diagram of a complex network analyser is shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 Block diagram of a complex network analyser

The microwave signal from a sweep oscillator is first divided by means of
a power divider into test signal and a reference signal channel. The test signal
is transmitted through the device under test, while the reference signal passes
through a phase equalising length of line. Since processing of the microwave
frequencies is not practical, both the test and reference signals are converted
to a fixed intermediate frequency by means of a harmonic frequency converter.
The output signals from the harmonic frequency converter are compared to
determine the amplitude and phase of the test signal. The harmonic frequency
converter uses phase locked loop which helps the local oscillator to track the
reference channel frequency as shown in Figure 5.4.
122
Figure 5.4 Block diagram of the harmonic frequency converter

This allows swept frequency measurements. The frequency conversion
takes place in two steps. The first mixer converts RF to a fixed IF in the MHz
range and then after amplification they are further converted to another fixed IF
in the kHz range by means of second mixer for the final amplitude and phase
comparison.
The reflection and transmission measurements are carried out by using
the reflection-transmission test unit as shown schematically in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Reflection transmission test unit

The reference line length can be balanced for transmission
measurement, and the device under test is compared to the sliding short for
reflection measurements. The direction couplers used in the bridge are
accurately matched to ensure a good balance between the two channels.
123
For a two port-network, Fig 5.6 shows the test set up for S-parameters
S11 and S21, measurements using a network analyser Sii and Sij are computed
from the measured output of the dual directional couplers as follows:
S11 = V2/V1 (ϕ2- ϕ1)
S21= V3/V1 (ϕ3- ϕ1)
For S22 and S12 the signal source and the load position are interchanged, so that
S22= V3/V4 (ϕ3- ϕ4)
S12= V2/V4 (ϕ2- ϕ4)
Therefore, from the measurements of amplitude and phase from the ports
of the dual directional couplers, S-parameters of a two-port network can be
determined.
Figure 5.6 S parameter test set (a) S11 and S21 (a) S22 and S12
3. How do you measure the following?
a) Power measurement [Apr/May-2015]
b) VSWR measurement [Nov/Dec-2014] (8/16)
a) Power measurement
Power is defined as the quantity of energy dissipated or stored per unit
time. The range of microwave power is divided into three categories- low power
(less than 10 mW), medium power (from 10 mW to 10W) and high power
(greater than 10 W). The average power is measured while propagation in a
transmission medium and is defined by.
1 𝑛𝑇
Pav =
𝑛𝑇
∫0 𝑣 (𝑡 ) 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
where T is the time period of the lowest frequency involved in the signal and n
cycles are considered. For a pulsed signal
1 𝜏
Ppeak = ∫0 𝑣 (𝑡 ) 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝜏
Pav = Ppeak * Duty cycle
Duty cycle = pulse width * p.r.f= τfr = τ/T< l
124
where τ is the pulse width, T is the period , and fr is the pulse repetition
frequency.
The most convenient unit of power at microwaves is dBm, Where
P(mW)
P(dBm)= 10 log
1mW
Viz. 30 dBm = 1w and -30 dBm = 1μW

The microwave power meter consists of a power sensor, which converts
the microwave power to heat energy. The corresponding temperature rise
provides a change in the electrical parameters resulting in an Output Current in
the low frequency circuitry and indicates the power. High power is often
measured, especially for standards and calibration purposes, using microwave
calorimeters in which the temperature rise of the load provides a direct measure
of the power absorbed by the load.
The sensors used for power measurements are the Schottky barrier
diode, bolometer and the thermocouple.
Schottky Barrier Diode Sensor
A zero –biased Schottky barrier diode is used as the square-law detector
whose output is proportional the input power, since diode is a strong function of
temperature. The circuit is designed such that the input matching is not affected
by diode resistance as shown by the equivalent circuit in Figure 5.7 the diode
detectors can be used to measure power levels as low as 70 dBm.
Fig.5.7. Schottky Barrier Diode Sensor

Bolometer Sensor
A bolometer is a power sensor whose resistance changes with
temperature as it absorbs microwave power. The two most common types of
bolometer are, the barretter and the thermistor. The barretter is a short thin
metallic (Platinum) wire sensor which has a positive temperature coefficient of
resistance. The thermistor is a semiconductor sensor which has a negative
temperature coefficient of resistance and can be easily mounted in microwave
lines as shown in Figure 5.8 due to its smaller and more compact size.
125
Fig.5.8 Thermistor mount

The impedances of these bolometers are in range 100-200 ohm.
However, barretters are more delicate than thermistors, hence they are used
only for very low power (< few mW). Medium and high power are measured with
a low~power thermistor Sensor, after precisely attenuating the signal. The
sensitivity level of a thermistor is limited to about 20 dBm. The thermistor mount
provides good impedance match, low loss, good isolation from thermal and
physical shock and good shielding against energy leakage.
Power sensor
The power meter is basically constructed from balanced bridge circuit in
which one of the arm is the bolometer as shown in figure 5.9 .The microwave
power applied to this arm will change the bolometer’s resistance causing an
unbalance in the bridge from its initial balance condition under zero incident
power. The non-zero output is recorded on a voltmeter which is calibrated to
read the level of the input microwave power.
(a)Double bridge for compensation
The main disadvantages with using a single bridge are that
(1) The change of resistance due to a mismatch at the microwave input port
results in incorrect reading,
(2) The thermistor is sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature resulting
in false reading.
These problems are eliminated by using double identical bridges—the
upper bridge circuit measures the microwave power, and the lower bridge circuit
compensates the effect of ambient temperature variation (V1 = V2). The added
microwave power due to mismatch is compensated automatically through a
126
self-balancing circuit by decreasing the dc power V2 carried by the RF sensing

thermistor until bridge balance is restored or net change in the thermistor
resistance is zero due to negative dc feedback.
Figure 5.9.Principle of power meter bridge circuit (a) Single bridge

The initial zero setting of the bridge is done by adjusting V2 = V1 = V0 with
no microwave input signal applied, when R is the resistance of the thermistor at
balance. Without and with microwave present, the dc voltages across the
𝑉1
sensor at balance are and V2√2, respectively. The average input power Pav,
2
is equal to the change in dc power:

𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )(𝑉1 +𝑉2 )
Pav = - =
4𝑅 4𝑅 4𝑅
127
For any change in temperature if the voltage changes by ΔV, the change
in RF power is
Pav + ΔP = (Va + ΔV)2 /4R - (V2 + ΔV)2/4 R
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )(𝑉1 −𝑉2 +2ΔV)
Pav+ ΔP = ---------------------------- (1)
4𝑅
Since V1 + V2 >> ΔV in practice, ΔP = o. The meter responds to Equation

(1) to read microwave power Pav.
Thermocouple Sensor
A thermocouple is a junction of two dissimilar metals or
semiconductors (n-type Si). It generates an emf when two ends are heated up
differently by absorption of microwaves in a thin film tantalum-nitride resistive
load deposited on a Si substrate which forms one electrode of the thermocouple
as shown in Figure 5.10 This emf is proportional to the incident microwave
power to be measured.
Figure 5.10 thermocouple power sensor

Here C2 is the RF by-pass capacitor and C1 is the input coupling capacitor
or dc block. The emf generated in the parallel thermocouples are added to
appear across C2. For a square-wave modulated microwave signal the peak
power can be calculated from the average power measured as
𝑃𝑎𝑣 ∗ 𝑇
PPeak=
𝜏
Where T is the time period and 𝜏 is the pulse width.
High Power Measurements by the Calorimetric Method
High power microwave measurements can be conveniently done by the
calorimetric method which involves conversion of the microwave energy into
heat, absorbing this heat in a fluid (usually water) and then measuring the
temperature rise of the fluid as shown in Figure 5.11.
128
Figure 5.11 Microwave calorimeter

There are two types: 1. Direct heating method and 2.The indirect heating
method. In the direct heating method, the rate of production of heat can be
measured by observing the rise in the temperature of the dissipating medium.
In indirect heating method, heat is transferred to another medium before
measurement. In both the methods static calorimeter and circulating calorimeter
are used.
Static calorimerers: It consists of a 50 ohm coaxial cable which is filled by
a dielectric load with a high hysterosis loss. The load has sufficient thermal
isolation from its surrounding. The microwave power is dissipated in the load.
The average power input is given by
4.187 mCp T
P= watts
𝑡
Where, m = mass of the thermometric medium in gms
Cp= its specific heat in cal /gms
T = temperature rise in °C
t = time in sec.
b) VSWR measurement
VSWR and the magnitude of voltage reflection coefficient Г are very
important parameters which determine the degree of impedance matching.
These parameters are also used for the measurement of load impedance by
the slotted line method as shown in figure 5.12.
When a load ZL_≠ Z0 is connected to a transmission line, standing waves
are produced. By inserting a slotted line system in the line, standing waves can
be traced by moving the carriage with a tunable probe detector along the line.
VSWR can be measured by detecting Vmax and Vmin in the VSWR meter: S =
Vmax/ Vmin.
129
Figure 5.12 Slotted line method of VSWR measurement

Low VSWR (S < 20)
Low values of VSWR can be measured directly from the VSWR meter
using the experimental set-up shown in Fig.5.12 as follows,
1. The variable attenuator is adjusted to 10 dB. The microwave, source
is set to the required frequency. The 1 kHz modulation is adjusted for maximum
reading on the VSWR meter in a 30 dB scale. The probe carriage stub is tuned
for maximum detected signal in VSWR meter.
2. The probe carriage is slided along the non-radiating slot from the load
end until a peak reading is obtained in VSWR meter. The meter gain control is
adjusted to get the meter reading at 1.0 or 0 dB corresponding to the position
of voltage maximum.
3. The probe is moved towards the generator to an adjacent voltage
minimum. The corresponding reading in VSWR meter directly gives the VSWR
= Vmax/ Vmin on the top of SWR NORMAL scale for 1 ≤ S ≤ 4 or on the
EXPANDED scale for 1 ≤ S ≤ l.33.
4. The experiment is repeated for other frequencies as required to obtain
a set of values of S vs f.
5. For VSWR between 3.2 and, a 10 dB lower RANGE should be
selected and reading corresponding to Vmin position should be taken from the
second VSWR NORMAL scale from the top.
6. For VSWR between 10 and 40, a 20 dB RANGE sensitivity increase is
required and reading is taken from the top of VSWR NORMAL scale (1 to 4) at
the voltage minimum and should be multiplied by 10 to obtain actual VSWR.
130
7. For VSWR between 32 and 100, a 30 dB lower RANGE must be

selected and reading is taken from the second VSWR NQRMAL scale (3.2 to
10) from the top at the voltage minimum. The reading should be multiplied by
10 to obtain actual VSWR.
The possible sources of error in this measurements are
1- Vmax and Vmin may be measured in the square-law region of the crystal
detector.
2. The probe thickness and depth of penetration may produce reflections
in the line and also distortion in the field to be measured. Depth of penetration
should be kept as small as possible otherwise values of VSWR measured would
be lower than actual.
3. Mechanical slope between the slot geometry and probe movement
may cause different values of VSWR for measurement at different locations
along the slot (Fig.5.12 b).
4. When VSWR < 1.05, the associated VSWR of connector produces
significant error in VSWR measurement. Very good low VSWR (< 1.01)
connectors should be used for very low VSWR measurements.
5. If the modulating 1 kHz signal is not a perfect square-wave,
microwaves will be frequency modulated and at each frequency there will be a
different set of standing waves. This causes reduction in the sharpness of
voltage minima and there may be error in the reading of minimum position as
shown in Fig.5.12(c).
6. Any harmonics and spurious signals from the source may be tuned by
the probe to cause measurement error.
7. A residual VSWR of slotted line arises due to mismatch impedance
between the slotted line and the main line as explained in Fig.5.12
Let
ρL = Actual load reflection coefficient
ρs = Slotted line reflection coefficient on main line
Ei = Incident electric field at any point on the main line
EL = Reflected electric field from the load
Es = Reflected electric field on the main line because of slotted line
𝐸𝑖 +(𝐸𝑠 +𝐸𝐿 )
𝐸𝑖 −(𝐸𝑠 +𝐸𝐿 )
Then, the total reflected field at a point = | Es ± EL | the maximum and
minimum VSWR and reflection coefficients on the main line are
𝐸𝑖 + (𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝐿 )
Smax =
𝐸𝑖 − (𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝐿 )
𝐸𝑖 + (𝐸𝑠 − 𝐸𝐿 )
Smin =
𝐸𝑖 − (𝐸𝑠 − 𝐸𝐿 )
131
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 1
ρmax = = | ρL | + | ρs |
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 1
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1
ρmin = = | ρL | - | ρs |
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 1
The above equations can be solved for ρL and ρs, from the measurements
of Smax and Smin on the line. Then the residual VSWR.
1+ | ρs |
Ss =
1− | ρ𝑠 |
High VSWR (S > 20)
For high VSWR, the difference of power at voltage maximum and voltage
minimum is large, so it would be difficult to remain on the detector’s square-law
region at maximum positions when the diode current may exceed 20 μ A.
Therefore, VSWR measurement with a VSWR meter calibrated on a square-
law basis (I=kV2) will be inaccurate. Hence double minimum method as shown
in Fig 5.13 is used where measurements are carried out at two positions around
a voltage minimum point.
Figure 5.13 double minima method

Let the ratio of line voltage near a minimum and the voltage at the minimum be
| 𝑉(𝑥) |
rn=
| 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 |
For a load reflection coefficient Г = ρ𝑒 𝑖𝛳 . The line voltage at a distance x from
the load end is
| 𝑉 (𝑥) | = | 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑐 | | 1 + ρej(ϕ−2βx) |
| 𝑉 (𝑥) | = | 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑐 | [ 1 + 2ρ cos(Ф − 2βx) + ρ2 ]

The voltage minimum
| Vmin | = | Vinc | (1-ρ) at x=xmin
If xl and x2 are two points around xmin where | V(x1) | = | V(x2) | = m | Vmin |,
By substituting ρ = (S-1)/(S+1), VSWR can be expressed as
132
Where β = 2π/𝜆𝑔 and 𝜆𝑔 is the guide wavelength.

If x1 is the point in the vicinity of xmin,
Δx = 2( x1 - xmin)
For convenience of measurement with a square-law detector, if m = √2

is selected, where x1 is 3 dB above the xmin point, then
If πΔx<<𝜆𝑔 ,
𝟏
= 𝛑𝚫𝐱
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝝀𝒈
𝝀𝒈
=
𝛑𝚫𝐱
Where Δx = x2 —x1. Thus high VSWR can be measured by observing the

distance between two successive minima to find λg and distance Δx between
two 3 dB points on both sides of Vmin.
The method follows the steps given below.
1. The probe is moved to a voltage minimum and the probe depth and
gain control is adjusted to read 3 dB in the VSWR meter.
133
2. The probe is moved slightly on either side of the minimum to read 0

dB in the meter. This position xl is noted. The probe is then moved to the other
side of the minimum to read 0 dB again at x2.
3. By moving the probe between two successive minima a distance equal
to λg /2 is found to determine the guide wavelength λg ,
4. High VSWR is calculated from
λg
S=
𝜋(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )

1. Impedance measurement [May/June-2014]
2. Frequency measurement [Nov/Dec-2012] (8/16)
1. Impedance Measurement
Since impedance is a complex quantity, both amplitude and phase of the
test signal are required to be measured. The following techniques are
commonly employed for such measurements.
Slotted Line Method
The complex impedance ZL of a load can be measured by measuring the
phase angle ϕL of the complex reflection coefficient ГL from the distance of first
voltage standing wave minimum dmin and the magnitude of the same from the
VSWR, S.
The following relations are important for the computation of ZL.
1 + Г𝐿
ZL= Z0 --------------------------- (1)
1 − Г𝐿
ГL =ρL𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝐿 ---------------------------------------(2)
S = (1+ ρL)/ (1- ρL)---------------------- (3)

ϕL = 2βdmin – ϕ -----------------------(4)
β = 2π/λg -----------------------(5)
λg = 2 x distance between two successive minima.
The method of using slotted line to determine an unknown impedance is
explained in Figure 5.14
134
Figure 5.14 Determination of load impedance using slotted line

The steps for measurement are summarized below.
l. Measure the load VSWR to find ρL from Eq. (3)
2. Measure the distance d between two successive voltage minima to find
g = 2d and β = 2π/λg .
3. Measure the distance dmin of the first voltage minimum from the load
plane towards generator in the following manner.
Since it may not be possible to reach the first dmin by the probe close to
the load directly using slotted line, an equivalent load reference plane on the
slotted line is established by means of a short circuit at the load reference plane
where a voltage minimum now occurs. Since a series of minima are produced
on the slotted line at intervals of λg /2, the load reference plane can be shifted
to a convenient minimum position near the centre of the slotted line as shown
in Figure 5.14. The dmin can then be measured by observing the first minimum
from this shifted reference plane when the load replaces the reference short.
4. Phase angle ϕL of the load is calculated from Eq.13.49 and hence ГL
=ρL𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝐿 is found.
5. The unknown impedance ZL, is then calculated from Eq. 1
Figure 5.15 Determination of dmin
135
To ease the calculation. Smith chart (Fig. 5.18) can be used to determine
Zl, from the measurements of S and dmin as follows, where load VSWR S = 2.
and dmin/λg = 0.2. say.
l. Draw the VSWR circle centred at 0 (r = l) with radius cutting the r-axis
at S = 2.
2. Move from the short circuit load point A on the chart along the
wavelengths toward load scale by distance dmin/λg to B and join OB.
3. The point of intersection between the line OB and the VSWR circle
gives the normalised load ZL= ZL / Z0 and hence the complex load ZL = Z0 (1.0
+ j0.7)
Fig. 5.16 Smith chart for ZL measurement
Impedance Measurement of Reactive Discontinuity

The impedance of a shunt reactive discontinuity, such as a post or
windows or a step in a microwave transmission line can be measured using the
136
slotted line method from the measurement of line VSWR and the distance of
first voltage minimum from the discontinuity plane as follows. .
Let jx be the reactance of the discontinuity at load distance point d =0.
The line is terminated by a matched load R0, at d = 0. The total impedance of
the combination is
𝑅0 .𝐽𝑋
ZL =
𝑅0 + 𝐽𝑋
The normalised value

𝑍𝐿 𝑗𝑋 𝑋2 𝑋𝑅0
= = +j
𝑅0 𝑅0 + 𝐽𝑋 𝑅02 +𝑋 2 𝑅02 +𝑋 2
= x + jy, say
𝑋2 𝑋𝑅0
Where, x= ,y =
𝑅02 +𝑋 2 𝑅02 +𝑋 2
With X unknown. Here we see that

X/R0= x/y
or, B/G0 = y/x
Where B =1/X and G0= 1/ R0. The values of x and y are obtained from the smith
chart to find the value of the normalised susceptance of the discontinuity.
The procedure of measurement follows the following steps with reference
to the experimental set-up shown in Fig. 5.17
Figure 5.17 Experimental setup for the measurement of a discontinuity

Discontinuity such as a tuning screw or windows in the line is connected
to the slotted line and the output port is terminated by a matched load R 0. By
adjusting the tuning stub, a voltage minimum position, x1 is noted along the
slotted line and the corresponding VSWR and λg are measured.
Next the discontinuity and matched load are replaced by a fixed short at
the point of the discontinuity position. The first voltage minimum position x2 is
noted towards the load from xl. Thus x2 translates the plane of discontinuity on
137
slotted line scale so that the distance of first voltage minimum with discontinuity
and matched load termination is dmin = (xl ~ x2).
By locating dmin/ λg , S on the Smith chart, ZL/R0 = x + jy can be read and
B/G0 = y/x is calculated.
Impedance Measurement by Reflectometer
When the unknown impedance is connected to the output port, the ratio
of the signal amplitudes at ports 3 and 4 is, in general
𝑏3 𝐴 Г𝐿 + 𝐵
=
𝑏4 𝐶 Г𝐿 + 𝐷
Where A, B, C and D are functions of the S-parameters of the four ports

formed by the reflectometer. By using two tuners TA and TB, a movable short,
and a sliding load of low VSWR (<l.02), the above ideal conditions could be
achieved as shown in Fig.5.18.
Figure 5.18 Reflectometer with tuners of amplitude and phase

measurements
Tuner TA is adjusted to make | b3 / b4 | constant while the phase of ГL is
varied by changing the position of a sliding load at port 4. This makes B = 0.
The tuner TB is adjusted to make | b3/b4 | constant as the phase of ГL, _ is varied
by changing the position of a sliding short at port 4, then C=0. Hence
𝑏 𝐴
| 3| = | | |Г𝐿 | = K |Г𝐿 |
𝑏4 𝐷
1 𝑏
|Г𝐿 | = | 3|
𝐾 𝑏4
In order to measure the phase of the load reflection coefficient, four

identical directional coupler reflectometer can be used as shown in Figure 5.18
the procedure of phase measurements is as follows.
138
l. First a fixed short is placed at XX’ plane of the precession waveguide

section at port 2. The movable short at port 4 and the attenuator are adjusted
to obtain null in the detector output at port 3.
2. The fixed short at port 2 is replaced by the test load and a shift x of the
movable short at port 4 is measured to obtain null in the detector output at port
3.
The phase of Г𝐿 is then given by
2𝜋𝛥𝑥
𝜙𝐿 =
λg
Thus
𝑏
Г𝐿 = 𝐾 | 3| 𝑒 𝑗𝜙𝐿
𝑏4
1 + Г𝐿
ZL = Z 0
1 − Г𝐿
The accuracy of phase measurement depends on the sensitivity of the
detector for null reading and the vernier scale reading of the movable short.
2. Frequency measurement
Microwave frequency is measured using a commercially available
frequency counter and cavity wave meter. The frequency also can be computed
from measured guide wavelength in a voltage standing wave pattern along a
short circuited line by using a slotted line.
1. Wave meter Method
A typical wave meter is a cylindrical cavity with a variable short circuit
termination which changes the resonance frequency of the cavity by changing
the cavity length.
TEO11 mode is most suitable for wave meter because of its higher Q and
absence of axial current. Since this is higher order mode, possibility of
generation of lower order modes exits. Hence for practical purposes dominant
TM010 mode is used in wave meter applications. Wave meter axis is placed
perpendicular to the broad wall of the waveguide and coupled by means of a
hole in the narrow wall as shown in Figure 5.19
Figure 5.19 wave meter method of frequency measurement

This excites TM010 mode in the cavity due to the magnetic field coupling.
A block of absorbing material (Polytron) placed at the back of the tuning plunger
139
prevents oscillation on top of it. Thus the cavity resonates at different

frequencies for different plunger positions. The tuning can be calibrated in terms
of frequency by known frequency input signals and observing the dip in the
display unit (power meter) connected the output side of waveguide.
2. Slotted Line Method
Since the distance dmin between two successive minima of voltage
standing wave pattern in a short circuited line is half wavelength λg/2. Frequency
can be determined from the relations
f (GHZ) = 30/λ0
λg = 2 dmin
𝜆0
= [1−(𝜆 2
for waveguide
0 /2𝑎) ]1/2
𝜆0
= for coaxial line
√ 𝜀𝑟
and measuring the dmin by the slotted line probe carriage.
3. Down Conversion Method
An accurate measurement of microwave frequency can be done by
means of a heterodyne converter. A heterodyne converter (Fig.5.22) down
converts the unknown frequency fx by mixing with an accurately known
frequency fa, such that the difference fx-fa=fIF is amplified and measured by the
counter. The frequency fa is selected by first multiplying a local oscillator
frequency (known) to a convenient frequency fl and then passing it through a
harmonic generator that produces a series of harmonics of fI.
Fig.5.20 Down conversion method

The appropriate harmonic nfl =fa is selected by the tuning cavity such that
fa can be added with flF and display fx (counter reading + fa), the unknown
frequency. In practice, the system starts with n = 1 and the filter frequency is
selected by a feedback mechanism from IF stage until an IF frequency in the
proper range is present. Typically, f1 =100 to 500 MHz for a range of fx up to
140
20 GHz. For better accuracy a low noise oscillator and noiseless multiplier are
to be selected.
a. Q factor
b. Dielectric constant
c. Scattering coefficients [Reg-2013]
d. Attenuation
a. Measurement of Cavity Q
A difficult measurement at microwave frequencies is the accurate
measurement of Q of a high Q cavity. This is due to the fact that the 3dB
bandwidth of the cavity response curve is a very small fraction of the resonance
frequency. Moreover, the cavity has to be loaded during such measurements
and Q becomes lower. There are three definitions of Q, s connected to the
associated circuit which are summarized below.
Unloaded Q0
Energy stored in the cavity
Q0 = 2π
Energy lost per cycle in the cavity
Q0 is selectivity factor of the cavity, dependent on the geometrical portion of the

cavity.
Loaded QL
QL = 2π
Energy lost per cycle in the cavity+Energy lost per cycle in the external system
QL is the Q of the entire system, including all sources of energy loss.

QL can be determined by the formula.
QL=fo/Δf
Where fo = resonance frequency
Δf = 3 dB bandwidth
External QE
QE is the Q of the external system.
QE =2π
Energy lost per cycle in the external systemy
From above definition, 1/QL = 1/Q0 + 1/Q5 and thus QL<Q0. For an
aperture coupled transmission type cavity, the input and output coupling factors
β1 and β2 are a measure of the extent to which the power is coupled to the cavity
and from the cavity, respectively, where
141
4
β1=
4𝑆0 −(𝑆0 +1)2 𝑇(𝑓0 )
β2 = β1S0 -1
Q0 = QL (1+ β1 + β2)
Here,S0 = VSWR at the resonance frequency f0
T (f0) = Pout/ Pin
= Transmission loss at the resonance frequency fo.
Measurement of both the transmission loss T (f0) and VSWR S0 at resonance
gives the data needed for calculating β1 and β2 and determining Q0. A brief
description of several methods of measurement of Q is given below.
1. Slotted Line Measurement of Q
A slotted line may be used to measure the Q of a reflection type cavity
which is normally used in a microwave tube, through pure VSWR
measurements or through measurement of the shift in position of a standing
wave minimum as the generator frequency is varied. Here the VSWR in the line
that feeds the cavity is uniquely related to the variation in amplitude of the cavity
input reflection coefficient and the shift of minimum is related to the variation of
phase angle of the complex voltage reflection coefficient. The measurement
set-up is shown in Figure 5.21. The half-power frequency is found directly from
the VSWR measurement, where the equivalent resonator reactance is
assumed to be equal in magnitude to the equivalent resonator resistance.
Fig. 5.21 slotted line measurement of Q

If Zin = R +jX is the input impedance in the vicinity of resonance of the cavity,
VSWR
142
|𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍0 |𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍0 |
S=
|𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍0 ||Zin + 𝑍0 |
At resonance frequency f0, X = 0, so that minimum VSWR S0 is

S0 = R/Z0, if R > Z0
=Z0 /R, if R < Z0
At half-power frequencies fl and f2 of the unloaded cavity, X = R, so that
√⌊( 𝑅 + 𝑍0 )2 + 𝑅2 ⌋ + √⌊( 𝑅 − 𝑍0 )2 + 𝑅2 ⌋
S1 =
√⌊( 𝑅+ 𝑍0 )2 + 𝑅2 ⌋ − √⌊( 𝑅 − 𝑍0 )2 + 𝑅2 ⌋
and
1 1
S1 = 𝑆0 + + √𝑆02 + ; R > Z0
2𝑆0 4𝑆02
1 𝑆02
= 1/S0 + S0/2 + √( + ) ; R > Z0
𝑆02 4
The unloaded Q0 = f0/ (f1 ~ f2) can be determined from the above
measurements. For a loaded cavity, minimum value S0 as well as f = f1~ f2
increase and this results in a lower value of Q. The accuracy of measurement
lies on the half power VSWR and half-power bandwidth. In this method the
measurement errors include the departure from square-law behaviors of the
probe detector, frequency instability of the source, generator mismatch, probe
and generator interaction at high VSWR.
2. Reflectometer Method of Measurement of Q
This method is suited for a reflection cavity and provides oscilloscope
presentation by a swept microwave source. The method determines the
magnitude of voltage reflection coefficient Г at resonance, at half-power points
and at a point far away from resonance Г = 1. A schematic of the experimental
set-up is shown in Figure 5.22 The total errors in the measurement depends
essentially on the accuracy of measuring the bandwidth and in setting half -
power level for the reflection coefficient. The errors in half-power point for the
reflection coefficient depend on the imperfect directivity of directional couplers
and instability of the source frequency.
143
Figure 5.22 Reflectometer method measurement of Q
b. Dielectric Constant Measurement of a Solid

The dielectric constant ϵr is defined by the permittivity ϵ of the material
with respect to that ϵ0 of air or free space.
ϵr = ϵ / ϵ0, ϵ0 = (10-9/ 36π)farad/m
Due to presence of non-zero conductivity, dielectric material exhibits loss,
resulting in complex value represented by
ϵr = ϵr'+ j ϵr''
The loss tangent
tan δ = ϵr''/ ϵr'
The measurement of the complex dielectric constant is required not only
in scientific application but also for industrial applications such as microwave
heating or ovens and to study the biological effects of microwaves.
Waveguide Method
In this method it is assumed that the material is lossless. A dielectric
sample AB completely fills a length of the waveguide and the end is terminated
in a short as shown in Figure 5.23
Figure 5.23 Wave guide method

A voltage standing wave minimum is observed in the slotted line at C (say).
144
lo = AB = the dielectric simple length

lo = BC
Then the distance of Vmin from short circuit = le + lo = AC. For a dielectric
filled guide of characteristic impedance Ze, input impedance at B is purely
reactive,
Zin' = jZe tan βele.
Where βe is the propagation constant.
Using this Zin', as termination at B, input impedance at C for the empty guide is
Z′in + j Z0 tan β0 l0
Zin' = ′ tan β l = 0, at Vmin point
𝑍0 +𝑗 𝑍𝑖𝑛 0 0
Therefore,
′
Zin + j Z0 tan β0 l0 = 0
or,
j Ze tan βe le + j Z0 tan β0 l0 = 0
or, Z0 tan β0 l0 = − Ze tan βe le
Assuming nonmagnetic dielectric in the waveguide,
𝑍0 𝛽𝑒
Or, =
𝑍𝑒 𝛽0
𝛽𝑒 𝑍𝑒
Z0 =
𝛽0
Substituting this value in the above Eqn

𝛽𝑒 𝑍𝑒
tan β0 l0 = − Ze tan βe le
𝛽0
or,
l0 tan β0 l0 le tan βe le
=−
β0 l0 βe le
or,
l0 tan Y tan X
=- ; where X = βe le , Y = β0 l0 ------------(1)
le Y X
For dominant mode, β0 = 2π/λg0 and λg0 = 2 * distance between two

successive Vmin which can be measured by the slotted line. lo and le are also
measured in the slotted line. Therefore, the left hand side (α say) of the above
transcendental Eq.1 is known and it can be written as
(tan X)/X = - α
145
The above equation can be solved for determining X =βe le . Now

2π 2π 𝜆 2
βe = = √[𝜀𝑟 − ( 0) ] , 𝜆𝑐 = 2𝑎
λge λ0 𝜆𝑐
Where a is the waveguide broadwall dimension.

Cavity Perturbation Method
Cavity perturbation techniques are highly sensitive and accurate and
therefore, particularly advantageous in the determination of the dielectric
constant and small loss tangents.
In the cavity perturbation technique, a small volume of the test sample is
introduced in a cavity resonator at the position of maximum E-field for the
measurement of ϵ (and at maximum H-field for the measurement of μ). Since
the volume of the sample is small, the field in the cavity is assumed to remain
undisturbed.
But introduction of dielectric sample changes the resonance frequency and the
RF loss. These changes are reflected in the change of Q of the cavity from its
unperturbed value. All these changes are related to the dielectric constant and
the loss tangent.
Let the original cavity containing air having ϵ0, μ0 and resonance
frequency f0 is perturbed by some material ϵ, μ0 placed inside the cavity at Emax
and H = 0 position. For a sufficiently small sample the fields in the cavity outside
the dielectric material are not greatly perturbed from those for the empty cavity
case. Then the well-established perturbation formulae for change in frequency
and Q are given by
where
E0, ω0 = the field and resonant frequency of the original cavity
E, ω = the corresponding quantities of the perturbed cavity
146
Ve , Vs = volumes of the empty cavity and the sample filling the cavity,
respectively
Assuming small perturbation, ω can be replaced by ω0 and the simplified
relations are
-----------(a)
Where | E0 |vs has been assumed constant over the region of integration
throughout the small sample and
---------------(b)
Here QC = Q of the unperturbed cavity
Qs = Q of the perturbed cavity
In principle, any type of cavity either rectangular or circular can be used
with excitation by suitable mode. The following criteria are important.
(a) The cavity Q should be as high as possible to enhance the accuracy of the
measurement and this is very stringent, particularly in low loss material.
(b) The mode of operation should be such that the dielectric sample is
conveniently placed at a uniform field region Emax, where H = 0 for the
measurement of ϵ' and ϵ".
(c) The accuracy of the method depends on the smoothness of the sample, and
fitness of the sample in the cavity.
In view of the above, rectangular cavity in TE103 mode and circular cavity
in TM010 mode is found suitable in this technique. Both the cavities thus produce
Emax, and H = 0 at the centre where the dielectric samples in the form of a thin
rod are placed inside the cavity transversely as post parallel to E-field as shown
in Figure 5.24. With this combination, the perturbation relations are described
as follows.
147
Figure 5.24 Cavity Perturbation Method (a) rectangular cavity (b) circular
cavity
c. Measurements of Scattering Parameters of a Network
S-parameters can be conveniently measured following the Deschamps
method which utilises measured values of complex input reflection coefficients
under a number of reactive terminations.
S-Parameters of a Two-Port Network
The output end of the two-port network is terminated with a short circuit
plunger to vary the reactive termination by moving the plunger in steps of at
least 1/8th of the guide wavelength and the corresponding input reflection
coefficients are measured. When the attenuation coefficient α in the line is small
and the change of total length of the line is less than one guided wavelength,
the points P's of the corresponding measured reflection coefficients describe an
average circle on the polar chart with centre OC and radius CP as shown in
Figure 5.25.
Figure 5.25 Deschamps method
148
However, for a lossless line α = 0 and the reflection coefficients will

describe a perfect circle. The reflection coefficients can be measured using a
network analyser and reflection bridge set-up. The each pair of reflection
coefficient points P’s, diametrically opposite, are joined and the lines of
intersection 0' is marked. C0' is joined. Two perpendicular lines at C and O' are
drawn to intersect the circle at Q and P respectively. PQ is joined to intersect
C0" at SH. A line S11E parallel to O'P is drawn to meet the circle at E. It can be
shown that
| S11 | = | OS11 |
and
| S 11 E |
| Sl2 | =
√𝜌 .𝑅
Where R is the radius of the circle and ρ= exp (-2 αl), the input reflection
coefficient with output end of the line short circuited. The attenuation coefficient
can be determined from the following equation when experiments are
performed using two widely different lengths l and l' of the line
1 𝑅 | 𝑆11 𝐸 |2
α= ln ( )
2(𝑙−𝑙 ′ ) 𝑅 ′ | 𝑆11 𝐸 ′ |2
For | S22 | and | S21 |, measurements are carried out by interchanging the ports.
d. Insertion Loss and Attenuation Measurements
When a device or network is inserted in the transmission line, part Pr, of
the input signal power Pi is reflected from the input terminal and the remaining
part Pi - Pr which actually enters the network is attenuated due to the non-zero
loss of the network. The output signal power Po is therefore less than Pi.
Therefore, insertion loss is defined by the difference in the power arriving at the
terminating load with and without the network in the circuit.
𝑃0 𝑃𝑖 −𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑜
Since, = ∗
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 −𝑃𝑟
𝑃0 𝑃0 𝑃0
10 log = 10 log (1 − ) + 10 log ( )
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 −𝑃𝑟
Insertion loss = reflection loss + attenuation loss
Where, by definition
𝑃0
Insertion loss (dB) = 10 log
𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑟
Reflection loss (dB) = 10 log (1 − )
𝑃𝑖
= 10 log (l - | Г |2)
4𝑆 l−|Г|
= 10 log ;S=
(1+𝑆)2 l+|Г|
𝑃0
Attenuation loss (dB) = 10 log ( )
𝑃𝑖 −𝑃𝑟
Return loss (dB) = 10 log Pr/Pi = 20 log | Г |
149
For perfect matching, Pr = 0, and the insertion loss and the attenuation
loss become the same. The experimental set up for insertion and the
attenuation measurements are shown Figure 5.26. The relative power levels
are measured by using detectors and a VSWR meter. DC1 and DC2 are two
identical directional couplers.
Figure 5.26 Insertion loss and attenuation measurements

The following steps are involved for the insertion loss and attenuation
measurements:
1. The microwave source is set to a suitable frequency and the l kHz
square wave modulation level is adjusted for a peak reading on the VSWR
meter at A with minimum input attenuation.
2. For a crystal detector to work in the square-law region the power level
is adjusted to get a reading in the 30 dB range of the VSWR meter. The input
power from port A is set to zero dB or 1.0 using gain control.
3. Frequency is read from the cavity frequency meter when a dip is
observed in the VSWR meter.
4. Connecting matched load Zo to ports A and C and VSWR meter to port
B, without disturbing any other set-up, the reading in the VSWR meter gives the
ratio Pr/Pi, the return loss. The reflection loss 1 - (Pr/Pi) is calculated.
5. Now the input attenuator is adjusted to give an attenuation equal to the
dB coupling of the directional coupler. The matched load is connected to ports
A and B, and the VSWR meter to port C without disturbing any other setup. The
reading in the VSWR meter gives the ratio Po/Pi, the insertion loss. Attenuation
of the network under test can be determined by subtracting the dB reflection
loss from the dB insertion loss
The main errors in this measurement are -
1. Pi, Po and Pr, may not all be capable of operating the crystal detect
within its square-law region.
2. Both the directional couplers may not have the same characteristics.
3. There is some degree of mismatch between the various components
in the set-up.
150
Anna University Question Paper

B.E./B.Tech. Degree Examination, November/December 2012
Seventh Semester
Electronics and Communication Engineering
EC2403/EC 73/10144 EC703 - RF and Microwave Engineering
(Regulation 2008)
Time: Three hours Maximum : 100 marks
Smith chart is to be provided
Answer ALL questions
Part A - (10 x 2 = 20 marks)
1. Name the properties of S-parameters. (Page no.11)
2. Draw the equivalent circuit of a practical capacitor. (Page no.29)
3. What are the considerations in selecting a matching network? (Page
no.37)
4. Define power gain of amplifier in terms of S-parameters and reflection
coefficients. (Page no.37)
5. Draw the diagram of H-plane Tee junction. (Page no.37)
6. A directional coupler is having coupling factor of 20 dB and directivity of 40
dB. If the incident power is 100 mW, what is the coupled power?
7. Name the advantages of parametric amplifiers.
8. State the transferred electron effect. (Page no. =62)
9. Compare O-type tube and M-type tube. (Page no. =87)
10. What are the errors possible in standing wave ratio measurements? (Page
no. =116)
Part B - (5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Formulate scattering matrix for a n-port microwave network.
(Page no. = 13-21) (8)
11. (a) (ii) Give the [ABCD] matrix for a two-port network and derive its [S]
matrix. (Page no. = 13-21) (8)
Or
11. (b) The S-parameters of a two-port network are given by
151
s11 = 0.2 ‹90° s22 = 0.2 ‹90°

s12 = 0.5 ‹90° s21 = 0.5 ‹0°
(i) Determine whether the network is lossy or not. (8 marks)
(ii) Is the network symmetrical and reciprocal? Find the insertion loss of
network. (Page no. = 30-33) (8 marks)
12. (a) A microwave amplifier is characterized by its S-parameters. Derive
equations for power gain, available gain and transducer gain. (16 m)
Or
12. (b) (i) What is a matching network? Why is this required? (8 marks)
12. (b) (ii) Design a lumped element ‘LC’ network for matching ZL= 10+j10 Ω
to a 50Ω transmission line at 1 GHz. (8 marks)
13. (a) (i) Explain how directional coupler can be used to measure reflected
power. (Page no. = 70-73) (8 marks)
13. (a) (ii) Explain the properties of H-plane Tee and give reasons why it is
called shunt Tee. (Page no. = 62-67) (8 marks)
Or
13. (b) (i) Derive the equation for the scattering matrix of magic Tee.
(Page no. = 62-67) (8 marks)
13. (b) (ii) Differentiate between circulators and isolators. (Page no. 68-70) 8m
14. (a) (i) Explain the tunneling action in a tunnel diode. (8 marks)
14. (a) (ii) Draw the construction and explain the working of IMPATT diode.
(Page no. = 77-79) (8 marks)
Or
14. (b) With the help of two-valley, explain how negative resistance can be
created in Gunn diode. Mention its applications.(Page no. 75-77) 16m
15. (a) (i) Explain the operation mechanism of two-cavity Klystron amplifier
with neat sketch. (Page no. = 96-103) (8 marks)
15. (a) (ii) A two cavity Klystron has the following parameters.
V0 = 1000 V, R0= 40 kΩ , I0 = 25 mA, f = 3 GHz
Gap spacing in either cavity (d) = 1 mm
Spacing between two cavities L = 4 cm
152
Effective shunt impedance Rth = 30 kΩ

Calculate input gap voltage, voltage gain and efficiency. (8 marks)
Or
15. (b) (i) Describe how the frequency of a given microwave source can be
measured. (Page no. = 134-141) (8 marks)
15. (b) (ii) Explain how low VSWR can be measured using a microwave
bench. (Page no. = 124-134) (8 marks)
B.E./B.Tech. Degree Examination, November/December 2013
Seventh Semester
EC2403/EC 73/10144 EC703 - RF and Microwave Engineering
(Regulation 2008/2010)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Smith chart is to be provided
Answer ALL questions
PART – A (10 X 2 = 20 Marks)
1. Draw the equivalent circuit of an inductor at radio frequency. (Page no.11)
2. What is ESR? (Page no. =12)
3. Define transducer power gain. (Page no. =37)
4. Give the expression that relates nodal quality factor (Qn) with loaded quality
factor (QL).
5. What are the composition of ferrite? (Page no. =60)
6. What is Gyrator?
7. What is a step recovery diode?
8. Mention the ideal characteristics of dielectric material in MMIC.
9. Distinguish between TWT and Klystron. (Page no. =87)
10. Define SWR. (Page no. =116)
PART – B (5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Write a detailed note on ABCD parameters. (Page no. = 13-21) (8)
(ii) The input of an amplitudes a VSWR of 2 and the output has a VSWR
of 3. Find the modes of the S-Parameters S11 and S12 under
matched condition. (8)
(or)
(b) (i) A four port network has the  catering matrix shown below.
0.1 | 900 0.6 | - 450 0.6 | 450 0
[S] = 0.6 | - 450 0 0 0.6 | 450
0.6 | + 450 0 0 0.6 | - 450
0 0.6 | 450 0.6 |- 45 0
(i) Is this network lossless?
153
(ii) Is this network reciprocal?

(iii) What is the return loss at port 1 when all other ports are matched?
Justify your answer. (Page no. = 30-33) (10)
(ii) Find the Z parameters Z11 and Z22 of the two port T-network shown
in figure 11 (b) (ii). (Page no. = 30-33) (6)
2Ω 3Ω
+ +
Port 1  V1 4Ω ½  Port 2
− −
Figure 11 (b) (ii)
12. (a) (i) A MESFET operated at 5.7 GHz has the following S-Parameters:
S11 = 0.5 | - 600, S12 = 0.02 | 00
S21 = 6.5 | 1150; S22 = 0.6 | -350
Verify the circuit, whether it is unconditionally stable or not? (6)
(ii) Write brief not on.
(1) Operating power gain (3)
(2) Available power gain (3)
(3) Noise figure. (4)
(or)
(b) Discuss the design procedure for T and π matching networks.
(Page no. = 46-51) (16)
13. (a) Describe the following with neat sketch.
(i) Magic Tee (Page no. = 62-67) (8)
(ii) Directional coupler. (Page no. = 70-73) (8)
(or)
(b) Explain the operation of following microwave passive devices.
(i) Circulator (Page no. = 68-69) (8)
(ii) Isolator (Page no. = 69-70) (8)
14. (a) Explain the principle of operation of Tunnel diode and TRAPATT
device.
154
(or)
(b) (i) Describe the Gunn effect with the aid of Two-valley model theory.
(Page no. = 75-77) (8)
(ii) Draw the physical structure and doping profile of IMPATT diode
and explain in detail. (Page no. = 77-79) (8)
15. (a) Explain the working principle of Reflex Klystron and derive the
expression of bunching parameter. (Page no. = 90-94) (16)
(or)
(b)(i) Write a detailed note on cylindrical magnetron.(Page no.104-109)(8)
(ii) Explain the procedure for measuring impedance at microwave
frequency with the aid of slotted line. (Page no. = 134-141) (8)
B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2014
Seventh Semester
EC 2403/EC 73/10144/EC 703-RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
Answer all the questions.
PART A-(10 x 2 =20 marks)
1. List any four reason for the wide use of RF. (Page no. =11)
2. Give the relationship between [S] and [Z]. (Page no. =11)
3. Define stability.
4. What are the need for impedance matching networks? (Page no. = 37)
5. What are the factors that reduce the efficiency of IMPATT diode? (Page
no. =62)
6. What is negative resistance in Gunn diode? (Page no. =62)
7. What are the matched terminators?
8. What are ferrites? Why is it needed in circulators? (Page no. =60 )
9. What are the errors in impedance measurement? (Page no. =116-117)
10. Define convention current of TWT.
PART B-5 x 16 =80 marks)
11 (a) With the help of S matrix concept prove the following properties.
(i)Symmetry (ii) Unity (iii)Zero and (iv)Phase Shift.(Pg.no.21-23)4x4=16
Or
155
(b) (i)When do you prefer transmission matrix? Obtain the ABCD matrix of
a transformer with turns ratio of N:1. (Page no. = 26-27)
(8)
(ii)The impedance matrix of a certain lumped element network is given
 4 2
by Z ij     .Determine the equivalent scattering parameter matrix
 2 4
S   SS
ij
11 S12 
S 22 
for |Zij| (8)
 21
12. (a) Design a matching network to match a Z L  (10  j10) to a 50Ω

line. Specify the values of L and Cat frequency of 1 GHZ (Use smith chart)(16)
Or
(b) Derive expressions for the following of a micro stripline matching network
(i)  . Ratio
h
(ii) Total Quality factor (QT) (Page no. = 46-51) (8 x 2=16)

13. (a) (i)Draw and explain the operation of Magic Tee. Explain its
application in the construction of a 4-port circulator.(Page no. = 62-67) (8)
(ii)Find the directivity in db for a coupler if same power is applied in turn to input
and output of the coupler with output terminated in each case in a matched
impedance. The auxiliary output readings are 450 mw and 0.710 µw . (8)
Or
(b) Draw and explain the various types of attenuators and phase shifters.
What is a gyrator? (16)
14. (a)(i)Explain the operating principles of Gunn diode. Describes its domain
formation and various modes of operations.(Page no. = 75-77) (8)
(ii)Explain the operating principles of varactor and step recovery diodes.
(Page no. = 73-75) (8)
Or
(b) What are the materials used for MMIC fabrication? Explain with neat
diagrams and fabrication process of MMICs.(Page no. = 83-86) (16)
15.(a) Explain the Launching process of a two cavity klystron and derive
expression for its optimum bunching distance Lopt. (Page no. = 96-103) (16)
156
Or
(b)(i) Describe the measurement of power at microwave frequencies in detail.
(Page no. = 124-134) (8)
(ii)Explain the procedure to measure the impedance of a load.Pg.no.134-141(8)
B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOV/DEC 2014
Seventh Semester
1. What are the high frequency limitations of conventional tubes'? (Page
no.87)
2. Given
Find S parameters.
3. Define unilateral power gain. (Page no. =37)
4. State the significance of microstrip matching networks.
5. A 6dB attenuator is specified as having VSWR of 1.2. Assuming that the
device is reciprocal, find the S parameters.
6. Mention the application of Gyrator and Isolator.
7. Write the necessary conditions for Gunn effect. (Page no. 62)
8. A Si Mw transistor has a maximum electric field intensity of Em of 3 x 105
V/cm and its carrier has a drift velocity of 4x106 cm/s. The emitter collector
length is 4μm. Find maximum possible transit time cut off frequency.
9. Compare two cavity klystron and traveling wave tube. (Page no.87)
10. What is the significance of VSWR measurement? (Page no. 117 )
PART B – (5 X 16 = 80)
11. (a) (i) Discuss the importance of low frequency and high frequency
parameters of RF two port networks. (Page no. = 13-21) (6)
157
(ii) The two port devices represented by the following matrices are
cascaded. Find the scattering matrix of the resulting device. Determine its
properties (symmetry, reciprocity, losses and match)
(1) (5)
(2) (5)
Or
(b) Verify the lossless and reciprocity properties of any two port network using
scattering matrix. (Page no. = 23-25) (16)
12 (a) (i) with reference to RF transistor amplifier, discuss the considerations
for stability and gain. (Page no. = 43-46) (8)
(ii) Show that the noise figure of a three stage amplifier is F = F1 + F2 -1/GA1 +
F3-1/GA2.where F1,F2,F3 are noise figures and GA1 and GA2 are power gains.
(Page no. = 51-53) (8).
Or
(b) (i) Explain in detail the concept of T and Microstripline matching networks.
(Page no. = 46-51) (10)
(ii)Describe the smith chart. How can it be used to determine an unknown
impedance? (6)
13. (a) (i) Explain the concept of N port scattering matrix representation.
(Page no. = 13-21) (6)
(ii) Discuss the properties of scattering matrix. Determine the scattering matrix
representation of E plane Tee Junction. (Page no. = 62-67) (10)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the operating principle of microwave circulator with neat
schematic diagram. (Page no. = 68-69) (8)
158
(ii) An air filled rectangular cavity resonator has dimensions of a = 5 cm. b = 2

cm and d = 15 cm. compute the resonant frequency of the dominant mode for
an air filled cavity. The resonant frequency of the dominant mode for a
dielectric filled cavity of ϵr= 2.56 (8)
14. (a) With neat diagram, explain the construction and characteristics of tunnel
diode. Compare tunnel diode and Gunn diode. (Page no. = 75-77) (16)
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the working principles of parametric amplifier. (8)
(ii) Explain merits, demerits and application of parametric device (8)
15 (a) Derive the equation of velocity modulated wave and discuss the concept
of bunching effect in two cavity klystron. (Page no. = 96-103) (16)
Or
(b) (i)An X band pulsed cylindrical magnetron has the following operating
parameters :
Anode voltage Vo = 26 kV
Beam current Io=27 A
Magnetic flux density Bo = 0.336 Wb/m2
Radius of cathode cylinder a = 5 cm
Radius of vane edge to centre b = 10 cm.
Determine cyclotron angular frequency, cut off voltage for a fixed Bo and cut
off magnetic flux density for a fixed Vo. (10)
(ii) Explain SWR measurement with neat block diagram. (Page no.118-120)(6)
B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2015
Seventh Semester
1. Mention any four differences between low frequency and high frequency
microwave circuits. (Page no. =13)
159
2. Draw the high frequency equivalent circuit of the resistor and inductor.
(Page no. =11)
3. Draw the VSWR circle for reflection coefficient 1.
4. Draw the contour of nodal quality factor Q=3.
5. Name any two microwave passive devices which make use of Faraday
rotation. (Page no. =61)
6. What are the property of S matrix? (Page no. =11 )
7. Draw the equivalent circuit of Varactor diode. (Page no. =75 )
8. What is the need for matching network?
9. What are the limitations of conventional vacuum devices?(Pg.no. 87).
10. Mention the major differences between the TWT and klystron.(Page
no.87
PART B- (5 x 16 =80 marks)
11 (a) (i)Derive Z and Y matrix formulation of multi-port network.
(Page no. = 13-21) (8)
(ii) State and prove the symmetry of S matrix for a reciprocal network.
(Page no. = 21-23) (8)
Or
(b)Explain the scattering matrix for lossless junction. (Page no. = 23-25) 16)
12. (a)(i)write the mathematical analysis of amplifier stability.(Pg no. 43-46) (8)
(ii)Design a microwave amplifier for maximum transducer power gain. (8)
Or
(b) using the smith chart design any two possible configuration of discrete
two element matching networks to match the source impedance Z s  (50  j 25)
to the load Z L  (25  j50). .Assume the characteristic impedance Z 0  50 and
operating frequency of 2 GHZ. (16)
13. (a)(i)Explain the concept of N port scattering matrix representation.
(Page no. = 13-21) (8)
(ii)With neat diagram explain the operation of phase shifter and show its
phase changes is 2  4 l (8)
160
Or
(b) With neat diagram explain the operation of the following devices:
(i) Gyrator (8)
(ii) Two hole directional coupler. (Page no. = 70-73) (8)
14. (a) Explain the working principles of Gunn diode with two valley model
and plot its characteristics. (Page no. = 75-77) (16)
Or
(b) What are the avalanche transit time devices? Explain the operation and
construction of IMPATT diode. (Page no. = 77-79) (16)
15.(a) Explain the π mode of operation of magnetron. Mention few high

frequency limitations. (Page no. = 104-109) (16)
Or
(b) (i)Describe how can the power of a microwave generator be measured
using bolometer. (Page no. = 124-134) (10)
(ii)Calculate the SWR of a transmission system operating at 10 GHZ.
Assume TE10 wave transmissions inside a wave guide of dimensions 1 a=4 cm,
b=2.5 cm. The distance measured between twice minimum power points=1 mm
on a slotted line. (6)
Seventh Semester
Smith Chart is to be provided
1. Find the ‘S’ parameters for the following network.
161
2. Identify the type of component with S parameters of S11=S12=0; S21‡S22.

3. Define maximum available gain. (Page no. =37)
4. What are the advantages of microstrip line matching network?
5. What are the applications of Magic-Tee?
6. What are the S parameters of the rotary type attenuator with rotation
angle of 300?
7. What is the working principle of Varactor diode? (Page no. =74)
8. State Gunn Effect? (Page no. =62)
9. What are the limitations of conventional tubes at microwave frequency?
(Page no. =87)
10. What are the methods used to measure the attenuation at
microwave frequency? (Page no. =117)
11 (a) (i) State and verify the symmetry of S matrix for a reciprocal
network. (Page no. = 21-23) (8)
(ii) Find the S parameters of the following circuit.(Page no. = 30-33) (8)
Or
(b) (i) Draw the high frequency equivalent of wire, resistor, inductor and
capacitor and explain. (Page no. = 27-30) (8)
(ii) Evaluate the S parameters from the Z parameters. (8)
12. (a) Design all the possible configurations of discrete two element
matching network that match the source impedance ZS=(50+j25)Ω to the load
ZL=(25-j50)Ω. Assume the characteristic impedance 75 Ω and operating
frequency of 2 GHZ.
162
Or
(b) Draw the 8 dB gain circle of the transistor with following S parameters at
1 GHz. S11 =0.46<-97o, S12 =0.06<-22o, S21 =7.1<112o, S22 =0.57<-48o
(Page no. = 56-59) (16)
13. (a) (i)Explain the working principle of E plane Tee and derive its S
parameters. (Page no. = 62-67) (8)
(ii)Explain the working of phase shifter with neat diagram. (8)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the working of circulator and explain its applications.
(Page no. = 68-69) (10)
(ii) Explain the working principle of isolator. (Page no. = 69-70) (6)
14. (a) Explain the working principle of Gunn diode oscillator and its
modes. (Page no. = 75-77) (16)
Or
(b) Explain the working principle of IMAPTT diode with neat diagram.
(Page no. = 77-79) (16)
15.(a) Explain the working principle of Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA)
(Page no. = 95-96) (16)
Or
(b) Explain the working principle of reflex klystron oscillator and derive the
expression for power and efficiency. (Page no. = 90-94) (16)
163

Seventh Semester
EC 6701 RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
(Regulation 2013)
1. List the radio frequency bands available in microwave and radio
frequency ranges. (Page no. =11)
2. Define S-Parameters. (Page no. =19)
3. Define noise figure. (Page no. =38)
4. Calculate VSWR of an amplifier, if the amplifier has reflection coefficient
0.2533. (Page no. =129)
5. Compare PIN and PN diode. (Page no. =80)
6. What is isolator? And why isolators are called uniline? (Page no. =61)
7. What is magnetron? (Page no. =104)
8. What is Tetrodes and Pentodes? (Page no. =110)
9. What is network analyzer? (Page no. =122)
10. Classify microwave powers with its range. (Page no. =120)
11. (a) (i) What is transmission (T) matrix? Obtain and explain the relationship
with [S] and vice versa. (Page no. =26) (8)
(ii) Compute the intrinsic wave impedance , phase velocity and wavelengths of
an EM wave in a free space and a printed circuit board (PCB) material whose
dielectric constant is 4.6 for the frequency f = 30 MHz and 3 GHz.(Page no.
=29) (8)
Or
(b) (i).Explain and analyze any reciprocal lossless network with derivation.
(Page no. =23) (10)
(ii). Discuss on the application of RF and microwave area. (Pg. No-11) (6)
164
12 (a). Derive the equation for power gain, available power gain and transducer
power gain. (Page no. =38) (16)
Or
(b). Investigate the stability regions of a transistor whose S-Parameters are
recorded as follows: (16)
S12 = 0.2 ∠ −100 ; S11 = 0.7 ∠ −700 ;
S21 = 5.5 ∠ 850 ; S22 = 0.7 ∠ −450 ;at 750 MHz (Pg. no. = 56-59)
13. (a). Discuss briefly about working principle, operation, characteristics and
application of Varactor diode. (Page no. =73) (16)
Or
13. (b).What is circulator ? With neat diagram, explain the working principle,
construction, operation of four-port circulator using magic – tee. Verify the
circulator theory with necessary S-parameter equations. (Page no. =68) (16)
14. (a).Explain the working principle and operation of multi-cavity klystron
amplifier and derive the expressions for its output power.(Grace Mark) (16)
Or
(b) A travelling wave tube (TWT) operates under the following parameters:
Beam Voltage V0=3 KV
Beam Current I0 = 30 mA
Characteristic impedance of helix = z0=10 Ω
Circuit length = N= 50 m
Frequency f = 10 GHz
Determine:
(i). Gain Parameters C.
(ii). Output power gain Ap in decibels.
(iii). All four propagation constants (Page no. =95) (16)
15. (a). Explain the impedance measurement technique using slotted line and
reflectometer. (Page no. =134) (8+8)
Or
(b).Explain the measurement of high VSWR with a help of block diagram.
(Page no. =129) (16)
165
B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APR/MAY 2017

Seventh Semester
EC 6701 RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
(Regulation 2013)
1. Write the frequency range for following IEEE microwave bands?
(a). L band
(b). S band
(c). C band
(d). X band (Page no. =11)
2. Give the relation between S and ABCD parameters. (Page no. =11)
3. Define transducer power gain. (Page no. =37)
4. What are waveguide bends? What are the two types of bends? (Page no.
=81)
5. List the applications of magic-Tee. (Page no. =68)
6. Write the S matrix for 4 port circulator. (Page no. =60)
7. Write the classification of microwave tubes and explain the difference
between them. (Page no. =88)
8. What are slow wave structures? Give examples. (Page no. =95)
9. Compare TWT anti klystron. (Page no. =96)
10. Define guide wavelength. (Page no. =133)
11.(a) Derive the overall network parameters for cascade connection of two port
network. Discuss about short circuit, open circuit, h and ABCD low frequency
parameters. (Page no. =17-19) (16)
Or
(b) (i).State and prove properties of s –matrix. (Page no. =21-23)
(ii). Explain the symmetry property in a reciprocal network. (Page no. =24)
166
12 (a). Explain in detail about microstrip line matching network with neat
diagram. (Page no. =46-47) (16)
Or
(b). Discuss about the design of T-section and P1 section matching network.
(Page no. =47-48) (16)
13.(a). With neat diagram discuss the characteristics of series Tee and shunt
Tee and derive the S matrix. (Page no. =62-66) (16)
Or
13.(b).Discuss the principle of operation of any two non-reciprocal devices and
derive the S-Parameters. (Page no. =68-73) (16)
14.(a).With neat diagram explain the operation of two cavity klystron amplifier
and derive the equations for velocity modulation process. (Page no. =96-103)
(16)
Or
(b) (i). Give the comparison between gunn, IMPATT, TRAPATT and Baritt.
(Page no. =75-79)
(ii).Explain the operation of travelling wave tube and write its characteristics.
(Page no. =95-96)
15.(a). Discuss impedance, wavelength and frequency measurement using
slotted line method. (Page no. =134-140) (16)
Or
(b).Write short notes on power sensors used for microwave power
measurement (Page no. =126-128) (16)
167

Basic Electronics Notes For Marine and Eee

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Basic Electronics Notes For Marine and Eee

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Visit & Downloaded from : www.LearnEngineering.

SUBJECT CODE: EC6701

SUBJECT NAME: RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Regulation: 2013 Year and Semester: IV/VII

2 Mr. S. Allwin Devaraj AP/ECE FXEC

Verified by DLI, CLI and Approved by the Centralized Monitoring Team

EC6701 RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LTPC3003

EC6701 RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LTPC3003

SCAD GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

Detailed Lesson Plan

WEEK No. Page No

UNIT – I : TWO PORT NETWORK THEORY

Review of low frequency 153-160

5 Transmission matrix 1 R1 188-193

WEEK RF behaviour of resistors, 10-24

UNIT-II : RF AMPLIFIERs AND MATCHING NETWORKS

7 Characteristics of amplifiers - 1 T1 464-468

10 noise figure, constant VSWR 2 T1 502-510

11 Broadband, High Power and 1 T1 511-529

WEEK No. Page No

WEEK Impedance matching using 406-425

13 T and Π matching networks, 2 T1 426-444

14 Terminations, Attenuators , phase 2 T2 394-434

16 Circulators, isolators 2 T2 466-475

18 Crystal and schottkey diode 1 293-296

20 IMPATT diode oscillator and 1 T1 305-307

UNIT – IV : MICROWAVE GENERATION

22 Review of conventional vacuum 1 338-340

WEEK No. Page No

23 High frequency effects in Vacuum 1 398-405

Magnetron oscillator using 448-454

UNIT – V : MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS

Measuring instruments – Principle 573-576

30 Network analyser 1 R4 577-579

31 Measurement of impedance 2 R4 579-595

32 Di electric constant, scattering 2 R4 596-608

3(i) Directional Coupler 70-73

UNIT I TWO PORT NETWORK THEORY

5. Name the property of S parameters. [Nov/Dec-2012]

12. Define reciprocal and symmetrical networks.

The above two equation can be written in matrix form

Z12 -Open circuit reverse transfer impedance.

From equation (1.2)

The Z parameters for N port network is given by

The matrix form of above equation is

The overall voltage, current and impedance can be written as

The matrix form of above equation is

The overall voltage, current and impedance can be written as

Where h11 -short circuit input impedance.

h21 -short circuit forward current gain.

Where h12 -open circuit reverse voltage gain

Where A-open circuit inverse voltage gain.

Where B-short circuit forward transfer impedance.

b1  S11a1  S12a2 ………………. (3.9)

For a multiport network The S parameters equation are expressed by

Transpose of [S] is now given as,

Therefore for a lossless function

If all an=0, exept ai and ak

[S*]=[S]t-1 ….................... (17)

If the reference planes 1 and 2 are shifted outward to 1’ and 2’ by electrical

Now the new S matrix is given by

Property of Reciprocal network