See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/239557247

Mangroves of Brazil

Chapter · January 1993

CITATIONS READS

38 424

2 authors:

Björn Kjerfve Luiz Drude Lacerda

American University of Sharjah Universidade Federal do Ceará
196 PUBLICATIONS   7,490 CITATIONS    344 PUBLICATIONS   8,174 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Fellow up Breast Camncer View project

WikiLetters View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Luiz Drude Lacerda on 04 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION
OF
MANGROVE FORESTS
IN
LATIN AMERICA AND AFRICA REGIONS
ITTO/ISME Project PD114/90 (F)

Project Coordinator
L.D. Lacerda

Part I - Latin America


Mangroves of Brazil
Bjdrn Kjerfve' & L.D. Lacerda
.
Departamento de Geoquiniica, Universidade Federal Flu~iiitiense,CEP-2-1.020-007Niterrii, I;],
1. Historical Background
Mangroves are both of great importance and
value i n Brazil, although they are used to a much
lesser extent than mangroves i n Asia or Central
America. Historically, Brazilian mangroves were ex-
ploited f o r w o o d and considered an area for urbaniz-
ation. However, concern for sustainable exploitatio~i
of mangrove resources already existed in colonial
times. 111 July 1760, D o m 1066, king of Portugal, is-
sued an edict, m a k i n g i t unlawful to cut mangrove
trees for firel wood without also utilizing the bark of
the trees (Maciel, 1989; Scliaeffer-Novelli & C i n t r h ,
1990). The edict was issued i n response to wide-
spread cutting of trees for firewood along both t i l e
northeastern and soutlieastern coasts of Brazil, and
the w o r r y that mangrove tree bark would soon be-
come unavailable. Mangrove bark, which was used
to extract tannin and alkaloids, had increased drasti-
cally i n price p r i o r to the issue of the royal Portu-
guese edict. This act of protection of mangroves was
one of the first, i f not the very first, legislation recog-
nizing the value of mangroves for sustainable
utilization.
Mangroves form a strip along a large portion of
the Brazil coast from A m a p a i n the north to Santa
Catarina in the south and constitute an invaluable
ecological unit of the coastal zone. Stabilization of
the mangrove resource and r a t i i a l utilization of
mangrove areas for aquaculture and other uses are
desirable. Creation of protected coastal inangrove
areas for the sake of consei~flationis an important
form of stabilization. Stability i n this context means
preservatio~iof the ecosystem for sustainable devel-
opment of the coastal zone. As an example of the
economic benefits derived from Brazilian man-
groves, the relatively small 4,370 ha mangrove sys-
ten? i n the Rio Paraiba estcary i n Piauisustains more
than 10,OOO persons, w h o depend on the abundant
mangrove crab fishery.
Artisanal crab fishery is probably the most im-
portant ecnnotnic activity i n mangrove systems on a
' Also Belle W. Baruch InstiIuIc lor Msrinc Biology and Cnastal Rcscarch. Oeporlmcnl
Scicnce Program, Univcrsily of South Carolina. C<~Iumb~a.SC 2'17118, U S A
Project PD114190 (F)
Brai.:l
crimmercial scale along the entire Brazil coast. Ca-
noes i n the ni~rtlierncoastal states are i n ninny places
made from mangrove wond. Likewise fishing tools
and the masts of simple northeastern ocean fishing
boats (jarifadas) are c o m n i i ~ n l ymade from man-
grove trees. Alsii, tannin is still extracted from the
bark of tiiatignive trees. Othcnvise. a lack of ex-
ploitation is cliaracteristic of the matigrove ecosys-
tems i n Brazil, especially when crmpared to Central
America and Asia. Still, mangroves i n Brazil a r e sub-
ject to intense pressures froln develilpment pt-ojects.
I n some places, especially in snutheaster~i Brazil,
urban centers, airports, ports, end shopping centers
occupy the space where mangroves once grew
Similar to thc Mat8 Atl3tirica. the i~ticeniagtiifi-
cent coastal forest that stretched froni Santa Catat-ina
to Bahia, Brazilian mangrt>vrs Iiave been subjected to
cutting and destructiim to give place for industry
and developnient, Mangrove relorestation is largely
not taking place in Brazil. Inaccessibility and low po-
pulation density are the main reasons w h y the spec-
tacular m a n g o v e wetland forests of the northern
states of Amal7.i. Par-6, and blaranh3i1 remain for the
most part intact. Cheap and ample electricity i n
Brazil is another reason w h y mangt-oves liave not
been cut for fuel, as is the case i n West Africa. Also.
since 110 salt-tolerant species i ~ rice
f are grown i n
Brazil, the pressut.~to COIIVI'I-I ~ i i a n s r i ~ v c - a r e at ts?
r i c e fields has 110t been an isst~e(11 ~ ~ g ~ i i l i c a nin ce
Brazil.
There exists a very rich body ( i f k i i i ~ r v l r d g ea b w l
mangroves in Brazil and an ilnpressive 11unlbt.r of
completed mangrove studies, c w e r i t i g a diverse set
of topics. Schaeffer-Novelli (1986) listed more than
560 references on Brazilian mangroves u p until 1985.
Unfortunately, tnucli o i this i t i l i i r i n a t ~ t ~is
n linpub-
lished or " l i ~ s t "in teclinical reports i i r student theses
and dissel-tattniis.
Brazilian mangroves liave been the subject ol
scientific studies since criliintal times. 111 the ear-liest
phas?, tnost studies described the fauna, fliira, aild
o l Gu,l<p;~saIScicnccs. a n d Maiinc
t r a d i t i ~ ~ n aI IlS ~ S 01 m4tnsroves 1)s the local popttla-
liolr. Most edllcated travellers (11 ltlc litlh. 17th. 2nd
1Xtl1 ccnturies included descrililions 111 ~ ~ r i r ~ ~ g rIn ~rves
their travel journals. Typical ex;r~nlilesof s ~ ~ c11Iei.a- h
ture are the descril~tiirnsof mi~ngrirvesin A11chlrla
(15%-1594). Abrevillc ( 1 1 ) . i ~ r c I Alnleid.~ I'inlo
( 1 6 9 ) Also, D a r w i n (18.15) d r x r l b e d brielly the
maligroves and mangnive creeks I I ~ ;Rer'ile I~ during
his journey on the Beagle.
Nineteentl~and early twenliclh centllry studies
11n n ~ a n ~ ~ o vwere
e s nrost frvqtlenlly 1111dertakenby
pmfessional scicntlsts. and I n w t ~ r fthese accounts
still serve as i n ~ p o r l a n lsources of informaticrn on
Brazilian mdngroves. Most signliicant is maybe the
description of tlrc ciiastal w ~ e l a t i r wof Rio d; Jalrei-
r o b y Ule (1901); I l i e p i ~ r ~ ~ e e r iwnop r, k irt Luderwaldt
(1!119) w i l h a dctailed dcscripti~rn~ r the f ~nangnrves
I Santos. S I a l ; the c ~ ~ n ~ l r r e h e n s imono- \~e
p p h s 0 1 Silveira (lLI.37)~ n Pcdriiza d (19501; and the
l i n t tre,rtises ~ u pliylugeofil';lphy
i o f Ilrazil by FrAis-
Abrcu (1'131) i ~ n dS.r~nliaio!lL)41). Also i m l w r b n t i s
the conIribution by 1:reis~ (1!)3S), who w i ~ sthe first
perso~r11, >t11dy s e d i ~ n e ~ ~ l iand ~ t i og ~c ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r r l ~ l Braz,il
111I~I-azilianrnangnwc arcas.
Simultans~iuslyw i t h these early de!dliplive stit-
dies, the importance of m ; ~ n g r ~ r v cSI; s useful plants
and as sources o t t a t ~ n i nand tiniber was ackn~rwl-
edged by C o r r ~ a(I%I9), Orocadel (1921). Fniis-Abreu
(1926), Frcise (1933.34). and H o r n (1946). Horn
(1946) fncused 1111 tannin production and extraction
prticedures frmn Rlrizr~~~iirrrn t ~ m r i ~ l cand
; Freise
(1913-34) and H o r n (IYJX) f o c ~ ~ s eon d the d ~ i r a b i l i t y
and uses rrf Brazilian tn;lngrirve timher. The inipor-
tance of man!;rovc.s tnr tisheriea was recognized rel;i-
tively early b y Freise (1'131, 11133), and Gires (IY42).
Gon$alves (19%) was the first person I n eviiluate
n~angrtrvedtitnini~ledco.lst\ ;IS ,I potential site for
rnar~cult~~re.
Alter 1')SO. detailed eclrln#c;~l studies begun i n
many mangrove systems along the Brazilian coast.
Dansereau (1947, 1950) pr~rpnsecla s~~ccession and
tonatinn pattern for t l i c mangroves of Rln de Janeinr,
which has been reproduced i n many text b < ~ r k 111
date. Detailed descripti~insof m a n g r w e associated
tauna and Horn became abitnclar~li n the literature.
klangrove algae and fungi were reviewed by klitch-
e l l (1974). Rehm (1901). and Braga (1070 a,b) Higher
plants were described b y Dios-Brilc 6: Zaninetti
(1979). Bartll B Silva (l!JhS), L.utz (1933). Coimbra-
Filho & Magrianini (1961). Rrits (1961), and Larnberri
(1979). Birds were studied b y Brilo (l950), klitchell
( 1 7 ) l k r l a ( I l l ) , Novaes (lC)SO), and Silveira
(1!)/,5). Crrlstaccni~sand n~olluscswere s l ~ ~ i l i cby
d
Ollvrira (l,WII, 1950). Caslnr (l962). and K l a p p e l ~ -
bach ( 1 ) Insects, i n particular I l ~ o s cI public
hvalth irnporl.~nce, were reviewed by Castrri (1032)
;rrd l.utz (1!112. 1013). Fnrami~iilerawere described
h v Zaninelli (1979).
P r e - l ~ i s l ~ rutilization
ri~ of ~ n a t ~ g m v eirnd
s the ;11i-
thropnlogy I coastal pre-historic IIIII~~I~I gr-oups
rvere the t ~ i c u sof i~ivestigalionsb y Uellrdc (1976).
Clernt (1928). C u n l u (1065). and E~nperairu& L a ~ n i g
(1956). Anll~r~rpo!;enicimpacts on ~nangrrrvcswere
intunsivrly studied a f t e r World War 11, as the Brazil
coast incrt..rsir~gly was becomir~g ~ l r b . t ~ ~ i z eThis d.
lead to detrimental impacts associated w i t h incrcas-
i n s scdirnenti~li~rn (I<uellan, 19-14; I<rrcalr;ili & Neves,
1076; Amador, 198fl), i n t l ~ ~ s l ~ i i r l i z a (l O i ~l r~~v~e i r , ~
1958. 1975; Lacerda & day, 1962; Olivcira & Krau,
3976). arid oil spills Uacobi & Schaeller-Novclli,
l"90).
111 the 19611s and 1970s. mangrove rescarch i n
i ~ ~ l already
~ r g y invnlvcd Inany rrescirrch grtrups. t i o w -
e\,er, il was ssiclitisls at the Universiditde de SZcr
Dauhr (USI') w l ~ oestablished a pioneering group to
study Inangrove waters, prndur'livity. ,111d p l i ~ n k t o n
ecology (Teixeiril e l 01.. 1965; ~ i d i s i ,1969, 1081;
T ~ ~ n d iQs i T~lnrlisi,1968. Tllndisi cl nl., 1973, 1078;
Kutner, 1975). Another research ]>I-ogram at USP UI-
der the direction of Schaeffer-Novelli, resultc4 i n the
first c~irnprehensivereview of i n a n g r w e research i n
Brazil (Schoeller-Novdli, 1982, 1986. 1989. 1990).
Starling i n the l a t e 19711'5, scientists b c g a ~~ l s i n g
mangroves as models for ecnsysren~studies. This in-
cluded nutrient cyclini; (Adaime. 1987; Sch~nidt.
19SS; Ovalle ''1 Oi., 1900; Ov,~lie. 1992); r v o l i ~ l i d mof
r n a l environments (Dias-Uiiilr 6: Za-
d e ~ ~ ~ i s i t i ~coastal
nii~etli,197'1; Drtininiann ct nl., 1981 a,b; and MOII-~I
c! nl., 1962); and pollutant birigencl~en~istry Uayelip
c! 01.. 1988; L<rcerda ~ . 1 nl., 1988 b; Rezende, 19S8; Re-
zende ~d d, 1990). Herz CI 01. (1984) and l'ires (1986)
developed model algcirithms to detect and map Inan-
grove systems by use of salellite remote sensing and
s image analysis. Also, more colnprehensive reviews
of mangr~rve flora, fauna, and ccol~rgy were c w -
cluded (Avcline, 1980; Araiijrr & M;rciel, 1979;
Sanl'Anna 6: Whately, 1981; Schneffer-Nrivell~,1'280;
hlaclel, 1989; Clntrnn 6; Schileffer-Ncrvelli, 1983,
1093; Cirrdeiro-Marino c l 01.. 1992).

2. Mangroves Along the Coast of Brazil
2.1 Extent and D i s t r i b u t i o n
Mangrove forests are distributed in a patchy
fashion along 6,800 ktn of the coast of Brazil, or '134.
of the entire length of the coastline. They reach from
Oiapoque, AmapA, i n the north a t Iat. N 4"30' to
Praia d o Sonho, Santa Catarina, i n the sr~utlia t [at. S
28"53' (Schaeffer-Novelli, 1989). The only coastal
state without mangroves is Rio Crande do Sul in the
far south. The eastem-most limit for mangroves i n
Brazil is the offshore island, llha Fernando de No-
ronha (long. W 3 2 2 4 ' a n d 1st. S 3"50'),where a small
(0.15 ha) monospecific stand of black mangroves
(Lnpriculfl~inrnccrrrosn) borders the estuary of the
river Maceiri (tlerz, 1991).
There are many very different estimates of the
area of coverage of mangroves in Brazil. It is our
judgment thal the most accurate area estimate is 1.38
million hectares (Table 1). Saenger ct ni. (19x3) r e -
ported Brazil to be the country in the world with the
most extensive mangrove coverage with 2.5 million
hectares of mangroves, followed b y Indonesia with
2.1 million hectares. However, Saenger ct 01. (1983)
did not report the sources for their data figures, and
their appraisal for Brazil is certainly a gross overesti-
mate. The most recent, independent estimate for the
area covered b y mangroves i n Brazil is 1.01.30" ha
(Herz 1991), and was based on detailed nieasure-
men& from satellite images. However, the estimate
b y Herz (1991) appears to be a 16% underestimate as
comparrd to a summation of estimates by scientists
having worked on mangroves i n parts of the
cout1ty.
',
Although Herz' (1991) estiinate of mangrove
areas i n Bra;.il as a whole is the result of the best sur-
vey ever done, detailed local studies generally yield
larger estimates for the same areas. For example, a
study i n Baia de Sepetiba, RJ, (Ovalle, 1992) iiidi-
cated that the mangrove area measures 2,fiOO ha.
I while Herz (1991) reported 1,100 Iia. In other i n -
stances, there exist even larger discrepancies. La~ia&
I
I
Sessegolo (1993) estimated that mangroves cover an
a r e a of 51,000 ha i n the state of Parand, whereas
Herz' (1991) estimate is only 20,HOO ha (Table 1). The
R A D A N (1983) study also used aerial mapping to as-
sess the area of mangroves i n Brazil, but there still is
disagreement. Herz' (1997) estimalr for the joint
mangrove areas of the states of Espirito Santr and
Rio de Janeiro is 17,800 ha as compared t i 1 .35,50'! ha
in the R A D A N (1983) study (Table 1). The delta of
the Paraiba do Sul, RJ, contains fill0 ha of niangrovcs
Project PD114190 (F)
but i s h w n c ~ i i l e t e l y l e f t r ~ u till e z (1991)
lnwntory,
!-!en' (1Y')l) area estimatc was based on inter-
pretation nf satellile imagery tor the enlire length of
tile c w s t of Drazil. The cliscrel,al~cy between his and
otlier esti~iiatesis it1 :ill 1ikeliIi1111dat least partially
due to the fact that I-lerz (19'31) c ~ i e e 011ly d
niangroves r r excluding adiacent waterways,
niudflats, salt flats, and marginal plant c~~niniuriities.
As long as waterways, nittdflats, and salt flats are
small relative to areas cclvered b y mangroves, other
studies usually include these areas i n tnangr~rve
cover estitnatcs. Marginal plant commutiities adjac-
ent to or within r n a n g r ~ ~ vsystems,
e e.g salt marshes,
a r e also usually grouped 1i1,pther w i t h mangrove
systems in sr~ulliernBrazil i t 1 n i ( ~ sstudies
t but appar-
ently ti111 i n the Herz (1991) study.
Another explariatio~ifor the rather considerable
area differences can be founcl i n the size of pixels as-
sociated with x-band radar and Landsat and SPOT
niultispectral deter~ninatiiin r i f ~nangrove areas.
Mixed pixels in the t l e r z (1991) sludy were most
likely not included i n mangrove area estimates and
help to explain the large differences in area esti-
mates, especially for small ~ i i a ~ i g r ~ areas
r v e i n soutli-
eastern and sotlthrrti Urazil. For the large ~iianjirove
syste~nsin Maratili.ic atid A1nap5, He!-Z' (1991) Inan-
grove area estimates are much closer t r i other esti-
mates. The large discrepancy i n the Par2 estimates
may be due to the fact that reflectance characteristics
of liardwoods an(l mangroves are quite similar, and
thus difficult Ii~distingtrish.
Area estitnates of niatijit-iives vary w i t h mrtlind-
ology, seasc~riof nieasuretnetit, stage of t h r tide, and
also depend 1111 what has been consiJered to be man-
groves and what has n r ~ been t included in the t n a ~ i -
jirove i n v et r y Because t i e r z (1 991) 1111ly
considel-ed ~ n a ~ i g r o vforests
e proper, his estimale of
rnatigrove area in Drazll can w i t h ~ d v a n t a g ebe used
to calculate timber v ~ ~ l u t i i eestimate
, biomass, and
f i r other ecoli~gical measurements and p i i l ~ ~ i r s e s .
However, when consideling m a n g r w e vegetatim
forms, gcograpliical svstelns, and i n l e r a c t i ~ i ~ ibe-
s
tween m a n p i v e s arid adjacent ~ i i a r i n eand terres-
trial systems, Hertz (1YYl) c;~lculated area is clearly
an underestimate. We p r i ~ p w e ,based on this review
of tlir local niatigrove surveys along :he coast ( i f
Brazil, that Inangrove areas cover 1.38, 1 ' hi1 i n
h z i l (sorsii lnl~r)(Table 1).
- Brazil

Table 1. Estimates o f mangrove cover i n Urazil by state.

Statc Cc~ahllinc A r m (Iw) A rca Rcfcrcnce
(101) k l c r ~(l'lall)
, (ha)
Arnopi 5'18 1 62,2713 lX2.3110 Fcarnsi~lu(19911)
Fuarnsidc (19'lO)
Sonr'Ana & Whatcly (1961);
M t r h c l (1893)
Piaui Frcirc & O l i v u i n (1943)
Ccar6 Frcirc & Olivcira (1993)
Ril, C r a n J c '10 N o r l c Frcirc & Olivcira (1993)
Para~ha Frcirc 6; Olivcira (1993)
Pcrnambucc Frcirc 6: O t i v ~ i r a(1993)
Ahgoas Frcirc & Olivcira (1993)
5q;ipc A D E M A (lL)H.()
Bahia CEPLAC (1976)
Espirito h n k r R A D A N (1983)
Rii, d c Isnciro L a ~ ~ r c&l aRczcn(lc. (1993)
sic, Pa,,l,> H c r z (19x7)
Parana Lana S: Scsscp~la(1993)
Sanla Colnrina Panttz (1993)
Tcmt:

2.2 C l i 2 r a c t e r i z a l i n n o f B r a z i l i a n M a n g r o v e s
T h e c o a s t l i n e (11' B r a z i l i s s l ~ o r v nin Fig. 1, ernpha-
s i z i l i g t h e d i s t r i b u t i c ~ n o f ~ n i i n g r w e sa c c o r d i n g to
state, a n d s h o w i n g m a j o r cities, a n d salient coastal
features. E i g h t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f B r a z i l i a n m a n g r o v e s
o c c l l r a l o n g t h e 1.800 k m 111115 coast o f A n l a p i , Pars,
a n d M a r a n l i d o . 111 n o r t h e r n D r ~ z i l , especially b e -
t w e e n BclCm, Pard, a n d I Lllis, tvlarunh31i. T h e
state o f M a r a n t i . i ( ~ , t v i t l i 13.5, 111" I i a o f m a n g r o v e s .
e l i i b o d i e s n e a r l y h a l f o f the t o t a l area o f n i a n g r o v e s
i n B r a z i l . M a r a n h d o i s t h e state w i t h the m o s t exten-
slve s t m c t ~ ~ r a l cl oy n i p l c x m a n g r u v e forests.
A l o n g t h e n r ~ r t l icoast of B r a z i l the extensive
m a n g r o v e s y s t c ~ i i sr e f l c c t l i y d r n l ~ ~ ~t co paol g r a p h i c a l
characteristics o f t h e coast. T h e s e m i d i u r n a l t i d e has
a range, w h i c h in places exceeds 8 m. A s the coast
g e n e r a l l y consists o f e x t e n s i v e l l a t q u a t r m a r y plains,
h u g e coastal areas a r e f l o o d e d d u r i n g high tides a n d
d u r i n g the r a i n y seasnn. A l o n g the n o r t h coast o f
MaranI130, r a ~ n f ; ~exceeds ll 3,0013 m m y r l , w h i c h is a
mnj11r f a c t o r e n l i . ~ n s i n g ~ l i a n g r o v cg r o w t l i a n d p r o -
d u c i n g the m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d spectaculdr mangr-ove
s y s t e m s of B r a z i l . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e l a r g e t i d a l range
a n d the a m p l e r a i n f a l l , m a n g r o v e systems extend
m o r e t h a n 4 0 lon i n l a n d f n l l w i n g I h e c of
estuaries a n d r i v e r s in Par$ a n d M a r a n l l 2 o .
I n t h e n o r t h . A o i c c n ~ t i rtrees
~ are j i a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l
d e v e l o p e d arid m o s t frecjtrently o c c u r r i n g . T h e trees
reach m o r e than 1 m i n d i a n i c t c r a r i d are i n places
40-45 m tall (Sant'Anna a n d W l i a t e l y , 1 9 8 i ) . Rhizo-
~ ~ i i i ~trees
in o c c u r o n l y v e r y close to t h e coast
( S a n t ' A n n d a n d M'hately. 1981). S l m r ~ l i ~r ~~ l,t~c r ~ ~ i j l o r n
g r o w s as s e a w a r d f r i n g e s a l o n g the ~ i o r t l coast,
i and
Hibisiirs tilinccrrc t y p i c a l l y d o m i l i a t e s the l a n d w a r d
m a r g i n s of m a n ~ ~ o vsysteliis e (Damasio, 1 9 7 9 / 8 0
a.b).
T h e m a n g r o v e s in the A r n a z o n estuar-ine area are
q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , because t h e y c n n l a i n t y p i c a l A m a z o n
Ireshwaler Iiardwoods. A l t h o u g h w e l l developed,
n l a n g o v e trees in this area h a v e a r e l a t i v e l y r e -
s t r i c t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n d u e t o the e n ~ ~ r m o urate s of
freshwater i n p u t a n d coinpetition f r o m freshwater
macl-opliytes.
T h e n o r t h e a s t coast i r o n i Ilia C r a n d c d o N n r r e to
R i o de j a n e i r o extends f o r 1,000 km, b u t c o n t a i n s
o n l y 10% o f the total m a n g r r i v e area i n B r a z i l . T h i s
coast is characterized by m i c r o o r m e s o - t i d a l
 Project PD1 14190 (F)

.
regimes, a n d n a r r o w q u a t e r n a r y coastal p l a i n s w i t h
r o c k y o u t c r o p s . T h e t e r t i a r y "Barreiras" f o r m a t i o n
f r e q u e n t l y e x t e n d s t o t h e coast a n d l i m i t s the i n l a n d
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a n g r o v e s . T h e northeastern climate
is m o s t l y semi-arid w i t h l o w precipitation restr~cted
t o a f e w m o n t h s o f t h e y e a r n o r t h o f s o u t h e r n Bahia.
H o w e v e r , humid c l i m a t e s d o m i n a t e the r e m a i n d e r
o f the n o r t h e a s t e r n coast w i t h exception o f the C a b o
Frio, RJ, r e g i o n w i t h a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n e q u a l o r
greater t h a n 1,500 mm p e r year. T h i s m o r e h u m i d
c l i m a t e a l l o w s the d e v e l o p m e n t o f extensive m a r l -
g r o v e s i n s i d e b a y s a n d a l o n g estuaries of m a j o r
rivers, especially in s o u t h e r n Bahia w i t h m o r e t h a n
100.000 h a o f m a n g r o v e s .
T h e n o r t h e a s t e r n m a n g r o v e s are less tall t h a n
a l o n g t h e n o r t h coast. Rhizoplrorn rrrnrt~lcis the m o s t
c o n s p i c u o u s v e g e t a t i o n a n d reaches 10-2U m h e i g h t
(Hueck, 1972). N a r r o w f r i n g e s o f m a n g r o v e s b o r d e r
deltas, lagoons, a n d estuaries w i t h h e i g h t s that sel-
d o m exceed 1 5 m. In t h e i n n e r p a r t n f bays w i t h h i g h
f r e s h w a t e r s u p p l y , a n d w h e r e the c l i m a t e is humid,
m a n g r o v e s y s t e m s c a n b e q u i t e extensive.
T h e s o u t h e a s t e r n coast o f f r o m R i o d e Janeiro to
Santa C a t a r i n a e x t e n d s f o r 1,250 km a n d contains
o n l y 5% o f t h e t o t a l m a n g o v e area in the c o u n t r y .
T h e coast b r a k e s i n t o d i s t i n c t ecological u n i t s at the
c i t y o f R i o d e Janeiro. T h e coast is i m p i n g e d b y the
Serra d o M a r m o u n t a i n chain, w h i c h in m a n y places
enters t h e sea. T h i s i s a p r e - C a m b r i a n s h i e l d area,
w h i c h e x t e n d s a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f the southeastern
coast. M a n g r o v e s are r e s t r i c t e d to p r o t e c t e d coastal
shores a w l bays, b u t are i n P I ~ C Fl i lS t i r e abunda111
a n d b e t t e r d e v e l o p e d t h a n a l o n g the n o r t h e a s t coast.
Coastal p l a i n s are n a r r o w , i n u n d a t e d by t h e t i d e
o n l y occasionally. T h e t i d a l range i s l o w , a p p r o x i -
m a t e l y 1 111, a n d mangroves, p a r t i c u l a r l y R l r h r l r l r o r ~
trees d o n o t e x t e n d f a r i n l a n d . M a n ~ o v e sare m o s t l y
restricted t o the d e l t a o f livers, coastal lagooris, a n d
i n t e r i o r p a r t s o f b a y s . T h e forest consists of trees
~ i i o s t l yless t h a n 10 rn i n height, d o ~ i i i n a t e dby Rlrizo-
p h r n r r r n n g l c , b u t f a r less d i v e r s i f i e d t h a n the m a n -
g r o v e s a l o n g the n o r t h e a s t e r n a n d n o r t h coasts.
3. Mangrove Flora
3.1 M a n g r o v e tree d l o r a
B r a z i l i a n Inarijirnves are c o r n p o s e d o f "true"
I n a n g r o v e trees a n d a d i v e r s i f i e d flora o f m a n g r o v e
associates f r o m b o t h terreslrial a n d a q u a t i c habitats.
T r u e r n a n p v e s are ~ l o m i n a t e dby t h e g e n u s R l r i w -
p l s ~ r n(Rhizophoraceae) w i t h three species, the g e n u s
Aviccrrrlin (Avicenniaceae) w i t h t w o species, a n d the
genera L n p r l c u l o r i n a n d Coriircnr}~us (Combretaceae)
w i t h o n e species each (Table 2).
Rlrizoplrtrrn r r i n r i ~ l ci s the m o s t w i d e s p r e a d o f the
m a n g - o v e species a n d occurs a l o n g a g r a d i e n t o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s a l o n g the t r o p i c a l arid s u b -
t r o p i c a l coasts o f B r a z i l w h e r e m a n g r o v e s are f o u n d
(Schaeffer-Novelli, 1989). T h i s species presents great
plienolr~gical variability. D e p e ~ i d i n go r e ~ i v i r o n -
m e n t a l conditions, R. rrrnrrglc can g r o w 25 rn tall i n
l i u i n i d climates w i t h a b u n d a n t f r e s h w a t e r arid

Table 2. M a n g r o v e tree species and t h e i r s o u t l ~d i s t r i b u t i o n l i m i t a l o n g the coast o f Brazil. A l l tree species have l l i e i r
Brazilian n o r t h l i m i t i n the stale o f AmanS lal. N 4"?.0'.

Family Rhizophoraccac
Rhiznphuro ~ r r n r r ~L.
lr Praia d o Srxh,. SC. 2753' S Cinlri>n 61 Sclracller-Novctli (1992)
Rhizaj~hornhnrriso~riiLcechman Rio Prcjiuiqas. M A , 24U' S SanIob (1986)
Rhizoptmrn rocenro.cn G.F.W. M c y c r Rio Pr~.guiyns. M A , 2"40'S Sanlc)h (1986)

Family Avicenniaceae
Aviccrrrrio schnrtcrinrm Slapl. 6r Lccch Laguna. SC, 28'30's Cintriin 6: Schaellcr-Nrwclli (19'12)
Avicerrriin ~cr,r~ir~o,rs
L. Alalona, RJ. 21"37'S Laccrdn & Rcxrndc (1993)

Family C o m b r e l a c e x
i / i ~ u ~ c u l n r iroccrrrrrsn
n (L.) Gacrln. Lagun". SC. 2hT11' 5 C i n l r i m & Schacllcr-Novalli (1092)
Corrocnrprrs crcclifs L. Lacoa dc Araruama, Rl. 2T75' S An+ & Macicl (1979)
Brazil

north limit of Brazilian rnongroves

Amazon
River
Estuary

B R A Z

scuth limit af E?mzilian mcrqmes

I".S t a l with less than 20,000 ha of mngroves

States wlth over 100,000 ha of mangroves

nutrient supplies. I n hot, arid climates. R. lrrnriglc
often grow only as d w a r f trees less than 1 m :ail
(Prance c l 01.. 1975). R. rncc~rrosnand R. Itnrr-isorriiliave
a much more restricted distribution arid less pheno-
logical variability. They are only found along the
humid north coast, where they generally exist as
trees w i t h heights u p to 20 m growing as fringes
landward of the R. nmnglc belts (Santos, 1986).
The two Aviccr~ninspecies and the two species of
the family Combretaceae (Table 2 ) have a similar dis-
tribution. A. germinnns and C. crcclus have their
southern l i m i t along the coast of Rio de Janeiro
(Aratijo & Maciel, 1979). I n contrast, A. sctrnricrinmi
and L. rnccirrosn have a distribution si:nilar to R.
~nnrgicandextend to the south coast of Santa Catari-
na (Table 2 ) . Both species occur as shrub patches a t
their southeni limit. However, along the north coast,
Aviccnnio trees can reach I m i n diameter (Schaeffer-
Novelli, 1989).
N y p p a l m s , also a "true" mangrove species, a r e
very abundant i n Asian mangrove ecosystems, and
have been present i n northeastern Brazil during the
Paleocene. However, i t disappeared from the pollen
record after this age (Dolianiti, 1955). Similar to Pclii-
ciern rl~izo~iiornc, h~m/ru:icnris disappeared from the
Brazilian mangroves, probably i n response to arid
conditions d u r i n g the Holocene (Jimenez, 1984).
3.2 Associated mangrove flora
Many plant species occur associated with man-
grove systems i n Brazil. Their diversity seems to be a
reflection of climatic conditions and the proximity of
other ecosystems. This flora is highly variable from
region to region and even from one system to the
next within a r e g o n . A few species, however, seem
to be associated w i t h the "true" mangroves tlirough-
out their range i n Brazil, and have even been con-
sidered as "true" mangrove species. The most
wide-spread such species are the fern, Acrostichuni
n ~ ~ r c u L,
i r i and Malvaceae Hibisclrs lilinccus L., which
frequently form dense belts along the landward
edges of mangrove systems, on elevated sites, and
around d r y and saline areas inside mangrove sys-
tems. In spite of their widespread distribution, their
bioloby and ecoloby remain poorly known.
Along the h u m i d north coast of Brazil, a number
of tropical forest species invade the mangroves.
These include the Legurninosae vine, Vn1bci;yin brom-
mi (Jacq) Urban, and the Apocynaceae liana, Rlmb-
dndcnio bij7orn (Jacq) H u l l (Pantoja. 1993). From the
estuary of the Amazon to Baia de 5.311 Marcos,
Project PD114/90 (F)
a r a n l i wlirl-e . ~ b i t t i J ~ ~t r n
a i lt t l a l l ~ ~ t ~ o t e c~n,iti-
ts
g r o v c ~ r t minundatio~ibv lugh s,llitiity u.atet-s, as-
sclrted freshwater rtiecro~~liytes occur in assw5atirlli
w i t h m ~ t i g r o v esyste~ns,e.g. 111; Araceae ~ ~ ~ i ~ i i i / i , r r .
din rrr1wc.cccr1.c Schirlt an d the Legtt~iiinosaeA,lorrr
oIer/errl (Triana) Duke (Pantoja. 1993; hlocliel, 19'13).
Also, a variety of p;llni species, e.g. E u l c r ~o ~i ~ ~ w c , ~
Mart., are typical of the north coast ~iiangrove
systems.
Along the south Brazil coast from Riii de Janeiro
to Santa Catarina, where nungroves exist as narrow
fringes between estuarine systems and mountain
rain forests, epiphytes of the Bn~nieliaceaeslid Or-
chidaceae families pervade the catiopy of inangrove
trees, including particularly TilLt~id.cin!~srlnriJesL., T.
s:rictn Sola~ider, Vrizin and E i i i r spp.
(Lacerda, 1984).
A number of salt marsh grass species occur as
seaward fringes, as fliriges along creeks and cham
nels, and i n gaps under tree canopies i n the man-
grove systems i n southern Brazil, particularly i n
Para05 and Santa Catarina. This marginal distribu-
tion of the salt tnarsli grasses is due 111 the light li-
mitation induced by the canopy of the mangrove
11-ees(Santos, 1989; Custii h Davy, 1092). The most
common sall matsli grass is Sjmrtiim nllo-riprrn L i ~ i -
sel, which can be found as fringe environments asso-
ciated w i t h all Brazilian mangrove systems. This
species may play an important role i n tmangrove sys-
tems b y increasing the trapping capacity of sedi-
ments and chemical elements (Lacerda S: Abr.io,
1984; Costa E; Davy. 1991). Otlier sall marsh g r a s
species appear to colonize disturbed areas i l l man.
grove systems. For example. Scsliz~iirtrtj~orliriocns~rurrr
L., Aizoaceae, and B i l n r r c r r r i c ~ / n rL. Mears
Atnarantliaceae, tornt dense c n ~ n ~ n u n i l i eisn ~ l i s .
turbrd mangrove areas, especially oil impacted areas
sucli as Baia da Cuanabara. Rio de I a n r i r o (Lacerda
& Hay. 1982). Otlier salt marsh grass species that
commonly a r e associated with Inangroves include
Batidaceae. i s n r i t i L., t l i e Chcnqwliaceae
Snlicorriin nnrbipn blichx., which t(~getherwith 5. ;icr-
nricriirirc and 5. j ~ f r r t ~ ~ i n c r ? ~occupy
l r ! ~ r ~ t high sal intty
areas inside InanhTove systt.nis. 111 c o i t r t , t l i e
Graniineae Sp~roboilrsv i y i i i i c w L. Kutitlt and P,r.rln
I n vnginntlrtr~ Swartz frequently occur in mot-e
sandy soils within Inallgrove systems.
Siibiiict-gel1 ~iiacrophytesat-e a l s i ~c o l i i m i ~ n l yas-
sociated with tnangroves, i n c l u d i t ~ ghigher )>lants
(sea grasses), lower plants (macroal@le), and funsi.
A m w i g the seagrasses. Hirlrriitiic i ~ ~ r i , y l l lAscliers.
ii
 - Brazil
(Potamogetonaceae) and R u l ~ l ~ i nrrmritirl~n L.
(Zannicheliaceae) frequently g n l w associated with
mangroves along the ~wrllleasterncoast of Brazil.
l i pmostly IIII~II~mi the
hlangrove ~ n i ~ c r o i ~;Ire
roots of mangrove trees and constitute the substra-
tum of Inon. than 50% of all macroalgae species.
Other hard s~~bstrates, e.g. rocks, stones, and large
shell fragments, serve as the substratum for nearly
30% of the species, while soft m u d and sandy sub-
strates account for the r e m a i ~ ~ 2i ~ g (Cordeirn-
Marino ~1nl., 1992).
I n most niangrove systems, the macroalgal cnm-
m u n i t y OII tnlnks and ;~erinlroots, is dominated b y
tlie Bostrichietum association. which includes the
genera Bo.~triclrin, Cnlr{ylmsn and Cntcr~cllo.These ill-
d u d e 12 typical s p c i c s with year-round reproduc-
lim ( I h g a cl nl., I W l I ) . Anot11e1-typical association
exists ill mallhTove sedinre~ik,thc so called I<hiztlclo-
nietum association, fonned b y over I 0 species of
green algae of the genera l U r i z ~ ~ l r ~ r r i E~ileronrorptm
~rr~r.
and Clndopi~orn(Pedrini, 1980).
Lichens are also abundant i n mangrove systems.
Marcelli (1990) lists more than 150 species of lichens
for the llha d o Cardoso mangroves i n a state reserve
along the Sao Paulo coast. Important genera include
Pnn~~mrin, Ptystm, h]ltogun, Eriodernm, Usnen, and
Rnrinlinc.
The rnicroflora of m a n g r w e trees is determined
b y the submergence i n sea water nf the part of the
tree infested b y fungi. I n general, s ~ ~ b m e r g rtdr e e
parts contain a completely different micrnflnra as
compared to nun-submerged parts. However, near
the high tide level, marine and terrestrial fnngi over-
lap. A few host-specific species are rather restricled
i n their distribution, whereas the morr coln'nron om-
nivorous species tend I have a pan-tropical dis-
tribution (Kohlmeyer, 1969). A recent survey of the
mangrove fungi of the mangroves of llha de Maraca,
Amapa, showed 32 species of macroscopic Basi-
diomycetes, tlie major organism responsible for
wood decomposition, occurring i n decolnposing
trunks, branches, and roots of Aviccnnin and R h i u ~ -
pi~orn.The dominant species was T!p~i!jccs chiono~s
(Fr.) Karst., which occurred throughout the year i n
periodically inundated substrata with salinities less
than 1 4 % (Sotdo c t nl., 1991).
Various studies on phytoplankton composition
and productivity of m a n p o v e areas i n Brazil have
been undertaken, mostly along the soullieastern and
s o i ~ l h e r ncoasts of the cou~ilry.I n the Cananci a a re-
gion of Sfin Pauln. mangrove phytoplankton are
dominated b y the diatom, Sl;elclo~rer~~n coslnttrr~t,
which comprises mon. than 80% of the ~ ' h y t o ~ ' l ~ ~ k -
ton. Other ~~1111nlOll~y occurring p l i y t o p l a ~ l k t ~ ~ ~
species iriclude other diatoms, cyanophytes, and d i -
noflagellates. Maximum densities occur in the ails-
tral summer and minimum densities i n the austral
winter (Kutnrr, 1975; Tundisi ct 01.. 1973). Phyto-
plankton densities i n mangrove walers are one urder
of magnitude higher than i n adjacent coastal water;
(Teixeira cl nl., 1965). I n the tniingroves of Parand, d i -
atoms dominate the phytoplankton, but nanoflagel-
lates are also abundant throughout the year
(Knoppers & Opitz, 1984). Bacterial plankton is also
abundant i n the mangrove systems of so~~theastern
Brazil. Watanabe rG Kutner (1965 a,b) found de~wities
of 21 to 132, 10' cells ml" and 6 to 316, I[? cells nrl-'.
Major bacterial plankton fonns were P s c u h ~ ~ r ~ n n s
and Acitn~mnbncl'r. P h y t ~ ~ p l a ~ ~ prnductivity
kto~~ re-
ached a maximum of 1 g C rn" d" i n summer, and
cells less than 50 p i n diameter were resp~~nsiblr. for
the major part of the production q u n d i s i , 1961).
4. Mangrove Fauna
As i n most New World mangroves. i t is very
difficult 10 identify an exclusive mangrove fauna. As
a rule, m a n g o v e animals also occur i n other coastal
habitats such as coastal lagwns, bays, and estuaries.
However, many animal species characteristically
occur i n n l a n b ~ o v ewetlands, and have their greatest
populations in this habitat. Notwithstanding the
hundreds of animal species that are f r ~ ~ i nind Brazil-
ian nrangrove ecosystems o r associated w i t h such
systems, this component of mangrnve biococnosis is
the least well studied i n Brazil. However, a few de-
tailed local studies do exist and have been published
(Aralijo & Maciel. 1979). A number of spccics are
threatened with extinction in mangroves i n Brazil,
including the r r d ibis, Eudoci~rrrrsruler, the monkey,
Chil~otcssnlnnns, and the manatee, Trictlecirs irInrinlus.
A m o n g the most comprehensive surveys of Bra-
zilian m a n b p v e fauna are the pioneering w o r k b y
Luderwaldt (1919) on the mangroves of Santos i n
Sdo Paulo, and the mangrove inventnriea of Oliveira
(1940, 1947, 1950), Oliveira and Krau (1953). and
A r a ~ i j oand Maciel (1979) on the fauna of the man-
groves of Baia da Guanabara, one of the largest man-
grove areas i n Southeastern Brazil. Also notewortliy
a r e the surveys of mangrove crustaceans of P r r -
nambuco 'in northeastern Brazil ( C I l963/M,

1965166. 1966). However, b y far the tliosl cotriplcte
survey of Brazilian mangrove fauna as a whule was
undertaken by Aveline (1980).
Tlie majority of mangrove fauna studies liave fo-
cused on a few species of economic importance sucli
as cockles and mussels (Paranagud & Camallieira,
1972; Pereira Barros and Macedo, 1967; SU-
D A M I U F M A , 1983). shrimps and crabs (Silva, 1977;
Ramos, 1971; Fausto F, 1966; S U D A M I U F M A . 15183).
and fish (Menezes, 1968; Eskinazi-Oliveira, 1972.
1974; S U D A M I U F M A , 1Y83).
The most recent and complete acco~ltitof Brazil-
ian mangrove fauna (Aveline, 1980) reported 363
species of mangrove animals, excluding mammals
and insects. Birds were represented by 86 species,
crustaceans b y 51, molluscs b y 33 and fish, the
largest group, b y 185 species, including resident,
transient and migratory species. Altliough mammals
were riot included i n this survey, other autliors have
reported more than ten species frequditly found i n
mangroves, including raccoons (Procy~rlcnrlcriuorus)
arid otters (Lulrn er~trdrisand L. plnlerisis) (Aralijo 61
Maciel, 1979; Maciel, 1984; Maciel & Magnanini,
1989). W i t h respect to reptiles, the yellow crocodile,
Cnirrtnr~Inliroslris, has been reported to occupy the
mangrove-fringed lagoons i n Rio de Jarieiro (Maciel,
1984).
Zooplankton i n Brazilian manbToves are dorni-
nated b y copepods w i t h maximum densities occur-
ring in the a~tstralsummer and minimurii densities
i n the austral winter. Major species are Eulerjrirtn
ncrrti/rorrs, Acnrlin iilijnborghi, Oililorln ouniis, and Pscu-
dodinlorrrus ncirlus. Other cotnmonly occ~rrringorgan-
isms include Tinlirinidoe, Aplrcrtdicuinrin,
Cirnelognnllin, and medusae (Tundisi, 15169; Tundisi cl.
nl., 1965). Tundisi & Tundisi (1968 found that cope-
pods migrate loward the bottom during high tide as
the light intensity i n mangrove creek waten; in-
creases, and that they a r e carried landward i n the
presence of a gravitational estuarine circulation.
Benthic copepods occupy decaying Inangrove leaves.
ant1 a r e also abundanl i n Brazilian mangrove waters,
parliculal-ly the H-a~pacticoidaof the family Carcy-
Iliompsoniirlae, which are distributed throughout
the Brazilian m a n g r o v e (Por, 1983).
The composition of mangrove fauna i n Brazil is
summarized i n Table 3, according to Aveline (1980).
Tlie fauna can be grouped into four functional
classes. (1) Species that occur directly associated
will1 the aerial structures of mangrove trees.
Project PD1 14/90 (F)
Tal,le 7. 01~ I ~l r aOr ~i l i a ! l tn~ll(;l-oves a c -
F.111112 C O I I I ~ ~ S ~
ronlil~p.11, Avelilhv (1'lflO).
.
Aninrirl C;nlt~ps Numhcr ( 4 N\!nilrcr of
Fnnlilics Snccies
Dirds 15 R6
Crustaceans 1(I 59
ExanipIes 111 this class are I l i e Iree-cl-atArnlr~sliisorrii,
t l i e l e a f snail L i l l r ~ r i ~orr~trli{ern,
~n and the Inangrove
oyster Crnssoslrn~nrlrizol~lrr~rnc,wliicli crrlonizes the
aerial roots of mangroves. A ~ i i o ~ the i g vertebrates,
the Inangrove bird Co~rir~rslr~~rrr liicolor is a permanent
dweller of the mangrove canopy. (2) Specieflliat live
i n lerresttial habitats but pe~iodicallymiglare into
mangroves. This class is represented b y ~ n a ~ i i m a l s ,
sucli as the crab-ealing raccoon Proc!pri cn~rcriuurrrs
and ntlers; atid reptiles s ~ ~ casl i crocodiles, arid birds
such as many nietlibers of lhe F a l c ~ i i i i d ~(Maciel, e
1984; Maciel & Magnanini, 15189). (3) Species Illat live
i n mangrove sediments and rill adjacent mud flats.
This class inclucles t l i e la!-gesl nunibel. of species, i n
particular crustaceans and ~nolluscs.Typical repre-
sentatives are [ l i e crabs Cirrlisorrrn ~ t r i l r i l r r i r r t i , Llcides
ct~rdnlrrs,the tiit~sselM!~lciln,yrr!lnr~orsisatid M \nicnln;
t l i e cockles A r r ~ r ~ ~ ~ i r c nf ~
r i si ti l i n tand I/riri,ycrrin
br.nsiiicns;s, and the snail M d l n l r j ~ ~ CI~CII.C.
rs ( I )Species
which live i n the niariiie Iiabital but spend part of
their l i f e cycles i n the mar1);rwes. ?'lie ~ i i o s lcon-
sjiicuous species in this class are shl.i~iips. Pcrincus
scirirrrilii and P. lrrnsilicrrsis. Most lis1it.s belong 111 I l l i s
class, in partict~lar t n i i l l r l (Mugii spp.) and an-
chovies (Engr-aulidae).
A detailed accciutitin~of [he fa~ttia111 a s111a11, 51
k ~ nlong. inangrove creek (111 lllin de S.io L~tis,M a -
ranli3o, serves as n g01id exailiplv 111 Ilie t.ichness (if
the fauna s ~ t p p r t e db y the a d j a ~ e l i t tiia~igroves
( S U D A M f U F M A . 1983). M w e that1 45 species of fish
exist per~iianetitly01. o c c a s i ~ i ~ ~ ain l l yl l l e creek w i l h
t i i ~ ~ l l e M~r,yii
t, spp., being tii<~st ~ o t i i ~ n oand ti maki~ig
up lor 11% of a l l catclics. The creek, Itio CU~II~IICII,
a b o ~ ~ ~wi di l sh slitimp. The red sltri~iip,Pcrr~tc~rs s~11~1i-
/is, accounts for 43% of the catch, I l i e w l i i t r sliritnp 1'.
scl~rriillii,acctnltits for 30%, and J r l i i s n ~ i dP.
lirnsilirrtsis accotlnt for 1470 and 13%. I-espectively.
Tlie creek also suplmrls t l i e benthic ~ n o l l ~ t sknriwri c
locally as "stlrur~i",A.l~~lcllii fiiicnm or~rr!lniic~isis, wit11
p u ~ u ~ l a l i odensities
li of 6-10 g tn" in creek ~ t i u d sTlie
.
cockle, A r ~ r r m i i t ri n s i i i , Itically know11 as

5 . Mangrove S t r u c t u r e a n d Ecology
'Tropical d e p n s i l i ~ i n a le n v i r o n n i e n t a l r i n g ctiasl-
lilies w i t h l o w w a v e e n e r g y a r c n i t i s l freclttently r i t l o -
~ i i z e d hy s a l ~ . l n l e r a ~ i lrees
l a n d l ~ ! ; I i e s , atit1 the
c n m ~ i i ~ ~ n i t i aree s c r i l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d 111 as ~ i i a n -
grnves. 111 B r a z i l a n d elsewliere, these e n v i r o n r n e n l s
are m o s t p r o l i f i c i n I i ~ ~ n i si ed t t i l i p !villi a w p l e r i v e r
discliarge, e s p e c i a l l y i n r i v e r clclt;l a n d a l o n g sliorcs
o f g ~ ~ l l es s, t t ~ a r i e s ,a11d Iay,wins, r v l i i c l i are p r o l e c l e d
a g a i i n s i g n i f i c a n t ocean s w c l l s . W h e r e the lids1
range i s great as i n t h e case cif the n o r t h e r n B r a z i l i a n
coast f r o m A l n a p d t o s w t l r e r n M a r a n l i f i o ( m e a n t i d -
a l range 3 - 6 m a n d s p r i n g l i t i a l r a n g e .$-$ m), the
m a n g r o v e s y s t e m s b e c o m e p a r t i c ~ ~ l a r extensive
ly be-
c a m e o f r e g u l a r t i d a l i n u n d a l i n n b y I,rackish a n d
~ n a r i n ervaters a n d a l s o e p i s o d i c I l ~ o d i n ghy rivers.
I n general, m a n p r o v e s h a v e b e c n d i v i d e d i n t n (a)
l r l l e m a n g r o v e s . (11) niilinr elements, a n d (c) m a l l -
g r o v e associates ( T ~ i ~ i i l i n s wl!IXh). , S o u t h A t l a n t i c O c e a n e x h i b i t s s l i g h t l y l o w e r surface
'Tnle m a n g r o v e s a r e salt l o l e r a r i i f l r ~ r i s l i cspecirs,
t , i x n n t ~ c n i c a l l yd i s t i n c t f r o m l e r r t ~ l r - i . 7 .spt.cies,
1 wliicli
are s p e c i a l l y a t l a p t e d to r ~ i l n n i z ea n d ~ l o ! i i i i i a l etlie
c(tastn1 e ~ ~ v i r ( ~ r i r n e r irl v, l ~ r r e a s 111inrir r n a n g r r i v r
O C C I I ~ Y p e r i p h e r a l h a h i t a t s a n d se111otn f o n n d o n i i -
n a n l c r i r i i ~ i i ~ ~ n i t i e( sC i r ~ t r < i ~ i - b l o l r rEr o Sclraeffer-
N n v e l l i , 1992). M a n g r n v e associates cimsist o f i n v a &
inj; a n d tra11sitionaI p l a n t s irci~na d j , i c r f i t (rest! w a t e r
a n d l i y p e r s a l i ~ i e e n v i r ~ i n t i i c ~ ~( lis~ i r i ~ i l o l e R r i
S c h a e f f c r - N o v e l l i , 19'17). T l i e ~ n a n g r r i v e s(if Par,i are
p a r t i c ~ l l a r l yd i v e r s e i l ~ i cl o [ l i e fact lliat p l a n t species
transit fro111 t n l c niangrw.Jes t o inr111de t i i a n y fresh-
w a t e r species frnni l l i e Ania7.on I l n n ~ l p l a i n(irirz~.fl)
envininment.
T l i e , l i . < I r i l > ~ ~ t i o01! i niali};r,>\,c,s is l i ~ i i i l e , l I,? It>!\,
temj~erilltrrc*,l i y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - 1iij;Ii s ; ~ l!vavc
i ~ i i tencrj;y,
~ ~ , :iri<l
la& o f f r e s h r v a l r r . I i t r i t i i o f 111angrove
specir,s r v i t l i I a l i t ~ ~ <a101i); lr Ill<,n r a 7 i l i a l i m a r l i s a ( l i -
rect f u n c l i w i o f t l i e i n f l ~ ~ < . n roef I e ~ i i l ~ t ~ r . i l M ~ a~ nr e- .
g r o v e s c x t c n ~ l~ i i t ~ cft!rtIi<,r li t o Ill?x ( ~ t ~ l;ilo~i);
li tliv
n l a 7 i l i a 1 i c ~ j a x t .lat. S ?I", as r a n I,? e ~ l ~ r c t c znlcly cl
based o n I a l i t ~ ~ l~i ml ei t s . 1.lie rcasnli is the p r c s c n r c
[ i f w a r m criastnl w a t e r I c n ~ p e r a t l t r e . :d l l e 10 Ilic p r i i x -
imity o f l l i e s o ~ ~ t l i r u a rf dl o w i r i g w a r m w a t e r Orazil
w e s l e r n h c ~ ~ r n d n rcltrrent,y a t i d a l s ~l l ~i e p r o t e c l i u n
a f l o r d c d 111 t h e ! n s r i h p v e s a l o l i g I l i e s t ~ u t l i r r UI-azil-
~i
i i ~ ncnasl ng.iinst c h i l l y crinlinerital a i r niasses b y the
c r ~ a s t - p a r a l l e ln i o u n t a i n range, Serra d o M a r . 111 c o n -
trast, m a n g r o v e s o n l y e x l e n d t n lilt. S 5" a l o n g I h e
w e s l coast 01 S o i l t h A m e r i c a because o f l l i e p r o x i ~ i i i -
t y n l the ~ i ~ i r t l i r v a rf ldn w i n g c o l d w a l e r P e n i easlern
b w n d n r y c u r r e r i l a n d also t h e p e r s i s t e n t a n d exten-
s i v e 12. Nina near-shore u p w e l l i n g s y s l e m , w l i i c l ~
b r i n g s c o l d d e e p w a t e r o n t n t l i e ocean s u r f a c e a l o n g
[ h e P a c i f i c coast o f S o u t h America:For ~ ~ i o parts,
st
r n a n h ~ o v e sr e r l u i r e t h a t t h e s ~ ~ s t a i ~ lirei w d w i n l e r air
l e r n l ~ e r a l ~ t rexceeds
e 18•‹C. a t i d 1 1 1 a n g r w e distl.ibu-
l i o n thu.7 c l o s e l y resembles t h e g e n e r i c d i s t r i b ~ t t i o ~ i
o f c o r a l reefs. Since c o r a l reefs are l i n i i t e d i n h e i r
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e B r a z i l i a ~ci v a s l because o f high
s e d i m e n t l o a d s a n d m o b i l e s a n d banks, the associ-
a t i o n o f n i a n p v e s a n d c o r a l reefs, w l i i c l i i s v e r y
ccimrnoli ill tlie C a r i b b e a n a n d the Pacific, d o e s ~ i o t
h o l d t r u e ill B r a z i l .
M a n g r o v e c o m m u n i t i e s i n m o s t p a r t s of t l w
r v n r l d are subject l o e p i s o d i c a n d s ~ i ~ i i e l i ~ i ifre- es
q u e n t d e s l r ~ ~ c l i vi m e pacts b y Iropical stoniis, w h i c h
w h e n f111lyd e v e l o p e d are r e f e r r e d In as h ~ ~ r r i c a ~i ine s
the N o r t h Atlantic, t y p l i o o n s i n tlie Pacific, a n d c y -
c l c i n e i n tlie I n d i a n Ocean. I - l o w c v r r , tlir t i ~ r ~ l i e r ~ i
t e n i p e r a t u r e s ( o n l y a r e l a l i v e l y stiiall area has s u r -
face t e m p e r a t u r e s i n excess ( i f 25•‹C) t l i a n s ~ ~ r f a cwea -
ter masses elsewhere in the tropics. T h i s i s o n e factor
c o n l r i h l ~ l i ~ ti ng e x p l a i n w h y t n i p i c a l s t ~ ~ r n di so n o t
(or111 o r p r o p a g a t e across {tie S o u t h A t l a n t i c . A s a re-
s r ~ l l .tlie cnasl 111 B r a z i l a n d i t s m a n g r o v e c o n i n i u n i -
ties are s p a r e d the p o l e i i t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e ] > o w e n : o f
t r o p i c a l s t o r m s . T r o p i c a l s t o m i s affect n i a n g r u v e s
m o s t s e r i n i r s l y r v l ~ e na combination o f r v i n d gusts
f r o m the ocean, I l o o d i n g , a n d s t ~ r n i iw a v e i ~ n p a c ta
m a n g r o v e coast. S t o d d a r t (1971) f o u l i d s e r i c i w d e -
f o l i a l i o n o f sevel-al m a n g r o v e species i n B e l i z e subse-
q u e n t In h ~ r r r i c a n e passage. H o w e v e r , J e n n i n p &
C o v e n t r y (1973) 2 n d C h a p l i i a n (1976) fcnlnd Rhizrr-
111111r.nt o be highly resistnil! t o I r r i p i c a l s t o r r i i d a m a g e .
W h r r e a s tropical s t o r ~ i i sd o n o t i m p a c t Drazilian
m a n g r o v e s , I i g d p e r i o d s (11 d r o u g l i t c a n be
e q t ~ a l l ydama};in& as i n the recent case o f ~ i i a n g r i ~ v e s
i n S q w t i h a n a y (Ovall?, 1992). 'l'lir c u r i s t r ~ r c t i < ~01 ri
slr;illorv f;row-r,~~t p o n d s Inr Pertnclts s l i r i ~ i i pc u l t u r e
cl,~r.;littitcs n ~ i o t l i c sr e r i ~ > ~stressor
ls 10 ~llar~grriv syS-
c
t e ~ i i s ,sincc p r ~ n c l si n I n a n y places i n L a l i l i A m e r i c a
a n d c l e w h e r e are c ~ ~ n s t r i l c ~i cn d ~ n a n g r o v eareas.
O n c e t h e man[;roves h a v e b e c n cleared, t h e s o i l i s e x -
~ > o w d ,o r p ~ i i cm a t t e r n x i d i z e d a ~ i ds ~ ~ l l i d cpsr o -
d u c c d , r e d u c i n g l l i e s o i l pH, o f t e n w e l l b e l u r v 5,

which is too acidic forshrirnp rearing. The ponds are
often abandoned after a few years but mangroves do
not recolonize the area because of the high sulfide
content i n the soils.
Although many earlier studies emphasized the
role of succession i n mangrove distribution and de-
velopment (cf. Oliveira, 1947, 1950; Chapman, 1976).
i t now appears that there exist few general patterns'
o f mangrove distribution w i t h i n a particular mall-
grove wetland and no clear patterns of succession.
Rather, extreme local and regional variability is com-
mon as a result of physical-chemical variability and
hydrological forcing. Instead of linear succession,
mangroves consist of a mosaic of species, in general
influenced and distributed as a result of physical and
chemical characteristics of the sediments, micro-
topography, and magnitude and frequency of tidal
and freshwater inundation (Reits, 1961; Ovalle et ni.,
1990; Ovalle, 1992; Kjerfve et nl., 1993).
Structural development of mangroves i n Brazil
and elsewhere is o p t i m u m along (a) low r e l i e f coast,
especially deltaic plains, w i t h extensive estuaries and
tidal creeks; @) coasts w i t h macrotides which pro-
vide regular and extensive flooding and dispersion
of propagules, seeds, sediments, nutrients, and salts;
(c) coasts w i t h large freshwater discharge and high
sediment load and adsorbed nutrients, experiencing
episodic seasonal flooding of mangrove communi-
ties, transport and deposition of sediments onto
mangrove-occupied tidal flats, and washing away of
leached salts; (d) coasts w i t h high rainfall, preferably
i n excess of 2,000 m m annually, where the seasonal
signature is minimal and humidity remains high
during the entire year; (e) l o w energy coasts where
the wave power is dissipated b y the time waves that
reach the shoreline so that propagules may settle
grow; and ( f ) prograding coasts w i t h a voluminous
fine-grained sediment supply and associated terres-
trially derived nutrients as i n the case of river deltas
(Cintrcin-Molero & Schaeffer-Novelli, 1992).
In Brazil, these conditions are most closely met i n
the northern states and territories, particularly Ma-
ranhjo, which contains 36% of a l l mangrove wet-
lands of Brazil (Table 1). I n places along the
Maranhao coast, mangrove trees may be as tall as 45
m, and have D B H exceeding 0.8 m, and above-
ground forest biomass of 260 t o n l h a (Lacerdo &
Schaeffer-Novelli, 1992). The structural values tor
Maran1120 are v e v close to the upper limits for man-
grove trees anywhere i n the world (Cintron L
Schaeffer-Novelli, 1983).
Project PD114190 (F)
T l i r ~ n a n j i r ~ l v eofs Sepeliba Ilay, 111 the st.~te
I<io Jr janetrri, have heen t;itcn\ely studled b v Silva
(1988) and Silva cl rii. (IOi)lj, w h o lourid rii~itijirove
trees to !i.ive a liriglil of (,.I m, DBI-l ~ii R cni, basal
area of 21.6 rn'llla, trtw dens~ty11f4.510 truliks/lia,
above ground biomass of 65.3 (~iii:Ii;i(fill$), b c h w
ground biomass of 16.3 IIJ~/II;I (20%), and I ~ t ; l lman-
grove tree biomass of X1.h t o ~ i / l i a .A l t l i o l r ~ l iI l l e r e
a r e only few data oil below grortnd bi~ilnassl o r i n a w
grove trees in Brazil, limitcd data fr11n1v a r i ~ ~ uloca- s
tions around the world indicate that approx~mately
58% of the total Inanjinive t r e e biomass is above
ground and 42% is below ground, and that the trunk
accounts for 65% ( i f the abr~veg~-outidh i ~ ~ n i a sin s
~ ~ r ~ ?and 86 % in l ~ . n ~ p ~ ~ ~roccI!wsn
R / ~ i z o ) i / ~III~II~/L' c~rhlri~~
(Cintrbn & Schaeffer-N~ivelli,1983).
Cintrcin & Schaelfer-Novelli (108.3) dlsu listed
modest values for structural por;iliietcn of the man-
grove trees of Cananeia, S&i I'aulo (Iat. S 25^) coni-
pared to the M a r a n h j o data. C;~naneia Inangnives
have an average height of 4-5 m,an average DUH of
8.1-10.1 cm, a density of 3,500-3,hOlI trunksllia ufitlia
D B H diameter of at least 1.5 cm, and a basal area of
16.4-27.9 m2/ha (Ciritrdn & Schaeffer-Novelli, 1963).
Adaime (1987) also repnrted I manjiroves from
Meio River near Cananeia. Shr tiieast~re~l cali~ipy
heights of 9.2 m. basal at-ea 0 1 31,? i n ' l l ~ a .;itld twe
density of 3.700 trunkslha. 111 Pal-anagui Bay, 1'2-
rand, further to the south, Lana c\ Sesejiol~l( l L l ? I )re-
ported canopy Iirights 111 8-17 In l o r L r t ~ y ~ ~ ~ ~ c u i n r i ~ ~
rocerriosn stands, and D B t i of l i p 111 50 cm.
Maybe the key ecological measure i n e c ~ ~ s y s t e ~ i i s
is the ability for plants l o tix atrnosphelic cal-bun
through photosynthesis, which is referred to as pro-
ductivity. h'cl jlroduc1iuil:l is the portion of the gross
production converted inL11 carbon, which t ~ i ~ e t h e r
with ~?Iantrespiration tilake I I ~ the p s s /~r,:,:uilion.
Mangrove ecosystenis tvpically exliibit atiii>lig the
highest p r o d u c t i o ~ irates [if any aqilaltc ccosvstcm
w i t h rates varying f r r m 1 to 5 g C l m ' l d a y when ex-
trapolated hir a year (1.acerda & Rezrnde, I~lOll).111
mangroves, prnductivtty is often measurcd b y mea-
suring l i t t e r fall frtm manjirnvc tree.; a t f11rt.t sites.
Lana & Sesscji~llo('l"'l3) measilrcd liller fill1 111 l ' a ~ a -
naguA Bay. They measur-ed exception;illy liijili litter
fall rates ecjuivaie~itto a l i e t p ~ i ~ d u c t i o of r i 22.3 g
C/mi/day below Lri,yiir~riiIiiriii rncr8rllow and R1rizi1-
~ ~ i i n rriinri~ic
n trees, and 45.9 g C11n';day beloiv Ln-
~ ~ r ~ t c u l nrricrrri~rsn
rin and i c I ~ n ~ ~ c , - i ntrees
iiii
with summer l i l l e r f;lll rates six times greater Illan
winter values ; i r i i l w ~ t hl e a f Iittrr accounIIiif for T 9 ' %
of the total l i t t e r fall. Tlie5e very lhijili tales are
 - Brazil

p r e s u m a b l y f o r a s h o r t t i m e sp.111 r a t h e r I h d n f o r .I 6 . Uses of Brazilian Mangrove Areas a n d

p r o l o n g e d p e r i i u l . 'rhe l l ; ~ l ~ , l ~Illet t r r J e c o t n p o s i t i ~ ~ n Resources
r a t e n l e a s l l r e d 10.5 d a y s l o r / \ . C~I~IIIC~I~IIIII ~~11sti111tly
s u b m e r g e d t o 7 4 9 d i ~ y st o r 1;. IIIIIII~IL~ 1111 s u p r a t i d ; ~ l 6.1 G e o g r a p h i c a l v a r i a b i l i l y
flats ( L a n a & S c s s e g ~ ~ I903). l ~ ~ , Silvil (I96ti) i l n d Sllvil k l o s t 111, the B r a z i l i a n ~ l ~ a t l g r o vs ey s t e m s are in.
el 01. (1992) ~ n e a s u r c ds u s t a i n e d l i t t e r tall rates o i 2.6 tact, especially the extensive m a n g r o v e w e l l a t i d s i r i
g C / m ' / d a y in t h e niangrtrves ol Sepetiba B a y R i u the n o r t h e r n states, w h e r e the p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y is
d e Janeiro, w i t h l e a f l i t t e r r n c x u r i n g 1 . 9 g C / m 2 / d a y l o w . H e r e , m a n g r o v e s exist w i t h m i n i m a l a l ~ t h r o p o .
o r 73% o f t o t a l net p r t ~ d u c t i w r .Beceuse o f r e d u c e d g e n i c i m p a c t , a n d the m a n g r o v r ecosystems s l i p p o n
s t r u c t u r a l develop111ent o f the n ~ a n g r ~ ~ vine the s Ca- r i c h ~ w p u l i ~ t i o o~ fl sfish a n d shellfish. T h i s i s quite
n a n e i s area, A d a i m c (1985) r i l e a s ~ l r e d o n l y 0.S g d i f f e r - c n l imrn s u u l h e a s t e n ~Brazil, w h e r e the III~II.
C l m ' l d a y l i t t e r fi1II o f w h t c h t h e leaf l i t t e r m o d e up g r o v e areas h a v e been cledred f o r coastal u l - b a l ~and
f o r 63%. i n d u s t r i n l d e v e l u p ~ n e n t s . M a n g r o v e s o f t e n serve as
dumping sites f o r h u m a n trash i l n d s e d i m c n l s f n ~ m
d r e d g i n g . O n a v e r y 1itnitt.d scale, t h e y w e r e u n t i l re-
c e n t l y c u t ~ O W I I f o r fitel w o o d i ~ n dp u l p . T h i s prac-
tice h a s n o w d i s a p p e a r e d f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes
w i t h I h c increase i n forest r e p l a n t i l i g o f f a s t - g r o w i n g
specicsrsucll as Eucnl!yplrrs a n d lJirrrr.i, w l ~ i c hexceed.
ed (I l i l i l l i o n hectares i n 1985 (Bacha, 1992). kI;irvest.
i n g o f m a n p v e trees a n d use o f t h e b a r k as A
p r e s e r v a t i v e o f f i s h i n g nets i s s t i l l p r a c t i c e d in some
t r a d i t i o n a l f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s ( A n d r a d c , 1984; Dicgues.
1990).

I n the s o u t h o f Bahia, t h e largest m a n g r o v e fo.

rests srruth ~ r i , k l a r a n h a o , t h e m a n g r o v e s a r e n o t uti.
l i z e d t o a n y d i r e c t extent. O n a l i m i t e d scale.
m a n g r o v e r v n ~ ~i sd used l o b u i l d f i s h i n g gear and
a m s t r u i t h o ~ l s i n T~a. n n i l ~ sextracted b y b o i l i n g Inall-
~ r u v cb a r k is u h c d as a prcser\,ative <I[ t i s l ~ i n f inew.
i n A l ~ g o a s .mangroves are a l s o u s e d f o r h u u s c cull-
structicm d t l d fish in^ gear (Viegas & ESleves. 1987).
In R i i ~d c janeiro, 40% o f l l l e r ~ r . l n g n ~ v c isn Baia dc
C u a n a b a r a h a v e been c u t d o w 1 1as t h e shores became
u r b a t ~ i z e d , w h e r e a s o111y IO-15YL o f the ~ n a n g r ~ ~ v e s
h a v e tnd the same fdte i n U'lia d e Sepeliba t o t h e
south.
In g e n e ~ - d l ,ecoIo>;ic,il s l u d ~ c hc o t ~ s t i t u \ ethe basis
f o r 1.ati0ll.lI I~ICIII.I~~IIICII~ 11t III.III);IXIV~ a l n l o t h e r cco- DIII-111sthe 197Vs. the t o u r i s m b o o m i l l o n g the
s y s l c n l s . l l r ~ l c ssvc 11.1vc ;lc~.csst o I r ~ i . ~s l t ~ - i t a ~ ~ r . ~ l I i o r c s J I I ~1111 the islands o f Baia a l l h a CIKIIIL~~ near
a n d e c o l ~ ~ s i dc .~~~t l,:III~~ II,IW . ~ l r e , ~ ddy e v e l i ~ ~ ~#I e d t h e IXII-dcr h e t w e e n the slates o f I < i r ~d e J a i l c i r o and
s o u n d ~ t r ~ d e ~ s t a ~ 111 ~ i leicnd g~ ~ ) ; t c , r~el l a t i o t l s l ~ i a} ~n ~
d 530 T'drtlo, resulted i n extensive r e i l a ~ n a t i o o~ fl man.
d y n a m i c s , w e c a t ~ t ~ Ioi ot p c to man;igc rn,ltlgr<lve eco- g r o v e arells filr b l t i i d i n g o f m d r i n a s a n d c o n d o m i n i -
s y s l e n l s w e l l T l ~ i sh n l h j u s l i l t c s ,IIIII r,lll t o r the c ~ n - Iunls. This, i n t ~ i r n ,l e d 111 the c o m p l e t e disappearance
tinl~etl mcasu~-clnenI I Intctural ~nat~grl~vc o i I I I , I I I ~ N I V ~ S ~ ~ m a n y l ~ ~ c a l t t i ci ns t h i s r e g t o n M o r e
p a r a t n e t e n a n d t h e e x e w t n l n o i v c o l o g ~ c dstudies Lhao 5[1% (c,t. 2,000 ha) o f m a n g r o v e s i n Baia d a llha
e x ~ ~ e r i t n c n l as ,n d n l ~ ~ r l e l l tCl Xs C ~ ' I ~ C S . C r a n d c i v c r c l i ~ s dt u e t o ~-cclaln,ition.

6.2 l l i s l n r i c a l uses o f m a n g r o v e s
E v i d e n c e of u t i l i z a t i m o f r n a n g r i ~ vresources
~ by
p r e - h i s t o r i c h u m a n n o m a d s is w e l l i l o c u n ~ r i ~ l catd
m i l n y sites a l o n g the B r i i z i l i a n coast. E x a r n i n a t i r ~ no l
shell IIIOIIII~~ h a v e y i e l d d 1111tcl1~ n t o i m a t i ~o n ~t h e
 P r o j n c l PD I 1 4 / 9 0 (F)

p r e - c ~ ~ l [ r ~i ~n di ai nl t i s , i n c o n l r a s l , seem 111 h a v e
Iltilized m a n g r o v e r e s o u r c e s I(> a n i l ~ c l li c s s r r e x l e n l .
O t ~ ee x p I n n n l i o n f # ? rl l t l s i s I h e < l e f c a l o f l l t e l i t t o r a l
ill,liaris hy ! h e t i i n l o r T t t p i . C t ~ a t a n i i ~ , < l i a nJ ; I . I V I ~ ~
'I'liest, l ~ i ( l i a n sca111v fr111n! l i e I r o p i c a l fore.sls o f l l i c 6.1 h 4 a r i c u l l u r c
i n l r t i r t r rtf Ill?r o t l n l r y i)ll<Ih n < l l i l l l v I ~ S C f<,r ~ i i n n . \ W h r r r w Illr mnvl);vr>vvs 01 IBII?I.~- I . i n l i ~ jA ~ l t e r i ~ n ~ l
gt.o"e WIMIII o r o l l i c ~n ~ i a n g r o v r rcsc>l!rccs. A f l y r I l i v c r \ ~ r n l ~si ~~ ~. ~c as l i I ? r ~ ! a r l ~\rvr r i v : : c v c ~ c l y i ~ ~ i l ~ ; i c l e < l
d i s c r > v e r y v f SIIIIII~ A ~ i i r l i c nhy E ~ ~ r o r c a ~ wi se, 01 h y s 1 1 1 a ~ l l l a c l l ~ l t i rct ~l i i 1 1 , I l l i s i s s t i l l a
a n r c r e s r l l l r c c s i n c r e a s e d ~ I ~ m i n a l i r n l l yT. h i s s ~ > , a l l - s c a l eI ~ i t s i n c s si t ! l11.azil. l \ ~ . i , z i l o ~ i l yl ~ t o d ~ ~ c e s
w a s Iwt11 I l i e r e s ~ ~111 l l I ' o r l ~ t g ~ ~ r Isrta. \ t ~ I c ~ ws ,h o n l - 2% 111 t l i e s i i i i III~I.~CIIIIII~C ~ ' r o d ~ r ~ ol f i ~l h~e ~ i
r e a d y k n e w n f n i a l i g r o v e s a ~ i dt h e i r n i n n y \Ices I r o ~ i i A n i c ~ i c n sas c ~ r r i i p a i ~10 c ~7f37,
l i 1 1 I:c!~atlr>r (Trciia1-50.

A f r i c a 2 n d SIIIIIII a n d s n c ~ l h e n s tAsia, anti a l s r ~d ~ tc1 ~ e lW.7). Rra7.il p r o d l ~ c c sless 1 1 1 ~ 1 12,llllll IIII~S (if s l i r ~ i n l ~ ~
t h e i l i l l l ~ xo f s o m e 4,000,0011 A f r i c a 1 1 s l a v e s Irr Dra7.il. i n p ~ n i c l se x c a v a l r c l i n l e s I l r n ~3,11110 i 11a 01 ~ i ~ n n j i r ~ r v c
m a n y (if w h v m came f r o m mangrcive-rich c~iastal w e l I a n , l s ( I ' a l ~ l e ,I). T11i1s. ill Ilra741, I l i e c n ~ i \ ~ i so if ~ ~ ~ i
areas i n w c s l A f r i c a , s p e c i a l l y N i g e r i a . OIIC o f t h e I l i a n f ; r o v r s In s l i ~ i r ~ i~p ~ I I ~ C I I IpI oI tIi ~ d sCi s' 11 v e r y
uses o f n n r v e s w a s l l i c b o i l i n g o f m a n g r o v v i l l I I I S ~ I Ii S n S i n 111 I l t e l l l l l , S l l ~ l h a
b a r k f o r I a n n i ~ ir i i ~ c i i ~ i i i , c i l l i e P I ~ I ~ I I ~ ~ I I C S ~ a c l t ~ n c ~ ~ l 'ln~n ~d sr eill E c ~ ~ a d oAr .I I l i i ~ ~ ~ f li l ~i . v r ep r c s -
C r o w n a l l e n i l ~ l e dI n r e g ~ l l n l ei n r l l c e i ~ ; l i l e e n l l i c e n l u - e n l l y i s a I r v n c l ill 0ra7.il I t ) r ~ p a ~ siI id1 i 1 1 i 1 l~a r ~ i i i ~ i g ,
r y b e c a ~ i s e[ i f l l ~ cimportance ( i f lar11ii1110 I ~ I O ~ I I C P t l i e Ie)?il n c r r s s i l y l o r e ~ i v i r r ~ ~ i ~ ~ i ~i i ~i p~anr tsl al ~l ~ < l i c s
~,ncid p a r c l i n i e ~ i t . p ~ i o 11, r r u n s l r l l c l i ~ r na ~ r~i l ,dr r n l i ~ 01 ~ ~s~l ~ r i n r l ?far^^!^
will I i ~ ~ p c f ~ p~r lv lvyt . ~ i t m a j o r ; i ~ l v e r s e i ~ i i l ~ n cIIIlI
P r e s c ~ i l l y ,i n t e n s i v e ~ i s e n i a n g r h c r e s o l l r c e s i n l l l ~ l l ~ l ' ~ Vf ?i ~ S ~~ n i ri a i i r t i l l t r r r .
Ilra7.Il i s I l ~ i i i l e d10 ~ i n l yp a r l s o f l l i c c ~ i a s l T, r a d i t i o n .
aI l ~ ~ ~ ~s ni cii eal i e~s i i n ! n a n p r o v e w e t l a ~ i d sc a n hr
fn1111d a l o n g t h e s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d n o r l l ~coast n f
I l r a z i l i n l i r e s t a l e s o f P a r 5 a n d h I a r a ~ i l i ; i ~ rThese.
I r a d i t i o n n l s o c i e t i e s s l i l l d e p e n d on n i n n g r o v e r c -
s f i ~ ~ r c c sI n. parlic~~l~ r a ~ i j i r o vfisheries
an e (A~i~lrailc.
19R4). T h e y c o l l e c t crahs, fish, o y s l e r r , a n ( \ n i ~ i l l u s c s
i l i l r ~ l s i v e l y ,I i u w e v e r , llirir f i s h i n g ~ > r a c l i c e as r e e n v i -
r t i n ~ n e n ! ; ~ l l yS O I I I ~ ~F ~ i re x n ~ n p l e , c r a h g a l l i e r e r s i n
Par5 u s e o n l y l l i e i r I i a n d s 111 a v o i d s i ~ n i l i c a t i il n j ~ ~ r i ~ , s
111 I l i e a n i ~ i i a l .A l s o , t l i v y 111iIyc ~ i l l e r l~ i i a l ca ~ i i m a l s
anrl r c l l l ~ n Ii r ~ i i a l ea ~ i i n i a iln~l a e l t o l l i c PIIV~~IIIIIIIP~~~.
111 a ~ i l l i e rp r a c l i c e , l l ~ e y "rear" l c r ~ d i ~ ~(7'crcrlfl i(I
C I ' ~ ) I ~ i v a l v c chy f e l l i n g ~ i i a n g r n v etrees a1111 l e a v i n g
t l i r 11.11trkI n r o t i n l l ~ ef o r c s l ( A n d r a d c , I ? M ) .

6.3 F i s l i r r l c s 6.6 S a l l p r ~ i < l t ~ r l i < i ~ ~

A l l l i ~ i ~ ~s g1 1l 1i d i r s i11 A s i a c l e a r l y d c ~ n ~ i ~ i s l Ihr ~~ale
s l r l > l i g p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a l i r i ~b~e l w e c ~si l r ~ i n i pc a l c l i a n d
a w a r i f I n a r l R r r r v P P c o s y s l e l i l s , s c ~ c l ri l e f i ~ ~ i l i vs el ~ ~ d i e s
d o 11111 e x i s t f o r Ilra7.il, h111,il i s b e l i e v e d Ilia1 ~ n a w
g r n v r s s ~ ~ p p o fri sl h e r i e s b y e i l l i e r p r c i v i d i ~ i l ; f o o d ,
n l l l s r r y ;lieas, r I i i a j i a i l i ~ l~ v e d a l i n ~ 111. i.
venlories r i l specific r n n n g r o v ? Irahilals indicnlv l h a l
C ~ i ~ i v e r s i o( inf ~ i i a ~ ~ f iwr ~~~i lvI ;~r ~ i icnl lso salt p a n s
f o r c ~ ~ ~ n n i ~ rs a c lil a~lI . I ~ < I I I C I ~ I h~ aI Is c l i a ~ i ~ ; c pt!~.ina-
~l
~ i e n l l yI l i r n ~ c a ~ ~( i df sacres ( i f n i n n g r w e areas a l o n g
I l i c a ~ i c l1 1 1 r t - l l i ~ a s l rrrn~a~s l . r s p r c i a l l y i n IZio C r a n ~ l e
d o Nl,~lr.I I,r!veve~.. Ilir v c ~ ~ l o ] : i c a lancl c ~ l ' r ~ ~ i r i ~ i i i c a l
c o s l s ~ I I s~o cI i t ! - r c o i ~ t ? l i , i <c < ~ I ~ F ~ I :01~ ~SIICII I I ~ sColl\'l.l.-
s i o n 112s I ~ : i t r r l ~ e r <i ~ l s< Cl K I I : ! I , S ~ ~ ~ I \ t o t~Il,e!. : i m ; ~ s z i i d
6.7 h t i l ~ i r l r ~ r n ~ c it ti l ii pc a c l s d u e Iri ~lrtlallizalioll
T h e c x p a l i s i , > t t I>( t 1 r b a 1 1a r r a s 8 s a r t * s ~ t l t IIOI~S-
inp, l i ~ t s l ~ i a lI ,~ ~ I I >a !It dI ~t,n t ! ~ i s m ~ l c v c l i ~ l ~ t i i r ~ n l
r r l ~ r ? s c c " t sl l i c l i i a i t ? r a ~ i I l i r ~ i p o ~ ; ~a ~c lii ivci l y ! v h i c - I ~
c n t t s c s r c c l n ~ r r n l i o tnI ~ t i i n n y , r r l v c at.c;l. \ Y e c!:litnntc
l l i a l a t I c a s l 2112, ~ tihle o r i l ; i n a l ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ j C; Or YoP Iv. c1\25
r l i s a ~ r p c a r e <hl c c n ~ ~ nf s r l i i n j n r atillirr,l~r>[;rnie i n i l ~ a c l
o n 1 i i a n g l u v e s y s l c ~ ~ ni lsn l i g t h e c ~ i a s (11 l lhzil.

mangroves; Federal L a w 5.197 passed, on 3 January
1967. w i t h provisions for the protection of mangrove
fauna; and Federal L a w 6.902. passed on 27 April
1981, relating to the creation of environmental
prnlection areas (Maciel, 1989). In addition. coastal
state government agencies have issued various de-
crees and regulations to senre as guidelines for
coastal development activities while at the same time
protecting local mangrove resources.
A national coastal zone management plan
(PGNC) was passed into Federal Law 7.661 on 16
M a y 1988 to control coastal pollution, degradation of
coastal habitats, decreased fisheries catches, and
tourism (Herz, 1990). However, the law has not yet
been implemented. The law defined the boundaries
of the coastal zone as stretching from 2 k m inland
u n t i l 12 nautical miles seaward relative to the mean
high tide line. The coastal zone, thus defined, mea-
s u m 200,000 krn' and includes all of the Brazilian
mangrove areas. The Comissdo Interministerial de
Recursos da Marinha (CIRM) was responsible for
preparing and implementing the management plan
and for p r o v i d i n g financial and technical aid to
coastal state governments for the creation of opti-
m u m management plans (Herz, 1990).
A geographical informatinn system (CIS) data-
base was used for macro-zoning of t h i e n t i r e coast of
Brazil, i.e. the division of the coast into areas w i t h
the highest potential for ecological conservation, port
facilities, urban growth, industrial expansion, recre-
ation and tourism, exploitation of minerals and hy-
drocarbons, agriculture and silviculture activities,
and preservation of historical, cultural, and aesthetic
assets. A series of thematic maps were over-laid l o
classify the coastal zone o f Brazil, using 280 cells,
each measuring Xl minutes latitude b y 30 minutes
l n n p t u d e (Herz, 1990). W i t h collaboration f m m the
federal government and a variety of organizations
w i t h an interest i n coastal areas, the department of
environment (meio ambiente) i n each coastal slate is
currently i n the process of micro-zoning the coastal
resnurces, based on maps to the scale 1:12,500 and
I:lS.flOO (Herz, 1990).
8. M a n a g e m e n t of M a n g r o v e A r e a s a n d
Resources
A summary of management units for the man-
groves of Brazil is presented i n Table 5 . Brazilian
mangroves are quite diverse i n terms of structure
and biodiversity, which vary from site to site. This
Project PD1 14/90 (F)
site specific variability s t i o ~ ~ always
ld be c~)r~sidered
whenever management policies are to be applied.
N ~ ~ l w i t h s t a n d i nthis
& we suggest a gener.11 but pre-
liminary classilicati~~n of management categnries for
Brazilian mangroves.
When considering rational management g l i d e -
lines, we propose a division into the following gener-
al categories: ( A ) mangrove conservation reserves,
(B) mangrove forest reserves, (C) mangrove fisheries
areas, q n d ( D ) damaged mangrove areas (Table 5).
Guidelines may additionavy be needed for man-
grove arras that due to their small size o r high de-
gree of degradation, o r any other reason which
i m p o v e r i i h their ecological and biological character-
istics. are subject for conversion to other uses, e.g.
agriculture, aquaculture, and urbanization. 'Howev-
er, such a category is i n theory not necessary as Bra-
zilian legislation considers mangroves as permanent
conservation areas. I t is our view that socio-
economic and geographical characteristics of Brazil
strongly implies that conversion of mangrove areas
for other uses is neither economically nor ecological-
l y sound. Mangroves provide many direct and indi-
rect benefits to cnastal populations, and conversion
of mangrove systems should be avoided. Rather, i t
w o u l d be better to recuperate "poor" m a n g n v e s and,
return them to serve their inherent ecological role.
Mangrove conservation reserves (MCR) include
those forests designated for c~inservation,tnurisrn,
recreation, and scientific studies. Included a r e also
fragile mangrove areas of significant scientific inter-
est, e.g. the Lngunculnrin rflcettimn fnrest of the Maceio
River estuary on llha Fernand11 de Noronha (Herz,
1991), w h i c h thrives under unique oceanic cnndi-
lions. H i g h biodiversity sites comprise another type
of M C R due to the inherent binlirgcal significance nf
rich biodiversity forests and their potential as refuge
of endangered species. Examples nf high diversity
systems include the extensive r n a n g r n v t l ainng the
coast of Pard and the unique Amazon River estuary
mangroves, where freshwater ~nncrophgtesmix w i t h
"true" mangrove species (Panlnja, 1991). Included
among M C R are mangroves of particular i m p i ~ r t a ~ i c e
i n p r o v i d i n g indirect benefits to coastal areas. such
as malntalnlng w a t e r (lunlity, providing protrclion
against erosion and storms, and stabilizatiori and
b u i l d i n g of coastlines and islands. Examples include
the mangroves of c e r t a i i southeaztern mangrove
sites, e.g. i n Baia Tndos os Santos, in Baia da Cuana-
bara, and the Santns-Berlioga region, where interi-
sive industrialization and harbor activities have I r d
to a decrease i n cnastal water quality. Included
 Brazil

Fig. 2. High rise condorninia lower over Lagoa de Marenpendi in Rio de Janeim and remnant stands o f mangroves are left as
decorative gardens.

Fig. 3. Lcw-income housing developments (lavclas) encroach upon mangmvcs along the north coast of Rio de Janeiro, rep.
resenting a major l o r n of anthn,p(xcnic impact on rnangmvc systems.
 Project PD114190 (F)

Fig. 4 . Low-income housing developments (favelas) encroach upon mangroves along the north c m s l of Rio d e janeiro, rep-
resenting a major l o r n 01 a n t h r o p < g e n i cimpact on mangrove systems.

Fig. 5. Sediment starvation a n d rising relative sca level in the delta n l the Rio Paraiba d o Sul in the northern part o f Rio d e J a -
neiro h a v e resulted in severe shoreline relrcai a n d erosion of mangrove areas.

D a m a g e d m a n g r o v e areas (DMA) are those
w h i c h h a v e been converted to non-sustainable uses,
submitted to ecologically unsound management
practices at the expense of mangroves, and impacted
b y a n t h r o p o g e n i c activities with detrimental effects
on the functioning of the mangrove ecosystem. Ex-
a m p l e s include a b a n d o n e d shrimp p o n d s and n o n -
p r o d u c t i v e salt p a n s in converted mangrove areas
a l o n g the northeastern coast of Brazil, and bank-
r u p t e d tourism projects that deforested mangrove
forests a l o n g llha G r a n d e Bay in southeastern Brazil.
Also, D M A a r e those impacted by oil spills, e.g.
m a n g r o v e s of the Santos-Bertioga coast of Sen PauIo,
a n d the chronically impacted mangroves of the in-
dustrialized s o u t h Brazil coast, where pollutants are
constantly b e i n g discharged into mangrove wetlands
(Lacerda, 1984).
In conclusion, a detailed survey to classify the
m a n g r o v e a r e a s of Brazil into the above four catego-
ries is far from complete. I t is likely that different
a n d m o r e detailed mangrove management categories
w o u l d be e v e n m o r e useful d u e to the high diversity
of m a n g r o v e habitats a l o n g the coast of Brazil. Any
m a n a g e m e n t strategy for the country's mangroves
s h o u l d b e k e p t flexible and be allowed to evolve as
necessary.
9. Acknowledgements
W e gratefully acknowledge the unfailing s u p p o r t
given b y the C o n s e l h c Nacional d e Desenvr~lvimento
Cientifico e Tecnol6gico (CNPq). We would also like
to a c k n o w l e d g e the invaluable inputs mceived from
C16udia Lamparelli, Fablola d e Oliveira Rodrigues,
Debora 0. d e M o u r a . Gabriela M.F. Cdlcena, and Re-
gina d e C. Vincent f r o m Companhia d e Tecnologia
d e S a n e a m e n t o Ambiental (CETESB) in Sao Paulo,
a n d from George S a t a n d e r S5 Fmire, Aida Maria Es-
kinazi d e Oliveira, Diolande Ferreira Gomes, and
Evilene Celestino Lopes of LABOMAR, Universi-
d a d e Federal d o CearB, w h o provided valuable data
on the southeastern and northeastern Brazilian man-
groves, respectively.
Project PD1 14/90 (F
10. References
Abreville, C.d'R.P. 1614.
Historie d e la mission des pPres Capucins en I ' l l ,
d e Moragrian et terres circonvoisir~esouest d e
indies habitants d e ce pays. Paris, p.179-180.
Adaime, R.R. 1987.
Estfutura, producao e transporte em u m m a n
guezal. Simp. Ecossistemas d a Costa Sul e Su
deste d o Brasil - Sintese d e conhecimentos. Acad
Ci@nc.Estado d e SBo Paulo, vol. 1:80-99.
ADEMA, 1984.
Levantamento da flora e caracterizacao d o s bos-
ques d e m a n g u e d o Estado d e Sergipe. Adminis-
tracao Estadual d o Meio Ambiente. Aracaju, SE.
191p.
Adaime, R.R. 1985.
Produqao d o bosque d e m a n g u e d a Gamboa
NClbrega (Cananeia.25" Lat. S - Brazil). Ph.D. Dis-
sertation. lnstituto Oceanografico da U n i v e n i -
d a d e d e Sao Paulo. 305 p p .
Almeida Pinto, J. de, 1648.
Dicinnario de botanica brasileira o u c o m p e n d i a
d m vegetais d o Brasil, tanto indigenas q u a n t o
aclirnatadas. R i c d e janeiro.
Amador, E.S. 1 9 8 0
Assoreamento d a Baia d e G u a n a b a r a . Taxas d e
Sedimentacao. Ann. Acad. Bras. Cienc.
52:723-742.
Anchieta, S.J. 1554.1594.
Carlas, inforrnaqies, fragmentos histdricos e
SermAes d o Padre Anchieta, 5.1. (1554-1594). Car-
ta d e Sao Vicente (1560). Civilizaqao Brasilrira,
Rio d e Janeiro, p . 103-143 (1933).
Andradc. I. 19R1.
Folclore na regieo d o salgadr), P a r 5 2nd edition.
Escola d e Folclore, S3o Paulo. 8 3 pp.
Aratijo, D.S.D. E; Maciel, N.C. 1979.
0 s manguezais d o r e c h c a v o d a Baia d e G u a n a -
bara. Fundnqno Estadual d e Engenharia d o M e l o
Ambiente (FEEMA). Rio d e janeiro. 113 p p .
4veline. L.C. 1980.
Fauna d o s manguezais brasileiros. Rev. Brasil.
G e o 42:
~ 786.821.
a m o n g M C R a r e the fringe m a n g r o v e s , which pro-
vide effective protection to shorelines a n d coastal
ecosystems. E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e the m a n g r o v e s of S o
Luis, M a r a n h a o a n d the s o u t h of Bahia, w h e r e the
m a n g r o v e s h e l p t r a p h u g e a m o u n t s of terrestrial
sediments. a n d thereby protect the offshnre coral
reefs of Parcel M a n u e l Luiz a n d the Abrolhos archi-
pelago, respectively, f r o m excessive siltation.
M a n g r o v e forest reserves (MFR) is a manage-
m e n t category which i n c l u d e s those m a n g r o v e s des-
ignated for sustainable p r o d u c t i o n of timber a n d
o t h e r forest p r o d u c t s . MFR include extensive m a n -
g r o v e s t a n d s w i t h high structural d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
biomass, a l l o w i n g for economically viable exploita-
tion with conservation of the m a n y ecological prop-
erties of the m a n g r o v e s . Multiple sustainable
utilizatirm of o t h e r m a n g r o v e resources should b e
encouraged in MFR. E x a m p l e s of m a n g r o v e systems
in this category a r e t h e extensive forests along the
coast of A m a p e a n d MaranhAo in northern Brazil,
which c o m p r i s e o v e r 60% of all Brazilian m a n g m v e
areas, and w h e r e forests frequently a r e taller than
40m.
M a n g r o v e fisheries areas (MFA) is a category
which includes m a n g r o v e s associated w i t h extensive
w a t e r w a y s o r coastal waters, with high productivity
of fish a n d shellfish species that s p e n d a t least part of
their life cycles in m a n g r o v e areas, a n d u s e t h e m for
food, nursery, o r shelter. Such s y s t e m s i n c l u d e a r e a s
w h e r e catches consist rnoslly of m a n g r o v e species,
a n d d o not involve activities i n adjacent coastal w a -
ters. Examples are the m a n g r o v e c r a b fisheries i n
Piaul a n d o t h e r sites a l o n g the coast of northeastern
Brazil a n d the harvesting of m a n g r o v e o y s t e r s a l o n g
t h e coast of S a o Paulo. More than 30,000 p e r s o n s d e -
p e n d directly o n these fishing a n d harvest activities.
MFA a l s o i n c l u d e those areas w h e r e large catches of
m a n g r o v e - d e p e n d e n l estuarine species of fish a n d
shellfish a r e harvested, a n d protection a n d restric-
tion of activities in adjacent coastal w a t e r s a r e neces-
sary. Examples include s h r i m p fishing in m a n g r o v e
w a t e r w a y s a n d coastal w a t e r s a l o n g the coasts of
Pard, M a r a n h s o , a n d the Bala d e T a c a m a in s o u t h e r n
Bahia. In these areas, it is logical to expect a direct
relationship between catch a n d the area of
mangroves.

Table 5. Managemenl categories a n d examples of mangrove systems in Brazil.

Management Category Sub-Category
A. M a n-~ r o v eConservation Fragile mangrovesystems for
Reserves conservation and scientific study
Mangrovesystems with high
biodiversity
Mangrove systems with special-
ized ecologial function
Example
Maceio Riverestuary, ltha Fernando de Noronha
Mangroves of the coasts of Par&and Maranhso
The efficient sediment trapping mangroves of Baia
S i o Marcos, Maranhio and southern Bahia

0, Mangrove Forcst Reservcs Mangmve systems with sustain- Mangrove systems in Amapa and Maranhio
able utilization of loresl products

C. Mangrove Fisheries Areas Crab fishing Mangrove wetlands in northern and northeastern
Brazil
Oyster harvesting Coast of S i o Paulo
Shrimp fishing Coastal and estuarine waters olf Maranh5c and
southem Bahia

D. Damaged Mangrove Areas Mangmve systemsconverted for Abandoned shrimp and salt ponds in northcastern
other uses Brazil
Construction 01 tourism and re- Southeastern Brazil
sort areas
Oil impacted mangroves Bcrtioga and Santos, Sio Paulo, and other industrial-
izcd areas
 Brazil
Bacha, C.J.C. 1992.
A s i t ~ r a q $ oa t u a l d a s d a d o s sobre reflurestamento
n o Brasil. AnBlise EconOmica 10(17):141-155.
Barth, O . M . & Silva. S.A.F. 1965.
Catdlogo sistemdtico d a s plantas arb6reas d o
Brasil m e r i d i o n a l . 7. Thymeleaceae, Lythraceae,
Lecythidaceae, Rhizophoraceae e Cnmbretaceae.
Merns. Inst. O s w a l d o C r u z 63(1):255-273.
Beltrao, M.C. 1976.
D o c u m e n t o s s n b r e a pre-historia d o s estadus d o
Rio d e J a n e i r o e G u a n a b a r a (1500-1963). Col.
M u s . Paulista Ser. Arqueologia 2:l-143.
Berla, M . F . 1944.
Lista d a s a v e s colecionadas em Pedra Branca,
M u n i c i p i o d e Parati, Estado d e Rio d e Janeiro,
corn a l g u m a s notas s o b r e sua biologia. Bolm.
M u s . Nac. Rio d e Janeiro, n.s. Zoul. 18:l-21.
Braga, Y.Y. 1970 a.
Flora m a r i n h a bentOnica d a Baia d e Guanabara e
cercania. 1 . C l o r o p h y t a . Publ. Inst. Pesq. Mar.,
R i o d e Janeiro, 42:l-55.
Braga, Y.Y. 1970 b .
Flora m a r i n h a bentOnica d a Baia d e Guanabara e
cercanias. 2. R h o d o p h y t a , A r p t o m e n i a l e s , Gi-
gartinales e Rhodimeniales. Publ. Inst. Pesq.
Mar., Rio d e Janeiro. 41:l-55.
Braga, M.R., Fujji, M., Yokoya, N.S., Eston, V.R.,
Plastino. E.M. 6: C n r d e i r o - M a r i n o , M. 1990.
M a c r ~ ~ a l p ri el p r ~ r d u c t i v ep a t l e m s in mangroves
of llha d o Cardrlso, Sp, Brazil. In: An. I I S y m p .
Ecoayst. C o a s t S u l s ~ r d e s l e Brasil, Acad. Ci@nc.
Est. Sao P a u l o . SAn Pauln, p:209-217.
BI-ito, P.M. 19.50.
N i n h o s e avos d e a l g u m a s aves brasileira. Rev.
Bras. Biol. 10(3):315-331
Brocadet, A . P . 1921
Les piantes utiles d u Bresil. P a n s , Vigol
Bronnirnaii. P:, M~111ra.) . A & Dias.Brito, D. 1981 a.
E c o l o p a d e foraminfferos e microorganisos asso-
c i a d o s d a a r e a d e GuaratibaISepetiba: modelo
a m b i e n t a l e s u a aplicacao na pesquisa d e hidrn-
carbonelos. Rel. Int. Petrnbras-DEPEX-
L a b o n e d a l e , Rio d e laneiro.
Bronnimann, P., Dias-Brito. D. & Mnura, J.A. 1981 b.
Foraminiferos da facies m a n g u e d e Guaraliba,
Rio d e Janeiro, Brasil. Anais Cungresso Lztino
Americano d e Paleuntulogia. 2:877-891, Porto
Alegre.
Castro, A.L. 1962.
Sobre os crustaceos referidos p o r M a r c g r a v e e m
s u a "Historia Naturalis Brasiliae" (1648). Arq.
Mus. Nac., Rio d e Janeiro, 5237-51.
Castro, G.M.O. 1932.
Estudo sobre a especie d e Culex q u e s e criam em
burocns d e guayamu (Diptera Culicidae). Revista
d e Entomologia, Rio d e Janeiro 2(1):97-105.
CEPLAC, 1976.
Diagnostico sucio-econumico d a regiao cacauei-
ra. Comissao Executiva d o Piano d a L a v o u r a Ca-
caueira. Ministerio d a Agricultura, Ilheus, BA, ..
246 p .
C h a p m a n , V.J. 1976.
Mangrove vegetation. J. Krarner. Vaduz, 447 p p
Cintrtin, G . 6:Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1983.
Introduction a la ecologia del manglar. ROST-
L A C I U N E S C O . Montevideo. 109 p p .
CintrOn-Molero, G. 6: Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1992.
Ecology and management of n e w w o r l d m a n -
groves. p . 233-258. In: Coastal plant c o m m u n i t i e s
of Latin America. Seeliger, U. (ed.). Academic
Press. N e w York. 392 p p .
Clerot. L.F. 1928.
0 s s a n l b a q u i da bacia d o Rio Macacu. In:
C o n g r . Interamerlcano d c Arqueul. 2:451-464.
Rio d e Janeiro.
C o @ l l ~ oP.A.
, 196314.
Distribuiq5o d o s crust6ceos d e c d p o d a s na Areas
d e Barra d a s Jailgadas. Trab. lnst. O c e a n o g r .
Univ. Recife, 5/6:159-174.
Co@lho,P.A. 1 9 6 5 / 6 . 0 s crust6ceos d e d p o d e s d e al-
g u n s manguezais pernanibucanos. Trab. Inst.
O c e a n o g r Univ. Recife, 7/8:71-89.
Co@lho,P.A. 1966.
E s l u d o ecolhgico da lagoa d o 01ho d ' i g u a , Per-
nambuco, com especial referencia aos crustdceos
decdpodes. Trab. l n s t O c e a n o ~ r .Univ. Recife,
7 1 8 5 1 -6Q.
 Project P D i 14/90 (F)

Coimbra-Filho. A.F. & Magnanini, A. 1961. voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under
A Reserva Biol6gica de Jacarepagud-Marapendi, the command of Capt. Fitz-Roy. Second editinn,
Rio de Janeiru. Centru de Pesquisas Florestais e cormcted with additions. Colonial and Home Li.
de Conservacao da Natureza. Rlo de Janeiro. brary. 1-ond~n.

Cordeiro-Marino, M., Braga, M.R.A., Eston, V.R., Fu- D ~ ~ ~ . B , ~D. , Zaninetti, L. 1979.
I o 61
jii, M.T. &Yokoya, N.S. 1992. Etude geribotanique Comparative de trois man.
Mangrove macrualgal communities of Latin groves d u littoral bresilien: Acupe (Bahia), Gus.
America: The state of the art and perspectives. ratibn (Ria de Janeiro) e t l p a p e (Sao Paulo).
In: Seeliger, U. (ed.), Coastal Plant Communities Noles Lab. Paleont. Univ. GenPve, 4(6):5i-65.
of Latin America, Academic Press, San Diego,
pp. 51-64. Diegues, A.C. 1990.
conI~~rlidades1ilorSnea.s e os manguezais n o Bra-
Correa, P.M. 1909. ,il. 124-146. In: II %mphsio de Ecossistemas
A flora do Brasil. Algumas plantas dteis, suas da cIfils Sul e Sudesle Brasileira. Val. 3. P u b l i p o
aplicacdes e d i s t r i b u i p o geogrdfica. Rio de Janei- ACIQSI' N'71-3.498 pp.
ro, 66p.
Dolianitl, E. 1955.
Costa, C.S.B. & Davy, A.J. 1992. FmtoS de N y p a no Paleocene de Pernambuco.
Coastal salt marsh communities of Latin Ameri- ~ ~ ~ Ool.
~ D1 i v1 . Geol.
. D N P M 158:l-36.
ca. In: Seeliger, U. (ed.), Coastal Plant Communi-
ties of Latin America, Academic Press, San Emperaire,). & Laming. A. 1956.
Diego, p p . 179-199. L~~sambaquis de la cote meridionale du Brr'sil
(Campages de fouilles 1954156). J. Soc. America.
Cunha, E.M. S. 1965. .istes Paris, n.s. 455-16 3 ,
Sambaquis d o litoral carioca. Rev. Brasil. Geogr.
27(1):.1-70. ~ ~ k ~ ~ ~ ~ i . O l A.M.
i v e i 1972.
ra,
peixes estuarinns do Nordeste Oriental Brasilei,
Damisin, E. 1979/80a. ,,,
Arq. Ci. Mar., Ceard. 12(1):35-41.
Contribui<ao ao conhecimen~oda'vegetaqio dos
manguezais da llha de S3o Luls, M A - Part I.Bo- Eskanazi-Oliveira, A.M. 1974.
letim do Laborat6rio de Hidmbioloeia I c t i o f a ~ ~ ndas
n & p a s estuarinas do Rio Parafia
<> -
(Universidade Federal d o Maranhao, SBo Luis, ( ~ ~ ~ sArq. i l ) .Ci. Mar., Ceari. 14(1):41-45.
M A ) 8~17-56.
Fausto F. J. 1966.
DamBsio, E. 1979/8Db. Quart2 contribuiq8o ao inventdrio dos crustaceos
ContribuiqZo ao conhecimento da vegetaqo dos dec6podes marinhos do Nordeste brasileiro.
manguezais da llha de S i o Luis, M A - Part 11. Bo- Ci. Mar., CearB. 10(1):55-60.
letim do Laboratbrio de Hidrobioloeie ~ ~ ~

0.-
(Universidade Federal d o Maranhao, Sao Luis,
M A ) 8:57-76.

Dansereau, P. 1947. Freire, G.S.S. & Oliveira, A.M.E. 1993.

Zonation e l succession sur l e restinge de Rio de Mangroves of northeastern Brazil. pp.14-15. In:
Janelro. I. Halosere. Revue Can. Biol. ~ ~ ~ ~ s c r v aand t l osustainable
n u t i l i z a t i o ~oi f man-
6(3):448-477. grove forvsts i n Latin America and Afnca re-
gion;. International Tropical Timber
Dansereau, P. 1950. ~ ~ ~ ~ l i z a t i o n / I n t e r n a t i o Society
naI for Man-
Ecological problems of Southeastern Brazil. Sci- grove Ecosystems (ITTOIISME). Lacerda, L.D. &
ent. Mon., N.Y. 71(2):71-R4. ~ i ~ lC.D.
d , (eds.). Okinawa. 28 pp.

Darwin, C. 1945. Freise, F.W. 1931.

Journal of researches into the natural history and saniei~ngsarbeitrn und Fischruckgang.
geology of the countries visited during the
- Brazil
Geobachtungen a u s d e r Bucht von Rio d e Janei-
ro. 2. Fisch. 29:141-145.
Freise, F.W. 1932.
Brasilianische Gerbstoffpflanzen und ihre Aus-
b e u t u n g . Tropenpflanzer 3570.74.
Freise, F.W. 19331.34.
Ersatzbeschaffung f u r Edel-und Luxusholzer des
Weltmarktes a u s brasilianischer Waldwirtschaft.
Z. Welt forst. 1:570-575.
Freise, F.W. 1938.
Untersuchungen a m schlick d e r Mangrovekusten
Brasiliens. C h e m i e E r d e 11(2):333-355.
Frciis-Abreu, S. 1926.
Notes o n the t a n n i n g materials of Brazil. J . Am.
Leath. C h e m . Ass. 21357-358.
Friris-Abreu, S. 1911.
Na lerra d a s palmeiras. Estudos Brasileiros. Rio
d e Janeiro. Of. Ind. Grafica, s.p.
Gcies, H.A. 1942.
A Baia a e Sepetiba. Rio d e Janeiro. lmprensa Na-
cional, 365p.
Gonqalves, A.A. 19.34.
. Jennings,J.N. & 8.1. Conventry. 1973.
0 f u t u r o industrial d a ostreicultura no pais. In: I
Congr. N a c . Pesca. Rio d e Janeiro, Ministerio d e
Agricultura, Div. d e Caqa e Pesca. p.:158-188.
H e r z , R., Espindo1a.C.R. & Machado-Gornati, A.L.
19n.i.
Andlise d o grau d e resolu@o d o s sensores MSS
para i d e n t i f i c a p o d e m a n p e z a i s na costa brasi-
leira a p a r t i r d o processamento d e d a d o s CCT.
In: Simp6sio ~ r a s i l k i r od e Sensoriamento Remoto
3. R i r ~d e Janeiro.
Herz, R. 1987.
Estrutura fisica d o s m a n g u e z a i s (la costa d o Es-
tado d e Sao Paulo. In: Simp5sio sobre ecossiste-
m a s d a cosla s"1 e s u d e s t e Brasileira, I: Sintese
d o s conhecimenlos. Cananeia. Anais. Publ.
ACIESP 51-11:117-126.
Herz. R. 1990.
Brazil's national p r o g r a m . C A M P Network. The
International Newsletter of Coastal Area Man-
a g e m e n t a n d Planning. No. 12, p. 7. Kingston, RI.
H r r z , R. 1991.
M a n p e z a i s d o Brasil. lnstituto Oceanogrdfico,
Universidade d e Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil. 227 p p .
Horn, E.F. 1946.
Brazilian tanning materials. Trop. Woods
8832-34.
Horn, E.F. 1948.
Durability of Brazilian crossties. T r o p . W o o d s
9330-35.
Hueck, K. 1972.
As florestas d a America d o Sul: ecologia, c o m p o -
si@o e importancia e c o n h i c a . E d . Universidade
d e Brasilia. S2o Paulo. 466 p p .
Jacobi, C.M. & Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1990.
Oil spills in mangroves: a conceptual model
based on long-term field observations. Ecological
Modelling 32:53-59.
Japenga, J., Wagennar, W.J., Salomons, W., Lacerda,
L.D., Patchineelam, S.R. & Leit2o. C.M. 1988.
Organic micropollutants in the Rio d e Janeiro
coastal region, Brazil. Sci. Tot. Environm. 75:
169- 180.
Structure a n d texture of a gravelly barrier island
in the Fitzroy Estuary, WA, a n d the role of m a n -
groves in shore dynamics. Marine Geology
15:145-167.
Jlmenez, J. 1OR.l.
A hypothesis to explain the reduced distribution
o f the mangrove Pclliciern rhizophorn T o r 6; PI.
Biotropica 16:304-308.
Kjerfve, 8.. Lacerda, L.D., Rezende, C.E. 6. Ovalle,
A.R.C. In press.
Hydrological a n d hydrr~geochemical variations
in m a n g r o v e ecosyslems. In: M a n g r o v e Ecosys-
tems in Tropical America: Structure, Function
and Management. A. Ydtiez-Arancibia a n d J.W.
Day, J r . (eds.). EPOMEX, Universidade Autbno-
ma d e Campeche.
Kjerfve. 8 . 1990.
Manual for investigation of hydrological pro-
cesses in mangrove ecosystems. UNES-
C O I U N D P . New Deihi, India. 7 9 p p .
Klappenback. M.A. 1965.
Lista p r e l i m i n a r d e 10s Mytilidae brasilefios con
clave p a r a s u determinaci6n y notas sobre su dis-
tribuicidn. An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 37
(supl.):325-357.
Kneip, L.M. 1977.
Pescadores e coletores pr4-histhricos d o litoral d e
C a b o Frio, RJ. Col. Mus. Paul. Ser. Arqueologia
5:l-169.
Knoppers, B.A. & O p i t z , S.S. 1984.
An a n n u a l cycle of particulate organic matter in
m a n g r o v e waters, Laranjeiras Bay, Southen Bra-
zil. Arq. Biol. Tecnol. 27:79-93.
Kohlmeyer, J. 1969.
Ecologcal notes on fungi in mangrove forests.
T r a n s . Br. Mycol. Soc. 53:237-250.
Kutner, M.B. 1975.
Seasonal variation a n d phytoplancton distribu-
tion in C a n a n t i a region, Brazil. In; Proc. Inter.
S y m p . Biol. M a n g t . Mangroves. G. Walsh, S. Sne-
d a k e r & H . T e a s (eds.) Honolulu.
Lacerda, L.D. & H a y , J.D. 1982.
Evolution of a n e w community type after the de-
struction of a m a n g r o v e eGosystem. Biotropica
14: 238-239.
Lacerda. L.D., Lima, N.R.W., Pfeiffer, W.C. & Fisz-
man, M . 1983.
Size a n d metal concentration in the mangrove
mussel M y l c l l n gu!lflncnsis from Baia d e Sepetiba,
Brasil. Rev. Biol. Tropical. 81: 333-335.
Lacerda, L.D. 1984.
Manguezais: florestas d e beira-mar. Ciencia Hoje
13: 62-70.
Lacerda, L.D. Rr Abrao, J.J. 1984.
H e a v y metal accumulation b v manprove
"
and
saltmarsh intertidal sediments: Rev. Brasil. Bot.
7: 49-52.
Lacerda, L.D., D. V . J r M , C.E. Rezende, M.C.F.
Francisco, J.C. M'asserman & J.C. Martins. 1986.
Leaf chemical characteristics affecting herbivnry
in N e w W o r l d mangrove forest. Biotropica
18:350-355.
Lacerda. L.D. Rezende, C.E. 1987.
Heavy metal geochemistry in mangrove sedi-
ments. Proc. I Symp. Ecossistemas d a Costa s u l -
Sudeste d o Brazil. ACIESP, SSo Paulo, 3: 123.131.
Lacerda. L.D., Rezende. C.E.. Silva, C.A.R. & Was-
serman, J.C. 1987.
Metallic composition of sediments from m a n -
groves of the SE Brazilian coast. VI Int. C o n f .
Heavy Metals i n the Environm., N e w Orleans. 2:
464-466.
Lacerda. L.D.. Koudstaal, R., Bower, B.T. & Pfeiffer,
W. I9RRa.
.Sepetiba Bay management s t u d y . lFlAS Research
Program on Coastal Resources Management. The
International Foundation of Institutes for Ad-
vanced Study. Rio d e Janeiro.
Lacerda, L.D., Martinelli, L.A., Rezende, C.A., Mo-
zelto, A.A., Ovalle, A.R.C., Victoria, R.L., Silva,
C.A.R. & Nogueira, F.B. 1988 b.
T h e fate of trace metals in s u s p e n d e d m a t t e r in a
mangrove creek d u r i n g a tidal cycle. Sci. Tot. En-
vironm. 75: 249-259.
Lacerda. L.D. & C.E.Rezende. 1990.
Mangrove carbon export to the sea: a reecalua-
tion of a paradigm. pp.169-1R2. In; ll Simpbsio d e
Ecossistemas da Costa Sul e Sudeste Brasileira:
Estmtura, Funqao e Manejo. Vol 2. A g u a s d e
Lind6ia. Sao Paulo.
Lacerda, L.D & Schaeffer-Novelli. Y. 1992.
Latin American Mangroves: T h e Need for Sus-
tainable utilization. Mangroves Newsletter 5:4-6.
Lacerda, L.D. & Rezende. C.E. 1993.
Envimnmental status of m a n g r o v e forests of Rio
d e Janeiro state, SF Brazil. p p . 15-18. In: Con-
servation and sustainable utilization of man-
grnve forests in Latin America a n d Africa
regions. International Tropical T i m b e r Organiza-
t i n n l l n l e m a t i ~ i n a lSociety fnr M a n g r o v e Ecosys-
t e m (ITTOIISME). Lacerda. L.D. & Field. C.D.
( e c i . ) . Okinawa. 211 pp.
Lamberti, A. 1969.
C n n t r i b u i ~ a oa o conhecimento d a ecologia d a s
plantas d o manguezal d e Itanhaem. Bol. Fac. Fi-
10s. Cienc. Univ. % o Paulo. 317 (Bot.) (23):l-217.
- Brazil
L m p a r e l l i , C.C., Rodrigues. F.O. & Moura, D.O.
1992.
Structure a n d function of oil impacted mangrove
forests: S j o Paulo, Brazil. pp. 20-21. In: Con-
servation a n d sustainable utilization nf man-
g r o v e forests in Latin America and Africa
regions. International Trnpical Timber Organiza-
tion/lnternational Society for Mangrove Ecosys-
t e m s (ITTOIISME). Lacerda, L.D. & Field, C.D.
(eds.). O k i n a w a . 2 8 p p .
Lana, P.C. & Sessegolo, G.C. 1993.
Current k n o w l e d g e of the mangroves of Parand
state, s o u t h e r n Brazil. pp. 18-19, In: Conservation
a n d sustainable utilization of mangrove forests in
Latin America a n d Africa regions. International
Tropical T i m b e r Organizationllnternalional So-
ciety f o r M a n g r o v e Ecosystems (ITTOIISME).
Lacerda, L.D. & Field, C.D. (eds.). Okinawa. 28
PI'.
Luderwaldl, H . 1919.
0 s m a n g u e s a e s d e Santos. R. Mus. Paulista, S.
Paulo, 11309-407.
Luao, A.E. & Snedaker, S.C. 1974
T h e ecology of m a n g r o v e s . Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst.
539-63.
Lutz, A. 1912.
. Marine Research in Indonesia 18:81-86.
Contribuig2o a o e s t u d o d a s Aratipogonias he-
matofagas e n c o n t r a d a s n o Brasil. Mems. Inst.
O s w a l d o C r u z 4:l-33.
Lutz, A. 1911.
Contribui@o p a r a o e s t u d o d a s Ceratopogoninas
hemathfagas d o Brasil. Primeira Memoria. Parte
Geral. Rev. A p p l . Entomologia 153-66.
Lulz, B. I93R.
A p ~ n t a m e n t o s s o b r e a flora litoranea Flumi-
nense. I . A p o n l a m e n l o s decorrentes d c herbarit,
d o M u s e u Nacional e observa<hes feitas n o lito-
ral d o Rio d e Janeiro. M u s e u Nacional. Rio d e J a -
neiro, 55p.
Maciel. N . C . 198-1.
Fauna d a s restingas d o Estado d o Rio d e Janeiro:
Passado, presente e futuro, proposta d e preser-
vaqsn, p p . 285-3114, In: Restingas; origem, estru-
tura, processes. Lacerda, L.D., Araujo, D.S.D.,
17 fir T t ~ r r qR ( 4 c ) C F l l F F N i t ~ r h i .
r " r q ! * , b i r ,
RJ.
Maciel, N.C. 1989.
Mangrove preservation: past e n d present elforts.
pp. 77-98, Proceedings of the International Sym-
posium o n Utilization of Coastal Ecosystems:
P l a n n i n g Pollution, and Productivity. Vol. 2.
Edilora d e FURG. SIUEC. Rio Grande, RS.
Maciel, N.C. & Magnanini, A. 1989.
Recursos faunisticos d o Estado d e Rio d e Janeiro.
Boletim F u n d a p o Brasileira Conserva@o Natu-
reza 24:65-98.
Macnae, W. 1974.
M a n g r o v e forest and fisheries. F A O / U N D P Ln-
dian Ocean Fishery Programme. Indian Ocean
Fisher) Commission. Publication IOFCI
Dev?74/.M. 35 pp.
Marcelli. M.P. 1990.
Liquens d a s restingas e manguezais d a llha d o
Cardoso. I. p p . 382-392. In: I1 Simposio d e Ecos-
sistemas d a Costa Sul e Sudeste Brasileira: Estru-
tura, Funqdo e Manejo. Vol. 3. PubliqBo ACIESP
N' 71-3.498 p p .
Martusubroto, P. & N . N a a m i n . 1977.
Relationship between tidal forests (mangroves)
a n d commercial s h r i m p production in Indonesia.
Menezes, M.F. 1968.
Sobre a l i m e n t a ~ a od o c a m u r u p i m , Tnrpon ntlnnti-
C I I S (Valenciennes), n o Estadn d e C e a r l . Arq. Est.
Biol. Mar. Univ. Fed. Ceara. 8(2):145-149.
Mitchell, M.H. 1957.
0b:ervations on birds of southeastern Brazil.
University of Toronto Press. Toronto. 258 p p .
Milchell, G.J.P. 1974.
Observacnes ficr~l~igicasn o rnanguezal d e Pie-
d a d e . Leandra (4/5):137-142.
Mnchel, F.R. 1993.
Mangroves of M a r a n h s o state, north Brazil. p .
14. In: Conservation and sustainable utilization
o f mangrove forests in Latin America and Africa
regions. International Tropical T i m b e r Organiza-
tionllnternational Snciety for M a n g r o v e Ecosys-
tems (ITTOIISME). Lacerda, L.D. & Field, C.D.
(eds.). O k i n a w a . 28 p p .

Mnura, J.A.. Diaq-Brito. D. & Bronnimann. P. 1982.
Mndeln ambiental da l a p n a costeira classica -
Baia de Seyetiba, RJ. In: Atas Simp. Qualernario
do Brasil. 3:135-152, Rio delaneiro.
Novaes, F.C. 1950.
sob^ as aves de Sernambetiba. Distrito Federal.
Rev. Bras. Biol. 10(2):119-208.
Oliveira, L . P . H . 1q4ll.
Contribui<ao an crmhecimento dos crustdceos do
Rio de Janeiro. C a l l l o g o dos crustdcens da baia
de Guanabara. M e m . I n r t . Oswaldc Cruz, R. de
Janeiro. 35(1):137-151.
Oliveira, L P t l 1947.
Distribui@o geogrdfica da fauna e flora da baia
de Guanabara. M e m . Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, R, de
Janeiro. 45(3):709-735.
Oliveira. L.P.H. 1950.
Levantamento biogengrificn da baia de Guana-
bara. M e m . Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, R. de Janeiro.
48:363-391.
Oliveira, L.P.H. 1958.
Polui@o das dguas maritimas; estragos da flora e
. -
fauna d o Rin de Janeirn. Mems. Inst. O ~ w a l d o
C ~ U Z56(1):19-78.
Oliveira, L.P.H. 1975.
Recupera<do bidligica t.m manguezal na pane
oeste da Baia de Guanabara. In: Simphsio Lali-
noamericann sobre nceanografia biolcigica. I:
Mexico. M e m . p p . 246-259.
Oliveira, L.P.tl. fi: K r a l ~ L.
, 1953.
Levantamento bingengrAficc da baia de Guana-
bara. 11. Cresciemerlto d o mnnguezal na Ilha do
Pinheir<>.Mern. Inst. Oswaldu CNZ, R. de Janei.
ro. 51:5112-514.
Oliveira, L.P.H. & Krau, L. 1976.
Estudos aplicadms recupera~5obiolhgica da
Baia de Guanabara, hlerns. Ins!. Oswnldn Cruz.
74:503-52.1.
Ovalle, A.R.C., Rezende, C.E.. Lacerda, L.D. 6; Silva.
C.A.R. 1990.
Factors affecting the hydrochemistry of a man-
grove tidal creek i n Sepetiha Bay, Rirl de Janeirn,
Brazil. Estuar. Coast Shelf Sci. 31:h39-650.
Project PD114/90 (F)
Ovalle, A.R.C. 1992.
Hidroquimica de u m canal de mar6 no mangue-
zal de Itacuru\a, Rio de Janeiro. PtlD Thesis,
U n i v . Fede. 5.30 Carlos.
Panitz. C. 1993.
Mangroves i n Santa Catrina, south Brazil. pp.
19-20. In: Conservation and sustainable utiliza-
tion of mangrove forests i n Latin America and
Africa regions. International Tropical Timber Or-
ganization/lnternational Society for Mangrove
Ecosystems (ITTOIISME). Lacerda, L.D. & Field:;
C.D. (eds.). Okinawa. 28 pp.
Pankrja, C. 1993.
Mangrove forests of Pard r t a l e , north Brazil. p p .
11-14. In: Conservation and sustainable utiliza-
tion of mangrove forests i n Latin America and
Africa regions. International Tropical Timber O r -
ganizationllnternational Society for Mangrove
Ecosystems (ITTOIISME). Lacerda. L.D. & Field,
C.D. (eds.). Okinawa. 28 pp.
Paranagui, M.N. & Carvalheira, L.W. 1972.
Estudos preliminares sobre a ocorrPncia de sur-
u r n na baia de Guanabara. Publ. Inst. Pesq. Mar.,
R. de Janeiro. 61:10 p.
Pedrini, A . l9RO
Algas M a r i n h a BeritOnicas da Baia d r Seprtiba e
seus arrednres (Rio de Janeiro). MSc. Thesis,
Univ. Fed. Rio delaneiro, Rio de Janeiro.
Pedrosa. C. 1950.
M a n p e z a i s . Rev. Bras. Geograf. 12(1):143-146
Pereira Barros. J.B. & MacEdo, 5.1.1967.
Criaq3o d c sururu, h4r~lcllnjnicnln( O r b i p y , 1RZh)
em laboral6rio. Bol. &I. Pesca, Recife. 7i2j:32-42.
Pfeiffer, W.C.. Lacerda. L.D.. Fiszman, M. & Lima,
N.R.W. 1985.
Metais pesados n i l pescadc da Baia de Sepetiba.
cienc. c u l t . 37: 297.302,
Pirrs. 1.0.19x6.
Mapeamento de manguezais do RecOncavo da
Baia de Guanabara atraves da utilizaqdo de lecni-
cas de sensoramento rernolo T. Mestr. l n s t N a c .
Pesq. Espnciais, 530 Jose dos C a m p s .
Por, F.D. 1983.
Mangrove swamps inhabilirlg Harpact~coidaof
- Brazil
the family Darcythompsoniidae. Lang. J. Crust.
Biol. 3141-153.
Prance, G.T., Silva, M.F.. Albuquerque, B.W., Araujo,
I.S.S., Correira, L.M.M.. Braga, M.M.V.. Macedc~.M.,
Conceiq5o. P.N., Lisboa, P.L.B., Braga, P.I., Lisboa,
L.C.L. & Villena, R.C.Q. 1975.
Revisao taxonAmica das especies AmazAnicas de
Rhizophoracea. Acts AmazOnica 5: 5-22.
R A D A N . 1983.
Geologia, geomorfologia, pedologia, vegeta(3o.
uso pntencial da terra. Projeto Radambrasil. Le-
vamentn de Recursos Naturais. Vol. 32. Folhas
SF 2 3 / 2 4 Rio de Janeiro/Vitt(ria. 780 pp.
Ramos, M . A . 1971.
0 s custAceos decdprldes natantes do estulrio do
r i o Paraiba d o Nnrte. Arq. Mus. Nac., R. de Ja-
neiro. 54:43-44.
Reits, P.R. 1961.
Vegetaqiio da zona maritima de Santa Catarina.
Sellowia 13: 17-115.
Rehm, l W l . Reltrnge alrr Piltrflnrn von Sudamerika
XI1 Sphaeriales. Hedwigia 40:lOO-124.
Rezende, C.E. 1988.
Balan j o de maleria orgBnica e metais pesados em
u m ecossistema de mangue, Bafa de Sepetiba, R].
T. Mestr., Dept. Geoquitnica, Univ. Fed. Flumi-
nense, Niteroi.
Rezende, C.E., Lacerda, L.D., Ovalle, A.R.C., Silva,
C.A.R. & hlartinelli, L A . 1990.
Nature of POC transport i n a mangrove ecnsys-
tem: A carbon isotopic study. Estuarine Coast.
'Shelf Sci. 30:Ml-645.
Rocabati. H. & Neves. L.E. 1976.
Estudc g r r ~ l h g i c (prelinlinar
~ dos sedimentosre-
centes superficiais da Baixada de jacarepagtld,
M u n i c f p i o d n Rio de janeiro, Rj. Rio de janeirn,
Petrnbrds/CENPES. 89 p p .
Roth, L.C. 1992.
Hurricanes and mangrove regeneration: effects
of Hurricane Joan, October 1088, on the vegets-
tion of lsla del Venadn, Bluefields. Nicaragua.
Biotropicn 31: 173-38.1.
Ruellan. F. 1941.
A ev11uo gt.nrnnrfolfigica da Baia de
Cuanabara e das regides vizinhas. Rev. Bras.
Geogr. 6(4):445-508.
Saenger, P., Hegerl. E.J. & Davie, J.D.S. 19R3.
Global status of mangrove ecosystems. The Envi-
ronmentalist 31-88,
Sampaio, A.J. 19%.
Phytogengrsfia do Brasil. Rio de Janeirn, Museu
Nacional. 2Rlp.
Sant'Anna, E.M. & Whately, M.H. 1981.
Distribuiq5o dos manguezais d o Brasil. Revista
Brasileira de Geografia 43:47-63.
Santos, M'.c.F.v. 1986.
Consideraqnes sobre a u c o r r h c i a de Rhizuphorn
hnrrisotiii Leechamn e Rhizophorn rncerrtosn G.F.W.
Meyer, no litoral do estado do Maranhio, Brasil.
Boletim do LaboratBrio de Hidrobiologia
(Universidade Federal d o Maranhso, SBo Luis,
MA) 77-91,
Santos, M.C.F.V. 1989.
Structural patterns of hypersalinity-stressed
mangrove forefits i n the stnte of Marnnhfio,
northern Brazil. Master of Science Thesis. Colora-
d o School of Mines, Golden, Colorado.
Schaeffer-Nwelli, Y. 1982.
Importancia do manguezal e suas comunidades.
ALCIMAR, 6 pp.
Schaeffer-Nnvelli, Y. 1986.
Manguezais Brasileiros: ulna bibliografia
(1614-1986). S3o PauIo, Inst. Oceanografico. U n i -
versidade d r S.io Paulo, 5Yp.
Schaeffer-Novelli, Y. 1989.
Perfil d o ecnssistetnas litr~rdneos brasileiros.
com especial enfase sobre o ecossistema mangue-
zal. Publica($o Especial d o Instituto OceanogrAfi-
co (Universidade de SBo Paulo) 71-16,
Schaeffer-Nnvelli, Y. & CintrAn. C . 1990.
Status of mangrove research i n Latin America
and the Caribbean. Boletim d o Instituto Ocea-
n i c ~
(Universidade de S.io Paulo)
38(1):93-97.
Schmidt, C . 1988.
M a n g l e z a l de Cananeia, cnncentra(;lrl de ele-
rnentos quimicms Carbono, Nitrogenio, Cdlcio,
FOsf~~ro. Marrganes, Ferro e cinzas em folhas de

mangue e sua cnrrela(8n corn a taxa de decnm-
posiq.io e salinidade. T. Dout.. Inst. Oceanngrdfi-
cn, Llniv. S3o Paulo.
Silva, J.R.F. 1977.
Crustdceos: o c o r r h c i a s e usns; Prirneira contrib-
uiq5n an cnnhecimento dns crusldcer~sdec6pndos
das lagoas Manguaba e Mundati, Estado de Ala-
goas, Brasil. S E P L A N - A L I I D E M A , Maceid.
l(1):IY p.
Silva, C.A.R.. Lacerda. L.D.. Silva, L.F.F. & Rezende.
C.E. 1991.
Forest structure and biomass distribution in a
red mangrove slatid i n Sepetiba Bay, Rin de J a -
n e i r o Rev. Brasil. Dot. 14:21-25.
Silveira, F. 1937.
Mangrove. R o d r i p C z i a 3(10):13l-151
Silveira, E.K.P. 1965.
Ocorrecia de algumas especies de aves e
mamiferns da regi3o da Lagna de Marapendi in-
tegradas na hiotn local. Bnlm. Ceogr., Rio de J a -
neiro. 24(188):714-748.
Sot5o. F1.M.P.. Bonrini, V.12.R. & Figueiredn. T.S.
1991.
Basidiomycetes de r n a n p e m i s da llha de M a -
racd, Arnapd, Brasil. Bol. Mus. Para. Emilio Goel-
di, C r . Bat. 7(1)109-114.
Stoddart, D.R. 1971
Coral reefs and islands and catastrophic storms,
p p . 155-197. In: Applied coastal genmt~rpholngy
J.P.. Steerrs (ed.). M I T Press, Cambridge, Ma.
S U D A h d / U F M A . 1981.
0 camar3n na Area de TutOia - Maranhdn. SU-
D A M . BelPm. 135 p p .
S U D A M I U F M A 19x3.
Caracterizn~3narnhientnl e prospeq5o pesqueira
d o estudrio d c Rio C u m m c a - Maranhao. SU-
D A M . BelCm. 141 p p .
Tecnarao (Tecnolngia de Camar3ri. Ltda.). 1093.
Prnposla tle projelo para ir~slal;l@ode carcinicul-
tura marinha. Portc d ~ Mato
i Eslancia Esladc de
Sergipe. 4'7 p p .
Teixeira. C., T t ~ r i d i s i J.C.
, & Kutner, M.B. 1965.
Plankton studies i n a mangrove environment. II.
Project PO1 14/90 (F)
The standing stock and sirme ec~rlogicalfactnrs.
Bolm. Inst. Oceanogr.. S2o Paulo. 14:13-11.
Tnmlinson, B.P. 1986.
The botany of manbvoves. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge. 413 pp.
Tundisi, J.G. 1969.
Plankton studies i n a mangrove environment, its
b i ~ h g yand primary production. In: Ayala Cas-
tahares, A. & Phleger, F.D. (eds.) Lagurias cosler-
as, un simpcisin. Mexico, U N A M . pp. 485-493.
Tundisi, J.G. 1981.
Ecological studies of the region of Cananeia: a r e -
view. Proc. Review Workshop on River Inputs to
the Ocean Systems. FAO. Rome. p p . 298-304.
Tundisi, J.G. &Tundisi,T.M. 1968.
Plankton studies on a mangrove environment. V.
Salinity tolerance of some planktonic crusta-
ceans. Bolm. Inst. 0cear:ugr.. Sdn Pauln, 17:57-65.
Tundisi, J.C.,Tundisi,T.M. & Kutner, M.B.B. 1973,
Plankton studies in a mangrove environment.
VI11. Further investigations on primary produc-
tion standing stock of phytoplankton and zoo-
planktnn and some e n v i r ~ ~ n m e n t afactors.
l In!.
Revue Ges. H y d r o b i d . Hydrogr. 58(6):925-940.
Tundisi, J.C., Teixeira, C., Tundisi, T.M., Kutner,
M.B.B. & Kinorhila. L. 1978.
Plankton studies i n a mangrove envil-onment. I X .
Comparative investigations w i t h c~iastal oligo-
trophic waters. Rev. Bras. B i d 3R(2):301-120.
Turner, R.E. 1985.
Cnastal fisheries, agriculture and management i n
Indonesia: case studies for the future. pp.
373-440. In: Coastal resources management: de-
velnpment case studies. J.R. Clark (ed.). Research
Planning Instilute, Inc. Columbia, SC. 749 pp.
Ule, E. 19111
D i e \legetation von Cabti Frio an der Kusle von
Brasilien. Bot. Ib. 28:Sll-528.
Viepis, 0. & Esteves. C.L. 1987.
Contribuiq50 an conhecimentc da vegeta~aodas
Iagnas Manguaba e Mundau. Estado de Alagrias,
Brasil Institute de Desenvolvimenlo, Regional e
Meio Ambient?. Vegetaqdo: OcnrrGncia e usns.
Val. 4, 32 pp.
. Brazil

Walanabe, K. & Kutner, M.B.B. 1965 a. Zaninetti, L. 1979.

Plankton studies i n a mangrove environment. Ill. Study of foraminifera frnni current mangrove
Bacleriological analysis of mangrove waters a1 swamps: reflectims on the objectives and slatus
Cananeia. Bolm. Inst. Oceanogr., $20 Paulo. of knowledge. Arch. Sc. C e n h e , 32(2):151-162.
14(1):43-45.

Watanabe, K. & Kutner, M.B.B. 1965 b.

Bacteriological analysis of mangrove wates a t
Cananeia. Anais Acad. Bras. Cien. 37(supl):364.

View publication stats