MILLING

Introduction

Milling is the machining of a surface using a cutter which

has a number of teeth. The surface produced may be plain
or, by using additional equipment or special cutters, formed
surfaces may be produced.

Both grooves and flat surfaces- for example the faces of a

car cylinder block- are generated by milling. In this
operation the cutting action is achieved by rotating the tool
while the work is clamped on the table and the feed action
is obtained by moving it under the cutter, as shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1
There are many types of milling machines, but the most
versatile in common use in the majority of workshops is the
knee-and column type, so called because the spindle is
fixed in the column or the main body and the table
arrangement mounted on a knee, is capable of movement in
the longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Typical

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knee-and-column milling machines are horizontal and
vertical ones. They are shown in fig. 2 and 3.

Fig. 2- Vertical milling machine

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Fig. 3- Horizontal milling machine

Fig. 4

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Fig. 4 shows a horizontal milling machine in more detail.

The main elements of the milling machine are:

Column and base

The column and base form the foundation of the machine.
Both are made from cast iron. The base upon which the
column is mounted is also the cutting fluid reservoir and
contains the pump to circulate the fluid to the cutting area.
The column contains the spindle accurately located in
precision bearings.

Knee
The knee, mounted on column guideways, provides the
vertical movement of the table. Power feed is available
through a gearbox mounted on the side mounted on the
sides. It can also be raised or lowered by hand through a
handwheel. The knee has guideways on its top surface
giving full-width and support to the saddle and guiding it in
a transverse direction. A lock is provided to clamp the knee
in any vertical position on the column.

Saddle
It is mounted on the knee guideways and provides
transverse movement the table. The saddle has dovetail
guideways on its upper surface, to provide a guide to the
table in a longitudinal direction.

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Table
The table provides the surface upon which all workpieces
and workholding equipment are located and clamped.

The spindle
It is accurately mounted in precision bearings and provides
the drive for the milling cutters. Cutters can be mounted
straight on the spindle nose or in cutter holding devices
which in turn are mounted in the spindle. The drive is
transmitted by means of driving keys.

Milling cutters
There are many different types of milling cutters. Single
toothed cutters are possible but typical milling cutters have
a number of teeth which may vary from three to over one
hundred. The new surface is generated as each tooth cuts
away an arc shaped segment, the thickness of which is the
feed or tooth load. Feeds are usually light, not often greater
than 0.25 mm per tooth, and frequently less than 0.025 mm
per tooth. However, because of the large number of teeth,
the rate of metal removal is often high.

An important feature of all milling operations is that the

action of each cutting edge is intermittent. Each tooth is
cutting during less than half of a revolution of the cutter,
and sometimes for only a very small part of the cycle. Each
edge is subjected to periodic impacts as it makes contact
with the work. Thus it is stressed and heated during the
cutting part of the cycle, followed by a period when it is
unstressed and allowed to cool. Frequently cutting times

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are a small fraction of a second and are repeated several
times a second, involving both thermal and mechanical
fatigue of the tool. The design of milling cutters is greatly
influenced by the problem of getting rid of the chips.

Cutters used on a horizontal milling machine

Those with a central hole for mounting on an arbour in a
horizontal milling machine are shown in fig.5 below.

Fig. 5

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Fig. 5 (a) shows a slab or roller milling centre. It is used to
produce plane surfaces parallel to the machine table. They
are made in a variety of diameters and lengths up to 160
mm diameter × 160 mm long.

Fig. 5 (b) is a slotting cutter. As it name implies, it is used

for machining slots. The plain sides of the cutter help to
guide it in the slot and keep it running straight.

Fig 5 (c) shows a side and face milling cutter. It can also be
used for cutting slots and it has a higher rate of metal
removal than the slotting cutter. It can also be used to for
cutting a step in a component. Side and face cutters are
available in a variety of sizes up to 200 mm diameter and
32 mm wide.

Fig. 5 (d) shows a staggered tooth cutter being used to cut a

step. It cuts obliquely and has a much higher rate of metal
removal than the side and face cutters.

Fig. 5 (e) shows a double angle cutter machining a vee in a

component. To avoid chipping of the tips of the teeth, the
bottom is usually of the vee is usually relieved by cutting a
narrow slot first.

The above are straight tooth cutters. Form cutters are also
available. Some of those used in milling machine are
shown in fig. 6.

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 Fig. 6

Fig. 6 (a) shows single and double corner radiusing cutters,

together with typical applications.

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Fig,. 6 (b) convex cutter making a half round slot in the
face of a component.

Fig. 6 (c) shows a concave cutter radiusing the edge of a

component.

The involute cutter in fig. 6 (d) is used for making gears.

Cutters used on a vertical milling machine

Cutters used on vertical milling machines are shown in fig.
7.

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 Fig. 7

Fig. 7 (a) shows an end mill cutting a slot in a component.

Unfortunately, it cannot be sunk into the component from

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the solid, and has to be run in from the edge of the
component, or started in a previously machined hole.

Fig. 7 (b) shows a slot drill. This is designed to be sunk in

from the solid when making pocket cuts as shown. Having
only two teeth, its rate of metal removal is less than that of
an end mill. The finish is also poorer.

Fig. 7 (c) shows a face mill. The face mill is used for
producing broad, plane surfaces parallel to the machine
table. Used on a horizontal machine, it is useful for
producing perpendicular surfaces as shown in fig.7 (d).

Between the end mill and the face mill lies the shell end
mill capable of large end-milling applications or small
facing applications.

Form cutters are also available for the vertical milling

machine and some examples are shown in fig. 8.

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 Fig. 8

Fig.8 (a) shows a ball-nose slot drill. It is used for

machining oil grooves.

Fig. 8 (b) shows the dovetail cutter for making a dovetail

slideway.

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Fig. 8 (c) shows a tee-slot cutter and is used to make
undercuts in tee slots.

The woodruff cutter in fig. 8 (d) is used to make keyways.

The corner rounding cutter is used to remove sharp corners

from components.

In practice it is observed that sideways pressure on the

milling cutter can deflect it away from the vertical surface.
Since the slender end-mill is like a cantilever beam the
deflection is more pronounced down at its tip. Instead of
being vertical, the walls of the pocket begin to have a “ski-
slope” cross-section – reasonably vertical at the top, but
sloping out near the bottom where the tool is most
deflected. Even this is a somewhat simplified view and the
form error shows an ‘s-shaped’undulation at the top of the
wall.

Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut

Cutting speed (CS)
One of the most important factors affecting the efficiency
of a milling operation is cutter speed. The cutting speed of
a metal may be defined as the speed (m/min or sf/min) at
which the metal may be machined efficiently.

Since there are different types of metals which vary in

hardness, structure and machinability different cutting
speeds must be used for each type of metal and for various
cutting materials. Several factors must be considered:

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  The type of work material
 The cutter material
 The diameter of the cutter
 The surface finish required
 The depth of cut taken
 The rigidity of the machine and work set-up.

Conversion from CS in m/min to rpm is similar to those of

drilling and turning processes.

Hints:
 For longer tool life, the lower CS should be used in the
recommended range.
 Know the hardness of the material to be machined.
 Use of coolants would generally produce a better
finish and lengthen the life of the cutter. The coolant
absorbs heat, acts as a lubricant and washes away
chips.

Milling feed
It may be defined as the distance in mm/minutes that the
work moves into the cutter. It is the rate at which the work
moves into the revolving cutter.

Feed (mm/min) = N x CPT x rpm

Where,
N is the number of teeth in the milling cutter
CPT is the chip/feed per tooth
rpm is the rev/min

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Chip/feed per tool is the amount of material that should be
removed by each tooth of the cutter as it revolves or
advances into the work.

The feed rate used on a milling machine depends on a

variety of factors, such as:
 Depth and width of cut
 The design or type of cutter
 The sharpness of the cutter
 The workpiece material
 The strength and uniformity of the workpiece
 The type of finish and accuracy
 The power and rigidity of the machine.

Direction of feed
The most commonly used method is to feed the work
against the rotation direction of the cutter (conventional or
up-milling).

Fig. 9
Climb milling, which increase the tool life up to 50%, is
effective for most milling applications. Climb milling is
used when the workpiece and cutter are moving in the same
direction. Conventional milling is used when the cutter and

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the workpiece are moving in opposite directions.

Advantages of climb milling

 Increased tool life
 Less costly fixtures required (simpler holding devices
required)
 Improved surface finishes
 Less edge breakout
 Easier chip removal
 Lower power requirements

Disadvantage
 The method cannot be used unless the machine has a
backlash eliminator.
 Cannot be used for machining castings and hot-rolled
steel since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.

Depth of cut
Where smooth accurate finish is desired, it is good milling
practice to take a roughing and finishing cut. Roughing cuts
should be deep, finishing cuts light.

Causes of cutter failure

 Excessive heat
 Abrasion
 Chipping of cutting edges [due to excessive feed, poor
cutter design, running cutters backward, brittleness of
the end mill].
 Clogging

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  Built-up edges
 Cratering

Milling calculations
Slab (Horizontal) Milling (be careful with units!!)

Terms Used:
N: rpm of Cutter
n: number of teeth on cutter
W: width of cut (may be full cutter or partial cutter)
t: depth of cut
V: cutting speed (a Handbook value)
L: length of pass or cut
fm: table (machine) feed
ft: feed/tooth of cutter (a Handbook value)
D: cutter Diameter

A. Cutting Speed:

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 kV
N=
D

k is a constant to “correct” speed (V) and part diameter

(Di ) units

V given in surface feet per minute, D in inches: k = 12

V given in meters per second, D in mm: k = 60000
V given in meters per minute, D in mm: k = 1000

If Cutting Speed for a given RPM rate is desired, solve

above equation for V: V = ND/k

B. Table Feed Rate:

f m = f t * N* n

C. Cutting Time:

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 L + LA
CT =
fm

LA is Length of Approach of Tool to Work

LA = t(D - t)

D. Material Removal Rate:

Vol . Removed L* W* t
MRR = = = W* t* f m
CT CT

Remember that the length of approach calculated here puts

the cutter against the work at the start, we will add a small
additional air gap to spin the tool to speed and allow the
table to achieve target feed rate before chip making begins.

[When determining cutting time and MRR, care must be

exercised. Ask yourself if total cutting time or time to
make one pass across the part is being requested, ie. is a
single or multiple pass operation to be studied. Also, note
that in the MRR equation the “cutting time” term does not
include the time of partial engagement (L A). Again, if a
multi-pass operation is being employed, the appropriate
width term should be used in the MRR equation.]

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Face (Vertical) Milling

Terms Used:
N: rpm of Cutter
n: number of teeth on cutter
W: width of cut (may be full cutter or partial cutter)
t: depth of cutter engagement
V: cutting speed (a Handbook value)
L: length of pass or cut
fm: table (machine) feed
ft: feed/tooth of cutter (a Handbook value)
D: cutter diameter
LA: approach length
LO: length of “OverTravel”

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Cutting Speed
kV
N=
D

If Cutting Speed for a given rpm rate is desired, solve

above equation for V: V = ND/k

Table Feed:

f m = f t * N* n

Cutting Time
Here several situation must be considered, these include:
1. Tool Not Fully Engaged with W<D/2
2. Tool not Fully Engaged but W> D/2
3. Tool Fully Engaged, Roughing Pass -- Doesn’t
require “Full Wipe”
4. Tool Fully Engaged, Finishing Pass -- requires “Full
Wiping Action”

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 (L+ LA + LO )
CT =
fm

1. LA = LO = W(D - W)

2. LA = LO = D
2

2 2
3. LA = D
2 LO = - 0.5 * D -W

4. LA = LO = D
2

Metal Removal Rate:

Vol . Removed L* W* t
MRR = = = W* t* f m
CT CT

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Again, the cautions on single vs. multiple pass CT and
MRR apply as with Slab Milling. Remember too, that the
length of approach here puts the cutter against the work at
the start, we will add a small additional air gap to spin the
tool to speed and allow the table to achieve target feed rate
before chip making begins. Also, care should be exercised
with regards to units.

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 The shaping machine

Unlike the lathe which produces cylindrical surfaces, the

shaping machine uses a single point tool to produce plane
surfaces.

Fig. 11 – The shaping machine

Fig. 11 shows a shaping machine.

To understand how the shaping machine produces a plane
surface, it is easier to consider a surface parallel to the
machine table. The ram of the shaping machine moves the

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cutting tool backwards and forwards in a straight line
across the workpiece as shown in fig. 12.

Fig.12
Each time the tool moves forward it cuts a silver of metal
from the workpiece. Each time the tool moves backwards it
lifts clear of the workpiece so that so that the workpiece is
not damaged and the cutting edge of the tool does not
become blunt. During this return stroke, the work moves
sideways in a path perpendicular to the movement of the
tool as shown in fig. 13.

Fig. 13

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 Fig.14

Cutting tool
The cutting tools used on the shaping machine has similar
geometry to that of the lathe tool, as shown in fig.14.

Work holding
The most common type of holding device is the swivel base
vice. To produce accurate work, it is essential that the fixed
jaw and upper surfaces of the slides of the slides of the vice
are accurately aligned with the machine worktable. The use
of the swivel base vice is shown in fig.15.

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 Fig. 15

Other work holding methods are shown in fig. 16.

The most simple job which can be performed on the
shaping machine is that of squaring the job ready for
further machining operations.

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 Fig. 16
The sequence for squaring the job is shown in fig.17.

Slots and chamfers can also be made.

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Fig.17

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Milling operations

Two essential requirements that must be met in milling

operations:
 Opposite faces should be parallel to each other. The
faces should be square with their adjacent faces.
 As many operations as possible should be done in a
single setting.
Setting cutter to the work surface
1. The work is raised to within 6 mm of the cutter and
directly under it.
2. A long piece of thin paper is held on the surface of the
work.
3. The work is then moved up slowly until the cutter (set
rotating) grips the paper.
P 482
4. The paper is removed and the knee is raised by 0.05 mm
to cater for the paper thickness.
5. The graduated collar on the elevating screw handle is set
to zero.
6. The work can now be raised to the desired depth of cut.

Milling a flat surface

1. All burrs are removed and the vice and workpiece are
cleaned.
2. Using parallels the workpiece is held in the vice.
3. An helical gear is selected wider than the workpiece to
be used.
4. The proper cutter is selected and mounted.
5. The proper speed for the cutter size and type of work
material is set.

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6. \The cutter is then started and raised so that it grips the
paper (as described above).
7. The work is then moved clear of the cutter and the
graduated collar is set to zero. The work is ready for
machining.
P 483

Suppose the workpiece shown below needs to be machined:

Fig. 8

Operations on a horizontal milling machine

The work should be clamped in a machine vice and the

work should be seated on parallels.

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 Fig. 9

Using a cylindrical cutter, face C is first machined. Face B

is then machined to ensure squareness of faces B and C. In
stage 3, the workpiece is turned again and face A is
machined to obtain the 58 mm dimension. Face D is then
machined to achieve the 60 mm dimension.

In stage 5, the workpiece is tilted in the vice at 30 0 with the

help of a protractor. The angle is machined leaving the 32
mm dimension approximately 1 mm too long, to allow for
machining the end face.

The workpiece is then released and reset with the end face
protruding beyond the edge of the vice jaws, again seated

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on parallels. A shell end mill is used to machine the end
face to produce the 32 mm dimension to the start of the
angle. In stage 7, the process is repeated to produce the 80
mm length.

In stage 9, the step is machined to achieve the 25 mm and

28 mm dimensions.

Since the cutter on a horizontal machine cannot be inclined,

milling the undercuts can be done only by tilting the
workpiece.

To produce the undercut, a protractor is used to set the

workpiece at 450 and making use of a 5 mm side and face
cutter.

Operations on the vertical milling machine

The stages of producing the same workpiece on a vertical

milling machine is shown in fig.10. Although different
cutters are used, the same basic principles arise.

Stages 1,2, and 3 employ the same set up except that a shell
end mill is used. Stage 4 can be performed by making use
of the same setting and using the same cutter as for stage 1,,
and 3.

In stage 5, the head of the vertical milling machine has

been swivelled for machining the angle, with the workpiece
being seated on parallels in the vice.

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Stages 6 and 7 are set as before, but using an end mill to
give a cutting edge long enough to machine the height of
the workpiece and large enough diameter to machine the
step.

The undercut is made by swivelling the head and making

use of a 5 mm diameter end mill.

Fig. 10

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35