Computer networking Notes

UNIT-2:
Five mark Questions
1. Explain copper wire as a transmission medium. How interference copper wire
can be reduced? (Answer is placed at the end)
2. how glass fiber can be used as transmission medium?
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made
by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of
a human hair.
Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two
ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they
permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates)
than electrical cables.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with
less loss; in addition, fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference, a
problem from which metal wires suffer excessively.
Optical fibers typically include a core surrounded by a
transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the
core by the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the fiber to act
as a waveguide.

Optical fiber is used as a medium for telecommunication and computer

networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially
advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through
the fiber with much lower attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows
long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
Advantages:

 Broad bandwidth: A single optical fiber can carry over 3,000,000 full-duplex voice
calls or 90,000 TV channels.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Light transmission through optical
fibers is unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation nearby.

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 Low attenuation loss over long distances: Attenuation loss can be as low as
0.2 dB/km in optical fiber cables, allowing transmission over long distances
without the need for repeaters.
 Electrical insulator: Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems
with ground loops and conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on
poles alongside high voltage power cables.
 Material cost and theft prevention: Conventional cable systems use large amounts
of copper. Global copper prices experienced a boom in the 2000s, and copper has
been a target of metal theft.
 Security of information passed down the cable

3. Explain the working of radio as transmission medium.

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are

normally called radio waves.

Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they
are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna send waves that can be
received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property has disadvantage,
too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference
by another antenna that may send signal suing the same frequency or band.

Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an
advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a
disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside
a building.

The basic features of the radio waves are that:

• they are easy to generate

• they have same velocity in vacuum

• they may traverse long distances

• they are omni-directional

• they can penetrate building easily so they find extensive use in

communication both indoor and outdoor

• they are frequency dependent. At low frequency they can pass through
obstacles well but the power falls off sharply With distance from the source, as
power is inversely proportional to cube of the distance from the source. At HF
they travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles.

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 4. How we can use satellites for transmitting data?
satellite is a body that moves around another body in a mathematically
predictable path called an Orbit. A communication satellite is nothing but a
microwave repeater station in space that is helpful in telecommunications, radio,
and television along with internet applications.

A repeater is a circuit which increases the strength of the signal it receives and
retransmits it. But here this repeater works as a transponder, which changes the
frequency band of the transmitted signal, from the received one.

The frequency with which the signal is sent into the space is called Uplink
frequency, while the frequency with which it is sent by the transponder
is Downlink frequency.

The following figure illustrates this concept clearly.

Satellite Communication − Advantages

There are many Advantages of satellite communications such as −

 Flexibility

 Ease in installing new circuits

 Distances are easily covered and cost doesn’t matter

 Broadcasting possibilities

 Each and every corner of earth is covered

 User can control the network

Satellite Communication − Disadvantages

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Satellite communication has the following drawbacks −

 The initial costs such as segment and launch costs are too high.

 Congestion of frequencies

 Interference and propagation

Satellite Communication − Applications

Satellite communication finds its applications in the following areas −

 In Radio broadcasting.

 In TV broadcasting such as DTH.

 In Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer,

GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.

 For voice communications.

 For research and development sector, in many areas.

 In military applications and navigations.

5. What are geostationary satellites? what are the limitations of Geostationary

satellites?
A geostationary satellite is an earth-orbiting satellite, placed at an altitude of
approximately 35,800 kilometers (22,300 miles) directly over the equator, that
revolves in the same direction the earth rotates (west to east).

At this altitude, one orbit takes 24 hours, the same length of time as the earth
requires to rotate once on its axis. The term geostationary comes from the fact
that such a satellite appears nearly stationary in the sky as seen by a ground-
based observer. BGAN, the new global mobile communications network, uses
geostationary satellites.

A single geostationary satellite is on a line of sight with about 40 percent of the

earth's surface. Three such satellites, each separated by 120 degrees of longitude,
can provide coverage of the entire planet, with the exception of small circular
regions centered at the north and south geographic poles.

A geostationary satellite can be accessed using a directional antenna, usually a

small dish, aimed at the spot in the sky where the satellite appears to hover. The
principal advantage of this type of satellite is the fact that an earthbound
directional antenna can be aimed and then left in position without further
adjustment. Another advantage is the fact that because highly directional antennas
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 can be used, interference from surface-based sources, and from other satellites, is
minimized.

Geostationary satellites have two major limitations.

1. Because the orbital zone is an extremely narrow ring in the plane of the
equator, the number of satellites that can be maintained in geostationary
orbits without mutual conflict (or even collision) is limited.

2. The distance that an electromagnetic (EM) signal must travel to and from
a geostationary satellite is a minimum of 71,600 kilometers or 44,600
miles. Thus, a latency of at least 240 milliseconds is introduced when an
EM signal, traveling at 300,000 kilometers per second (186,000 miles per
second), makes a round trip from the surface to the satellite and back.

6. What are low earth orbit satellites? Write limitations of low earth Orbit
satellites.
Low earth orbits (LEO) are satellite systems used in telecommunication, which
orbit between 400 and 1,000 miles above the earth's surface. They are used
mainly for data communication such as email, video conferencing and paging. They
move at extremely high speeds and are not fixed in space in relation to the earth.

LEO-based telecommunication systems provide underdeveloped countries and

territories with the ability to acquire satellite telephone service in areas where it
otherwise would be too costly or even impossible to lay land lines.

Low earth orbit is defined as an orbit within a locus extending from the earth’s
surface up to an altitude of 1,200 miles. Attributing to their high speeds, data
transmitted through LEO is handed off from one satellite to another as satellites
generally move in and out of the range of earth-bound transmitting stations. Due
to low orbits, transmitting stations are not as powerful as those that transmit to
satellites orbiting at greater distances from earth’s surface.

Most communication applications use LEO satellites because it takes less less
energy to place the satellites into LEO. Moreover, they need less powerful
amplifiers for successful transmission. As LEO orbits are not geostationary, a
network of satellites are required to provide continuous coverage. However, as a
result of the popularity of this type of satellite, studies reveal that the LEO
environment is getting congested with space debris. NASA keeps track of the
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 number of satellites in the orbit, and estimates that there are more than 8,000
objects larger than a softball circling the globe. Not all of these objects are not
satellites, but rather pieces of metal from old rockets, frozen sewage and broken
satellites.

8. Explain working of microwave and limitations.

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micro
waves.

Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be
aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can
be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.

The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:

 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted

antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to
be very tall.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be
a disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-
bands can be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Applications of Micro Waves

Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast(one-
to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are
used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :

1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave

Advantages of Microwave Transmission

 Used for long distance telephone communication

 Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time

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Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

 It is very costly

9. Explain infrared waves and its limitations.

Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-
range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate
walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system
and another, a short-range communication system in on room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room.

When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote
by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless
for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a
building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.

Applications of Infrared Waves

 The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data
transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a
very high data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association(IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of
infrared waves, has established standards for using these signals for
communication between devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using
line-of-sight propagation.

10.What is Topology. Explain any two network topologies

The term Network Topology defines the geographic Physical or logical arrangement
of computer networking devices . The term Topology refers to the way in which the various nodes or
computers of a network are linked together. It describes the actual layout of the computer network
hardware. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. Topology
determines the data paths that may be used between any pair of devices of the network.
The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
Bandwidth capacity

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5. Ease of installation
6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.

Types of Topologies

Bus Topology
The physical Bus Network Topology is the simplest and most widely used of the network designs. It
consists of one continuous length of cable (trunk) that is shared by all the nodes in the network and
a terminating resistor (terminator) at each end that absorbs the signal when it reaches the end of line.
Without a terminator the electrical signal would reach the end of copper wire and bounce back, causing
errors on the network.
Data communication message travels along the bus in both directions until it is picked up by a workstation
or server NIC. If the message is missed or not recognized, it reaches the end of the cabling and dissipates at
the terminator. Bus Network Topology requires a multipoint connection .
All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk. This is accomplished using short drop cables
or direct T-connectors. The number of devices and the length of the trunk can be easily expanded.
Advantages of Bus Topology
The advantages of physical bus topology are:
1. It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install and the use for small networks.
2. It requires less media than other topologies.
3. Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
2. Cost is less as only one main cable is required and least amount of cable is required to connect
computers.
4. Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using a connector.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
The disadvantages of bus Topology are:
1. If the main central line fails the entire network collapses.
2. The bus networks are difficult to reconfigure, especially when the acceptable number of connections or
maximum distances have been reached.
3. They are also difficult to troubleshoot because everything happens on a single media segment. This can
have dangerous consequences because any break in the cabling brings the network to its knee.
4. Sharing a single communication channel results in slower access time.
5. In this topology, higher network traffic slows down the bus speed. Only one device transmits at a time,
other devices wait for their turn. As a result there is no coordination between the devices for reservation
of transmission time slots, so data collisions are frequent.

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Ring Topology
The physical ring Topology is a circular loop of point-to-point links. Each device connects directly to
the ring or indirectly through and interface device or drop cable. Message travel around the ring from
node to node in a very organized manner. Each workstation checks the message for a matching destination
address. If the address doesn't match the node simply regenerates the message and sends it on its way. If
the address matches, the node accepts the message and sends a reply to the originating sender.
• In ring topology, the various nodes are connected in form of a ring or circle (physical ring), in
which data flows in a circle, from one station to another station.
• It has no beginning or end that needs to be terminated.
• In this topology, each device or node has a dedicated point to point line configuration with only
two devices on either side of it.
• Signal is passed along the ring in one direction from one station to another until it reaches
destination.
• Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along.

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 11.Explain Bus, Ring and Star topologies.

Bus and Ring topologies(refer Prev question)

The physical star Topology uses a central controlling or hub with dedicated legs pointing in all directions
– like points of a star. Each network device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub. There is no
direct link between these computers and the computers can communicate via central controller only. This
strategy prevents troublesome collisions and keeps the lines of communications open and free of traffic.
The routing function is performed by the central controller which centrally controls communication between
any two computers by establishing a logical path between them. It means that if one computer A wants to
send data to another computer B, Computer A sends the data to the controller & this controller then sends
the data to computer B.

This Topology, obviously, require a great deal of cabling. This design provides an excellent platform for
reconfiguration and trouble-shooting. Changes to the network are as simple as plugging another segment
into the hub and a break in the LAN is easy to isolate and doesn't affect the rest of the network.
Advantages of Star Topology
The benefits of star topology are:
1. It is easier to add new node or modify any existing node without disturbing
network i.e. expansion is easier.
2. Addition of new node does not increase communication delay.
3. If any local computer or link fails, the entire system does not collapse. Only that link or computer
is affected.
4. It is easy to find device and cable problems i.e. fault identification and isolation is easier.
5. Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
The disadvantages are considered as follows:
1. If the central controller or hub fails, entire system collapses.
2. Cabling cost is more as each node is connected individually to the hub.
3. Requires more cable than most topologies
4. Moderately difficult to install

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12.Explain baud rate, framing errors.

Baud Rate:

The baud rate is the rate at which information is transferred in a communication

channel. In the serial port context, "9600 baud" means that the serial port is capable
of transferring a maximum of 9600 bits per second.

At higher bad rates, above 76,800, the cable length will need to be reduced. The
higher the baud rate, the more sensitive the cable become to quality of installation,
such as how much of the wire is untwisted around each device.

A baud is the number of signaling elements per second sent by a communications

device such as a modem, In theory, a modem with a high baud rate means fast
transmission. The baud rate is therefore equal to the bit rate only if each signal
element represents one bit of information.

When you use a modem to send information from one computer to another over the
phone lines, the information moves at a certain speed. This speed is measured in bits
per second, a bit being one electronic unit of information. This bits-per-second rate is
also commonly called the baud rate (pronounced "bod"). It's a measure of how fast
your modem can send and receive information. Modems most typically send at 1200,
2400, or 9600 baud.

Framing errors:

Framing errors can also occur if there is no serial ground connection between the two
connected serial devices, or if the connection is intermittent or has a high impedance,
e.g. because one or both ends are not well connected. This can cause noise on the
serial line, resulting in framing errors.
Asynchronous serial data received by a UART has an additional start bit and a stop
bit. The start and stop bits are periods of silence between each character on an
asynchronous serial connection, e.g. RS232

At a specific serial speed each bit of data takes a single "bit time" to be transmitted.
E.g. at 9600 bits per second the bit time is 1/9600 = 0.000104 seconds, or 104
microseconds. This is the bit time.

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For instance, if data bits is set to 8, parity is set to none and stop bits is set to 1
(8N1) each character of data is 10 bit times long. The stop and start bits "frame" the
data. A framing error occurs when a character of data received by the serial port is
too long or too short, i.e. has too many or too few bit times between start and stop
bits.

13.Explain Nyquists sampling theorem to fix the maximum data rate and Shannon’s
theorem.
The Nyquist Theorem, also known as the sampling theorem, is a principle that
engineers follow in the digitization of analog signals.

For analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) to result in a faithful reproduction of the

signal, slices, called samples, of the analog waveform must be taken frequently. The
number of samples per second is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.

Any analog signal consists of components at various frequencies. The simplest case is
the sine wave, in which all the signal energy is concentrated at one frequency. In
practice, analog signals usually have complex waveforms, with components at many
frequencies. The highest frequency component in an analog signal determines
the bandwidth of that signal. The higher the frequency, the greater the bandwidth, if
all other factors are held constant.

Suppose the highest frequency component, in hertz, for a given analog signal is fmax.
According to the Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2fmax, or twice
the highest analog frequency component.

The sampling in an analog-to-digital converter is actuated by a pulse generator

(clock). If the sampling rate is less than 2fmax, some of the highest frequency
components in the analog input signal will not be correctly represented in the
digitized output. When such a digital signal is converted back to analog form by a
digital-to-analog converter, false frequency components appear that were not in the
original analog signal. This undesirable condition is a form of distortion called aliasing.

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14. explain all the modulation techniques.

Amplitude Modulation:

A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband

message signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.

According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which
means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per
the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each instant. This can be well
explained by the following figures.

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The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next
one is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information.
While, the last one is the resultant modulated wave.

It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are
interconnected with an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of
the modulating signal. This imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope.
It is the same as that of the message signal.

Frequency Modulation:

Frequency modulation (FM) is a technique used to encode data on an alternating

digital or analog signal. The method includes varying the frequency of the carrier
wave on which useful information is imposed or impressed upon. The signal on which
data is imposed is known as the carrier signal and the resulting signal with variable
frequency is called a frequency modulated signal.

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier varies. But in Frequency

Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

The amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains constant whereas the
frequency of the carrier changes. This can be better understood by observing the
following figures.

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The frequency of the modulated wave remains constant as the carrier wave
frequency when the message signal is at zero. The frequency increases when the
message signal reaches its maximum amplitude.

Which means, with the increase in amplitude of the modulating or message signal,
the carrier frequency increases. Likewise, with the decrease in the amplitude of the
modulating signal, the frequency also decreases.
14.Explain carrier frequency and multiplexing.

A carrier signal is a signal with constant frequency. Typically sinusoids. They carry
little or no information by themselves. They have sufficient power and frequency to
be transmitted without interference and easily.

By imposing the input signal on to a carrier signal, the input signal can be
transmitted along with carrier signal. This is known as modulation.
Modulation changes the properties of the carrier signal (Amplitude:AM modulation.
Frequency:FM modulation.) to encode within it the information that was in the input
signal.

On the receiving end the signal will be demodulated to retrieve the information that
was encoded in.

Multiplexing:

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a
shared medium. If the analog signals are multiplexed, then it is called as analog
multiplexing. Similarly, if the digital signals are multiplexed, then it is called
as digital multiplexing.

The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel into several number of

logical channels, allotting each one for a different message signal or a data stream to
be transferred. The device that does multiplexing can be called
as Multiplexer or MUX.
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The reverse process, i.e., extracting the number of channels from one, which is done
at the receiver is called as de-multiplexing. The device that does de-multiplexing
can be called as de-multiplexer or DEMUX.

Types of Multiplexers
There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital. They are
further divided into Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM), and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). The following figure gives
a detailed idea about this classification.

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15. explain packets and hardware frames.
The Concept Of Packets

Most network systems divide messages into small blocks of data called packets.

Packets are useful for error control. A recipient checks each packet and requests a
retransmission when necessary. With luck, it is necessary to resend only a few
packets -- not whole messages.

In a network that is not packet-switched, a process may have to wait a very long
time for another process to finish sending a long message.

Packet switching facilitates the fair sharing of a link.

 It works much like round-robin scheduling.

 It is also similar to a quick-checkout line at a supermarket where shoppers are
limited to ten or fewer items.
 Another similar practice: a large family shares a telephone and all members
agree to make only short calls.
 A sender cannot tie up the link for any longer than the time it takes to send
one packet.
 After each packet is sent, the other senders have a chance to send a packet.
 Usually, no sender has to wait very long to send a packet.

Hardware Frames

Standards must define the design of packets.

It can be useful to have the ends of packets marked with special characters such as
"soh" (start of header) and "eot" (end of transmission).

These markers are not always needed. For example, they are not needed if packets
all have the same size, However in error situations such as after crashes, they are
useful for helping receivers "sync up."

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16.Explain byte stuffing.

 Allows frame to contain arbitrary number of bits and arbitrary character size.
The frames are separated by separating flag.
 Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern, 01111110 called a flag
byte. When five consecutive l's are encountered in the data, it automatically
stuffs a '0' bit into outgoing bit stream.
 In this method, frames contain an arbitrary number of bits and allow character
codes with an arbitrary number of bits per character. In his case, each frame
starts and ends with a special bit pattern, 01111110.
 In the data a 0 bit is automatically stuffed into the outgoing bit stream
whenever the sender's data link layer finds five consecutive 1s.
 This bit stuffing is similar to byte stuffing, in which an escape byte is stuffed
into the outgoing character stream before a flag byte in the data.
 When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming i bits, followed by a o bit, it
automatically destuffs (i.e., deletes) the 0 bit. Bit Stuffing is completely
transparent to network layer as byte stuffing. The figure1 below gives an
example of bit stuffing.
 This method of framing finds its application in networks in which the change of
data into code on the physical medium contains some repeated or duplicate
data. For example, some LANs encodes bit of data by using 2 physical bits.

17.Explain parity bits and parity checking.

A parity bit, also known as a check bit, is a single bit that can be appended
to a binary string. It is set to either 1 or 0 to make the total number of 1-bits
either even ("even parity") or odd ("odd parity").
The purpose of a parity bit is to provide a simple way to check for errors later. When
data is stored or transferred electronically, it's not uncommon for bits to "flip" —
change from a 1 to a 0, or vice versa. Parity checks can help detect some of these
errors. For example, to check a binary sequence that has even parity, the total

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number of ones can be counted. If the number of ones is not even, an error is likely
to have occurred.

Example parity checking process

1. The data 10101 is given the even parity bit of 1, resulting in the bit
sequence 101011.
2. This data is transferred to another computer. In transit, the data is
corrupted, and the computer receives the incorrect data 100011.
3. The receiving computer computes the parity: 1+0+0+0+1+1 = 3. It then
performs 3 modulo 2 (the remainder of 3 divided by 2), expecting the
result 0 which would indicate that the number is even.
4. Instead, it receives the result 3 modulo 2 = 1, indicating that the number is
odd. Because it is looking for numbers with even parity, it asks the original
computer to send the data again.
5. This time, the data comes through with no errors: 101011. The receiving
computer calculates 1+0+1+0+1+1 = 4.
6. 4 modulo 2 = 0, indicating even parity. The parity bit is stripped from the
end of the sequence, and the data 10101 is accepted.

18. explain detecting errors with cyclic redundancy checks.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) An error detection mechanism in which a special

number is appended to a block of data in order to detect any changes introduced
during storage (or transmission). The CRC is recalculated on retrieval (or reception)
and compared to the value originally transmitted, which can reveal certain types of
error. For example, a single corrupted bit in the data results in a one-bit change in
the calculated CRC, but multiple corrupt bits may cancel each other out.
A CRC is derived using a more complex algorithm than the simple CHECKSUM,
involving MODULO ARITHMETIC (hence the 'cyclic' name) and treating each input
word as a set of coefficients for a polynomial.

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  At the sender side, the data unit to be transmitted IS divided by a
predetermined divisor (binary number) in order to obtain the remainder. This
remainder is called CRC.
• The CRC has one bit less than the divisor. It means that if CRC is of n bits, divisor is
of n+ 1 bit.
• The sender appends this CRC to the end of data unit such that the resulting data
unit becomes exactly divisible by predetermined divisor i.e. remainder becomes zero.
• At the destination, the incoming data unit i.e. data + CRC is divided by the same
number (predetermined binary divisor).
• If the remainder after division is zero then there is no error in the data unit &
receiver accepts it.
• If remainder after division is not zero, it indicates that the data unit has been
damaged in transit and therefore it is rejected.
• This technique is more powerful than the parity check and checksum error
detection.
• CRC is based on binary division. A sequence of redundant bits called CRC or CRC
remainder is appended at the end of a data unit such as byte.

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19.Explain ckecksum method used to detect error in transmission.
A checksum is a simple type of redundancy check that is used to detect errors in
data.
 In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k segments each of
m bits.
 In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to
get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.

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1.Explain copper wire as a transmission medium. How interference copper wire can be
reduced?

A physical medium in data communications is the transmission path over which a

signal propagates. Many transmission media are used as communications channel.

For telecommunications transmission media are classified as one of the following:

 Guided (or bounded)—waves are guided along a solid medium such as

a transmission line.
 Wireless (or unguided)—transmission and reception are achieved by means of
an antenna.

One of the most common physical medias used in networking is copper wire. Copper
wire to carry signals to long distances using relatively low amounts of power.
The unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is eight strands of copper wire, organized into four
pairs.

A copper cable consists of two or more copper wires running side by side and bonded,
twisted or braided together to form a single assembly. Electrical cables may be made
more flexible by stranding the wires.

Copper wires in a cable may be bare or they may be plated to reduce oxidation with a
thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold or silver.

When a signal is transmitted through the cable it is in the form of current. This flow of
current produces a electromagnetic field of interference around it and can generate
noise effects in the surrounding cables.

One pair can induce cross-talk in another and it is additive along the length of the
cable.

Thus in order to eliminate this twisted wire approach is used.

Under this scheme, the wires twisted with and along each other carry equal and
opposite amount of current through them. Therefore, the interference/noise produced
by one wire is cancelled by the interference/noise produced by other wire since they
are equal and opposite in nature.

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