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Chapter 7

Dielectric Materials and

Insulation

PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this PowerPoint slide may be displayed,
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Definition of Capacitance

Qo ε 0 A
Co = =
V d
Co = capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in free space
Qo = charge on the plates
V = voltage
ε0 = absolute permittivity
A = plate area
d = separation between plates

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(a) Parallel plate capacitor with free space between the plates.
(b) As a slab of insulating material is inserted between the plates, there is an external current
flow indicating that more charge is stored on the plates.
(c) The capacitance has been increased due to the insertion of a medium between the plates.

Definition of Relative Permittivity 4

Q C
εr = =
Qo Co
εr = relative permittivity, Q = charge on the plates with a dielectric
medium, Qo = charge on the plates with free space between the plates, C =
capacitance with a dielectric medium, Co = capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor in free space

Definition of Dipole Moment

p = Qa
p = electric dipole moment, Q = charge, a = vector from
the negative to the positive charge

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The definition of electric dipole moment.

The origin of electronic polarization.

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Definition of Polarizability

pinduced = αE
pinduced = induced dipole moment, α = polarizability, E = electric field

Electronic Polarization

 Z 2e2 
pe = (Ze) x =  E
 β 
pe = magnitude of the induced electronic dipole moment, Z = number
of electrons orbiting the nucleus of the atom, x = distance between
the nucleus and the center of negative charge, β = constant, E =
electric field

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Static Electronic Polarizability
2
Ze
αe =
meω o 2
αe = electronic polarizability
Z = total number of electrons around the nucleus
me = mass of the electron in free space
ωo = natural oscillation frequency

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(a) When a dilectric is placed in

an electric field, bound
polarization charges appear on
the opposite surfaces.
(b) The origin of these
polarization charges is the
polarization of the molecules of
the medium.
(c) We can represent the whole
dielectric in terms of its surface
polarization charges +QP and -
QP.

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Definition of Polarization Vector

1
P = [p1 + p2 + ... + pN ]
Volume
P = Polarization vector, p1, p2, ..., pN are the dipole moments induced at N
molecules in the volume

Definition of Polarization Vector

P = Npav
pav = the average dipole moment per molecule
P = polarization vector, N = number of molecules per unit volume

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Polarization and Bound Surface Charge Density

P = σp
P = polarization, σp = polarization charge density on the surface

Definition of Electronic Susceptibility

P = χeεoE
P = polarization, χe = electric susceptibility, εo = permittivity of free
space, E = electric field

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Polarization charge density on the surface of a polarized medium is related to the normal
component of the polarization vector.

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Electric Susceptibility and Polarization

1
χe = Nα e
εo
χe = electric susceptibility, εo = permittivity of free space, N =
number of molecules per unit volume, αe = electronic polarizability

Relative Permittivity and Electronic Susceptibility

εr = 1 + χe
εr = relative permittivity, χe = electric susceptibility

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Relative Permittivity and Polarizability

Nα e
ε r = 1+
εo
εr = relative permittivity
N = number of molecules per unit volume
αe = electronic polarizability
εo = permittivity of free space
Assumption: Only electronic polarization is present

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The electric field inside a polarized dielectric at the atomic scale is not uniform. The
local field is the actual field that acts on a molecules. It can be calculated by
removing that molecules and evaluating the field at that point from the charges on
the plates and the dipoles surrounding the point.

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Local Field in Dielectrics

1
E loc = E + P
3ε o
Eloc = local field, E = electric field, εo = permittivity of free space, P = polarization

Clausius-Mossotti Equation

ε r − 1 Nα e
=
ε r + 2 3εo
εr = relative permittivity, N = number of molecules per unit volume, αe = electronic
polarizability, εo = permittivity of free space

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(a) Valence electrons in covalent bonds in the absence of an applied field.

(b) When an electric field is applied to a covalent solid, the valence electrons in the
covalent bonds are shifted very easily with respect to the positive ionic cores. The
whole solid becomes polarized due to the collective shift in the negative charge
distribution of the valence electrons.

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Ionic Polarization

(a) A NaCl chain in the NaCl crystal without an applied field. Average or net dipole
moment per ion is zero.
(b) In the presence of an applied field the ions become slightly displaced which leads to
a net average dipole moment per ion.

Dipolar Orientational Polarization 20

(a) A HCl molecule possesses a permanent dipole moment p0.

(b) In the absence of a field, thermal agitation of the molecules results in zero net average
dipole moment per molecule.
(c) A dipole such as HCl placed in a field experiences a torque that tries to rotate it to align p0
with the field E.
(d) In the presence of an applied field, the dipoles try to rotate to align with the field against
thermal agitation. There is now a net average dipole moment per molecule along the field.

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Average Dipole Moment in Orientational Polarization
2
1 po E
pav =
3 kT
pav = average dipole moment, po = permanent dipole moment, E = electric field, k =
Boltzmann constant, T = temperature

Dipolar Orientational Polarizability

1 po 2
αd =
3 kT
αd = dipolar orientational polarizability, po = permanent dipole moment

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Interfacial Polarization

(a) A crystal with equal number of mobile positive ions and fixed negative ions. In the
absence of a field, there is no net separation between all the positive charges and all the
negative charges.
(b) In the presence of an applied field, the mobile positive ions migrate toward the negative
charges and positive charges in the dielectric. The dielectric therefore exhibits interfacial
polarization.
(c) Grain boundaries and interfaces between different materials frequently give rise to
Interfacial polarization.

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Total Induced Dipole Moment

pav = αe Eloc + αi Eloc + αd Eloc

pav = average dipole moment, Eloc = local electric field, αe = electronic
polarizability, αi = ionic polarizability, αd = dipolar (orientational) polarizability

Clausius-Mossotti Equation

ε r −1 1
= ( Neαe + Niαi )
ε r + 2 3ε o
εr = dielectric constant, εo = permittivity of free space, Ne = number of atoms or
ions per unit volume, αe = electronic polarizability, Ni = number of ion pairs per
unit volume , αi = ionic polarizability

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Frequency Dependence

The dc field is suddenly changed from Eo to E at time t = 0. The induced dipole

moment p has to decrease from αd(0)Eo to a final value of ad(0)E. The decrease is
achieved by random collisions of molecules in the gas.

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Dipolar Relaxation Equation

dp p − α d (0)E
=−
dt τ
p = dipole moment, dp/dt = rate at which the induced dipole moment is changing,
αd = dipolar orientational polarizability, E = electric field, τ = relaxation time

Orientational Polarizability and Frequency

α d (0)
α d (ω ) =
1+ jωτ
αd (ω) = dipolar orientational polarizability as a function of ω, ω = angular
frquency of the applied field, τ = relaxation time, j is √(−1).

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Complex Relative Permittivity

ε r = ε ′r − jε r′′
εr = dielectric constant
ε′r = real part of the complex dielectric constant
ε″r = imaginary part of the complex dielectric constant
j = imaginary constant √(−1)

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(a) An ac field is applied to a dipolar medium. The polarization P(P = Np) is out of phase with
the ac field.
(b) The relative permittivity is a complex number with real (εr') and imaginary (εr'')
parts that exhibit frequency dependence.

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The dielectric medium behaves like an ideal (lossless) capacitor of capacitance C

which is in parallel with a conductance Gp.

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Admittance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

Y = jωC + GP
Y = admittance, ω = angular frequency of the applied field , C =
capacitance, GP = conductance

Loss Tangent

ε ′r′
tan δ =
ε ′r
tanδ = loss tangent or loss factor, ε′r = real part of the complex dielectric constant,
ε″r = imaginary part of the complex dielectric constant

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Dielectric Loss per Unit Volume

Wvol = ωE 2ε oε r′ tanδ
Wvol = dielectric loss per unit volume, ω = angular frquency of
the applied field , E = electric field, εo = permittivity of free
space, ε′r = real part of the complex dielectric constant, tanδ =
loss tangent or loss factor

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The frequency dependence of the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant in the
presence of interfacial, orientational, ionic, and, electronic polarization mechanisms.

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(a) Real and imaginary part is of the dielectric constant, εr' and εr'' versus frequency for (a) a
polymer, PET, at 115 °C and (b) an ionic crystal, KCl, at room temperature.
both exhibit relaxation peaks but for different reasons.
SOURCE: Data for (a) from author’s own experiments using a dielectric analyzer (DEA),
(b) from C. Smart, G.R. Wilkinson, A. M. Karo, and J.R. Hardy, International Conference on
lattice Dynamics, Copenhagen, 1963, as quoted by D. G. Martin, “The Study of the Vibration
of Crystal Lattices by Far Infra-Red Spectroscopy,” Advances in Physics, 14, no. 53-56, 1965,
pp. 39-100.

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Debye Equations

[ε r (0) − 1] [ε r (0) − 1]ωτ

ε r′ = 1 + ε r′′ =
1 + (ωτ ) 2 1 + (ωτ ) 2

εr = dielectric constant (complex)

ε′r = real part of the complex dielectric constant
ε″r = imaginary part of the complex dielectric constant
ω = angular frequency of the applied field
τ = relaxation time

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Cole-Cole plots

Cole-Cole plot is a plot of ε″r vs. ε′r as a function of frequency, ω . As the

frequency is changed from low to high frequencies, the plot traces out a
circle if Debye equations are obeyed.

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A capacitor with a dipolar dielectric and its equivalent circuit in terms of an

ideal Debye relaxation.

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Dielectric Breakdown

Corona and Partial Discharges:

(a) The field is greatest on the surface of the cylindrical conductor facing
ground. If the voltage is sufficiently large this field gives rise to a corona discharge.
(b) The field in a void within a solid can easily cause partial discharge.
(c) The field in the crack at the solid-metal interface can
also lead to a partial discharge.

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An exaggerated schematic illustration of a soft dielectric medium experiencing strong

compressive forces to the applied voltage.

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(a) A schematic illustration of electrical treeing breakdown in a high voltage coaxial

cable which was initiated by a partial discharge in the void at the inner conductor
- dielectric interface.
(b) A schematic diagram of a typical high voltage coaxial cable with
semiconducting polymer layers around the inner conductor and around the outer
surface of the dielectric.

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Some typical water trees found in field aged cables. (Left: Trees in a cable with tape and graphite
insulation. Right: Trees in a cable with strippable insulation.)
SOURCE: P. Werellius, P. Tharning, R. Eriksson,B . Holmgren. J. Gafvert, “Dielectric Spectroscopy for
Diagnosis of Water Tree Deterioration in XLPE Cables” IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation, Vol. 8, February 2001, p 34, Figure 10 ( IEEE, 2001)

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Coaxial cable connector with traces of corona discharge; electrical treeing.

SOURCE: M. Mayer and G.H. Schröder , “Coaxial 30 kV Connectors for the RG220/U Cable: 20
Years of Operational Experience”IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine , Vol. 16, March/April
2000, p 11, Figure 6. ( IEEE, 2000)

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Tree and bush type electrical discharge structures

(a) Voltage, V = 160 kV, gap spacing d = 0.06 m at various times.
(b) Dense bush discharge structure, V = 300 kV, d = 0.06 m at various times.
SOURCE: V. Lopatin, M.D. Noskov, R. Badent, K. Kist, A.J. Swab, “Positive Discharge
Development in Insulating Oil: Optical Observation and Simulation” IEEE Trans. on Dielec
and Elec. Insulation Vol. 5, No. 2, 1998, p. 251, Figure 2.( IEEE, 1998)

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Time to breakdown and the field at breakdown, Ebr, are interrelated and depend on the mechanism that causes
the insulation breakdown. External discharges have been excluded (based on L.A. Dissado and J.C. Fothergill,
Electrical Degradation and Breakdown in Polymers, Peter Peregrinus Ltd. for IEE, UK, © 1992, p. 63)

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Examples of dielectrics that can be used for various capacitance values.

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Examples of dielectrics that can be used in various frequency ranges.

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Sindle0 and multilayer dielectric capacitors.

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Two polymer tapes in (a), each with a metallized film electrode on the surface (offset from
Other), can be rolled together (like a Swiss roll) to obtain a polymer film capacitor as in (b).
As the two separate metal films are lined at opposite edges, electroding is done over the whole
side surface.

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Aluminum electrolytic capacitor.

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Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitor.

(a) A cross section without fine detail.
(b) An enlarged section through the Ta capacitor.

Comparison of dielectrics for capacitor applications

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Capacitor name Polypropylene Polyester Mica Aluminum, Tantalum, High-K ceramic
electrolytic electrolyt
ic, solid

Dielectric Polymer film Polymer film Mica Anodized Al2O3 Anodized X7R
film Ta2O5 BaTiO3 base
film
εr ′ 2.2 – 2.3 3.2 – 3.3 6.9 8.5 27 2000
tanδ 4 × 10-4 4 × 10-3 2 × 10-4 0.05 - 0.1 0.01 0.01
Ebr (kV mm-1) DC 100 - 350 100 - 300 50 - 300 400 - 1000 300 - 600 10

d (typical minimum) 3 - 4 µm 1 µm 2 - 3 µm 0.1 µm 0.1 µm 10 µm

Cvol (µF cm-3) 2 30 15 7,500a 24,000a 180

Rp = 1/Gp; C = 1 µF; 400 kΩ 40 kΩ 800 kΩ 1.5 - 3 kΩ 16 kΩ 16 kΩ
1000 Hz
Evol (mJ cm-3)b 10 15 8 1000 1200 100
Polarization Electronic Electronic and Ionic Ionic Ionic Large ionic
Dipolar displacement

NOTES: Typical values. h = 3 assumed. The table is for comparison purposes only. Breakdown fields are typical DC values, and can
vary substantially, by at least an order of magnitude; Ebr depends on the thickness, material quality and the duration of the applied
voltage. a Proper volumetric calculations must also consider the volumes of electrodes and the electrolyte necessary for these
dielectrics to work; hence the number would have to be decreased. b Evol depends very sensitively on Ebr and the choice of h; hence
it can vary substantially. Polyester is PET, or polyehthylene terephthalate. Mica is potassium aluminosilicate, a muscovite crystal.
X7R is the name of a particular BaTiO3-based ceramic solid solution.

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Capacitance per unit volume 53

ε oε r
C vol =
d2
Cvol = capacitance per unit volume, εo = permittivity of free space, εr = dielectric
constant, d = separation of the capacitor plates

Maximum energy per unit volume

1 2 1 ε ε′ 2
E vol = CV m × = o 2r E br
2 Ad 2η

Evol = maximum energy stored per unit volume, C = capacitance, Vm = maximum

voltage, A = surface area of the capacitor plates, d = separation of the capacitor
plates, εo = permittivity of free space, ε′r = real part of the complex dielectric
constant, η = safety factor, Ebr = breakdown electric field

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Dielectric loss per unit volume

2
E br
Wvol = ωε oε r′ tan δ
η 2

Wvol = dielectric loss per unit volume, Ebr = breakdown

electric field, η = safety factor, εo = permittivity of free
space, ε′r = real part of the complex dielectric constant,
tanδ = loss tangent or loss factor, ω = angular frequency
of the applied field

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(a) A polymer dielectric that has dipolar side groups attached to the polymer chains. With
no applied field, the dipoles are randomly oriented.
(b) In the presence of an applied field, some very limited rotation enables dipolar polarization
to take place.
(c) Near the softening temperature of the polymer, the molecular motions are rapid and there
is also sufficient volume between chains for the dipoles to align with the field. The dipolar
contribution to εr is substantial, even at high frequencies.

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Piezoelectric Effect

The piezoelectric effect.

(a) A piezoelectric crystal with no applied stress or field.
(b) The crystal is strained by an applied force that induces polarization in the crystal and generates surface charges.
(c) An applied field causes the crystal to become strained. In this case the field compresses the crystal.
(d) The strain changes direction with the applied field and now the crystal is extended.

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A NaCl-type cubic unit cell has a center of symmetry.

(a) In the absence of an applied force, the centers of mass for positive and negative
ions coincide.
(b) This situation does not change when the crystal is strained by an applied force.

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A hexagonal unit cell has no center of symmetry. (a) In the absence of an applied force the centers of
mass for positive and negative ions coincide. (b) Under an applied force along y the centers of mass for
positive and negative ions are shifted which results in a net dipole moment P along y. (c) When the force
is along a different direction, along x, there may not be a resulting net dipole moment in that direction
though there may be a net P along a different direction (y).

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Piezoelectric transducers are widely used to generate ultrasonic waves in solids and also to
detect such mechanical waves. The transducer on the left is excited from an ac source and
vibrates mechanically. These vibrations are coupled to the solid and generate elastic waves.
When the waves reach the other end they mechanically vibrate the transducer on the right which
converts the vibrations to an electrical signal.

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Piezoelectric Effect

Pi = dij Tj
Pi = induced polarization along the i direction, dij = piezoelectric
coefficients, Tj = mechanical stress along the j direction

Converse Piezoelectric Effect

Sj = dij Ei
Sj = induced stain along the j direction, dij = piezoelectric
coefficients, Ei = electric field along the i direction

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Electro-Mechanical Coupling Factor

Electricalenergyconvertedto mechanicalenergy
k2 =
Input of electricalenergy

k = electromechanical coupling factor

Electro-Mechanical Coupling Factor

Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy

k2 =
Input of mechanical energy

k = electromechanical coupling factor

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Piezoelectric transducers
|SOURCE: Photo by SOK

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BaTiO3 has different crystal structures above and below 130 °C that lead to different dielectric
properties.

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Piezoelectric properties of BaTiO3 below its Curie temperature.

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The heat absorbed by the crystal increases the temperature by δT which induces a change
δP in the polarization. This is the pyroelectric effect. The change δP gives rise to a change
δV in the voltage which can be measured.

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Pyroelectric Coefficient
dP
p =
dT
p = pyroelectric coefficient, P = polarization, T = temperature

Pyroelectric Current Density

dP dT
Jp = =p
dt dt
Jp = pyroelectric current density, dT/dt = rate of change of
temperature

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A pyroelectric detector based

on LiTaO3
|Courtesy of Molectron Detector Inc.

A 70 MHz pyroelectric detector

|Courtesy of Molectron Detector Inc.

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The pyroelectric detector. Radiation is absorbed in the detecting element, A, which generates
a pyroelectric voltage that is measured by the amplifier. The second element, B, has a reflecting
electrode and does not absorb the radiation. It is a dummy element that compensates for the
piezoelectric effects. Piezoelectric effects generate equal voltages in both A and B which across
a and b (the input of the amplifier) cancel each other.

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Pyroelectric Detector Output Voltage
(Rough Estimate)

pI∆t  p 
∆V = =   I∆t
ρcε rε o  ρcε rε o 
∆V = voltage change, p = pyroelectric coefficient, I = incident
radiation intensity, ∆t = time interval (e.g. irradiation time in
chopping input radiation), ρ = density, c = specific heat capacity
(heat capacity per unit mass), εo = permittivity of free space, εr =
relative permittivity

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