Major in Educational Leadership

MED O2 - Educational Research Designs, Methods and Publication

1) What is educational research? As educators, why do we need to conduct research?

Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of data related to the field of education.
Research may involve a variety of methods. Research may involve various aspects of education including student
learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.

Educational research uses the scientific method to study best practices in teaching. An educational research study
can be conducted to answer the question: Will students learn better or worse when they are given positive
encouragement? To do this, the scientific method will be employed to compare a group of students who are given
positive encouragement with a group of students given negative criticism and a control group of students given no
encouragement. After receiving positive encouragement, negative criticism, or no encouragement, individuals in
these groups will then be compared on important dependent learning variables such as their performance, effort,
and motivation. Once this has been done, the data will provide a definitive answer about whether positive
encouragement, negative criticism, or no encouragement results in the best academic performance. Educational
research that uses the scientific method to collect scientific data can provide a definite answer about best practices
in teaching.

The purpose of educational research is to develop new knowledge about the teaching-learning situation to improve
educational practice. Educational research can address the following variables:

Learning: How do students’ best learn various subjects?

Teaching: What are the best teaching practices to foster student achievement?
Motivation: What are the best practices for teachers to motivate their students to achieve?
Development: How do children and adults change over time, including their cognitive, social, and emotional skills?
Classroom management: What classroom or school practices make the classroom optimal for student learning?
By collecting scientific data about these important topics in education, educational research can establish the best
practices that teachers, counselors, administrators, and students should use to improve learning outcomes.
Therefore, educational researchers - particularly researchers in Nigeria - should focus on practical research projects
that will have significant implications for education.

Benefits for educational practice:

 Provide instruction that maximizes students' learning.

 Understand and support the developmental needs of pupils.
 Develop an educational environment that supports students' motivation.
 Provide solutions to educational problems.

MED 08 – Human Development and Learning Behavior Development

1) Discuss Bandura's Social Learning Theory. How can your knowledge of this theory contribute in
understanding the nature of the learners and in helping them learn better?

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors,
attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not
to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an
idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action.” (p22). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are:
(1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value)
and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention,
including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction,
including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including
external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

Application
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and
psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical
foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years,
Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).

Example
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials
suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the
admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or
motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.
Principles
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled
behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images
results in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has
admired status and the behavior has functional value.

MED 12 - Classroom Motivation and Management

1) Why is classroom management a crucial factor in ensuring the wholesome development of the learners?

Classroom management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to keep
students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive during a class. When
classroom-management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviors that impede
learning for both individual students and groups of students, while maximizing the behaviors that facilitate
or enhance learning. Generally speaking, effective teachers tend to display strong classroom-management
skills, while the hallmark of the inexperienced or less effective teacher is a disorderly classroom filled with
students who are not working or paying attention.

While a limited or more traditional interpretation of effective classroom management may focus largely on
“compliance”—rules and strategies that teachers may use to make sure students are sitting in their seats,
following directions, listening attentively, etc.—a more encompassing or updated view of classroom
management extends to everything that teachers may do to facilitate or improve student learning, which
would include such factors as behavior (a positive attitude, happy facial expressions, encouraging
 statements, the respectful and fair treatment of students, etc.), environment (for example, a welcoming,
well-lit classroom filled with intellectually stimulating learning materials that’s organized to support specific
learning activities), expectations (the quality of work that teachers expect students to produce, the ways
that teachers expect students to behave toward other students, the agreements that teachers make with
students), materials (the types of texts, equipment, and other learning resources that teachers use), or
activities (the kinds of learning experiences that teachers design to engage student interests, passions, and
intellectual curiosity). Given that poorly designed lessons, uninteresting learning materials, or unclear
expectations, for example, could contribute to greater student disinterest, increased behavioral problems, or
unruly and disorganized classes, classroom management cannot be easily separated from all the other
decisions that teachers make. In this more encompassing view of classroom management, good teaching
and good classroom management become, to some degree, indistinguishable.

In practice, classroom-management techniques may appear deceptively simple, but successfully and
seamlessly integrating them into the instruction of students typically requires a variety of sophisticated
techniques and a significant amount of skill and experience.

Few basic classroom-management techniques

Entry Routine is a technique in which teachers establish a consistent, daily routine that begins as soon as students
enter the classroom—preparing learning materials, making seat assignments, passing in homework, or doing a brief
physical “warm-up” activity would all be examples of entry routines. This technique can avoid the disorder and
squandered time that can characterize the beginning of a class period.
 Do Now is a brief written activity that students are given as soon as they arrive in the classroom. This technique
is intended to get students settled, focused, productive, and prepared for instruction as quickly as possible.
 Tight Transitions is a technique in which teachers establish transition routines that students learn and can
execute quickly and repeatedly without much direction from a teacher. For example, a teacher might say
“reading time,” and students will know that they are expected to stop what they are working on, put away their
materials, get their books, and begin reading silently on their own. This technique helps to maximize
instructional time by reducing the disarray and delay that might accompany transitions between activities.
 Seat Signals is a technique in which students use nonverbal signals while seated to indicate that they need
something, such as a new pencil, a restroom break, or help with a problem. This technique establishes
expectations for appropriate communication and helps to minimize disruptions during class.
 Props is the act of publicly recognizing and praising students who have done something good, such as
answering a difficult question or helping a peer. Props is done by the entire class and is typically a short
movement or spoken phrase. The technique is intended to establish a group culture in which learning
accomplishments and positive actions are socially valued and rewarded.
 Nonverbal Intervention is when teachers establish eye contact or make gestures that let students know they
are off-task, not paying attention, or misbehaving. The technique helps teachers efficiently and silently manage
student behavior without disrupting a lesson.
 Positive Group Correction is a quick, affirming verbal reminder that lets a group of students know what they
should be doing. Related techniques are Anonymous Individual Correction, a verbal reminder that is directed
at an anonymous student; Private Individual Correction, a reminder given to an individual student as discretely
as possible; and Lightning-Quick Public Correction, a quick, positive reminder that tells an individual student
what to do instead of what not to do.
 Do It Again is used when students do not perform a basic task correctly, and the teacher asks them to do it
again the correct way. This technique establishes and reinforces consistent expectations for quality work.