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Sacred biography ir» the Buddhist traditions o f South and Southeast
Asia / edited byjuliane Schober.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 -8 2 4 8 —1699—4 (alk. paper)
1- Buddhist saints-----Biography-----History and criticism. 2. Gautam;
Buddha. 3. Buddhist hagiography-----History and criticism.
1. Schober, Juliane.
B Q 843.S23 1997
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Preface
ix

Trajectories in Buddhist Sacred Biography

Juliane Schober
1

P ant 1
Buddha Biography in Textual and Visual Narratives

Rebirth Traditions and the Lineages

o f Gotama: A Study in Theravada Buddhology
Frank E . Reynolds
19
T h e Biographical Imperative
in Theravada Buddhism
Mark R . Woodward
40
Narrative as Icon:
T h e Jataka Stories in Ancient Indian
and Southeast Asian Architecture
Robert L . Broun
64
 P ant 2
Extensions o f the Buddha Biography in Texts

A Family Quest:
T h e Buddha, Yasodhara, and Rahula
in the Mfriasaivastivada Vinaya
John S. Strong
113

N agaijuna’s Longevity
Reginald A . Ray
129

Stupa, Story, and Empire:

Constructions o f the Buddha Biography
in Early Post-As'okan India
Jonathan S. Walters
160

P an t 3
Tifirjatakas and Biographies o f Kings

Painting the “ Great Life”

Forrest M cGill
195

From Prose to Poetry:

The Literary Developm ent o f Saimittakote
Thomas John Htidak
218

“ R ationality” in the Biography o f a Buddhist King:

M ongkut, K in g o f Siam (r. 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 6 8 )
Paul Christopher Johnson
232
 P a n t 4-
Tlte Biographical Genre in Local Buddhist Culls and Practice

In the Presence o f the Buddha:

Ritual Veneration o f the Burm ese Mahamuni Image
Julianc Schoher
259

T h e Textualization o f a Monastic Tradition:

Forest M onks, Lineage, and the Biographical Process
in Thailand
James L. Taylor
289

T h e Biography o f M odem Burmese Buddhist

Meditation Master U Ba Khin: Life before
the Cradle and past the Grave
Gustaaf Houtman
310

Index
345

About the Contributors

365

C o lor plates follow page

194
 O^rej-ace

T h is vo lum e presents previously unpublished essays on sacred b iography in

the Buddhist traditions o f South and Southeast Asia. It introduces into the
cross-disciplinary discourse m ethodologies and perspectives in anthropol­
ogy, art history, and history o f religions that center on the them e o f b io g­
raphy in Buddhism . E ach contribution exam ines sacred biography in one
or m ore m odalities in the texts, art, history, literature, m yths, rituals, and
cultures o f the Buddhist tradition. T h e ir com m on goal is to elucidate the
w ays in w h ich these biographies function as frames o f reference or, in
Stanley T am b iah ’s w ords, as indexical sym bols that allow for shifts in inter­
pretation, m eaning, and intentionality b y alluding at once to m ultiple lev­
els o f discourse and contexts in the past and in the present. In B uddhism ,
biographies are the tools for m apping diverse realities onto one another:
local cosm ologies are integrated into universal ones; pristine Buddhist ideals
and m odes o f practice are recreated in the present and in the lives o f oth­
ers; the present is explained in terms o f causes in past lives; iconic venera­
tion o f an absent B u d d h a allow s the c o m m u n ity to participate in his
continuing biography; and so on. M an y m ore exam ples o f “ m apping” or
shifting b etw een contexts and interpretations can be encom passed b y a
frame o f reference such as Buddhist biography. T h e narrative intention and
focus o f each biographical episode is m anipulated through a set o f relations,
both internal and external to the biographical fram e itself. This makes b io g­
raphy in B uddhism an effective device for didactic com m unication. It also
allows for com m unicating at once a great variety o f things, abstract and
pragm atic, past and present. A lthough biography also plays a significant role
in oth er “ great re lig io n s,” in clu d in g C h ristian ity, Ju d a ism , Islam , and
 H induism , its universality and m ultivocality in Buddhism are rooted in an
epistem ology that presumes an op en-en d ed soteriology that entertains tw o
m utually re in fo rc in g co n cep tio n s: an yon e can p oten tially b e co m e a
Buddha; and tim e is cyclical— that is to say, the same kind o f event can
happen again and again under different circum stances and in diverse con ­
texts.
A t the same tim e that the vo lu m e seeks to fill a lacuna in the study o f
sacred biography in Buddhism , it also seeks to encourage further m ulti­
d isciplinary explorations o f a com m on them e am o n g audiences in the
humanities and social sciences w h o share these m ethodological interests in
the relationships betw een textual, artistic, and cultural modes o f religion.
O u r im petus to explore Buddhist sacred biography came from tw o
separate, though overlapping, symposia. T h e first one, “ Interpretations o f
Ja ta k a Tales in Southeast A sia,” focused on the stories o f the B u d d h a’s pre­
vious lives across Theravada and M ahayana traditions o f m ainland and insu­
lar Southeast Asia and was held at A rizona State U niversity in the spring o f
19 9 0. T h e essays by R o b e rt B ro w n , Th om as H udak, Frank R e y n o ld s, and
M ark W o o d w ard w ere first presented in that forum . T h is led to a second,
m ore bro ad ly d efined sym p osiu m : “ B u d d h ist ‘ L ife S to rie s’ : Sacred
B iograph y in South and Southeast A sia,” held a few m onths later at the
U niversity o f C h icago , w h ere R e gin a ld R a y , Jo h n Strong, and Jonathan
W alters first presented their essays. C ontributions by G u staaf H outm an,
Paul Joh n so n , Forrest M c G ill, Jam es T aylor, and m y ow n essay w ere then
gathered to com plem ent approaches and case studies discussed in the tw o
symposia.
This b o o k w o u ld not have com e about w ith ou t the collegial advice
and constructive com m ents o f m any scholars and the substantive support o f
institutions and foundations. I am indebted to Frank R eyn o ld s, w h o first
suggested the publication o f a co llectio n o f essays on this subject. H e
offered his generous advice at several ju n ctu res in its conceptual and edito­
rial developm ent. M ark W o od w ard has been a steady critic w h o offered
concrete suggestions for im provem ent. O n several occasions in the course
o f the conferences and the editorial process, I have relied on C aro l W ith ers’
logistical and secretarial expertise. Steve T o th has assisted me w ith his
expertise in editorial conventions and the conversion o f som e obscure soft­
w are formats into readable form .
T h e conferences that p rovided the impetus for this project w ere sup­
ported by the Program for Southeast Asian Studies and the C o llege for
Liberal Arts and Sciences at A rizona State U n iversity; by the N ational
E nd ow m en t for the H um anities; and by the Buddhist Studies Forum at the
U niversity o f C h icago . T h e D epartm ent o f R e lig io u s Studies at A rizona
State U niversity has generously granted me the time to bring the project to

.v Preface
com pletion. Grants in support o f this publication have been generously
provid ed by Jo h n Adam s T h ierry , the B u cy ru s-E rie Foundation, and the
P ro gram fo r Southeast Asian Studies at A rizo n a State U n iv ersity . M y
appreciation also goes to Sally Serafim and Sharon Y am am oto, editors for
the press w h ose expertise greatly enhanced the final outcom e. Finally, I am
indebted to the authors in this vo lu m e for their patience w ith the process
o f bringing this collection to a w id er audience and the collegiality w ith
w h ich they received editorial com m ents.

N o te on DiacrziticaL C o n v e n tio n s
The contributions to this volume draw on primary sources in Pali, Sanskrit,
Tibetan, Thai, and Burmese and follow the accepted conventions for transcription
and diacritical marks in these respective languages. Each author chose to employ
the standards appropriate to his or her respective field o f study.
 tra je cto rie s in C/jucfcfJiisi
S a cred C B io y ra p h y
Juliane Schober

Sacred biographies inspire im agination, belief, and practice in m any reli­

gious traditions. T h e popular penchant for the life stories o f religious fig­
ures persists w ith ou t concern for the historicity accorded to the times,
places, and facts o f individual lives they recount. Stories about the lives o f
saints and founders o f religious traditions cast into re lie f precisely those acts
and episodes that evok e salient themes throughout the broader religious
tradition. T h e y provide a narrative explication o f abstract religious con ­
cepts and, at the same tim e, becom e the fabric for speculations about per­
vasive religious concerns. In diverse ways, this accounts for the continuity
o f biographic themes over time and throughout religious traditions. This
book explores recurrent though distinctive variations in biographies and
related narratives articulated in the arts, texts, rituals, myths, and religious
practices in Buddhist traditions o f South and Southeast Asia.
A pervasive theme in Buddhism , sacred biography invites com parative
exploration along m ultiple trajectories. A religious tradition o f great historic
depth, B u d d h ism encom passes m any diverse cultures th rou gh o u t Asia.
T h ro ugh time, models o f Buddhist practice— exem plified in the biographies
o f Buddha and o f saints— becam e articulated and contextualized in a variety
o f culturally salient modes. C o n cern in g an epistem ology o f text-building in
Javanese shadow plays, A . L. B eck er has shown h o w the interpretation o f
simultaneous voices o f the past and o f the present is constrained by relations
w ithin the text itself, to its literary context, and audiences.1 Biographical
episodes in Buddhist texts thus speak not only o f the past, but speak sim ul­
taneously o f a variety o f presents in m ultiple cultural and linguistic contexts.
In his co n trib u tio n to a com parative v o lu m e on the b iograp h ical
process in the history and psych ology o f religions, Frank R e y n o ld s2 argues
that stories about the B u d d h a’s lives helped define the fram ew ork for the
developm ent o f Buddhist texts and practice because they depict fundam en­
tal religious and cultural m odes that are paradigmatic for the tradition as a
w h ole and inform the construction o f religious practice, texts, and cultures.
T h e structure o f sacred biographies, the process o f their com pilation, and
their proliferation throughout the Buddhist tradition con vey m ore than
m erely m oral tales for religious instruction. R e y n o ld s has show n that sacred
biographies resonate am ong religious audiences because the Buddha b io g ­
raphy has fundam entally shaped religious conceptions and interpretations in
various religious m odes throughout that tradition.
T h e m ythic and sym bolic qualities o f sacred biographies often m ake for
“ good stories to tell,” but these stories also have didactic value because they
illustrate exem plary m oral practice. H o w e ve r, m em bers o f religious com ­
m unities accept sacred biographies “ on faith” and their salience transcends
concerns o f m orality and religious instruction. B iographical tales becom e
m eaningful only in reference to concepts central to the religious tradition.
H igh ly evocative and polysem ous, sacred biographies depict and contextu -
alize the lives o f those w h o emulate these ideals in religious texts and prac­
tice. In their totality, the biographies o f the Buddha encompass a variety o f
m odels o f and for religious practice. T h e tradition view s these potentially
limitless m odels o f path practice as applicable to all sentient beings and par­
ticularly to those w h o — as arhats (saints) and future Buddhas— have realized
in exem plary fashion a version o f the path in their ow n lives.3
R e lig io u s biographies m ediate betw een the ideal and the real, the co n ­
ceptual and the pragm atic. T o the extent to w h ich individual life stories
express salient and abstract religious principles, they becom e, in C lifford
G e ert’s terms, “ m odels o f ” exem plary religious practice.4 T h e y are sim ul­
taneously “ models for” religious practice for they inspire others to imitate
in their o w n lives idealized expressions o f religiosity.
It is not uncom m on, therefore, to discover in various Buddhist co n ­
texts that sacred biographies— as inspirational exem plars— are integral to
co n te xtu a liz in g and legitim atin g the form ation o f local cults. Stanley
T am biah em ploys B u rk s’ notion o f indexical sym bols to explain the m ulti­
faceted aspects o f a m odern T h ai cult surrounding a monastic saint5 and his
nationally acclaim ed bio grap h y authored by one o f his c h ie f disciples.
T am biah 6 argues that the indexical symbols o f this biography provid e an
analytical entree into “ the study o f text and context, semantics and prag­
matics, m eaning that refers back to classical constructs and forw ard to uses
in the present.” 7 T his, it seems, allows us to con ceive o f the exploration o f
sacred biography from an encom passing perspective.
Early Buddhist scholars such as H . O ldenberg and T . W . and C . A . F.
R h ys-D a vid s sought to reconstruct a historically accurate account o f the
life o f the Buddha on the basis o f textual evidence. T h e y considered m ythic
elem ents o f biographical texts to be irrational and detracting from the
“ original” message o f “ p u re” B uddhism . T h ese attempts to trace the life
history o f the Buddha as an exem plary hum an being m irrored in m any
w ays the p re va ilin g epistem olo gical param eters in W estern canons o f
ch ronological history.
M ore recent scholarship departs from the confines o f rationalist, posi­
tivist reconstruction o f chronological history, recognizing the interpretive
value o f m ythic, artistic, and cultural themes as expressions o f principal tenets
underlying the tradition. W hile they acknow ledge the historical core o f later
biographical developm ents, R eyn o ld s and Charles H allisey8 note the lack o f
concern for chronological and narrative continuity in the biographical frag­
ments o f early texts. In their view , “ the tradition o f recounting biographical
episodes is an integral part o f early Buddhism . Episodic fragments, preserved
in the Pali and Chinese versions o f the early Buddhist literature, are em bed­
ded in sermons attributed to the Buddha him self and illustrate points o f prac­
tice o f doctrine. Such episodes are also used as narrative frames to provide a
context indicating w hen and w here a particular discourse was taught.” 9
In com m enting on the evolution o f studies on the biographical genre
in B uddhism , R e y n o ld s and H allisey m ention E rich Frauw allner’s10 pre­
supposition o f a com prehensive, though no lon ger extant “ u r-b io grap h y.”
Frauw allner saw this “ u r-bio grap h y” as an explanation and m odel for later
biographical fragm ents in the extant V inaya literature. M o re recent w orks
b y A lfred F o u c h e r,11 E tienne L am o tte,12 and A ndre B areau 13 proceed anti­
thetically to Frauw allner’s theory o f a lost “ u r-te x t” and favor “ a gradual
d evelopm ent o f biographical cycles, w ith on ly a later synthesis o f this m ate­
rial into a series o f m ore com plete biographies.” 14 O v e r time, n ew and
auton om ous biograph ies d ep ictin g the B u d d h a ’s lives w e re eventually
com posed in diverse Buddhist schools. T h e y reflect characteristics and ori­
entations that are specific to the contexts o f their com position and indicate
reinterpretations o f the B u d d h a’s biography to ju stify prevailing contexts or
to exem plify certain attributes and qualities o f the B u d d h a .15 R e y n o ld s and
H allisey note the fluidity in the structure o f the B uddh ist biographical
genre and the use o f biographical episodes as narrative frames to con textu -
alize and authenticate the B u d d h a’s teachings.16
A m o n g the m ost seminal developm ents in the biographical genre o f the
T h eravada traditions o f South and Southeast Asia is the fifth-century Pali
com m entary Jatakatthakatha, w h ich recounts 547 o f the B u d d h a’s previous
lives.17 This Sinhalese com m entary and slightly variant Southeast Asian texts
describe exem plary m odes o f practicing the path and the ultimate nibbamc
attainment o f a karm ically constituted “ individual.” 18 These stories o f the
B u dd h a’s form er lives are prefaced by the Sinhalese com m entator’s intro­
duction, N id a n a k a th d ,'9 w hich recounts the B udd h a’s biography from the
time o f his v o w to em bark on the Buddha path to his achievem ent o f
enlightenm ent. T h e jataka narratives describe the B u dd h a’s path and, to
som e extent, also the path o f his fam ily and disciples w h o follow' him
through several lives. Y e t, as a w h ole, the Jdtakas appear to have been
arranged according to properties o f the text (e.g., length) rather than narra­
tive sequence o f successive rebirths. T h e y do not present a chron ically
ordered depiction o f the B u dd h a’s path to enlightenm ent.
In their essays 111 this vo lu m e , Frank R e y n o ld s and T h o m as Jo h n
H udak both note the consistent form at follow ed in the classical Pali b io ­
graphical stories: they begin w ith “ the story o f the present,” w h ich p ro ­
vides the context and occasion for the B u dd h a’s recollection o f one o f his
form er lives and thus “ fram es” the second part, “ the story of the past,”
w hich is the jatak a or story o f the form er life; the rebirth identities o f m ajor
characters conclude the story by linking the narrative past and present. T h e
shift m focus, intent, and context characterizes the narrative structure o f
birth stories in their classical Pali renditions. T h e essays in this volum e showr
that shifts in narrative foci, intent, and contexts are formal properties o f
biographic depiction not only in textual m odes, but also in the cultural,
cultic, and artistic articulations o f Buddhist sacred biography.
T h e biographical genre in the Buddhist w orld also engendered other,
in d epen d en t bio grap h ical traditions in vern acu lar languages and local
m y th o lo g ie s.20 In the T h e ra va d in branch , som e versions o f these are
recounted in historical chronicles (vamsa) w hich serve to legitim ate local
claims or contexts. A separate, though com plem entary, genre o f Buddha
biographies recounting his visits to local sites is encountered in num erous
oral m yth ologies.21 Finally, there is a prevailing tendency throughout local
traditions o f Theravada Buddhism for disciples to com pose biographies
upon the death o f their m onastic teachers. Several recen t studies o f
T heravada Buddhism exam ine biographies o f religious figures recounted in
local traditions (R u th -In g e H e in z e ,22 G ran t A . O lso n ,23 G u sta a f
H o u tm a n ,24 and B o n n ie B re re to n 25), p ortray b io grap h ical them es as
em blem atic o f broader contexts (T am biah,26 Charles K e y e s,27 and M ichael
Carrithers28), or explore relationships betw een biographers, their subjects,
and audiences (James L. T a y lo r29).
O th er recent studies em ploy com parative approaches in the analysis o f
Buddhist biography. R egin ald R a y ’s Buddhist Saints in India looks at the
lives o f saints in the early Buddhist tradition through a variety o f textual
so u rc es.30 In The Legend and C ult o f Upagupta, Jo h n S tro n g exam ines
Sanskrit H Inayana Buddhist tales about this saint and their extensions in the
T h eravada rituals o f Southeast A sia .31 Monks and Magicians,32 edited by
Phyliss G ra n o ff and K o ich i Shinohara, presents case studies o f Ja in and
B uddhist figures in India, T ib et, and C h in a. A noth er collection, entitled
Maitreya, The Future Buddha and edited by A lan S p o n b erg and H elen
H ardacre,33 features essays on the d evelopm ent and interpretation o f the
M aitreya tradition. Its prim ary focus is the M ahayana traditions o f South
and East Asia.
In his introduction and again in the epilogue Sponberg points to char­
acteristics o f the M aitreya biography that are directly relevant to the larger
scope o f Buddhist biography explored here. Sponberg contrasts the u n iver­
sality o f core themes w ith the culturally specific, local elaborations o f the
tradition o f the future B uddh a M aitreya. H e notes the adaptability o f core
themes in the M aitreya m yth ology, such as “ continuity and legitim acy,
regen eration and ren ew al, m essianism and m illen nialism , the tension
betw een liberation in this w o rld and salvation som ew here beyond, and the
tension b etw e e n w o rld ly and spiritual p o w e r and a u th o rity .” 34 T h ese
im plicitly stated core themes and explicit narrative m otifs form “ the build­
ing blocks em ployed to construct the distinctive variations w e find in the
later, m ore cu ltu rally specific va ria tio n s.” 35 S p o n b erg em phasizes the
process o f seem ingly open-en ded variations in local M aitreya traditions. H e
sees this variation as a characteristic feature in the dialectical encounter o f
B uddhism and the diverse cultures o f Buddhist Asia.
T h e present collection and the M aitreya volum e developed indepen­
dently o f one another. In spite o f this, they generate com parable perspec­
tives on the relations betw een continuous, universal themes in Buddhist
biography and their local, culturally specific variations. Such m etalevel sim ­
ilarities underscore the value o f m ultidisciplinary, them atically oriented
inquiry in the study o f religious traditions. T h e present b o ok introduces
into this discourse previously unpublished essays that aim to expand upon
the them atic scope and geographical orientation o f previous studies on
sacred biography in B uddhism . T h e essays seek to define encom passing
fram ew orks, pervasive themes, and specific variations o f the Buddhist b io ­
graphical genre as a w h ole and to elucidate these in discussions o f exam ples
taken from the Buddhist traditions o f South and Southeast Asia, w h ich ,
until n o w , have not been the subject o f com parative exploration.

C o m m o n T h e m e s ExpLorced
T his bo ok fills a thematic lacuna in the study o f Buddhist sacred biography
and its expressions in text, art, m yth, and ritual. T h e essays gathered here

S
illum inate narratives o f the B u d d h a’s life stories and other sacred biogra­
phies in terms o f their salience, universality, scope, structure, and relation
to other aspects o f the Buddhist traditions o f South and Southeast Asia.
T h e y exam ine local variations on Buddhist biographical themes in histori­
cal, contem porary, ritual, and cultural contexts and investigate w ays in
w h ich pervasive biographical themes inform local, culturally specific artic­
ulations o f Buddhist sacred biography. In doing so, they docum en t the
continuing construction o f Buddhist sacred biographies in diverse m odes—
textual, artistic, historical, and perform ative— and diverse contexts— cultural
and historical— in order to identify transformative processes in the larger
Buddhist tradition.
This book presents a com prehensive view o f a hitherto-neglected topic
m the study o f Buddhism from the m ultidisciplinary perspectives o f textual
scholarship, history o f religions, art history, and anthropology. T h e essays
that m ake up this collection share related m ethodological concerns under­
lying the m ultidisciplinary study o f religion in the humanities and social sci­
ences. T h e y apply interpretive and critical m ethodologies to the analysis o f
a com m on religious them e in order to delineate its paradigmatic signifi­
cance w ithin the tradition. T h e y also identify ways in w h ich local b io ­
graphical vicissitudes express salient religious them es in the texts, arts,
history, and cultural perform ance o f the larger tradition. In pursuing these
approaches, the authors m ove tow ard deconstructing boundaries o f disci­
plinary scrutiny and advance cro ss-d iscip lin ary in q u iry into issues o f
broader relevance.
T h e essays are grouped into fou r parts that offer com plem entary per­
spectives 011 central themes in Buddhist biography. Part 1 explores the role
o f sacred biography in South and Southeast Asian Buddhist traditions in
terms o f conceptual fram ew orks in the textual tradition and iconography o f
the Buddha biography. Part 2 exam ines the textual biographies o f Buddhist
saints and com m unities in light o f the B u d d h a’s biography. Part 3 presents
depictions o f the lives o f Theravada kings in the tradition o f the jatakas.
T h e essays in Part 4 interpret the Buddhist biographical genre in local cults
and practice.
In Part 1, the essays by Frank R e y n o ld s, M ark W o od w ard , and R o b e rt
B ro w n charter fram ew orks in Buddhist sacred biography and explore their
respective parameters in its textual and artistic extensions. Em phasizing the
m yth o lo gical elem en t in the b io grap h ical accounts o f the B u dd h a,
R e yn o ld s concentrates on the B u d d h a’s lineages as recounted in several
j at aka traditions and leading up to the last life o f Buddha G otam a (approx­
im ately sixth to fourth century B . C . E . ) . H e argues— here and elsew h ere36—
for the systematic role o f m yth ology in the construction o f the Buddha
biography and its pervasive influence 011 the d evelopm ent and structure o f
 the Theravada tradition. In R e y n o ld s’ vie w , the ju stification for the b io ­
graphical tradition derives from the B u d d h a’ s ability to rem em ber all his
past lives during the m editational stages that lead to his enlightenm ent. This
vision was d eveloped in several branches o f the tradition to encom pass a
series o f in tersectin g lineages: the lin eage o f the B u d d h a ’s successive
rebirths that link him to his karm ic past; the lineage o f Buddhas that pre­
ceded him and those w h o w ill fo llo w him in the future; and the lineage o f
kings from w h o m he descended in his last life. R e y n o ld s shows h o w b io ­
graphical lineages have been used to establish the continued presence o f the
B udd h a and ultim ately serve to legitim ize religious and civil institutions
and practices throughout Buddhist h istory.37
W o o d w a r d ’ s essay id en tifies relatio n sh ips b e tw e e n the B u d d h a ’s
bio grap h y and doctrinal form ulations o f the path to enlightenm ent. H e
argues fo r a neccessary link betw een biograph ical narrative and p h ilo ­
sophical discourse in the T h eravada textual tradition. A t a less abstract
level o f textual discourse, the biographical im perative is depicted in the
narratives o f fo rm er lives o f B uddh as and their disciples. T h ese inter­
tw ined biographies encom pass num erous life spans and form a persistent
rebirth pattern o f “ karm ic coh o rts.” H e docum ents h o w the biographical
narrative is used to ju stify philosophical conclusions o f authoritative texts
like the Vissudhim agga, B u d d h a g h o sa ’s co m m en tary on the T h eravad a
A bhidham m a.
B r o w n ’s essay challenges p revailin g assum ptions about the didactic
function o {ja ta k a reliefs in ancient Indian and Southeast Asian architecture.
His inquiry into the relationship betw een depictions o f the B u d d h a’s past
lives through verbal text and relief images centers on the iconic properties
o fja ta k a reliefs w ithin the architectural space o f these m onum ents. W h ile he
concedes that jataka reliefs as icons m ake sym bolic references to a longer,
verbal text, he points out that an exclusive reliance on theories concerning
their didactic use and function fails to account for the fact that m any o f these
visual representations w ere partially or com pletely obscured from view .
T h e ir condensed, highly sym bolic styles o f depiction and the seem ing dis­
regard for narrative sequence in their placem ent w ithin the architectural
space lead him to conclude that these jataka reliefs w ere not intended as
visual illustrations that prom pt, in the m ind o f the view er, the m ental recita­
tion o f a prior kn ow n , verbal narrative. Instead, he argues that their signifi­
cance lies in their iconic function w ithin the sacred space o f these religious
m onum ents. B ro w n suggests that these reliefs w ere the focus o f w orship
and reverence and that the diverse visual depictions o f the B u d d h a’s form er
lives served to create the presence o f an all-too-absent Buddha.
T h e essays in part 2 focus on biographical them es in B uddhist texts
explaining h o w the B u d d h a’s biograph y was extend ed to encom pass and
inform the accounts o f the lives o f saints and the pristine Buddhist c o m ­
m unity. Jo h n Strong critiques the W estern bias for individualism and his-
toricism , w h ich presum es that the single life span o f an individual is the
m eaningful and significant unit in the study o f Buddhist biography. H e
shows that, in Buddhism , latitudinal and longitudinal extensions o f karm ic
c o lle ctiv ities are affected by the d ev elo p m e n t o f certain b io grap h ical
events. In his analysis o f the B o d h isa ttv a ’s G reat D ep artu re in the
Satighabhedavastu o f the Sanskrit M ulasarvdstiI'iida Vitiaya, he finds that the
B u d d h a’s quest for enlightenm ent was not m erely that o f a solitary seeker,
but also caused parallel quests for path attainm ent for his w ife, Yasodhara,
and his son, R a h u la. Stro n g concludes that the B u d d h a ’s renunciation
provides the m ythic m odel for m onastic ordination and nibbanic path
action and that his fam ily’s parallel quest illustrates the karm ic path o f
householders.
R egin ald R a y looks at lon gevity as a characteristic trait in the biogra­
phies o f Buddhist saints. H e argues that the conception o f lon gevity rests on
a central causality betw een path accom plishm ent, m editation, and saintly
lon gevity, and individual expressions o f saintly lon gevity are specific to
each tradition. In explorin g the m ythically lon g lives o f enlightened beings
111 Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Pali sources, R a y identifies parallels in the hagio-
graphic m odels o f saints (arhat), future Buddhas, and fully en lightened
Buddhas. His com parison o f the lon g lives attributed to saints, Bodhisattvas,
and the Buddha according to the M adhyam aka and Theravada schools and
to N agaijuna shows that these hagiographies share three definitive charac­
teristics: the lives o f these extraordinary beings m ay extend beyond ord i­
nary human life spans; they are com pelled to live such lon g lives out o f
altruistic com passion; and their lon gevity is realized on ly through the desire
o f others. R a y dem onstrates that lo n gev ity is a significant attribute o f
Buddhist hagiography in the earliest extant texts, such as the early passages
in the M ahdparinibbana Sutta, and concludes that the focus on sacred b io g­
raphy rem ained significant from the b e g in n in g o f the tradition and
throughout m any o f its later, divergent developm ents. R a y view s that the
biographical focus is central in Buddhism and finds m ultiple expressions in
both its elite, monastic dom ain and the popular, lay dom ain.
Jon ath an W alters interprets universalist Buddhist society in the early
post-A sokan period as described in such Pali sources as the Cariydpitaka,
Buddhavam sa, and A paddna. His focus there is on the ritual celebration o f
the B u d d h a’s biography through stupa and relic cults during the expansion
and form ation o f the early post-A sokan period. W alters argues that these
texts depict a coh eren t and fu lly d evelo p ed biograph ical m od e o f the
Buddha. H e also proposes that an analysis o f these texts in conjunction w ith
epigraphic and archaeological evidence allows for a historical construction
 o f developm ents in the biographical tradition and its influence on subse­
quent conceptions.
T h e third group o f essays considers biographies o f Buddhist kings in
Thai classical literature, paintings, and history. Each contribution appraises
m ultiple voices, contexts, and narrative intentions in these biographies.
T h e essays highlight the am biguity and com plexity in textual depictions o f
Theravada kings, w h o are described as protectors o f Buddhist fields o f m erit
or as future Buddhas. T h e first o f these m odels is inform ed by the Asokan
paradigm o f Buddhist kingsh ip,3* in w h ich a ju st king (dhamtnaraja) protects
religion to guarantee the spiritual and material w elfare o f the polity, w h ile
the latter conception is inform ed b y the B u d d h a’s penultim ate human life
as K in g Vessantara, w h ich led to his perfection o f generosity.
In “ Painting the ‘G reat L ife ,’ ” Forrest M c G ill exam ines nineteenth-
century central T h ai paintings and their accom panying inscriptions o f the
last o f the T e n G reat Pali jatakas, w h ich recounts the B u d d h a’ s p enulti­
m ate life as K in g Vessantara. In addition to analyzing stylistic representa­
tions in these paintings from an art historical vantage, M c G ill turns his
attention to ritual, social, and historical contexts o f their use, production,
and m eaning. Paintings o f this kind w ere m ass-produced for purchase by
lay sponsors o f Buddhists rituals such as tem ple festivals or m onastic o rd i­
nations. Lay donors also supported ritualized recitations o f the Vessantara
Jataka that w ere p erform ed as an integral part o f m erit-m ak in g rituals.
M c G ill explores the ritual uses o f the Vessantara story for the aspirations o f
lay donors as “ ow n ers” o f these fields o f m erit and related issues o f p o w er,
status, and w ealth. W h ile the sponsorship o f this jataka in its diverse m odes
was believed to bring about m eritorious results in the religious lives o f its
sponsors, M c G ill, like H u dak , notes also the value o f jataka stories as
entertainm ent. M c G ill’ s dem onstration o f the w ays in w h ich biographical
m odes o f the Vessantara Jataka are extended to encom pass past, present,
and future lives o f those w h o karm ically encounter the story recalls for the
reader sim ilar conclusions in contributions by W o o d w ard , Strong, and
W alters.
T hom as Jo h n H u d ak ’s essay analyzes narrative transformations in the
Samutthakhoot kham chan, a Th ai poem about one o f the B u d d h a’s form er
lives. T h is p oem borrow s from established forms o f the Pali jatakas, but a
version o f the narrative does not exist in that tradition. R ath er, it is part o f
the apocryphal Pahnasa Jataka tales that developed in northern Thailand
betw een the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. H udak shows h o w this
biographical tale becam e a simultaneous venue for sacralizing the biography
o f the future Buddha and o f the Thai K in g N arai (r. 16 5 2 -16 8 8 ). T h rough a
process o f multiple authors, narrative purposes, styles, and contexts, this story
came to be retold as a parable for the royal biography o f a w heel-turning
king, N arai, glorifyin g his p o w e r and the artful refinem ent o f his court. T h e
changes in the narrative’s structure and content reflect the historical con ­
texts and intentionality o f authors w h o com piled the various versions o f the
bodhisattva’s biography. O ve r time, both courtiers and m onks contributed
to this com position, w hich in contem porary Thai society has com e to be
view ed prim arily as an entertaining adventure story and cultivated expres­
sion o f classical poetry rather than as a religious text.
Paul C hristopher Jo h n so n exam ines W estern and Th ai perspectives on
the biography o f K in g M on gku t (r. 1 8 5 i - i 868), w h o sought to fashion his
ow n life to encompass both W estern ideals o f rationality and enlightenm ent
philosophy and Theravada notions o f religious purification and em ulation
o f the B u d d h a ’s life. Jo h n so n engages in a critical exam in ation o f the
processes by w hich M o n g k u t’s biographical im age is negotiated by various
authors to becom e m eaningful in terms o f the polarities o f W estern m oder­
nity and T h ai traditionalism.
T h e fourth group o f essays analyzes biographical themes in eth nogra­
phy and their interpretations in the local, culturally constructed contexts
o f T h eravada Buddhism . M y essay explores local contexts, m yths, other
texts, and rituals associated w ith the B u rm ese M aham uni im age. T h is icon
is b elieved to be the B u d d h a ’s “ liv in g ” double. L ike contributions by
B ro w n , W alters, and M c G ill, it e x am in e s— from the p ersp ective o f
eth nograph y— the iconic and cultic extensions o f Buddhist biography and
indicates h o w this local co m p lex functions as an indexical sym bol w ithin
the broader Buddhist tradition and cosm ology. T h e biographical m od ali­
ties o f the M aham uni co m p lex m ake use o f ritual, m yths, and texts to shift
referents, levels, and contexts o f interpretation in num erous ways. T h e effi­
cacy o f the ritual creates the B udd h a’s presence in the local Burm ese context
and allows contem porary Burm ese Buddhists to be im m ediate participants
in his b io grap h y and pristine co m m u n ity. In this m anner, B urm ese
Buddhists m ay project the karmic configurations o f their ow n lives in local
contexts onto the universal cosm ology o f the Buddha field that encompasses
all sentient existence. T h e indexical sym bolism o f the M aham uni m yth also
makes im plicit allusions to episodes in the Dhammapada Commentary that
recount h o w the Buddha illum inated the cosmos and created his ow n living
double d urin g his expo sitio n o f the A b h id h am m a. T h e b io grap h ical
m odalities o f the M aham uni com plex provid e religious legitim ation— in
ritual, textual, and m ythic form s— for B urm ese T heravadins by enabling
them to place th eir o w n lives w ith in the k arm ic fields o f the liv in g
Buddha.
Jam es T a y lo r and G u sta a f H outm an exp lore relationships betw een
biography, biographer, and context in the ethnographic study o f contem ­
porary Theravada saints. T aylo r focuses on com plem entary developm ents
in textualization and contextualization o f the ascetic tradition in Thailand.
H e chronicles transformations in the oral hagiography o f a forest m edita­
tion teacher and the lineage o f his disciples, describing the process by w h ich
oral hagiography— fashioned after salient features o f the B u d d h a’s biogra­
phy— becom es a literary genre o f national salience. In the contextualized
e xtensions o f this h agio grap h ic process, p o p u lar fascination w ith this
monastic hagiography is linked to a cult o f relics that extends from the
periphery to the center o f elite p o w e r at the T h ai capital. T a y lo r’s observa­
tions are based on ethnographic research, but they speak directly to issues
raised in other essays in this volu m e. A n exam ple o f such congruence is
T a y lo r’s observation that the paths o f Buddhist saints— as depicted in these
hagiographies— typically encom pass previous lives. Furtherm ore, T a y lo r
rem arks that the bio grap h ical process ch aracteristically em phasizes the
regeneration o f pristine Buddhist ideals in the present. T h e “ biographical
im perative,” in W o o d w a rd ’ s terms, thus shapes the continuing interpreta­
tion o f B uddhist biography in contem porary social, historical, and political
contexts in Thailand and elsew here in the T h eravada w orld.
H o u tm an ’s essay focuses on the biograph y o f a B urm ese lay m edita­
tion teacher. H e discusses the use o f established B urm ese literary c o n v e n ­
tions to historicize and sacralize a m odern, nontraditional biograph y in
order to legitim ize its significance w ith in B uddhist hagiography. H outm an
emphasizes that historical events, as defined by W estern scholarship, are
not necessarily significant or relevant elem ents in the construction o f life
accounts o f B u d d h ist saints. H e critically appraises the relationship o f
B urm ese B udd h ist bio grap h y and W estern conceptions o f life history.
Like Strong, Jo h n so n , and W alters, he emphasizes the need for a critical
aw areness o f the W estern, epistem olo gical bias in the exam in ation o f
B uddhist biography.
T h e reader w ill encounter additional trajectories that cut across the
order o f presentation in this collection o f essays. Fo r instance, R eyn o ld s,
W alters, and W o od w ard engage the Pali version o f the Bnddhavanisa to con ­
struct perspectives on structural continuity, ritual perform ance, and philo­
sophical discourse, respectively. C o nversely, Strong, R a y , and B ro w n share
com m on interests in the use o f sacred biography in Sanskrit and other, non-
T h eravadin Buddhist traditions. K arm ic cohorts or karm ic life streams are
taken up by Strong, R a y , and W ood w ard , w hile M c G ill and R a y both
engage a focus on the future B u d d h a, M aitreya. C o n cep tu a l relations
b etw een B udd h ist sacred bio grap h y and secularization are discussed by
H udak, H outm an, and Joh n so n , w hile issues concerning post-traditionalism
and m od ernity are raised by T a y lo r, Jo h n so n , H ou tm an, and Sch ober.
Finally, a focus on the place o f sacred biography in ritual is found in the
essays by B ro w n , M c G ill, W alters, and Schober.
 C o n c lu s io n

Th ese essays go beyond historicist reconstruction to identify significant

themes and processes o f interpretation in Buddhist sacred biography that, as
R eyn o ld s states in this volu m e, have fundam entally shaped the develop­
m ent and dynamics o f the tradition. A lthough further com parisons o f anal­
ogous features in the biographical genre can be fruitfully added to the list o f
characteristics indicated here, a m ore productive m ethod seeks to deter­
m ine those aspects of Buddhist sacred biography that account for its p o w ­
erful role within the tradition. H o w do w e explain the fact that Buddhist
sacred biography can sim ultaneously historicize m ythic lineages, transform
visual reliefs into icons o f veneration, contextualize cultural form ations and
rituals, project local contexts onto universal cosm ologies, and provide rit­
ual means to bring Buddhists into the sacred presence o f the living Buddha?
T h e interpretive plasticity o f the Buddhist biographical genre becom es
apparent only after w e depart from the historicist epistem ology that pre­
sumes biography to be defined by the unique events and circum stances o f
a single life spans o f an individual actor captured in unilinear history'. T h e
contributions to this vo lu m e define a distinctly Buddhist epistem ology
derived from categories intrinsic to the tradition w h ereb y the recurrent
themes o f sacred biography are interpreted in relation to other religious
m odes and categories— doctrinal, m yth ic, ritual, or cosm olo gical— and
against the shifting contexts o f culture, society, and history.
In Buddhism , biographical episodes function as frames o f reference that
map thematic configurations onto divergent trajectories of time and space.
In this m anner, the themes o f Buddhist biography are indexical symbols— as
defined by Tam biah— that shift the interpretation o f m eaning to multiple
levels, contexts, and referents. T h e characteristic ability o f Buddhist biogra­
phies to shift narrative foci and interpretive contexts makes for a pow erful,
didactic tool, but does not in itself determ ine the content conveyed. A per­
spective on Buddhist sacred biographies as indexical sym bols, h ow ever,
enhances the m ultivocality and narrative shifts in the messages they convey.
T h e sacred biography o f the Buddha is rooted in a distinctly Buddhist
epistemology' and encompasses analogous modes o f path action throughout
his m any rebirths. Projecting the Buddha’s biography onto other times and
places legitimizes the b elief in the universal efficacy o f his dispensation and
provides a model for its continuation in specific, local contexts. T h e bio­
graphical process proceeds through narrative patterns and indexical symbols
that becom e salient and contextualized in the dialectical en cou n ter o f
Buddhism and the cultures that participate in the developm ent o f the tradi­
tion. This can be discerned in the relationship betw een the biographer and
biography and in the dialectic betw een biographical texts and the com m en­
taries throughout the tradition. Buddhist sacred biography and the hagio-
graphic traditions it engenders thus becom e central to the religious lives o f
the Buddhist com m unity throughout the various schools, societies, and ages.
A pervading emphasis on sacred biography is not unique to Buddhism .
Buddhism shares this concern w ith Christianity, Judaism , and Islam. Y e t
sacred biographies in those traditions do not share the same degree o f inter­
pretive plasticity, shifting referents, and contexts that lend such vitality to
the B uddh ist sacred biography. T h e disregard for linear history and its
open-ended soteriology are tw o aspects o f Buddhist epistem ology that m ay
account for this difference and distinguish it from epistem ologies o f other
great traditions.

A c k n o w le d g m e n t s
I am indebted to Frank R e y n o ld s, Charles H allisey, and M ark W o od w ard ,
w h o com m ented on various drafts o f this essay. W h ile I have benefited
from their insights and suggestions, all mistakes are m y ow n.

N o te s
1. In “ Text-Building, Epistemology, and Aesthetics in Javanese Shadow
Theatre” (in The Imagination o f Reality: Essays in Southeast Asian Coherence
Systems, ed. A. L. Becker and A. A. Yengoyan, N orwood, N .J .: Ablex
Publishing Corporation, 1979, pp. 2 1 1 ff.), A. L. Becker argues that
modern philology rests on the notion that the meaning o f a text is
constrained by a set o f relations, some o f which are external to the text
itself. He lists several constraints on the interpretation o f texts, such as
(1) hierarchy o f textual units and their coherence within the text;
(2) the relation o f a text to other texts within the same genre or
tradition; (3) relations o f a text’s content to the intentions o f its creator(s)
and audiences; and (4) the relation o f units in the text to non-literary
events (i.e., reference).
2. See Frank Reynolds, “ The Many Lives o f the Buddha” in The Biographical
Process: Studies in the History and Psychology of Religion, Frank Reynolds and
Donald Capps (The Hague: Mouton, 1976, pp. 37—66).
3. Although the contributions to this book examine some o f the biographical
instantiations, none o f them speaks directly to the role o f women in
Buddhist sacred biography. The reader is therefore referred to excellent
recent studies on the Therigatha, (Psalms o f the Early Buddhists, C. A. F.
Rhys-Davids [London: Luzac, 1964]), which contains biographical
accounts o f the mastery o f the path by women in the early Buddhist
community.
4. In his article on “ Religion as a Cultural System” (in The Interpretation of
Cultures, N ew York: Basic Books, 1973, p. 93), Clifford Geertz writes:
“ Unlike . . . nonsymbolic information sources, which are only models for,
 not models of, culture patterns have an intrinsic double aspect: they give
meaning, that is, objective conceptual torm, to social and psychological
reality both by shaping themselves to it and by shaping it to themselves”
(emphasis in original).
5. The biography o f this Theravada monk, Acharn Mun, is taken up in Janies
Taylor's essay 111 this book and has been the subject of several other studies.
6. Viz. Stanley Tambiah, Buddhist Saints o f the Forest and the Cult of Amulets
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 81 —19 1), where he
devotes lengthy discussion to the hagiography o f Acharn Mun in text and
context and to the symbiotic relations between biography and
biographer.
7. Ibid., p. 4.
8. Frank Reynolds and Charles Hallisey’s lucid and cogent assessment o f the
development o f the biographical genre in Buddhism and o f the scholarly
work 011 this subject is found in an article entitled ‘Buddha’ in the
Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987),
vol. 2, pp. 3 19 -3 3 2 .
9. Ibid., p. 323.
10. Erich Frauwallner, I he Earliest Vitiaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist
Literature (Rome, 1956).
11 . Alfred Foucher, The Life o f the Buddha According to the Ancient Texts and
Monuments of India, abridged translation from the French by Simone Boas
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1963, 1972).
12. Etienne Lamotte, History of the Indian Buddhism: Front the Origins to the
Sakha Era, translated from the French by Sara W ebb-Boin (Louvain-la-
Neuve: Universite Catholique de Louvain, Institut Orientaliste, 1988).
13. Andre Bareau, Recherches sur la biographic du Buddha (Paris: Ecole fran^aise
d'Extreme-Orient, 110. 52, 2 vols., 1963).
14. Reynolds and Hallisey, “ Buddha,” p. 324.
15. Ibid., pp. 32 3-325.
16. Ibid.
17. An English translation o f The Jataka: or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births
in 3 vols. and edited by E. B. Cowrell was published by the Pali Text
Society, London, and reprinted most recently in 1990.
18. The reader is referred to John Strong’s essay in this volume in which he
discusses intersecting karmic streams in the Buddha’s biography and the
issue o f proper segmentation in Buddhist biographical episodes.
19. This introduction by the Ceylonese commentator is translated into English
111 T. W. Rhys-Davids’ translation o f the jatakas, entitled Buddhist Birth
Stories (London: Trubner & Co., Ludgate Hill, 1880). It has been
reprinted by Arnopress, (New York, 1977).
20. A pertinent example o f an independent biographical genre is the
compilations o f Panhdsa Jataka, translated by I. B. Horner and Padmanabh
S. Jaini, published by the Pali Text Society’, and distributed by Routledge
and Kegan Paul (London, 1985).
2 1. For an example o f this, see my essay in this volume, in which I discuss
local myths about the Buddha’s visits to sacred places in Burma.
22. Ruth-Inge Heinze, trans., The Biography o f Ahjan Man (1871—1949),
compiled by Ahjan Bua (Taipei: The Oriental Cultural Service), Asian
Folklore and Social Life Monographs, vol. 89.
23. Grant A. Olson, ‘A Person-Centered Ethnography o f Thai Buddhism:
The Life o f Rajavaramuni (Prayudh Payutto),’ Ph.D. diss., Cornell
University, 1989.
24. Gustaaf Houtman, “ Traditions o f Buddhist Practice in Burma,” Ph.D. diss.,
University o f London, School o f African and Oriental Studies, 1990.
25. See Bonnie Pacala Brereton, Thai Tellings ofPhra Malai: Texts and Rituals
Concerning a Popular Buddhist Saint (Tempe: Monograph Series, Program
for Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona State University, 1995).
26. Tambiah, Buddhist Saints o f the Forest, pp. 8 1—194.
27. Charles Keyes, “ Death o f T w o Buddhist Saints in Thailand,” Journal of
the American Academy o f Religion, Thematic Studies 48, nos. 3 and 4 (1982),
pp. 14 9 -18 0 .
28. Michael Carrithers, The Forest Monks o f Sri Lanka: A n Anthropological and
Historical Study (Delhi: University o f Oxford Press, 1983).
29. James L. Taylor, “ From Wandering to Domestication: The Thai-Lao
Forest Monastic Tradition,” Ph.D. diss., Macquarie University, 1989.
30. Reginald R ay, Buddhist Saints in India (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1993).
31. In this outstanding study, entitled The Legend and Cult o f Upagupta: Sanskrit
Buddhism in North India and Southeast Asia (Princeton, N .J.: Princeton
University Press, 1992), Strong discusses stories and rituals concerning this
saint in terms o f themes central to the study o f Buddhism in general, thus
linking its Sanskrit textual tradition to vernacular Southeast Asian texts and
rituals.
32. This book is published by Mosaic Press (New York and Oakland, Ont.,
1988).
3 3. This book is published by Cambridge University Press (Cambridge and
N ew York, 1988).
34. Alan Sponberg, epilogue, Maitreya, The Future Buddha, eds. Sponberg and
Hardacre, p. 298.
35. Ibid., p. 293.
36. Reynolds, “ The Many Lives o f the Buddha,” pp. 37—62.
37. See also Reynolds’ discussion on the historical life o f the Buddha and its
extension through relics and teachings in the sacred histories o f the
Buddhist community in “ The Many Lives o f Buddha.”
38. For a discussion o f this paradigm, which became a model for subsequent
Theravada polities, see Stanley Tambiah’s World Conqueror and World
Renouncer: A Study o f Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against a Historical
Background (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 54-72.
 Pant 1

C/jucfcJ/ia C /Siograpliy in te x tu a l
an (f~U isu af O Carra/iues

R e y n o ld s, W ood w ard , and B ro w n present a com m on focus on classical

articulations o f the Buddha biography in the textual and visual renditions o f
the Buddhist tradition and civilization. B y focusing on the central role o f
the B u d d h a’s ow n biography, this section begins the discourse at a ju n ctu re
w h ere previous studies and conventional understandings o f the life o f the
B udd h a m eet in n ovative interpretations o f the processes by w h ich the
Buddha biography becom es universalized across the tradition.
R e y n o ld s’ discussion o f m yth olo gy in the B udd h a’s biography leads
him to identify lineages that link the Buddha to his karm ic past, to other
Buddhas o f the past and future, and to a genealogy o f w o rld ly rulers into
w h ich his last birth is placed. R e y n o ld s shows h o w these lineages o f the
B u d d h a h ave been used to legitim ate religiou s and civil institutions
throughout the history o f the tradition.
W o o d w a rd ’s em phasis on the bio grap h ical im p erative in the
Theravada tradition relates the B u d d h a’s biography and those o f his fellow
travelers to the philosophical tenets in the Theravada tradition to illum inate
correlations betw een biographical narratives about individuals and abstract
conceptualizations o f the path to enlightenm ent.
B ro w n ’s essay explores the role o f visual and iconic representations o f
the Buddha biography in Indian and Southeast Asian religious architecture
in order to expand our conventional understanding o f their function as
didactic tools and sym bolic referents to the texts o f the jataka tales, the sto­
ries o f the B u d d h a’s form er lives. H e shows through evidence o f the place­
ment o f these visual biographies, often partially hidden from view and out
o f narrative sequence, that these representations o f the B u dd h a’s biography
served as objects o f w orship rendering m ore im m ediate the B u d d h a’s pres­
ence w ithin the architectural configuration o f sacred space in these religious
m onum ents.
 t^ e S irt/i tra d itio n s a n d t/ie
/oin eages o f 5 otam a: C/l S tu d y in
t/iera u a d a C Jju d d /io fo jy
Frank E . Reynolds

Buddhism , particularly in its T h eravada form , has often been presented as a

re ligio n in w h ich m y th o lo g y plays an insignifican t ro le. T h e central
Theravada doctrines that affirm codependent origination as the basis for the
com ing-in to-existence o f w o rld ly phenom ena, the law o f karmic reward
and retribution as the regulating principle that determines the destinies o f
sentient beings, and the ineffability o f the soteriological goal have all— so
the argum ent goes— relegated m ythic m odes o f expression to a secondary
level.
T h is argum ent has a certain plau sib ility since the character o f
Theravada teachings has, in fact, inhibited the developm ent o f certain kinds
o f m yth ology that have been prom inent in m ore theistically oriented reli­
gions. F o r exam ple, m y th o lo gy associated w ith the gods in Theravada
Buddhism is far less developed than the parallel m yth olo gy in H induism .
B u t the argum ent for the secondary role o f m yth olo gy in the Theravada
context ignores the indisputable fact that the m ythically constructed bio g­
raphy o f the Buddha has, from the very beginning, played a fundam ental
role in the structure and dynam ics o f Theravada religio n .1
T h e m ythically constructed biography o f the Buddha, w h ich has never
been considered by Theravadins to be in conflict w ith any o f the central
teachings o f the religion ,2 includes three interdependent and broadly o v er­
lapping com ponents. T h e first com ponent consists o f m ythic stories that
trace the various lineages w hich culm inate in the birth and life o f the “ his­
torical” Buddha. T h e second com ponent consists o f accounts o f events 111
the life o f Gotam a from the time o f his descent from the Tusita heaven (his
birth), through his Enlightenm ent at B odh Gaya, to his Pariuihbatui (his
death) at Kusinara. T h e third consists o f stories that recount the fate o f his
teachings and his relics, often in the context o f a sacred history com posed
by a particular segm ent o f the Buddhist com m u n ity.3
In the present essay 1 single out for attention the first o f the three
aspects o f the Buddha biography. In so doing, 1 focus m y discussion 011 var­
ious accounts o f the three basic lineages that have established the back­
groun d in relation to w h ich the story o f the “ h isto rical” life and the
“ extend ed ” life o f Gotam a have traditionally been told.4

T h e J a t a k a L in e a g e
T h e B udd h a’s jataka lineage refers to the lineage that is constituted by a cer­
tain kind ot stories ot events, or o f a series o f events, that took place 111 his
previous lives. In these events or series o f events, the future Buddha is
usually— though not always— the protagonist. In contrast to som e other
kinds o f rebirth stories (discussed below ), he carries on his action 111 a co n ­
text w here he has 110 contact w ith a Buddha or any other significant “ field
o f m erit.” For the most part the future Buddha, w h o appears as an animal,
as a human being, or (very occasionally) as a god, acts in a m anner appro­
priate to the situation, and 111 so doing cultivates one o f the virtues that will
be manifest, in its fully developed form , w hen he attains his final rebirth as
G o ta m a .5
T h e jataka tradition in Buddhism is very ancient, extending back— 111
all probability— to the lifetim e o f the “ historical” Buddha h im self (som e­
w here betw een the sixth and fourth centuries B . C . E . ) . Certain ly in the ear­
liest strata o f Buddhist texts that w e possess, the foundations for the jataka
tradition are laid. For exam ple, the basic legitim ating charter for the jataka
tradition is found in the Suttapitaka — a “ canonical” Theravada collection o f
sermons attributed to the Buddha. In these Suttapitaka texts, the Buddha
reports that he has succeeded, through the first o f the three accom plish­
ments that m arked his accession to Buddhahood, in rem em bering all o f his
previous lives.6
I11 the context o f the Enlightenm ent accounts, this attainment consti­
tutes the first com ponent in the breakthrough experience through w inch
the Buddha claimed to transcend reality as it is ordinarily constituted. But,
111 addition to this specifically sotenological dim ension, the Buddha's asser-

20 -v>
tion that he had attained a full kn ow led ge o f his previous lives provided a
firm epistem ological basis for the credibility o f references to previous lives
that he had supposedly lived, and o f accounts o f particular incidents in
w h ich he had supposedly been involved.
T h e early tradition also contains specific jataka stories that w ere attrib­
uted to the Buddha. A lth ough w e cannot be certain h o w the jataka genre
was delineated during the early centuries, it is significant that there is a ref­
erence to jatakas in a ve ry early list o f the literary form s in w h ich the
B u d d h a’s teachings w ere b eing preserved. M o reo ver, there are jataka sto­
ries that clearly conform to our understanding o f the genre that are scat­
tered th ro u g h o u t the Suttapitaka .7 A s in the case o f o th er discourses
contained in such texts, there is no w a y to determ ine for certain w h eth er
these jatakas w ere actually recounted b y the Buddha himself, or w h eth er
th ey w e re in co rp orated into the tradition by the early co m m u n ity.
H o w e v e r this m ay be, the presence o f jataka stories in the early strata o f the
rem em bered w ords o f the Buddha proves that the genre cannot be lightly
passed o ff as a developm ent associated w ith a late “ popularization” o f the
B u d d h a’s original message.
T h is v e ry early jataka tradition , lik e m an y oth er aspects o f early
B uddh ism , continued to develop in the centuries after the B u d d h a’s death;
and it to ok on a m ore definitive form in the period after the reign o f K in g
A soka (third century B . C . E . ) . T h e num ber o f jatakas increased as a variety
o f folkloric stories o f different kinds w ere incorporated into the tradition.
In contrast to the earliest jatakas that w e can identify, w h ich depict the
future Buddha as a king or sage livin g in a past era, the jatakas that w ere
added to the tradition depict him in m any different roles. In som e cases he
is portrayed as a hum an being, but in m an y others he is portrayed as an
animal.
B y the second century B .c.E . great stupas (funerary m ounds that usually
contained relics o f the Buddha) w ere being constructed w h ich had, as an
im portant com ponent in their decor, sculptured depictions o f jataka stories.
A n d by the beginning o f the C o m m o n Era, at least tw o literary collections
o f jataka stories w ere com piled and preserved in the Theravada context,
w h ere they ultim ately w o n a place am ong the texts that the tradition con ­
sidered “ canonical.”
O n e o f these tw o collections— the Cariyapitaka— contains th irty-five
stories, all told in verse.8 Each story begins w ith the Buddha declaring that
in one o f his previous lives he had been a particular b ein g livin g in a par­
ticular situation; it continues w ith a short story in w h ich a particular per­
fection or the like is cultivated; and it concludes w ith a positive affirmation
in w h ich the Buddha identifies the particular aspect o f B u dd h ahood that
the story has highlighted.
 In the first set o f ten stories, the virtue the future Buddha cultivates is
the perfection o f selfless giving; in the second set o f ten stories, the virtue
he cultivates is the perfection o f m oral rectitude; and in the rem aining fif­
teen stories the virtues he cultivates are the perfections o f truth (six stories),
o f renunciation (five stories), o f am ity (two stories), o f determ ination (one
story), and o f equanim ity (one story).9
T h e second o f the p ost-A so kan jataka collections that cam e to be
accepted as “ canonical” by the Theravadins was the one that becam e the
core o f their most extensive jataka tradition. In fact, this “Jataka Book ” —
which is constituted by a series o f very enigm atic poetic verses— is no w
accessible to us only because o f a volum inous com m entary that was trans­
lated from Sinhala into (or back into) Pali in the fifth or sixth centuries c . E .
K n o w n as the Jatakatthakatha, this com m entary includes— apart from an
attached “ introduction” that w ill be discussed b elo w — 547 sets o f verses
each with its ow n extensive prose elab oration .10 In Burm a and Southeast
Asia, variant versions o f this collection have been disseminated, som e con ­
taining 550 stories, others containing 500.
In this Jatakatthakatha strand o f tradition, the form at is quite consistent.
T h e stage is set by a short “ story o f the present,” in w h ich the situation in
w hich the Buddha supposedly recounted the jataka in question is described.
This is follow ed by the “ story o f the past,” w hich constitutes the jataka
itself. A fter the story7 o f the past is com pleted, the Buddha concludes by
identifying certain characters as the “ rebirth precursors” o f himself, o f par­
ticular m em bers o f his fam ily, o f particular disciples, or o f other contem p o­
raries.11
I11 the Jatakatthakatha , the jataka stories are ordered 111 accordance with
the num ber o f “ canonical” verses that each one contains. Thus the collec­
tion begins w ith shorter stories, m any o f w hich are only slightly or not at
all related to specifically B uddhist themes. T h e jatakas that are located
tow ard the end o f the collection are m uch longer stories (often described
by m odern interpreters as “ epics” an d /or “ rom ances” ) that contain m any
verses and exhibit a very distinctive Buddhist character.
A ccord in g to the tradition, the entire collection o f stories depicts the
actions through w hich the future Gotam a cultivated the ten perfections
that are characteristic o f B uddhahood. M ore specifically, it is affirmed that
the last ten jatakas (which are often treated as a self-contained set) describe
h o w the future Buddha successively cultivated each o f these ten perfec­
tions. Finally, the tw^o longest jatakas that are placed at the very end o f the
com m entary tell h o w the future Buddha perfected what the Theravadins
came to recognize as the tw o preem inent virtues o f a Buddha, nam ely the
virtue o f practical w isdom (the Maha-Ummagga Jataka ) 12 and the virtue o f
selfless givin g (the Vessantara Jataka ) .13
 G iv en the preem inence that is associated w ith the perfection o f the
virtues o f practical w isdom and selfless givin g in the Jatakatthakatha and its
variants (and in the T heravada tradition m ore generally), it is not surprising
that the tw o best kn ow n o f the later collections o f Pali jatakas highlight sto­
ries in w h ich these tw o virtues are emphasized. B o th o f these texts w ere
com posed in Southeast Asia, probably in the C hiangm ai kin gdom o f north­
ern Thailand. In both cases it is probable that the versions o f the texts that
w e presently possess w ere given their present form during the m iddle cen­
turies o f the second m illennium C.E.
T h e first o f these texts is called the Mahapurisa or Great Person Jataka . M
T h e a u th o r-c o m p ile r o f this text has utilized the w ell-estab lish ed
Jatakatthakatha form at (story o f the present, story o f the past, and conclud­
ing identification o f the characters) to frame a com posite text that contains
elem ents from the Maha-Ummagga Jataka, several other jatakas taken from
the Jatakatthakatha, and additional material drawn from the nlti (practical
w isdom ) tradition o f Indian and Southeast Asian literature. C learly the
virtue the future Buddha is cultivating through the series o f stories that are
reco u n ted in this text is the virtu e o f practical w isd o m , a virtu e that
involves the utilization o f a superior level o f k now led ge in order to achieve
w hat w o u ld ordinarily be thought o f as w orld ly success.15
T h e other late Southeast Asian Pali collection that concerns us here is
the so-called Panfiasa Jataka, w h ich contains fifty separate stories, each o f
w h ich begins w ith a b rie f verse follow ed by a short “ story o f the present,”
a “ story o f the past” w h ich is the center o f attention, and a concluding
identification o f key characters.16 A very few o f these stories are altered or
em bellished versions o f stories that appeared in earlier Theravada collec­
tions. Som e are versions o f jatakas that can be identified in earlier Sanskrit
texts, but a significant num ber o f stories do not have any identifiable pre­
cursors.
T h e Pannasa Jataka co llectio n includes several striking jatakas that
recount stories o f rom antic lo v e in vo lvin g the separation (often because o f
shipwreck) and the subsequent reunion o f the future Buddha and his w ife.
A lth ough there are precursors to som e o f these stories, particularly in the
Sanskrit tradition, the jatakas o f this type that are included in the Pannasa
collection are extended accounts that are distinctive to the Southeast Asian
m ilieu.
A lth ough the Pannasa Jataka contains a num ber o f stories that are o f
great individual interest, w hat is im portant to highlight in the present con ­
text is the emphasis that the auth or-com piler o f the collection has placed on
the future B u d d h a’s cultivation o f the virtue o f selfless giving. T h ere are
several stories that provide accounts o f selfless givin g that closely parallel the
accounts o f selfless givin g in the Vessantara Jataka itself— accounts in w hich
the future Buddha gives his kingdom , his wealth, his w ife, an d/or his chil­
dren. In addition, m any o f the stories recount acts in w hich the Buddha
sacrifices his ow n body for the benefit o f others. A ll in all, m ore than h alf
o f the stories in the Panfiasa Jatak a collection depict, in one w ay or another,
the future B udd h a’s practice ot the perfection o f selfless giving.
Finally, there is one additional extension o f the jataka tradition that
deserves to be m entioned. In the Laotian cultural area, probably during the
m iddle centuries ot the second m illennium C . E . , a fascinating jataka called
Phra L a k /P lira Lam was com po sed .17 In this very lon g and com plex jataka,
the future B udd h a is reborn as R a m a (Phra Lam ), a figure w h o had
appeared in the earlier jataka tradition as the protagonist in the relatively
b rie f Dasaratha Ja ta k a that is included in the Jatakatthakatha, and in the
H indu tradition as the hero in m any versions o f the R am ayana. In the new
Laotian Buddhist telling o f the story, R a m a — w h o is identified as a rebirth
precursor o f G otam a— is reborn, near the beginning o f the present cosm ic
age, in order to reestablish the cosm ic/social order that is being disrupted
by R avan a. A ccordin g to the narrative (which recounts m any incidents that
are directly parallel to incidents in H indu Ram ayanas), R a m a succeeds in
his mission o f defeating R avan a and reestablishing proper order in the cos­
mos and society. O n ce this is accom plished, he goes 011 to establish— at the
site o f the present Laotian capital— the dynasty that was ruling there at the
time that the text was w ritten .18

T h e L in e a g e o f B u d d h a s
A ccord in g to the Theravadins, the Gotam a Buddha had, in addition to his
jataka lineage, a Buddha lineage as w ell. This means that, as a Buddha,
G otam a was the successor o f a series o f Buddhas (Great Beings w h o had
attained full E n lig h ten m en t and undertaken the task o f teach in g the
Dham m a they had discovered) that stretched far back into the past. In prin­
ciple this B udd h a lineage stretched back into in fin ity, but in fact the
Theravadins have focused their prim ary attention 011 a set o f Buddhas in
w hich Gotam a is the seventh and on a m ore extended set in w hich Gotam a
is the tw enty-fifth.
Like the notion o f G otam a’s jataka lineage, the notion of his Buddha
lineage appeared in the very early years o f Buddhist history. In fact, it is
quite possible that it, too, had its origins in the teachings o f the Buddha
himself. It is clear that G otam a represented him self throughout the w h ole
range o f early Buddhist texts in w h ich his teaching is supposedly recorded,
not as one w h o had discovered a n ew Tru th , but rather as one w h o had
rediscovered a T ru th that had been know n in earlier times. M o reo ver, the
Mahapadatia Sutta — w hich is the “ root text” from w hich the Theravada
notion o f the Buddha lineage has developed— is a sutta that is included in
the Dlghanikaya that has as m uch claim to antiquity as any o f the other great
suttas that are attributed to G o tam a.19
Lik e the stories in the jataka tradition, the stories recounted in the
Mahapadana Sutta have their epistem ological groundin g in the ability to
rem em ber previous lives. A ccord in g to the B u d d h a’s testim ony as reported
in the text itself, he is able to activate his m em ory con cern ing previous
Buddhas in tw o different but com plem entary ways. O n the one hand, he is
able to call to recollection significant things about previous Buddhas and
their activities b y utilizing his ow n clear insight into the principle o f Truth.
A t the same time, he is able to confirm /enhance his k now led ge o f such
matters by m editational attainments w h ich enable him to gain access to the
exalted realms o f the cosmos. T h e divine inhabitants o f these realms then
provide him w ith inform ation concerning w hat they have observed in their
previous lives in w h ich they have themselves been follow ers o f these pre­
vious B udd h as.20
In the first segm ent o f the Mahapadana text, the Buddha gives a brief,
stereotyped account o f the last seven Buddhas, h im self included. In each
case G otam a identifies the cosm ic eon in w h ich the particular Buddha was
born, his social status (noblem an or brahm in), his fam ily group (gotta), the
norm al life span during the period in question, the kind o f tree under
w h ich he was enlightened, the names o f his tw o c h ie f disciples, the num ­
ber o f fully accom plished saints (arhats) w h o participated in the bhikkhu
(“ m onastic” ) assemblies that he established, the name o f his preem inent
attendant bhikkhu, his father’s nam e, his m other’s name, and his place o f
birth.
In the second segm ent, G otam a recounts in considerable detail the life
o f VipassI, the first in the series o f seven Buddhas m entioned in the text.
T h e story that is told is an am azing account that must be either a “ m odel
fo r” or a “ m odel o f ’ the biography that w e presently k n o w as the b io gra­
p h y o f G otam a him self. It includes m ost o f the m ajor events (and m any o f
the accom panying details) that w e n o w associate w ith G o tam a’s early and
m iddle life. Th ese include a descent from the Tusita heaven, a m iraculous
birth, a great renunciation, a quest that culm inates in Enlighten m ent (into
w h ich is incorporated an extensive explication o f the central Buddhist
teaching concerning codependent origination and its reversal), a divine
enticem ent that leads to a decision to preach the D ham m a, a first serm on
in a fam ous D e er Park, a founding o f the bhikkhu order, and a com m is­
sioning o f the bhikkhu com m un ity to “ Fare ye forth on the m ission that
is for the go od o f the m any, for the happiness o f the m any, to take c o m ­
passion on the w o rld and to w o rk profit and go od and happiness to gods
and m en .” 21
 T h e clear im plication o f the text is that the lives o f the six subsequent
Buddhas repeat, with variations o f scale and m inor variations o f content,
the exem plary m odel that is portrayed in the story o f VipassT. T hus Gotam a
Buddha (at least the Gotam a Buddha o f the text) depicts h im self as having
a distinguished lineage of Great Beings w hose life story and saving message
w ere virtually identical to his ow n.
T h e Theravada tradition concerning the lineage o f tw en ty-fou r p revi­
ous Buddhas was— as best w e can ju d g e from the available texts— a som e­
what later developm ent. Expressed in a text called the Buddhavantsa that
was one of the very last to be included in the Theravada "c a n o n ," it both
encom passed and adapted the lineage tradition associated w ith the
M ahapadana Sutta. A lthough the Buddhavam sa has not received a great deal
o f serious attention from B uddhologists, the lineage o f Buddhas that it
established becam e one o f the most basic and pervasive com ponents in later
Theravada m yth o lo gy.22
In the introductory chapter o f the Buddhavam sa , the author-com piler
describes an occasion that occurred at the very beginning o f the B uddh a’s
m inistry. A ccord in g to the account, G otam a perceives that the gods and
human beings w h o populate the w orld at that time are quite unprepared to
receive him and his teaching. T h erefore, in order to show these rather dull-
witted gods and human beings what a Buddha is really like, he creates a
m arvelous “ walk in the sky, adorned with je w e ls .” Pacing back and forth
on this je w e led walk, he shows forth his glory and perform s various m ira­
cles. O verw h elm ed by the m agnificent cosm ic display, Sariputta (one o f
the early disciples) asks the Buddha to describe the v o w and the practice of
perfections that enabled him to achieve the Enlightenm ent that brings with
it this kind of suprem e glory and pow er.
T h e G otam a of the text then recoun ts a lineage o f tw e n ty -fo u r
Buddhas (a set w hich includes, as the last six, the six previous Buddhas
m entioned in the M ahapadana Sutta), telling in each case a story in w hich
that previous Buddha plays a significant role. But, as the question to which
Gotam a is responding demands, the stories that are told differ drastically
from the accounts that are given in the M ahapadana context. T o be sure,
each story contains an account (often very brief) that describes the specific
characteristics and activities of the previous Buddhas in ways that are clearly
rem iniscent of earlier accounts of previous Buddhas. In the Buddhavam sa,
h o w e v e r, the prim ary focus is on an en cou n ter betw een the previous
Buddha in question and Gotam a in one o f the previous lives in w hich he is
m ovin g toward his ow n attainment o f Enlightenm ent.
T h e crucial Buddhavamsa story, w hich is by far the longest and provides
the paradigm for all the others, is the first. It describes in considerable detail
a series o f encounters betw een the Buddha DTparikara and the future
G otam a w h o was at the time (w hich is said to be four incalculable ages and
a hundred thousand eons in the past) a w ell-accom plished ascetic named
Sum edha. In the series o f encounters that the text describes, the future
G otam a— inspired by DIparikara’s person and message— m akes his original
v o w to attain B uddhahood, as w ell as his original com m itm ent to practice
the ten perfections that are necessary prerequisites for the realization o f that
goal. DTpankara then predicts that Sum edha w ill eventually, in the far dis­
tant future in his final rebirth as G otam a, attain the goal o f Enlightenm ent
and becom e a Great Teach er for all m ankind.
In each o f the tw enty-three stories that follow , another one o f the pre­
vious Buddhas encounters the future G otam a in one o f his ensuing rebirths.
In each case the future G otam a is inspired to ren ew his v o w and to reaffirm
his com m itm ent to the practice o f the ten perfections; and in each case the
Buddh a in question predicts that in the future Gotam a w ill achieve his
go al.23
Th us the G otam a o f the Buddhavamsa recounts a Buddha lineage that
begins w ith the Buddha w h o m he k n ew w h en , in his far distant rebirth as
Sum edha, he was first inspired to m ake his v o w to attain B u dd h ahood and
to com m it h im self to the practice o f the ten perfections. T h is Buddha lin­
eage is con tin u ed b y the tw en ty -th re e oth er B udd h as u n d er w h o m
G otam a— in tw enty-th ree o f his o w n previous lives— renew s his v o w and
his co m m itm en t that assures his co n tin u ed progress to w ard the goal.
Finally, this Buddha lineage is once again extended, this tim e through the
future B u d d h a’s ow n rebirth as G otam a and his ow n attainm ent o f the
Enlightened m ind and the glorious body that are the necessary characteris­
tics o f all m em bers o f the set.24
It is difficult to overem ph asize the im portance that the lineage o f
Buddhas that w e are able to glim pse in the Buddhavatnsa has had in the later
developm ent o f Theravada B u d d h olo gy and sacred history. M ost subse­
quent authors-com pilers o f various Theravada biographical and “ historical”
texts have utilized som e version or adaptation o f this lineage o f Buddhas as
their entree into the particular narratives that they are most concerned to
relate.
O n e o f the m ost interesting and influential exam ples o f the use o f the
Buddhavamsa lin eage in an o b v io u sly b io grap h ical co n te xt is the
Nidanakathd, a text that was w ritten to serve as an introduction to the Pali
translation o f Jatakatthakatha (ca. sixth century C . E . ) . T h e Nidanakatha —
w h ich Buddhologists have often recognized as the first full-scale biography
o f the “ historical” Buddha that the Theravada tradition produced— begins
w ith a recounting o f the lineage o f tw en ty-fou r previous Buddhas that is
taken directly from the Buddhavamsa; and only w hen this narrative o f the
lineage o f Buddhas is com plete does the author m ove on to a narrative o f
the final life of G otam a. This second, m ore “ h istorical” section o f the
Nidatiakatha begins w ith G o tam a’s descent from the Tnsita heaven and car­
ries the story forward to the time w hen G otam a is settled in the Jetavana
monastery’ w here, according to the tradition, he recounts the stories that
are recorded in the m ain body o f the com m en tary.25
In its original setting as an introduction to the Jatakatthakatha, the
N idatiakatha establishes the overarching tem poral fram ew ork w ithin w hich
the classical jataka tradition is framed. V iew ed in the context provided by
the N idatiakatha introduction, the jatakas o f the Jatakatthakatha (and, im plic­
itly, most other jatakas as w'ell) are situated in a kind o f jataka time that
extends from the era o f DIpahkara and Sum edha until the m om ent o f the
future B u d d h a’s descent from the Tusita heaven to begin his final life as
G otam a.
M oreo ver, the presence o f the Buddhavatnsa frame calls attention to the
emphasis that is placed in the stories that constitute the jataka collection on
the physical, b o d ily transform ations that result from the m oral (and
immoral) actions that are perform ed. A lthough the relationship betw een
spiritual and m oral attainment, on the one hand, and natural and physical
changes, on the other, is less explicitly highlighted in the N idatiakatha than
in the Buddhavam sa, the fact is that the them e o f m orally generated bodily
and natural transformation pervades the stories that are recounted in the
jataka collection. Thus the jataka collection provides further support for the
notion that the Gotam a Buddha— as a result o f his cultivation o f the ten
perfections— attained not on ly spiritual E n lightenm ent, but acquired a
m arvelous and extraordinary physical body as w e ll.26
W ith the passage o f time, h ow ever, the Nidatiakatha took on another
fu n ctio n quite distinct from its role as an in tro d u ctio n to the
Jatakatthakatha. It was taken over and incorporated into texts that provided
m uch m ore extended Theravada accounts o f the “ historical” life o f the
B u d d h a. T h ese later and m ore “ c o m p le te ” b iograp h ies retained the
Buddhavam sa account o f the lineage o f Buddhas pretty m uch intact, but
added extensive materials concerning the B u d d h a’s “ historical” life (includ­
ing materials about the later portions o f his m inistry and his Parinibbaua, or
passing away) and the distribution and subsequent fate o f his relics.27
T h e Buddhavam sa version o f the lineage o f Buddhas also becam e closely
associated w ith the distinctively Theravada genre that 1 have elsewhere
characterized as the “ biographical c h ro n ic le.” 28 B iograph ical chronicles
begin w ith one or m ore sections dealing prim arily w ith lineages o f Gotam a.
T h e y include the lineage o f Buddhas and his royal genealogy', as w ell as
short accounts o f events in his “ historical” life, w h ich often prefigure
events that occur in later Buddhist history'. A nd they then m ove into the
main narratives, w in ch are largely chronological accounts o f the w ay in

28
w h ich the B u d d h a’s influence (represented by the Dhammic teachings and
the m onks, on the one hand, and by relics and kings, on the other) persist
from the time o f his death and the distribution o f his relics to the time
w h en the chronicle in question is written.
T h e Mahavamsa, the “ classic text” o f this genre, was w ritten in Sri
Lanka in the fifth century C.E. T h e Mahavamsa, account begins w ith an
introductory com m ent that is im m ediately follow ed by a b rie f listing o f the
tw en ty-fou r previous Buddhas, each one accom panied by a reference to
their encounters w ith the future G o tam a.29 H o w e v e r in the Jinakalamali, a
fifteenth-century northern T h ai text w h ich represents a m uch later stage in
the developm ent o f the genre, the lineage o f Buddhas has undergone a
considerable elaboration .30
In the Jinakalamali, the narrative does not begin w ith the lineage o f
Buddhas described in the Buddhavamsa. In fact, it begins in a m uch m ore
ancient era in w h ich the future G otam a, w ith out the benefit o f the pres­
ence o f a fully enlightened Buddha, m akes a v o w to attain the goal o f
B uddh ahood. A ccord in g to the story, the future Gotam a is shipw recked
w ith his m other and carries her on his shoulders as he swim s across the great
ocean to safety. T h e god Brahm a, seeing this action, is greatly impressed;
and through B rah m a’s p ow er, the future Gotam a arouses w ithin him self
the th ough t, “ I w ill b eco m e en ligh ten ed and en ligh ten others, I w ill
b eco m e released and release others, I w ill cross o v er and take others
across.” 31
A fter m entioning a great num ber o f additional lives (the story o f tw o
are recounted at som e length), the auth or-com piler o f the Jinakalam ali turns
to stories in w h ich a previous Buddha encounters the future G otam a. T h e
first o f these is especially im portant, both because o f its intrinsic interest and
because it initiates the n o w vastly expanded lineage o f Buddhas. T h e story
goes as follow s: a yo u n g w om an (the future Gotam a), w h o is a stepsister o f
the Buddha Purana-Diparikara, m akes a gift o f mustard oil to a renow ned
Elder, w h o is nam ed Pacchim a-D Iparikara. W h en she does this, she m akes
an accom panying m ental resolve to eventually becom e a Buddha called
Siddhattha, another nam e b y w h ic h G otam a B u d d h a is often k n o w n .
D espite the fact that she m akes this resolve to attain B uddh ahood, and
despite the fact that (unlike her rebirth precursors w h o had made the same
vo w ) she has the advantage o f having personal contact w ith a fully enlight­
ened Buddha, she still cannot— because o f her gender— receive from him
the prediction that her v o w w ill be fulfilled. Instead, the Buddha Purana-
DTparikara predicts that the Eld er to w h om she has given the mustard oil
w ill— in the far distant future— be reborn as the Buddha DTpaiikara, and
that his stepsister w ill be reborn as the male ascetic nam ed Sum edha. H e
goes on to affirm that the Buddha DTpaiikara w ill, at that time, give the
prediction that w ill confirm that she (then reborn as Sumedha) w ill ulti­
mately attain the goal to w hich she has com m itted herself.32
T h e Jin ak ala m ali then proceeds to affirm that, follow in g the era o f the
Buddha Purana-DIparikara, there w ere tw o very extended expanses o f time
totaling sixteen incalculable ages during w h ich there w ere hundreds o f
thousands o f previous Buddhas w h o encountered the future G otam a in
hundreds o f thousands o f his previous lives. T h en , with all o f this new
material in place, the author-com piler continues his version o f the lineage
o f Buddhas in a w ay that is in close accord with the Buddhavam sa tradition.
Th us he goes on to recount the stories o f tw enty-seven Buddhas w ho w ere
m entioned in the Buddhavam sa : the three predecessors o f DTparikara w hose
names appeared in the Buddhavamsa only in a formal list, and the tw enty-
four Buddhas w hose stones constituted the main body o f the te x t.33

T h e R oyaL L in e a g e
T h e third o f the three lineages o f the Buddha is a royal lineage that ultimately
came to play an im portant role in the m ythic system that the Theravadins
developed. Since this third lineage tradition traces a line o f kings that extends
right dow n to the time o f the Buddha him self (and has “ branch lines” that
continued after his lifetime), certain o f the m ore recent segments o f it have
some claim to justification in the “ historical m em ory” o f the Buddhist com ­
m unity. But what is the epistem ological basis for the know iedge o f the
phases o f the royal lineage that are tem porally m ore remote?
T h e answer to this question is never (to m y k now led ge at least) exp lic­
itly given. N evertheless Buddhaghosa, in his famous and authoritative Path
of Purification, provides a suggestive hint. In B uddhaghosa’s text, the royal
lineage is discussed in sections that deal w ith the same special p o w er that
was utilized in order to provide an epistem ological basis for the authentic­
ity o f the jatak a lineage and the lineage o f Buddhas, nam ely the capacity o f
Buddhas and great saints to rem em ber their previous lives and to recall
w hat they had done, seen, and heard in the course o f those lives.34
In the very early Buddhist tradition, most o f the key structural elements
that w ere to be a part o f the fully developed royal lineage tradition w ere
already in place. These include the identification o f G o tam a’s parents as the
king and the queen o f the Sakya tribe, w hich ruled o ver a kingdom that
controlled an area that extended along the present boundaries o f India and
N epal. T h e y include a reference in the Amhattha Sutta, w hich attributes the
origins o f the Sakya tribe and its ruling dynasty to the exiled children o f a
famous ruler o f lon g ago nam ed O k k a k a .35 T h e y also include an extrem ely
im portant m yth that is in co rp orated into the A gganha S u tta ’s fam ous
account o f the beginnings o f the present cosm ic eon, a m yth that recounts
the choice o f Mahasamm ata (the G reat Elect) as king in order to bring
peace and order into an otherw ise degenerating social situation.3*5
In the Theravada tradition, it is probable that a m ore fully elaborated
royal lineage was included in the Sihalatthakatha-Mahavamsa, a relatively
early (ca. beginning o f the C o m m o n Era) text that has been lost but is
referred to by later authors w h o deal w ith the subject.37 H o w e ve r, it was
not until the fourth to fifth centuries C . E . in Sri Lanka that w e have
T h eravada texts that are actually available to us in w h ich the crucial con ­
nections are made and the basic pattern articulated. T h e Dtpavamsa (fourth
century) and the Mahavamsa (fifth century) recount an extended royal lin­
eage that begins w ith Mahasamm ata, the m ythical founder o f the institu­
tion o f kingship. T h e royal lineage continues from M ahasam m ata through
a huge num ber o f successors to O kkaka, and from O kkaka through a huge
num ber o f his successors to the parents o f the Buddha himself. Later in the
fifth century C . E . , Buddhaghosa, in his Path o f Purification, provides a very
similar royal genealogy; but, in addition, he identifies Mahasamm ata as a
rebirth precursor o f G o ta m a .38
In the m uch later phases o f Theravada developm ent, m inor em enda­
tions appear in m any relevant texts. In the Jinakalamali, for exam ple, som e
changes and additions are m ade in the list o f kings, and still another king in
the royal, blood -lineage tradition is specifically identified w ith Gotam a in
one o f his previous lives. T h is king is Vessantara, a near descendant o f K in g
O kkaka, w h o m the auth or-com piler o f the Jinakalam ali specifically identi­
fies w ith the Vessantara o f the jataka tradition.
In addition, a m uch m ore original developm ent in the royal lineage
tradition occurred in Laos w ith the com position o f the Phra Lak/Phra Lam
or Rama Jataka. As w e can deduce from the b rie f description o f this text
that has been provided above, the author attributes to R a m a the crucial
sociogonic role that M ahasam m ata had played in the m ore m ainstream
Theravada m yth ology. A lth ou gh in the Phra Lak/Phra Lam context there is
no direct reference to any royal gen ealogy that extends from R a m a to
G otam a, R a m a had traditionally been one o f the kings included in the
genealogical lists o f G o tam a’s royal ancestors. Thus it seems safe to assume
that, in the Phra Lak/Phra Lam account, R a m a (w ho is explicitly identified
as a rebirth precursor o f Gotam a) is bein g presented not on ly as the founder
o f Dhammic kingship fo r o u r cosm ic era, but also as the fo u n d e r o f
G o tam a’s royal lin eage.39

C o n c lu s io n
T h us far w e have traced the developm ent o f the Theravada accounts o f the
three prim ary lineages o f G otam a. In order to round out ou r discussion,
 w e must n o w adopt a m ore synthetic perspective and focus briefly 011 the
justification, on the coherence, and on the practical im portance o f lineage
and lin e a g e -o rie n te d m y th o lo g y w ith in the T h e ra va d a tradition as a
w h ole.
From the perspective o f Theravada doctrine, the authenticity o f all
three o f the lineages o f G otam a is justified on the basis o f a central Buddhist
epistem ological contention— nam ely, the notion that the Buddha (and sec­
ondarily various divinities and other Buddhist saints) is able to rem em ber
his previous lives. T h e conn ection betw een the b e lie f in the B u d d h a ’s
capacity to rem em ber his previous lives and the perceived authenticity o f
the jataka stories is obvious. B u t ou r exam ination o f relevant texts has sug­
gested that this same capacity o f the Buddha (and others) provides the epis­
tem o lo gical grounds fo r affirm in g the au th en ticity o f the stories that
constitute the tw o other lineages as w ell.
In addition to the fact that the three lineages and the stories that con­
stitute them are firm ly integrated w ith basic Theravada doctrine, it is also
im portant to emphasize the fact that these stories cohere w ithin a single
tem poral fram ew ork o f m ythic time. This tem poral fram ew ork wras given
its classical expression in the Buddhavam sa. A ccord in g to this text, the rele­
vant m ythic time began four incalculable ages and a hundred thousand cos­
mic eons ago w hen the future G otam a, in his birth as Sum edha, made his
v o w to attain Buddhahood. T h e basic m ythological period, thus begun,
c o n tin u e d — a cco rd in g to the B u dd h avam sa — throu gh to the tim e o f
G otam a himself.
In the course o f subsequent T h eravada history, this basic tem poral
fram ew ork was m odified in at least tw o m ajor respects. First, it was taken
m uch further into the distant past by the notion that, prior to his birth as
Sum edha, Gotam a had been aspiring to Enlightenm ent for a very extensive
num ber o f incalculable ages. Second, the fram ew ork was divided into tw o
segments: an extrem ely lon g period that extended from the point at w hich
the future Buddha had first becom e an aspirant to Enlightenm ent up until
the beginning o f the present cosm ic eon, and a subsequent period that
began w ith the d evolution o f the present cosm ic eon and ended with the
birth o f Gotam a.
T h e first segm ent serves as the tem poral niche for the stories o f the
lives o f G otam a before his birth as Sum edha, for the stories o f the first
tw en ty-o n e o f the tw en ty -fo u r Buddhas w hose lives and encounters with
the future G otam a are recounted in the Buddhavam sa, and for the great
m ajority o f jataka stories in w h ich the future G otam a cultivates the ten
perfections. T h e second segm ent, w h ich extends from the begin n in g o f
the present cosm ic era to the time o f G otam a, serves as the tem poral niche
for the stories o f the last three Buddhas w h ose encounters w ith the future
G otam a are m entioned in the Buddhavam sa, for several ja ta k a stories that
are co n sid ered to be re la tiv ely recen t (for e x am p le , the sto ry o f
Vessantara), and for the royal lineage from M ahasam m ata (or R am a) to the
tim e o f G otam a.
Finally, it is im portant to highlight the central role that a w h ole range
o f lineage traditions have played in T h eravad a com m u n ity life and in
Theravada practice. In som e cases, the lineages in question have been lin­
eages that w e have not discussed because they w ere initiated by Gotam a.
For exam ple, Theravadins have traditionally recognized a lineage o f spiri­
tually advanced disciples w h o , by virtue o f their h igh -level spiritual insight
and attainment, have been identified as “ sons o f the B u d d h a.” A t a m ore
institutional level, they have also recognized a closely connected lineage
com prised o f successive generations o f m onastic follow ers w h o have m ain­
tained a supposedly continuous tradition o f proper m onastic ordination and
practice.
T h e Theravadins have, w ith at least equal consistency, emphasized and
e m p lo ye d the three lineages o f G o tam a on w h ic h o u r discussion has
focused. F o r exam ple, the royal lineage has served, in m any Theravada
contexts, as a legitim ating m yth ology for Buddhist dynasties that have ruled
in the p ost-G otam a age. T h e jataka lineage has constituted a rich repository
o f stories that have been used to m old Buddhist popular culture and to
inculcate Buddhist ethical teachings. A nd this jataka tradition has, in addi­
tion, included a num ber o f figures w h o have, in various local traditions,
becom e associated w ith particular sacred places.
Fo r its part, the lineage o f B uddhas has provid ed Buddhist co m m u n i­
ties not on ly w ith an im portant sense o f their cosm ic-historical past, but
w ith a high ly relevant perspective on the cosm ic-historical future as w ell.
From a ve ry early period in Buddhist history, T heravadins have affirm ed
that after the age o f G otam a and his religion, there w ill— in the far distant
future— be a successor B udd h a nam ed M etteya w h o w ill continue the
same lineage o f Buddhas. In T h eravada circles m erit-m ak in g practices
often have been (and often still are) carried on w ith the specific goal o f
facilitating rebirth at the tim e o fM e tte y a ’s com ing. In addition, a num ber
o f religio-political and m illen nial-type leaders in T h eravada contexts have
been identified— either directly or indirectly— as the M etteya-w h o -h as-
c o m e .4°
From all o f this, three im portant and closely related conclusions can be
drawn. T h e first is that the Theravadins did develop a m yth olo gy that is
systematic in its structure, rich in its content, and closely related to the
dynam ics o f Theravada life. T h e second is that this m yth olo gy is closely
correlated w ith the distinctive context and limits that characterized tradi­
tional Theravada doctrine. T h e third is that a significant segm ent o f this
m ythology was expressed in and through a set o f three quite different but
closely intertw ined lineages that w ere incorporated as foundational ele­
ments in the sacred biography o f Gotam a.

A c k n o L u L e d g m e n ts
M y thanks to Steven C ollins, Charles H allisey, and Jonathan Walters, w h o
have all provided suggestions that have made this a better essay. In the title
and throughout the text, I have not used diacriticals with words that have
becom e com m onplace in ordinary English usage.

N o te s
1. In addition to the mythologies that are involved in the sacred biography of
the Buddha, the Theravadins have other important mythologies as well,
including some that are related more or less directly to the biographical
tradition. 1 have discussed some o f the other important mythological
complexes in my essay' “ Multiple Cosmogonies and Ethical Order: The
Case o f Theravada Buddhism” in Cosmogony and Ethical Order: New Essays
in Comparative Ethics, ed., Robin Lovin and Frank Reynolds (Chicago:
University o f Chicago Press, 1985) and in an article on “ Theravada
Eschatologie” in Sehnsncht nach dem Ursprung, ed., Hans Peter Duerr
(Frankfurt: Syndikat, 1983).
2. During the modern period there have been a number of Theravada
Buddhists who have rejected certain aspects of the traditional Buddha
biography that they have considered to be mythical in the sense o f
ahistorical and untrue. In many cases, those aspects o f the traditional
biography that are the focus o f the present essay have been especially
vulnerable. However, the kind of critique that has been mounted in
modern times has not had significant premodern precedents. Nor has it
seriously influenced the great majority o f contemporary' Theravada
adherents; nor has it significantly altered the structures o f Theravada
practice that remain firmly grounded in the traditional accounts.
3. I have previously discussed the overall structure of the Theravada
renderings o f the sacred biography of the Buddha; see “ The Many Lives o f
Buddha” in l'he Biographical Process, ed., Frank Reynolds and Donald
Capps (The Hague: Mouton, 1976).
4. In the discussion that follows, I trace the development o f each of these
three lineages through a series o f texts that are widely separated 111 time.
Each o f the texts that I have chosen to highlight incorporates new
elements that have accumulated over the centuries. Therefore, I do not
mean to imply that the new developments that I discuss 111 relation to a
particular text are necessarily the original contributions o f its author or
compiler.
 5. The identification and differentiation o f jatakas and related genres is a
vexed question that has been approached differently by various scholars.
The basic “ solution” to the problem that I have adopted in this essay has
been spelled out and defended by John Strong in his essay “ Buddhist
Avadanas and Jatakas: The Question o f Genre,” presented at the annual
meeting o f the American Academy o f Religion held in Dallas, Texas, in
December 1983.
6. For a discussion o f the early accounts o f the enlightenment, including their
chronology and contents, see Andre Bareau, Rechcrclws sur la biographic du
Buddha (Paris: Ecole fran^aise d’Extreme-Orient, no. 52, 2 vols., 1963).
7. Perhaps the best known and most interesting examples are the Maha-
Sudassana and Maha-Govinda Suttas that are included in the Dlghanikdya;
See T. W. Rhys-Davids, et al., trans., Dialogues o f the Buddha— Part II
(vol. 3 o f the Sacred Books o f the Buddhist series, reprint, London: Pali Text
Society, 1977), pp. 19 9 -232 and 259 -28 1.
8. I. B. Horner, trans., Buddhavamsa: Chronicle o f Buddhas and Cariyapitaka:
Basket of Conduct (Minor Anthologies, vol. 3, London: Pali Text Society,
1975)-
9. Though a discussion o f non-Thera vada forms o f the jataka tradition is
beyond the scope o f the present paper, it is still interesting to note that the
Cariyapitaka shares a great deal in common with the Jatakamala , a later
(ca. third to fourth century C .E .), non-Theravada text that assumed a
major role in various forms o f Sanskritic Buddhism. More than a third o f
the thirty-four jatakas that are recounted in a highly sophisticated literary
style in the Jatakamala are stories that appear in simpler and cruder form in
the Cariyapitaka. Moreover, the Jatakamala, like the Cariyapitaka, begins
with ten stories that are associated with the perfection o f selfless giving,
and follows with ten stories that are associated with the perfection o f
moral rectitude. Unfortunately, Peter Keroche, in his introduction to his
excellent translation o f the Jatakamala (Once the Buddha Was a Monkey,
published by the University o f Chicago Press, 1989), makes no reference
to the quite specific continuities which suggest that the Cariyapitaka
embodied a distinctive pattern o f rendering the jataka tradition that was
later taken up and developed in a more sophisticated literary style by the
teller o f tales who composed the Jatakamala.
10. E. B. Cowell, trans., The Jataka: or Stories o f the Buddha’s Former Births
(7 vols. in 3; London: Pali Text Society, 1969).
11. Here and throughout the essay I have chosen to employ the rather
cumbersome term “ rebirth precursor” in order to avoid the inappropriate
connotations conveyed by the word “ incarnation,” which is usually used
in this context.
12. The adjective “ practical” has been included to differentiate the perfection
o f wisdom as it is understood in the Theravada tradition from the much
more mystical notion o f the perfection o f wisdom that is often affirmed in
the Mahayana context.
 13- In some contexts the Vessantara Jataka is interpreted as a story o f the future
Buddha’s activities in which he is perfecting all ten perfections. See, for
example, Jinamahanidana, which has been published in Pali with a Thai
translation by the Fine Arts Department in Bangkok in 1987.
14. The Mahapurisa Jataka is sometimes identified by the name
Lokaneyyapakarana (Treatise for the Guidance o f the World). P. S. Jaini has
chosen to use this alternate name in his edition published by the Pali Text
Society as number 175 in its Text Series (London, 1986). This edition
includes a very helpful introduction.
15. Certain aspects o f the Mahapurisa Jataka suggest that the text was written
with a rather immediate polemic purpose in mind. For example, the
author-compiler describes many o f the future Buddha’s antagonists 111 a
wav that suggests that he is alluding to Shaivite court brahmins who were
competing with Buddhists for influence in several o f the royal courts of
mainland Southeast Asia during the period when the text was being
crafted. It is also interesting that the text includes a denigration o f a
Buddhist monastic community and its leadership. In a series o f episodes,
the wisdom o f the future Buddha is vividly contrasted with the lack of
wisdom o f the members of the then-existing Buddhist Satigha, including
particularly its preeminent leader, the Satigha-raja. (The presence o f a
specifically Buddhist community in the main segment o f a jataka story is
virtually unique to the Mahapurisa text.)
16. I. B. Horner and P. S. Jaini, trans., Apocryphal Birth Stories, 2 vols.
(London: Pali Text Society, 1985, 1986).
17. Satchidananda Sahai, ed., Phra Lak/Phra Lam , 2 vols. (New Delhi:
Kansamphan Vatthanatham India, 1973).
18. For an in-depth discussion, see Frank Reynolds, “ Ramayana, Rama Jataka
and Ramakien: A Comparative Study” in Many Ramayanas, ed., Paula
Richman (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1991).
19. Some scholars, including T. W. Rhys-Davids, who translated the
Mahapadana Sutta and wrote an accompanying introduction (Dialogues of
the Buddha— Part II, pp. 1—41), have considered the account that it
provides, along with the conception o f Buddhahood and the Buddha
lineage that it conveys, to be an obviously late expression o f Buddhism that
ought to be considered as a degeneration o f the teaching o f the Founder
and his earliest disciples. This viewr is, however, based on a now-outdated
notion o f an “ original” and “ pure” Buddhism to which mythic elements
were foreign. Although it is not possible to date the Mahapadana Sutta (or,
for that matter, any o f the other great suttas contained in the Suttapitaka)
with any real precision, it is not insignificant that it is already recognized as
authoritative by the author-compiler o f the Ctdla-niddesa, a text that is
included in the Khuddakatiikaya section o f the “ canon” (see G. P.
Malasekera, Dictionary of Pali Names, vol. 2, [London, 1974], p. 525). It is
also worth noting that the seven Buddhas mentioned in the Mahapadana
Sutta are represented in the very early archaeological record.

3<5
20. Though the Mahapadana Sutta is characterized in the Culla-niddesa as a
jataka, it is clear that in terms o f the definition I have adopted, it is not. It
is probable that the author-compiler o f the Culla-niddesa is using the term
jataka in a much broader sense to refer to any story that is associated with
the Buddha’s memory o f his previous lives.
2 1. Rhys-Davids, “ Introduction,” Dialogues o f the Buddha— Part II, p. 37.
22. Horner, Buddhavamsa: Chronicle of Buddhas and Cariyapitaka: Basket of
Conduct.
23. Extending the kind o f genre analysis suggested above, the stories
containing the main body o f the Buddhavamsa should be classified as
apadana. That is to say, they are stories in which a religious personage (in
this case the future Gotama) has a soteriologically efficacious interaction
with a significant “ field o f merit” (in this case, a particular Buddha o f the
past).
24. The Buddhavamsa is often considered to be a text in which there is a
definite move away from early Buddhist/Theravada perspective in the
direction o f Mahayana. M y own view is, on the contrary, that the
Buddhavamsa, by recounting the story o f other Buddhas in such a way that
the focus o f attention remains on Gotama, presents what was (and
remained) a mainstream Theravada orientation.
25. T. W. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1880).
26. For an analysis that highlights the importance o f this theme, see Arnold
A ronoff s doctoral dissertation, “ Contrasting Modes o f Textual
Clarification: The Jataka Commentary and Its Relationship to the Pali
Canon” (University o f Chicago, 1982).
27. The “ received text” o f the Buddhavamsa itself concludes with two short
chapters that deal with the life o f Gotama and with the distribution o f
his relics. H owever, as Steven Collins has pointed out to me, these two
final chapters are— in all probability— later additions to the main body
o f the text.
28. Reynolds, “ The Many Lives o f Buddha.”
29. Wilhelm Geiger, trans., The Mahavamsa or The Great Chronicle of Ceylon
(London: Pali Text Society, 1964).
30. N. A. Jayawickrama, trans., The Sheaf o f Garlands of the Epochs of the
Conqueror (London: Pali Text Society, 1978).
31. Ibid., p. 3. The prominence given to this story in the Jinakalamali is clearly
associated with the importance attached to filial piety. Certainly the story
meshes nicely with the notion that sons should make merit for their
parents (and especially their mothers) by entering the monkhood. It is
especially significant to note that in many Theravada traditions in
Southeast Asia, young men were expected to undertake a temporary stay
in the monkhood, and to do so with the specific purpose o f making merit
for their mothers. A different, Sinhalese version o f the same story is
presented and discussed by Richard Gombrich in “ Feminine Elements in
 Sinhalese Buddhism,” Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kutidc Sudasiens 16 (1972),
PP- 67-93-
32. According to the Theravada view that wras embedded in the older texts,
only a male can make a vow to attain Buddhahood and receive the
confirming prediction from a Buddha that is held to be inseparably
connected with the vow. By affirming the possibility of a long-term
temporal separation between a future Buddha’s vow to attain Buddhahood
(which can be made by a woman) and the confirming prediction provided
by an already awakened Buddha (which can only come when the aspirant
to Buddhahood is a male), the author-compiler o f the Jinakalamali modifies
the traditional position. Given his description o f the process o f attaining
Buddhahood, it is clearly possible for a woman— despite the fact that she
still remains at a definite sotenological disadvantage— to make an efficacious
vow that involves the attainment o f the highest goal. But it should be
noted that this modification leaves intact the established Theravada notion
that once a future Buddha has made the vow and received the prediction,
the possibility o f any further rebirth as a woman is eliminated.
33. In the Jinakalamali version o f the lineage o f Buddhas, the emphasis 011 the
story ot DTpaiikara and Sumedha has been significantly diminished. To be
sure, DTpaiikara remains the Buddha who gives the future Gotama the
prediction that confirms that he will attain his goal. However, the story of
DTpaiikara and Sumedha no longer stands at the beginning ev en o f the
subseries in which it is included (it is preceded by the stories o f three
preceding Buddhas who lived in the same era who are mentioned— but
only mentioned— 111 the Buddhavamsa). What is equally striking, the story
o f DTpaiikara, which had been by far the longest and most detailed story 111
the Buddhavamsa, is rendered by the compiler-author o f the Jinakalamali in
a space that is roughly equal to the space given to each o f the stories o f the
other twenty-six Buddhas in the series. Clearly, the prominence given to
the story o f the future Gotama saving his mother (the first story in the
text) and to the story involving the Buddha Purana-DTparikara (the first
story in the Gotama’s Buddha lineage as we have defined it) has, as its
counterpoint, a suppression o f the prominence that had previously been
given to the story' o f DTpaiikara and Sumedha.
34. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, trans., Path of Purification (Berkeley: Shambala, 1976),
pp. 250—251 and 460.
35. T. W. Rhys-Davids, trans. Dialogues o f the Buddha— Part /, vol. 2 o f the
Sacred Books of the Buddhists series (Reprint, London: Pali Text Society,
1977), pp. 10 8 -1 36. The fact that the Sanskrit form o f Okkaka is Iksvaku
raises an interesting question concerning the relationship between Okkaka
and the Iksvaku, who plays a very important role in the Puranic traditions
o f the Hindus.
36. T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys-Davids, trans.. Dialogues of the Buddha— Part III ,
vol. 4 o f the Sacred Books of the Buddhists series (Reprint, London: Pali
Text Society, 1977), pp. 77~95-
37- In the Mahavastu, which is an extant non-Theravada text that was also
composed in the centuries around the beginning o f the Common Era, the
three elements that have been mentioned, as well as a fourth element that
so far as we can tell was not yet present in the Pali tradition (the
identification o f Mahasammata as a rebirth precursor o f the Buddha) were
already connected and correlated. See volume i o f the three-volume
translation done b y J .J . Jones that was published as volume 1 6 o f the
Sacred Books of the Buddhists (London, 1949).
38. Nanamoli, Path o f Purification, p. 460. For a discussion that highlights the
crucial importance o f the figure o f Mahasammata in the history o f
Theravada Buddhism, see Stanley Tambiah’s article on “ King
Mahasammata: The First King in the Buddhist Story o f Creation, and His
Persisting Relevance,” Journal o f the Anthropological Society o f Oxford 20,
no. 2 (1989), pp. 10 1- 1 2 2 .
39. The Theravada practice o f connecting the royal lineage o f Gotama with
the lineage o f kings who ruled in the area where the text was being
written is an old one that can be traced back to the early Sinhalese vamsa
tradition. A break in this tradition seems to have occurred in some o f the
new Theravada contexts that were established in Southeast Asia (for
example, note the absence in the Jinakalamali o f any claim concerning a
blood relationship between the Buddha’s royal lineage and the ruling
dynasties o f northern Thailand). Since it is quite probable that this break
was caused by the close connections that had already been established
between the Mahasammata lineage and the lineage o f various Theravada
kings in Sri Lanka, it is not difficult to discern why it was that some
Theravadins in Southeast Asia chose to replace Mahasammata with a more
dynastically malleable sociogonic hero.
40. The Metteya myth is sometimes related to, but is not identical with, the
traditions concerning mystics operating on the fringes o f Theravada
orthodoxy who have claimed (or been accorded) the status o f “ living
Buddhas.” For a discussion o f one mode in which these fascinating
mystical traditions have been expressed, see Juliane Schober’s unpublished
doctoral dissertation, “ Paths to Enlightenment: Theravada Buddhism in
Upper Burma” (University o f Illinois, 1989), especially the section on
“ Htwetyap pauk Mysticism,” pp. 2 5 1—350.
 t /ie d lio yra p /iica lz/m p era tiu e in
ZJJierauada B u d d h ism
Mark R . Woodward

T h e textual corpus o f Theravada Buddhism includes a rich and diverse

body o f sacred bio grap h y. W h ile questions co n cern in g the “ historical
Buddha” have figured most prom inently in W estern scholarship, there are
num erous texts recounting the form er lives o f the Buddha Gotam a (the
jataka, N iddnakatha (N D ), and the later Panhasa-Jataka (PJ)], those o f p revi­
ous B uddhas [the M ahapadana Sutta, B uddhavam sa (B U ), C ariyapitak a
(Cyp), and Jinakalam dlipakaranam (JM )], and Bodhisattva w h o w ill attain
Buddhahood in the future [Dasabodhisattuppattikatha (D B)]. T h ere are also
accounts o f the lives o f great disciples, arhat (P. enligh tened disciples)
\l'h c ra /T h crlg d th d ( T T )J, the inhabitants o f the heavens [VimamivattltH
(Vv)], and even hungry1 ghosts [Petavattfm (Pv)]. T h e Vinaya and com m en ­
taries such as the Dhammapadatthakatha (DhA) also include vast stores o f
sacred biography.
This essay explores thematic interrelations in Theravada biographical
texts and the role o f sacred biography in the larger Theravada religious sys­
tem. It focuses 011 three recurrent themes: (1) the legitim ization o f doctrinal
and ecclesiastical teachings by associating them with the om niscience o f
Buddhas; (2) the characterization o f Buddhism as an open-ended cosm olog­
ical system that denies its ow n historicity; and (3) the portrayal o f Buddhas
and their associates as cohorts w ho m ove together through countless lives.
M ore generally, 1 am concerned w ith the im plications o f j . B ru n er’s
distinction betw een paradigmatic and narrative thought for understanding
 the developm ent o f religious traditions. B ru n er defines the paradigmatic
thought as “ attempts to fulfill the ideal o f a form al, m athem atical system o f
description and explanation. It em ploys categorization or conceptualization
and the operations by w hich categories are established, instantiated, ideal­
ized and related one to the other to form a system .” 1 T h e creative use o f
paradigm atic thought produces “ good theory, tight analysis, logical proof,
sound argum ent, and em pirical d isco very.” 2 A pplied to religious problem s,
it yields logically constructed doctrinal systems, o f w h ich the Theravada
A bhidham m a, and philosophical com m entaries such as Visuddhimagga are
exam ples. N arrative thought “ deals w ith hum an or hum an like intention
and action and the vicissitudes and consequences that mark their course. It
strives to put timeless m iracles into the particulars o f experience and to
locate experience in time and place.” 3 A pplied to religious phenom ena, it
locates timeless truths in individual lives and personal experience in cosm o-
logically conceived times and places. A m o n g its products are m yth, reli­
gious art and cerem ony, and sacred biography.
B ru n e r argues that neither m ode can be reduced to the other. Each is a
w ay o f k n o w in g reality and rendering experience m eaningful. T h e y are,
h ow ever, com plem entary. A s B ru n e r notes, each reinforces or legitim izes
the oth er.4 T h e contrast betw een philosophical discourse and sacred b io g ­
raphy in Theravada Buddhism indicates that both are essential com ponents
o f religious traditions. Philosophical speculation is accepted only w h en it is
linked to sacred biography. Biograph ical narrative explores the im plications
o f abstract premises for the lives o f individuals.

B u d d h o L o g y a n d B u d d h is t B io g R a p h y
Despite the extent o f the Theravada biographical corpus and its role in lit­
erature, art, and popular piety in T h eravada societies, it has lo n g been
view ed w ith suspicion by W estern Buddhologists. Theravada biographical
texts are often described as on ly tangentially related to such core doctrines
as nibbana (P. enlightenm ent), anicca (P. im perm anence), and paticcasamup-
pada (P. dependent origination). T . W . R h y s-D a v id s described the jataka as
“ fairy tales, parables, fables, riddles and com ic and m oral stories,” a theme
w h ich is echoed in M . C u n n in gh am ’s m ore recent treatment o f Theravada
sacred biography as literature.5 Attem pts by W . R o ck h ill, E. Thom as, and
others to use Theravada materials to reconstruct the historical biography o f
the m an G otam a are im portant in their ow n right, but less than revealing
concerning the w ays in w h ich he is understood from w ithin the tradition.6
H . Saddhatissa attributes the grow th o f a Theravada biographical tradition,
and particularly the veneration o f future Buddhas, to a com bination o f Hindu
and M ahayana Buddhist influences.7 T h e view , most clearly articulated by
Edw ard C o n ze, that the Buddhist biography was intended as a “ gospel for
the busy householder,” that “ It has little to do writh the fundam ental teach­
ings o f B u d d h ism ,” and that on ly in M ahayan a can h ou sehold ers be
“ Bodhisattvas, i.e. first-class Buddhists,” rests on the assumption that the
fundamentals o f Buddhism are to be found in abstractly form ulated doctri­
nal propositions com bined w ith a psychologically tinged, reflective m edi­
tation focused exclusively 011 the attainment o f enlightenm ent.8
W hile C o n z e ’s critique o f the Buddhist biography can be understood
as a M ahayana polem ic, students o f Theravada Buddhism have offered sim ­
ilar interpretations. T h is is apparent in the contrast betw een R h y s-D a v id s’
com m ents on the M ahapadana Sutta and Malta N idana Sutta. B oth suttas
expound upon the doctrine o f dependent origination. T h e M ahapadana
Sutta attributes it to the Buddha VipassI w h o taught ninety-one kappa ago.
T h e M alta N id a n a Sutta attributes it to the B udd h a G o ta m a .9 T h e
M ahapadana Sutta is characterized as follow s: “ W e find in this tract the root
o f that Biratia w eed w h ich, grow in g up along the rest o f Buddhism , went
011 spreading so luxuriantly that it gradually covered up m uch that was o f
value in the earlier teaching, and finally led to the dow nfall, in its hom e 111
India, o f the ancient faith. T h e doctrine o f the Bodhisatta, o f the W isdom
B eing, drove out the doctrine o f the Aryan Path. A gorgeous hierarchy o f
m ythological w o n d er-w o rkers filled m en ’s minds, and the older system o f
self training and self control becam e forgotten .” 10 In contrast the M alta
N idana Sutta is described as “ not only the w h ole o f early Buddhism 111 a
nutshell, but also ju st those points concerning w hich w e find the most
emphatic affirmations o f D ham m a as Dham m a ascribed to G o tam a.” "
M . W eb er offers a sim ilar in terpretation, attributing the origin o f
Buddhist biography to a com bination ot H indu influences and a need to
form ulate a salvation cult rooted in “ hagiolatry and idolatry,” suitable for
the untutored masses.12 U n lik e R h y s-D a v id s and C o n ze, W eb er is not
concerned w ith the authenticity of any variant o f Buddhism , but with their
ethical and econom ic consequences. H e does, h ow ever, concur with the
view that in its earliest form Buddhism was “ the most radical form of sal-
vation-striving con ceivable.” 1 * H e characterizes the biographical tradition
as “ m ythologies swollen to fabulous dim ensions.” 14
W hile the abstract, soteriological understanding o f enlightenm ent and
the path leading tow ard it prom oted by R h y s-D a vid s and subsequent stu­
dents o f Theravada Buddhism is a central com ponent o f the tradition, and
one w hich, as M . Carrithers has observed, has strong appeal for W estern
and W esternized Buddhists, it does not exhaust it .'5 T h e central thesis o f
this essay is that ow in g to the ways in w hich Theravada Buddhism defines
enlightenm ent, Buddhahood, and the paths leading tow ard them, it is dri­
ven by a biographical im perative necessitating the form ulation of a co m ­
p lex hagiographic corpus. I build on F. R e y n o ld s ’ study o f T h eravada
sacred biography, w h ich locates accounts o f form er lives o f the Buddha and
o f Buddhas o f the past in the oldest strata o f the Theravada ca n o n .16 It w ill
be argued that biographical narratives describing the m any lives o f m any
Buddhas, their disciples, and opponents constitute the epic tradition o f
Theravada Buddhism . Like other South Asian religious narratives including
the Puranas , the M ahabharata, and the R am ayana, this epic is not intended as
philosophical discourse. It is rather the sacred history that legitim izes and is
at the same time inform ed by the philosophical, ecclesiastical, and ritual sys­
tems o f the tradition. T h e grow th o f the biographical tradition is under­
stood best not as that o f a birana w e ed , but rather as the narrative
rationalization o f a founded religion.

SacRed Biography a n d T e x tu a l A u t h o r it y
Buddhas are om niscient. In A tthasalini (A), Buddhaghosa characterizes the
B uddh a as the one “ w h o know s all know able things, discerns all discern-
able things, is the eye o f the w orld, is the w isdom o f the w o rld .” 17 In the
sutta, V inaya, and A bhidham m a texts, doctrinal teachings and m onastic
regulations are contextualized by references o f events in the life o f the
B uddha G otam a, one o f his contem poraries and /or precursors. T h e exten­
sive use o f biographical frames in doctrinal and philosophical texts suggests
that paradigm atic speculation requ ires narrative legitim atio n and that
W e b e r’s “ m ythologies sw ollen to fabulous dim ensions” w ere as im portant
for his “ cultured professional m onks” as to the hagiolatrous laity.
All Theravada texts are framed, directly or indirectly, by biographical
narrative. T h e phrase “ Th us I have heard” that introduces the sutta o f the
first four nikaya o f the Pali canon is a reference to the biography o f the
B u d d h a ’s personal servito r A n an d a, to w h o m th ey w e re recited or
repeated. A n a n d a ’s statem ent guarantees the au th en ticity o f the text
because, as is explained in T T , the Buddha ranked him forem ost am ong his
disciples fo r his ability to recall his precise w ord s, and because o f his
prom ise to repeat to him all that was taught on those rare occasions wrhen
he was not in the B u d d h a’s p resence.18 T h e introduction to the Patika
Sutta, w h ich concerns the m agical pow ers o f the Buddha and the co n ver­
sion o f ascetics, is a clear, but by no means extraordinary exam ple: “ T hus
have I heard: T h e E xalted O ne was once staying am ong the Mallas, at
A nupiya, one o f their towns. N o w the E xalted O ne, having robed him self
in the early m orning, put on his cloak and took his bow l, and entered the
tow n for alms. A n d he thought: It is too early for m e n o w to go through
A n u p iya fo r alms. I m igh t go to the pleasurance w h ere B h aggava the
W anderer dwells, and call upon B h agg av a.” 19
 In the Vinaya, biographical frames ju stify the im position o f particular
rules o f m onastic conduct. T h e Vinaya allows m onks a single begging bowrl
and states that “ A n extra b o w l m ay be kept for at most ten days. For him
w h o exceeds that (period), there is an offense o f expiation in volvin g forfei­
tu re.” 20 T h e text includes twro sets o f com m ents on this rule, one paradig­
m atic, the other biographical. T h e paradigmatic com m entary explains the
precise meanings of “ extra,” “ b o w l,” and “ forfeiture” in legalistic terms.
T h e biographical commentary' explains the purpose o f the rule. It includes
tw o parts, one ju stify in g the lim itation o f m onks to a single bo w l and
another legitim izing the ten-day grace period. T h e prohibition is justified
by a tale o f six m onks w h o hoarded bow ls and offended the laity. It states:
“ N o w at that time the group o f six m onks made a hoard o f m any bowls.
People engaged in to u rin g the d w ellin g place and seeing (this hoard)
loo ked d ow n upon, criticized, spread it about saying: ‘ H o w can these
recluses, sons o f the Sakyans, m ake a hoard of m any bowls? W ill these
recluses, sons o f the Sakyans, do a trade in bow ls or wrill they set up an
earthenware shop?’ ” W h en this is reported to the Buddha, he establishes
the prohibition. T h e grace period is explained by a story o f Ananda and
Sariputta, one o f the B u d d h a’s great disciples. Ananda and Sariputta w ere
great friends. T h e text states: “ N o w at that tune an extra bo w l had accrued
to Ananda, and the venerable Ananda becam e desirous o f givin g this bow l
to the ven erable Sariputta; but the ven erable Sariputta was staying at
Saketa. T h en it occurred to the venerable Ananda: ‘ A rule o f training laid
d ow n by the Lord is that an extra bo w l should not be kept. And this extra
bow l has accrued to me, and I am desirous o f givin g this bowrl to the ve n ­
erable Sariputta, but the venerable Sariputta is staying at Saketa. N o w what
line o f conduct should be follow ed by m e?’ ” W hen Ananda explains his
concern to the Buddha, the prohibition is altered allow ing Ananda to keep
the bow l for the nine days until Sariputta’s retu rn.21
T h e contrast betw een the uses o f the tale o f the archheretic Devadatta
111 sutta, jataka, and Vinaya texts is an exam ple o f the w ays in which a sin­
gle biographic narrative m ay be used for different purposes. Devadatta was
am ong the early follow ers o f the Buddha, but later grewr jealous o f the
B udd h a’s fame and that o f his great disciples. H e conspired to assume lead­
ership o f the order and, w hen the Buddha refused, tried to kill him . W hen
this failed, Devadatta attempted to cause a schism in the order. T h e b io ­
graphical narrative is included in the Vinaya and the introduction to the
C nlla-H am sa Jatak a and is discussed in the Mahasaropania Sutta. A sum m ary
o f the version included in the Vinaya is also included in D h A . In the Vinaya
and D h A the narrative is used to frame a discussion on the eschatological
con sequ en ces o f b rin g in g abou t a schism in the order. D evadatta is
described as an incurable heretic bound to spend an eon in hell because he
 has k n o w in gly taught non-dhamma as dhamma and w illfully caused a schism
in the ord er.22 T h e Mahasaropania Sutta uses the exam ple o f Devadatta to
discuss the consequences o f m onks falling aw ay from the path because o f a
desire for fame and honors, a subsidiary them e in the V inaya account. T h e
Culla-Hamsa Jataka uses the narrative to extol the virtues o f Ananda, w h o
risked his life for the B uddh a by standing betw een him and the raging
N alagiri Elephant that D evadatta had sent to kill the B u d d h a.23
T h e jataka and other explicitly biographical texts em ploy similar narra­
tive styles. Episodes from the sacred biography o f the Buddha G otam a and
his great disciples are used as biographical frames for the stories o f past lives
and past Buddhas, creating a circle o f biographical legitim ation. In the
jataka a question arising at the tim e o f the Buddha G otam a (paccuppanna-
vatthu) frames a lon ger narrative con cern ing one o f his form er lives (atita-
vatthu). T h e text begins in the present, m oves to the past, in w h ich the
prim ary religious discourse is related, and returns to the present in w h ich
the B uddh a identifies characters o f the first section w ith those o f the second
(.samodhana). T h ere is not always a clear connection betw een events in the
tw o sections o f the jataka. T h e Vessantara Jataka, w h ich is am ong the best
k n ow n Theravada narratives, is prim arily concerned w ith the virtue o f g iv ­
ing. T h e tale is, h ow ever, framed b y tw o accounts o f a m agical rain show er.
T h e jataka is introduced by an account o f a m agical red rain during w h ich
“ those w h o w ished to be w et w ere w etted, but he w h o did not, had not
even a drop fallen upon his b o d y .” T h e Buddha explains that: “ T his is not
the first time, Brethren, that a great show er o f rain has fallen on m y kins­
m en .” 24 T h e tale concludes w ith Sakka, the kin g o f the gods, sending a
show er o f je w e ls to Vessantara’ s city.
Lik e the jataka, Buddhavamsa (BU ) uses the biography o f the Buddha
Gotam a to frame a discussion o f the past. H ere G otam a creates a je w e l w alk
spanning ten thousand w o rld system s to dem onstrate the greatness o f
Buddhas before delivering his discourse on the nature o f the path leading to
B u dd h ahood and Buddhas o f the past. D B , V v , P v, and T T include similar
biographical frames as introductions. T h e introduction to T T is a short his­
tory o f the B u d d h a’s path to enlightenm ent begin n in g w ith his encounter
w ith the B u d d h a DTpaiikara.25 It appears to be based on N K . 26 V v is
described as having resulted from M oggallana’s jo u rn e y to the heaven o f
the thirty-three deva, w h ile D B is described as an answ er to Sariputta’s
questions concerning the Buddhas o f the futu re.27 M an y o f the individual
tales included in these texts are also p rovided w ith frame stories linking
them to the life and teachings o f the Buddha G otam a. C om m entaries such
as D h A use biographical narrative to establish the context for doctrinal texts
lacking biographical introductions. T h e Dhamtnapada is am ong the most
w id ely dispersed and often quoted Buddhist text.28 It is an anthology o f
423 sayings attributed to the Buddha and am ong the most precise state­
ments o f Theravada doctrine and ethics. D h A provides biographical and
m yth o lo gical con texts for the points o f d octrin e in clu d ed in the
Dham m apada and draws heavily on the jataka and T T .
In contrast, com m entaries on b io grap h ical texts such as the
M adhu ratthai’ilasitu , an e xp o sitio n o f B U , and Param atthadipani nama
Pctavatthu-atthakatha (PvA ), a com m entary on Pv, do not add greatly to the
store o f sacred biography, but focus on gram m atical, sem antic, and doctri­
nal points.29 Pv is a collection o f ghost stories concerning the consequences
o f d em eritoriou s action and the transfer o f m erit. T h e co m m en tato r
explains his purpose as follow s:

It is due to a difference in the fruition o f this and that deed done by

pcta in their previous births that this and that existence as a peta has been
brought about for them. Clarifying this is that the teaching o f the
Buddhas that demonstrates the fruition o f deeds, that particularly gives
rise to agitation, and that is well founded on a thorough understanding (of
the subject), namely, the Pcta Stories that were rehearsed by the Great
Masters in the Khuddaka Nikaya. Relying thoroughly thereon after the
manner o f their ancient commentary and at various places explaining the
particular subject matter, Resolving quite clearly and without confusion,
the subtle meanings in accordance with the views o f the present residents
o f the Mahavihara , I will, as well as I am able, set forth an illuminating
exposition o f their meaning.30

T h e “ illum inating e x p o sitio n ” includes discussions o f concepts such as

fields o f merit, the ways in w hich the act o f givin g com es to fruition, path
stages and their fruitions, and the characteristics o f arhats.3‘ It is clearly
in form ed by an understanding o f A b h id h am m a and oth er doctrinal
w o rk s.32 G ehm an describes P v as a “ base type o f B u d d h ism .” His thesis that
it includes “ num erous stories floating around orally in India” is probably
correct.33 T h e com m entary, h ow ever, provides a sound Buddhist explana­
tion o f what m any believed to be historical events, w hile the biographic
frame stories link them to the om niscience o f the Buddha G otam a. T h e
result is the Pv is a Theravada text, even if m any o f the narratives it includes
are derived from South Asian folklore.
Sacred b io grap h y plays a part in even the m ost philosoph ical and
abstract Theravada texts. Philosophical texts such as Patisainbhidamagga (The
Path o f D iscrim ination, Ps) and V^isuddhitnagga (The Path o f Purification,
Vsm) assume fam iliarity with the biographical corpus.34 Vsm begins with a
biographical fragm ent taken from the sutta literature in w hich a dcva asked
the Buddha G otam a: “ T h e inner tangle and the outer tangle, this getiera-
tion is entangled in a tangle. A n d so I ask o f Gotam a this question: W h o
succeeds in disentangling this tangle?” 35 In a consideration o f know ledge
about k n ow led ge, V sm distinguishes betw een trainers, w h o have acquired
kn ow led ge from teachers, and nontrainers, w h o have developed it through
prior effort. P rior effort is “ devotion to insight in the dispensations o f fo r­
m er B udd h as.” 36 It is characteristic o f fully enlightened Buddhas, Pacceka
B uddhas, and c h ie f and great disciples. Ananda, the B u d d h a ’s personal
servitor, and the lay devotees Citta, D ham m ika, and Khujjutara are m en ­
tioned as exam ples o f trainers. T h e y are all described in the Dhammapada
and other com m entaries as teachers o f the laity.37 In a discussion o f the rec­
ollection o f death, V sm teaches that one should com pare o n e ’s o w n fate
w ith those o f great kings, rich m en, and others o f great m erit as w ell as c h ie f
disciples, Pacceka Buddhas, and Buddhas. T h e exam ples cited, am ong them
the treasurers Jo tik a , Jatila, and M endaka and the c h ie f disciples M oggallana
and Sariputta, are drawn from the Dhammapada and the jataka and other
biographical texts.38 In a discussion o f success through m agical pow ers, Ps
cites the treasurers Jo tik a , Jatilasa, G h osita, and M en d ak a as w e ll as
U niversal M onarchs as exam ples o f individuals w h o possess inexhaustible
w ealth because o f previous m eritorious deeds.39 V sm also includes direct
quotations from the jataka and T T . 4°
A m ore co m p le x bio grap h ical m eth o d is used to legitim ize the
A bhidham m a, w h ich m ost scholars, and in som e instances the Theravada
tradition itself, believe to post-date the historical B uddh a. B iograph ical
frame stories are so com m on in sutta and V inaya texts, that according to
Atthasalini (A) “ heretics” pointed to their absence from A bhidham m a texts
as a sign that they w ere not truly spoken by the B u d d h a.41 B uddhaghosa’s
argum ent is that w h ile the B u dd h a is the source o f the totality o f the
dhamma, portions o f the sutta and A bhidham m a w ere com piled by his dis­
ciples. Sariputta, for exam ple, is recognized as the author o f part o f the sutta
literature and as the com piler o f the seven books o f the A bhidham m a.42
Buddhaghosa provides biographical frames for the transmitters o f the
dhamma as w ell as linkin g it to the Buddha. R e g a rd in g the A bhidham m a,
he states:

But if a heretic should say, had the Abhidhamma been spoken by the
Buddha, there would have been an introduction prefatory to it, just as in
many thousands o f the Suttas the preface generally runs as, “ One Day the
Blessed One was staying in Rajagaha,” etc. he should be contradicted
thus: “ The Jataka, Suttanipata, Dhammapada, and so on, have no such
introductions, and yet they were spoken by the Buddha.” O wise one,
this Abhidhamma is the province o f the Buddhas, their birth, their attain­
ment o f perfect wisdom, their turning o f the Wheel o f the Law, their
 performance o f the Twin Miracle, their visit to the deiui, their preaching
in the dtva world, and their descent therefrom are all manifest. . . . There
is, O wise one, 110 need tor an introduction to the Abhidhatntna.4i

Buddhaghosa’s point w ould appear to be the performance o f the “ twin m ir­

acle,” in which the Buddha uses his magical powers to produce a double w ho
asked him questions concerning the dhamma, his ascent to Tarafimsa heaven
to preach to his mother, and his descent via the je w e led staircase accom pa­
nied by a host o f dcva p rovid e the biographical fram e for the entire
Abhidham m a. T h e account o f the twin miracle is most fully developed in
D I1A .44 Buddhaghosa is, how ever, not content with this explanation and
expounds at considerable length 011 the ways in w hich the Buddha sustained
him self while preaching continuously for a lunar month and on the rays ot
various colors that emerged from his body as he preached the Patthana, the
last and most com plex book o f the Abhidham m a. Buddhaghosa explains that
while the Buddha was teaching the Abhidham m a to the diva in Tavatimsa
heaven, Sariputta also jo u rn eyed there to wait 011 the Buddha. H e learned the
Abhidhamma from the Buddha’s preaching and subsequently organized it
into seven books and taught it to 500 o f his students, w ho in form er lives as
bats had heard it taught by disciples o f the Buddha Kassapa.45
W hile this m ethod seems to have satisfied Theravada Buddhists that the
“ heretics’” claims were false, later texts, including Kathavatthuppakarana (K)
and M ilindapana (Mil), pose an additional problem. Both concern doctrinal
controversies arising within the Buddhist com m unity and clearly postdate the
historical Buddha. K concerns debates between rival sects discussed at the
third Buddhist council which, according to A, was held 2 18 years after the
death o f the B u d d h a .46 In A and again in his com m entary 011 K,
Buddhaghosa explains that the Buddha “ laid dow n the table o f contents,”
w hich were filled in by Tissa at the time o f the thirci coun cil.47 Tissa’s appar­
ent authorship o f K and its position as a canonical, rather than commentarial,
w ork is justified by the follow ing prophecy, which Buddhaghosa attributes to
the Buddha: “ W hen 111 the future the turn for expounding K shall arrive, my
disciple, the greatly wise Tissa, son o f M oggali, having purged the blemishes
that have arisen in the teaching and holding a Th ird C oun cil w ill, seated in
the midst o f the O rder, divide this com pilation into a thousand discourses.” 48
M il was com piled at least five centuries after the death o f the Buddha
Gotam a. It is an account o f the m onk N agasena’s answers to questions posed
by K in g M alinda. T h e introd u ction provid es a biograph ical fram e for
Nagasena; K in g M alinda and the text, the construct. It explains that during
the dispensation o f the Buddha Kassapa, Nagasena is a m onk and M alinda a
novice. T h e future Nagasena beats the incipient king with a broom handle
for neglecting to dispose o f a heap o f garbage. T h e novice, “ throw in g out
the rubbish through fear,” makes an aspiration: “ T h rou gh this m eritorious
deed o f th row in g out the rubbish m ay I, w h erever I am successively reborn
until I attain nibbana, be prom pt in saying the right thing and prom pt in
answering questions.” 49 H earing this the m onk aspires: “ M ay I, w herever I
am successively rebom until I attain nibbana, be prom pt in answering ques­
tions . . . and m ay I be able to unravel prom pdy and explain all the answers to
the questions constantly asked m e by this (novice).” 50 A prophecy attributed
to the Buddha Gotama links Nagasena with Tissa and M il with K : “ A nd even
as M oggali’s son the Elder Tissa was seen by our Lord, even w ere these also
seen, as it is explained: Five hundred years after I have attained com plete nib­
bana these w ill uprise (again) and, disentangling it and m aking it clear by ask­
ing it questions and by the use o f similes, they will explain what was made
abstruse by me w hen I taught Dhamm a and D iscipline.” 5'
T h eravad a tradition attributes the authorship or translation o f the
D ham m apada and the ja ta k a to the fifth -c e n tu ry scholar m onk
Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa, w h o is also stated to be the author o f Vsm , K ,
A , and num erous oth er c o m m en taries.52 It is, as R h y s -D a v id s and
B urlingam e have argued, unlikely that Buddhaghosa was the author or even
the translator o f all the w orks attributed to him. T his does not, h ow ever,
require us to accept their disparaging com m ents about the biographical
com m entaries, w hich as Burlingam e puts it: “ differ so w id ely in language
and style from the genuine w orks o f Buddhaghosa as to m ake it in the h igh ­
est degree im probable that he is the author o f either o f them .” 53 T h ere are
tw o issues in question here. First, as N anam oli observes, the attribution o f
all o f the Sinhalese com m entaries to B uddh agh osa should probably be
understood as a statement concerning orth odoxy rather than authorship.54
Second, the relationship betw een the philosophical and biographical co m ­
m entaries is stronger than Burlingam e and R h y s-D a vid s m ake it out to be.
T h e use o f biographical w orks, w h ich are am ong the least philosophical o f
T heravada texts, to provide context for and legitim ize the Abhidham m a
and philosophical com m entaries and the use o f abstract philosophical c o n ­
cepts in com m entaries on w orks such as B U and P v suggests that doctrine
and sacred biography should be understood as interdependent com ponents
o f a larger religious system. T h e m ere attribution o f a “ paradigm atic” text
like Vsm and the clearly “ narrative” D h A to Buddhaghosa provides strong
support for this position.

T h e M u lt i p li c it y o f B u d d h a s and th e
P R o b le m o f H is tO R y
In V sm it is stated that “ T h e path taken b y Buddhas, Pacceka Buddhas, and
the G reat Disciples has to be taken b y m e.” 55 T h e path to enlightenm ent is
singular, the Buddhas and other w h o have trod it are plural. Buddhism is a
“ founded religion .” W hile it makes universal claims and presents itself as
the only path leading to salvation, it is grounded in the religious experience
o f a single individual. This presents a num ber of problem s, am ong w hich is
that o f establishing the truth o f the dhamma as prior to the person o f the his­
torical Buddha.
Theravada Buddhism “ solves” the problem o f history by denying its
ow n historicity. This is accom plished by epic narrative with m ythological
time depth rivaling or surpassing those o f other Indian traditions. Ju st as the
teachings o f the Buddha and subsequent com m entaries on them are legit­
im ized by biographical narrative, the tradition as a w h ole is framed by
biographies o f past and future Buddhas. These narratives map the structure
o f the early Buddhist com m unity onto the past and the future. As the tra­
dition develops, it view s the Buddha Gotam a as but one ot a series of indi­
viduals w h o have penetrated the truth and set the w heel o f dhamma in
m otion.
A ccord in g to the Mahapadana Sutta, w hich describes seven Buddhas,
k now led ge o f previous Buddhas has tw o sources: (i) the ability o f Buddhas
to see indefinitely into the past and future; and (2) their conversations with
beings o f the Brahma loca w h o ow e their positions to devotion to Buddhas
o f the past. T h e Buddhavamsa lists tw en ty-fou r Buddhas o f the past. T h e
jataka com m entary expands the list to tw enty-seven . Later texts greatly
expan d the num ber ot Buddhas. Jinakdlanidflpakarariam (JM ) m entions
3 8 7 ,0 0 c .56 T h is expan sion con tinu es in D B w h ere G o tam a Buddha
explains: “ Sariputta, there have been limitless and countless noble people in
the w o rld w h o have su ccessively fu lfilled the p erfectio n , attained
B uddhahood and, having com pleted a Buddha's duty, passed away at the
end o f their life-span.” 57
T h e Mahapadana Sutta explains that all Buddhas share certain physical
characteristics, analogous life histories, and form er lives. All Buddhas have
personal servitors and a pair o f c h ie f disciples. T h e ir conceptions and births
are accom panied by the same miracles, including “ a splendid radiance pass­
ing the glory o f the go d s,” at the time o f conception and showers o f warm
and cold water at birth .58 All Buddhas are born with the thirty-three marks
o f the Mahdpurusa (P. great man). In each case the principle episodes 111 the
life o f the Buddha Gotam a are repeated: the prediction that he w ill be
either a Buddha or a W orld M onarch, the great renunciation, the practice
o f austerities, the discovery ot the four noble truths and the doctrine o f
dependent origination, the attainment o f enlightenm ent, and the founding
o f the sangha (monastic ord er).59 This discourse is extended in B U 111 what
H orner describes as “ almost m athematical beauty in its unvarying regular­
ity.” 60 B U describes the
 eon (sometimes), number o f penetrations, number o f assemblies, who the
Bodhisatta was then and o f what kind was his act o f merit he performed
towards the Buddha, names o f the Buddha’s city, father and mother,
duration o f his household life, the names o f his three palaces, the number
o f women attendants (in the palaces), the means o f conveyance by which
he departed on the Great Renunciation . . . the length o f time he spent in
striving . . . the turning o f the Wheel o f Dhamma, the names o f the chief
disciples, o f the (monastic) attendant, o f the chief women disciples, o f the
Bodhi-Tree, o f the chief (lay) attendant, first the men and then the
women, the height o f the Buddha’s physical frame, his lustre (if any), the
duration o f his life-span, his complete or final nibbana.61

T h e Mahapadana Sutta relies on analogical reasoning to explain the links

b e tw e e n B u dd h as and th eir dispensations. Su b seq u en t texts (B U , the
Nidatiakatha, and D h A ) describe an interconnected lineage o f Buddhas.
T h e paradigm atic exam ple is the story o f the Buddha DTpaiikara and the
Brahm in/ascetic Sum edha found in the Buddhavamsa and Nidatiakatha .62
Sum edha was a w ealthy B rahm in w h o renounced the w orld to becom e an
ascetic and a religious teacher. H e is overjo yed to learn that there is a
B uddh a in the w orld. H e perform s a great act o f m erit, th row in g h im self in
the m ud in front o f the B uddh a and 400,000 m onks, takes a v o w (P. katah-
hiniharena mahasattena) to becom e a Buddha himself, and receives in return
a prop h ecy that his wish w ill be realized. Buddha DTpaiikara states that
“ Innum erable eons from n o w he w ill be a Buddha in the w o rld .” H e also
mentions the Buddha G o tam a’s nam e, as w ell as those o f his parents, his
c h ie f male and fem ale disciples, personal attendant, and lay fo llo w ers.63
D h A explains that the episode o f the v o w and the p roph ecy is repeated
during the lifetim e o f each o f the fo llo w in g tw enty-three Buddhas.64 J M
pushes G o ta m a ’s b io grap h y even fu rth er into the past, d escrib in g the
B odhisattva’s resolve to attain enlightenm ent prior to birth as Sum edha.
H ere distinctions are drawn betw een a desire for enlightenm ent and a state­
m ent by a Buddha that it w ill be attained and an aspiration m ade during a
life, m eeting the necessary conditions for a prophetic reply to an aspiration
and one in w h ich a Buddha is capable o f responding only indirectly. T h e
future G otam a makes his initial m ental resolve to attain enlightenm ent in a
period in w h ich there are not Buddhas. Consequen tly J M explains that “ on
account o f the absence o f a personal m eeting w ith an Enlightened O ne, it
is not taken into recko n in g .” 65 In a subsequent existence he is born as the
stepsister o f the Buddha Purana-DTparikara. D u rin g his dispensation the
future B u d d h a DTpaiikara re ceive d a p ro p h ec y that he w o u ld obtain
B uddh ahood. T h e future Gotam a presented him w ith a gift o f mustard oil,
m aking a mental resolve “ in consequence o f the ou tflow o f m erit from the
gift o f mustard oil, w hen 1 becom e an Enlightened O ne, let me have the
nam e S id d h atth a.” 66 T h e future D I paiikara relays this resolve to the
Buddha, w h o responds with a prophecy that during the time o f the Buddha
DTpaiikara his stepsister w ill receive her prophecy. J M continues that it was
because o f the “ incongru ity o f sex” that the future Gotam a did not receive
a prophecy from Purana-DTparikara.67
A lthough these texts are prim arily concerned with the form er lives o f
the Buddha G otam a, they also introduce the concept o f future Buddhas.
T h e y presum e a lineage o f Buddhas stretching indefinitely into the past and
future. For those o f the Buddha DTpaiikara’s time, Sum edha was a future
B u d d h a, w h ereas at the tim e o f the future G o ta m a ’ s m ental resolve,
DTpaiikara was h im self a future Buddha. T h e N idatiakatha (N D ) uses this
narrative to com m ent on the religious significance o f the Buddha to be.
W hen they hear o f Buddha DTpaiikara’s prophecy, his unenlightened fol­
low ers rejoice, thinking “ T h e hermit Sum m edha, it seems, is an em bryo
Buddha, the tender shoot that will grow up into a Buddha. For thus they
thought, ‘As a man fording a river, i f he is unable to cross to the ford op p o­
site him , crosses to a ford lo w er dow n the stream, even so w e, if under the
dispensation o f DTpaiikara Buddha w e fail to attain the Paths and their
fruition, yet w hen thou shalt becom e Buddha w e shall be enabled in thy
presence to m ake the Paths and their fruition ou r o w n .’ ” 68
M etteva is the on ly future B u dd h a m en tio n ed in the Pali canon.
A ccord in g to the C akkavatti-Sihanada Sutta, he will be the last o f the five
Buddhas o f this kappa. Sinhalese and Southeast Asian texts identify M etteva
w ith the m onk Ajita. Gotam a Buddha is said to have identified him as
M etteya 011 the occasion o f his donation o f tw o pieces o f cloth .69 D B ,
w hich circulated throughout m ainland Southeast Asia, identifies ten future
Buddhas, seven o f w h om are identified with figures in the Pali canon. At
the end of each section o f D B , Gotam a informs Sariputta that those w ho
have not attained nibbana in the past w ill long for com ing dispensations,
extending the narrative o f B U and N D .
T h e “ m athematical beauty” o f B U can also be found in accounts o f the
lives o f past and future Buddhas. Theravada Buddhism presumes the exis­
tence o f an infinity o f bodhisattvas w h o proceed through analogous series
o f lives. Malalasekara observes that certain conditions must be m eet for a
vo w to attain B u dd h ahood to be effective. O n e must be “ 1. a human
being, 2. male, 3. sufficiently developed to becom e an arhat in that very
birth, 4. a recluse at the time o f the declaration, 5. he should declare his
resolve before a Buddha, 6. should be possessed o f attainments such as
jhatias , 7. be prepared to sacrifice all, even life, and 8. his resolution should
be absolutely firm and u n w averin g.” 70 All bodhisattvas cultivate the ten
perfections required for B uddhahood in a lon g series of lives.
 F o llo w in g his encounter w ith the B uddh a DTpaiikara, Sum edha co n ­
templates the dhamma and the path to enlightenm ent, causing the entire
w o rld to shake. Buddha DTpaiikara reassures the populace, stating “ have no
fear o f this earthquake. H e o f w h o m I declared today that he w ill be a
B uddha in the w orld is reflecting on the Dhamma that was follow ed by for­
m er C onquerors. T h e Dhamma reflected on by him is the entire plane [per­
fection o f a B uddh a] o f B u d d h a s.” 71 T h is them e is repeated in the
B odhisattva’s encounter w ith each o f the subsequent Buddhas.
Ju st as the Mahapadana Sutta establishes analogies betw een the life o f
G otam a and those o f previous Buddhas, accounts o f the form er lives o f for­
m er B udd h as d raw h eavily on jataka texts. T h e jataka are tales o f the
B u d d h a G o ta m a ’s fo rm er liv e s .72 T h e y are th o u gh t to fo llo w the
B o d h isa ttv a ’s e n co u n ter w ith the last o f the tw en ty -se ve n p revio u s
Buddhas. In addition to these lives, the text refers to thousands o f others,
at least one o f w h ich was lived in H ell. L ike the list o f Buddhas, the jataka
tradition is an “ open te x t.” O th er jataka texts circulate in Southeast A sia.73
T h ere are also “jataka” tales o f the form er lives o f past and future Buddhas.
M an y o f these draw on the Vessantara Jataka. T h e Vessantara Jataka c o n ­
cerns the p erfectio n o f g iv in g and is the last o f the 547 stories. T h e
Bodhisattva (K ing Vessantara) gives aw ay the m agical w h ite elephant that
ensure the prosperity o f his kingdom and finally his w ife and children. T his
com pletes his cultivation o f the perfection. T h e extent gift is even m ore
stron gly stated in stories c o n c e rn in g fo rm er and future B u d d h as. In
Madhuratthavilasini (M V ), a com m entary on B U , M angala, the third o f the
tw en ty-fou r Buddhas, gives his children to a dem on w h o devours them .74
D B describes the great gift o f the future Buddha N arada in similar term s.75
In every case the gift o f children is m ade in the B odhisattva’s penultim ate
hum an existence. Com m entarial texts point to the gift o f children as a gen­
eral feature o f the Bodhisattva path. M V states that M angala m ade the gift
during “ an individuality resem bling Vessantara’s,” w hile in M il N agasena
explains: “ A ll Bodhisattvas, sire, g ive aw ay their w ife and c h ild ren .” 76
T o g e th er these data indicate the life histories as w ell as the perfection o f
Buddhas and Bodhisattva are analogous.

C o h o rts o f th e Buddhas and

th e lizony o f Kam m a
Bodhisattvas do not jo u rn e y to nibbana alone. E v e ry Buddha has parents, a
w ife, a son, disciples, c h ie f disciples, a personal servitor, and ch ie f male and
female lay donors w h o follow him on the path to enlightenm ent. T hese
com m unities begin to form as the bodhisattva practices the perfection.
T h e ir structures are am ong the subsidiary themes o f B U , the jataka, D h A ,
 and T T . M og gallan a and Sariputta are the B u d d h a ’s c h ie f disciples.
Sariputta is the wisest o f the B u dd h a’s disciples. M oggallana is the master o f
magic. Ananda is his personal servitor. Each made a v o w to a previous
Buddha to attain his position in a future life. T h e future Sariputta and
M oggallana resolve to becom e great disciples at the time o f the Buddha
Anom dassin, the seventh Buddha o f B U . D h A explains that Sariputta could
have attained enlightenm ent at this time, but is distracted by his disciple
N isabha, w h o is described as having “ reached the pinnacle o f the perfection
o f k n ow led ge capable o f attainm ent by a d iscip le.” 77 H e then makes a
resolve to becom e a c h ie f disciple, w hich is follow ed by a prophecy that it
w ill be fulfilled d u rin g the tim e o f the B u d d h a G o tam a. T h e future
Sariputta then convinces his friend, the future M oggallana, to entertain
Buddha Anom dassin and his disciples and to resolve to becom e the second
great d iscip le.78 A nanda resolved to b ecom e the personal servitor o f a
Buddha at the time o f Buddha Padumuttara, the tenth Buddha o f B U .
W hile entertaining the Buddha, he was greatly impressed by his attendant
and made a resolve to becom e one in a future life.79
These accounts indicate that there are lineages o f great disciples corre­
sponding to the lineage o f the Buddhas. Each is m entioned in num erous
jataka stories: Ananda in 14 7 , Sariputta in 90, and M oggallana in 57. In
some cases the narrative structure o f these stories parallels episodes from the
life o f the Buddha. Ananda is often a personal servant, Sariputta the wisest
com panion o f the Bodhisattva. and M oggallana a master o f m agical pow er.
In others they are friends and associations o f the Bodhisattva.
Accounts o f the form er lives o f Devadatta indicate that the cohorts o f
the Buddhas include great schismatics and heretics as w ell as great disci­
ples. As the result o f his sins against the Buddha and the sangha, Devadatta
is sw allow ed by the earth and torm ented in the A vici H ell. W hile there is
110 record that he ever expressed a resolve to suffer this fate, accounts o f his
form er lives parallel those of G otam a. H e is m entioned in sixty-seven
ja ta k a , in w h ich he is described a treacherous, ungrateful, drunk. In three
o f these, he is sw allow ed by the earth. D evadatta is, h o w ever, m ore than
the Theravada m anifestation o f evil. H e serves as the most extrem e e xam ­
ple o f the com passion o f Buddha. T h e account o f his death and torm ent is
o f great soteriological significance, dem onstrating that the possibility o f
enlightenm ent is open to even the most evil beings. As he is being sw al­
low ed by the earth, D evadatta takes refuge in the Buddha. At this point
the Buddha ordains him , so that “ it w ill be possible for him to look fo r­
w ard w ith confidence to future existen ce,” and predicts that in the future
he w ill becom e a Pacceka B u d d h a .80
Future Buddhas w ill have similar com m unities. Presum ably they have
already begun to form. Sinhalese texts discussed by H . Saddhatissa m ention

54 win Mark R.
IVoodu'urd
 the names o f great disciples o f the future. J M states that the m em bers o f
M etteya’s com m unity w ere form erly Sinhalese kings and queens.81 T h ere
is no record that anyon e has claim ed to be the D evadatta o f a future
B u d d h a’s dispensation. T h is is not surprising.
T h e lives o f great beings and their struggles over incalculable periods to
attain enlightenm ent as Buddhas or great disciples is the m ajor them e in
Theravada sacred biography. T h ere are, h ow ever, also texts concerning the
paths o f beings o f lesser stature and, in a m ore general sense, the w ays in
w h ich seem ingly insignificant acts m ay have enorm ous soteriological con ­
sequences. A related b ody o f texts concerns particular events in the life o f
the B uddh a G otam a and the ways in w h ich Buddhas differ.
Vimanavatthu (Vv) and Pettavatthu (Pv) result from M oggallana’s visit to
h eaven and his conversations w ith h ungry ghosts. V v describes the types o f
deeds that result in rebirth in heavenly abodes, P v those w h ich lead to states
o f suffering. T h e point o f both texts w o u ld appear to be that all hum an acts
have enduring cosm ological consequences. T h e com m entary on V v states:
“ O n e day this reasonin g o ccu rre d to the ven erab le M oggallan a the
great. . . . W hat i f I w ere to m ake a deva tour and ask the devatas at first
hand w hat was the deed o f m erit o f w h ich they n o w experience the fruit.
I f I then told the m atter to the Blessed O n e he m ight conduct a teaching
on D ham m a based on these M ansion stories. It w ou ld be for the good, the
w elfare, the happiness o f devas and m en .” 82
M any o f the tales included in these texts are them atically related to
episodes in the lives o f the Buddhas and other prom inent figures in the b io ­
graphical corpus. T h e “ Story o f the Peta w ith a Putrid M o u th ” concerns
the consequences o f prom oting disharm ony in the sangha. Its them e is sim ­
ilar to that o f the biography o f D evadatta, that is, that causing discord
w ithin the sangha leads to states o f w o e. It concerns a peta w h o was a m onk
at the time o f the Buddha Kassapa, the tw enty-fou rth Buddha o f B U . T h e
m o n k ’s “ evil disposition” led him to covet the donations o f an entire vil­
lage and to drive out other resident m onks by backbiting and slander. H e
soon died and was reborn in the A v ic i H ell and at the time o f the Buddha
G otam a was still suffering the consequences o f his actions, having been
reborn as a peta w hose m outh was constantly being devoured by w orm s and
w h ich em itted a putrid o d o r.83
M any o f the “ mansion stories” concern the rewards o f charity and, in
this sense, are related to the Vessantara Jataka. In V v , M oggallana asks each o f
the devi and deva what act o f merit led to rebirth in the heavenly abode. T h e
most com m on replies are the presentation o f alms to the Buddha or a m onk
and the observance o f the five moral precepts incum bent on lay Buddhists.
Theva/Therigdtha (T T ) is a collection o f verses attributed to male and
fem ale arhat o f the B u d d h a ’s co m m u n ity . T h e b io grap h ical fram es o f
m onks and nuns differ significantly. T h e nuns’ tales all refer to acts o f merit
and devotion perform ed during the times o f previous Buddhas. T h ose o f
the m onks are concerned prim arily with the final path stages. T h e nuns’
verses are framed by accounts o f births in the times o f previous Buddhas.
T h e verse o f the unnam ed nun w h o utters the first o f the verses is m ore
detailed than most, but in other respects typical: “ H o w was she reborn?
Lon g ago, a certain daughter o f one o f the clans becam e a fervent believer
in the teaching o f the Buddha Konagam ana, and entertained him with hos­
pitality. She had an arbour m ade w ith boughs, a draped ceiling, and a
sanded floor, and did him h onour w ith flowers and perfum es. A nd all her
life doing m eritorious acts, she was reborn am ong gods, and again am ong
men w hen Kassapa was Buddha, under w h om she renounced the w orld.
R e b o rn in heaven till this Buddha-dispensation, she was finally born in a
great noblem an’s fam ily at V esali.” 84
T h ere are also frames referring to alternating positive and negative
action. Addhakasi was a nun at the time o f the Buddha Kassapa and w ell
established in the moral precepts. But because she referred to another nun,
w h o was already an arhat, as a prostitute, she was unable to obtain enlight­
enm ent and was reborn in a state o f w o e. She was herself reborn as a pros­
titute at the time o f the Buddha Gotam a, but she entered the order and
attained enlightenm en t.85
A lthough there are exceptions like Sukka, w h o was “ Learned, profi­
cient in the doctrine, and a ready speaker” at the time o f four previous
Buddhas, most o f the nuns reach the final path stages by keeping moral pre­
cepts and obtain enlightenm ent through insight follow in g an encounter
w ith the Buddha or one o f the great disciples.86 As C . R h y s-D a vid s has
observed, m onks are m uch m ore likely to attain enlightenm ent through
solitary forest m editation, the exercise o f magical pow ers, and mastery o f
doctrine. O thers becom e arhat after leaving non-Buddhist ascetic orders.
W hile m any reach enlightenm ent through insight, it is often preceded by
austerities and the cultivation o f other m editative states.
M onks are m ore frequently portrayed struggling against the w orld and
their ow n passions than are nuns. W ith few exceptions the m on k ’s b io ­
graphical frames begin w ith the phrase “ R e b o rn in this Buddha age.” T h e
tale o f Kulla is illustrative o f the w ay in w hich these motifs are com bined:

R eborn in this Buddha age at Savatthi in the family o f a landowner,

and named Kulla, he was converted by faith, and was ordained by the
Master. But he was often seized by fits o f lustful passion. The master,
knowing his tendencies, gave him the exercise on foul things, and bade
him often meditate in the charnel field. And when even this sufficed not,
he himself went with him and bade him mark the process ot putrefaction
 and dissolution. Thus, as Kulla stood with heart disinfatuated, the Exalted
One sent out a glory, producing in him such mindfulness that he dis­
cerned the lesson, attained first jhana, and on that basis developed insight,
won arahantship.87

Com parison o f nuns’ and m onks’ verses indicate that m en and w om en

m ove tow ard enlightenm ent in different w ays. A m o n k ’s path em ploys
m any o f the elements found in the lives o f the Buddha and is one o f self-
cultivation, although generally aided by the teaching o f the B uddha. A
nun’s path is one o f lay piety and devotion leading to the sudden developm ent
o f insight in her final existence. Hers is a path o f piety and devodon, whereas
that o f a m onk is one o f struggle against the w orld and himself. This distinc­
tion also helps to clarify anomalies in the biography o f Ananda. Malalasekera
argues that it was because o f Ananda’s attachment to the Buddha Gotama that
he was unable to attain arhatship until after his master’s death. Ananda was also
the strongest advocate o f w om en in the Buddha’s com m unity, convincing
him to allow female ordination after thrice refusing.88 It is perhaps significant
that the m onk w h o most strongly champions the cause o f w om en is one
whose ow n path to enlightenment most closely resembles their ow n.
D espite the “ mathematical beauty” o f B U , Buddhas are not the same in
all respects. M V states that they differ w ith respect to life span, height, fam ­
ily, time required for striving, the extent o f rays, vehicle used in the great
renunciation, the tree under w h ich enlightenm ent is obtained, and the size
o f the cross-legged m editation posture.®9 T h ere are also particular events in
the lives o f som e Buddhas that do not occu r in others. T hese are the result
o f kamma, w h ich must be expiated in the B u d d h a’s final existence. T h e
apadana includes verses explaining the kammic basis for unpleasant aspects o f
G o tam a’s last life. Several o f these concern his encounters w ith Devadatta.
M alalasekera describes them as follow s: “ O n ce, greedy for wealth, he killed
his stepbrothers, h urling them d ow n a precipice; as a result, D evadatta
attempted to kill him by hurling him d ow n a rock. O nce, as a boy, w hile
playing on the highw ay, he saw a Pacceka Buddha and threw a stone at
him , and as a result, was shot at by D evadatta’s hired archers. In another life
he was a m ahout, and seeing a Pacceka Buddha on the road, drove his ele­
phant against him ; hence the attack b y N alag iri.” G o tam a’s six years o f
striving are explained as the consequence o f a disparaging rem ark he made
concerning the enlightenm ent o f the Buddha Kassapa.90
Com paring these events in the form er lives o f the Buddha with the ghost
stories o f P v and even the tales o f the form er lives o f nuns included in T T illu­
minates the irony o f kamma. A nun w h o speaks ill o f another and a m onk w h o
causes dissension within the order suffer for enormous periods. A Bodhisattva
w h o kills his relatives and assaults a Pacceka Buddha w ith an elephant is
assaulted— unsuccessfully— by the forces o f a schismatic w ho is swallowed by
the earth. W hile all actions o f those w ho remain in satnsara have conse­
quences, Bodhisattvas, by virtue ot their goal, are exem pt from rebirth in the
eighteen inauspicious states, including those o f pcta and the A vici H ell.91

C o n clu sio n : T h e R a y a d a Bud dhism a n d th e

TeRROR o f His to n y
In the final chapter o f the M yth o f Eternal R eturn , M ircea Eliade speaks o f
the “ terror o f history',” w hich he describes as the existential position o f
m odern, post-religious hum anity.92 This terror is, 111 part, the know ledge
that systems o f m eaning are products o f human im agination rather than
repetitions o f eternal archetypes. T h is awareness is the product o f the
Enlightenm ent, the grow th o f science as a w ay ot k n ow ing, and o f “ higher
criticism ,” w hich dem ythified Christian scripture. A m o n g the reactions to
the religious problem s posed by these realizations w ere quests for the his­
torical Jesus and the form ulation ot a psychologically oriented Christianity
in w hich religious experience rather than m yth, rite, and sacred biography
define the fundamentals o f faith. T h e search for rationalized, individualist
alternatives to Christian religiousness was another.
I w ould not go so far as P. A lm ond, w h o sees “ Budd h ism ” as a creation
o f V ictorian discourse about the m ysterious O rien t.93 T h e depiction ot
early Buddhism as a radically individualistic quest for personal salvation
m ay, h ow ever, be understood as both a response to and an attempt to
escape from the terror o f history. This is accom plished by substituting a
new ly discovered “ rational” faith for a discredited m ythic Christianity. This
is apparent in C . R h y s-D a v id s’ com parison o f Buddhism and Christianity,
in w hich she sees both as ethical religions em phasizing human conduct
instead o f sacrifice. H er view is that in Buddhism :

the N e w Word saw the way out as different. It saw it only in the man
himself. N o external methods as such can help. T he man must find the
way. In himself must each seek salvation. . . . The man in our day is no
longer the man of the day when Sakya began, any more than he was man
o f the day when Sakya was becoming what we call Buddhism. In the ear­
lier day the man meant he who had within, latent, yet astir, the very
Divine, the Highest, the Most. This self it was, and no external deity, on
w hom man was thrown back, to w hom man was referred, to follow
whom was the way out. It is o f the first importance that this be realized;
the ignoring of it, the substitution for it of the later Buddhist limited view
o f the man, the self, and o f our own limited view o f the man, the self, is
ever vitiating modern treatment of Buddhist teaching.94
 T h e “ truth” o f Buddhism and escape from the terror o f history are,
th erefo re, to be fou n d in the paradigm atic d octrines o f the h istorical
B u d d h a. A s C arrith ers notes, the m o ve m en t was often one from
C h ristian ity to R o m a n tic ism , co m b in ed w ith nonth eistic p iety to
B udd h ism .95 It is, in E liad e’s terms, a jo u rn e y from the archetype o f Christ
to that o f the Buddha. B y understanding Buddhism as a personal salvation
quest, the jo u rn e y preserves Cartesian individualism and rationalism— the
intellectual hallmarks o f m odernity— w h ile escaping the terror o f history.
G iv en this perspective, it is not difficult to understand the characterization
o f Theravada biographical narrative as a “ birana w e e d .” B u t to characterize
Buddhism as a religion o f radical individual autonom y is possible only on
the basis o f a selective reading o f the textual tradition, and it is possible only
from the perspective o f the doctrine o f autonom ous personhood and the
related concept o f individual religious experience, w h ich are themselves
products o f the terror o f history.
A lth o u gh the terror o f history m ay be the existential con d ition o f
m o d e rn ity , it is not an e x c lu s iv e ly m o d e rn p h e n o m e n a . B u d d h ism ,
C h ristian ity, Islam , and oth er fou n d ed faiths are con fro n ted w ith the
p roblem o f establishing them selves as eternal truths in the face o f co m ­
p e tin g claim s o f o ld er, establish ed re lig io n s. C h ristia n ity and Islam
accom plish this b y appropriating portions o f Ju d a ic scripture and b y pre­
senting them selves as the culm ination o f a lineage o f prophets. T heravada
B udd h ism maps the biograph ical lineage o f the B udd h a G otam a on to
B uddhas o f the past and the future. It rem ains, h o w e ve r, a doctrinally
conservative tradition. E ve n though there are m any Buddhas, there can
be only one at a tim e. B uddhas are hum an, not d ivine. T h e re is noth in g
in the T h e ra v a d a epic that recalls M a h ayan a B u d d h o lo g y , w ith its
im plicit denial o f the teach in g o f im perm an ence and the equation o f
samsara and nirvana. A s stated in D B , Bodhisattvas attain enlightenm en t as
B u dd h as and “ pass aw ay h a vin g co m p leted a B u d d h a ’s d u ty .” 96 T h e
expansion o f the biographical tradition in the early centuries o f the co m ­
m on era suggests that develo pm en t o f Theravada B u d d h o lo g y parallels,
but is not necessarily a response to, that o f the M ahayana tradition. It also
p arallels the d e v e lo p m e n t o f the p arad igm atic c o m p o n e n t o f the
T h eravada tradition. T h e im portance o f the ja ta k a , D h A , and other b io ­
graphical narratives in contem p orary T h eravada societies is illustrative not
o f the debasem ent o f a pristine, paradigm atic tradition, but rather o f the
centrality o f narrative thought in religious life. T h e em ergence o f the nar­
rative tradition saved T h eravad a so terio lo gy, in clu d in g the p roxim ate
goal o f a better existence, as w ell as the ultim ate end o f nibbana, from the
te rro r o f h isto ry. T h e fu rth er d ev elo p m e n t o f b io g rap h ica l narrative
keeps it at bay.
 N o te s
1. J. Bruner, Actual M inds Possible Worlds (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1986), p. 12.
2. Ibid, p. 13.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid, p. 1 1 .
5. T. W. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories (London: Triibner and C o.,
1880), p. i; M. Cummings, The Lives of the Buddha in the Art and Literature
of Asia (Ann Arbor: Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, Center
for South and Southeast Asian Studies, The University o f Michigan,
110. 20, 1982).
6. W. Rockhill, 77 /e Life o f the Buddha and the Early History o f His Order Derived
from Tibetan Work’s in the Bkah-H gyur attd Bstan-Hgyur (London: Trtibner's
Oriental Series, 1884); E. Thomas, 'Hie Life of the Buddha as History and
Legend (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1927).
7. H. Saddhatissa, 77 /c Birth-Stories of the Lett Bodhisattas and the
Dashodhisattuppattikatha. Being a Translation and Edition o f the
Dasbodhisattuppattikatha (London: Pali T ext Society, 1975), p. 1, hereafter
cited as D B.
8. E. Conze, Buddhism : Its Essence attd Development (N ew York: Harper and
R o w , 1975), p. 87.
9. T. W. and C . A. F. Rhys-Davids, trails., Dialogues of the Buddha — Part II
(London: Luzac and C o., 19 10 ), pp. 23—28 and 50—70.
10. Ibid, p. 1.
11. Ibid, p. 44.
12. M. Weber The Religion o f India (Glencoe: T he Free Press, 1958), p. 222.
1 3. Ibid, p. 206.
14. Ibid, p. 249.
15. M. Carrithers, 77 le T'orest M onks o f Sri L u tk a : A n Anthropological and
Historical Study (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 26-45.
16. F. Reynolds, “ T he Many Lives o f the Buddha: A Study o f Sacred
Biography and the Theravada Tradition,” in The Biographical Process.
Studies in the History and Psychology o f Religion, ed. F. Reynolds and
D. Clapps (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), pp. 37-62.
17. Pe Maung Tin, trails., 77 /e Expositor (Atthasalini) Buddhaghosa's Cotttmetitary
on the Dhaminasagani, the hirst Book of the Abhidham m a Pitaka (London: Pali
T ext Society, 1976), p. 7, hereafter cited as A.
18. C . A. F. Rhys-Davids, trans., Psalms of the Early Buddhists (London: The
Pali Text Society, 19 1 3), vol. 2, pp. 350—3 5 1 , hereafter cited as T T .
19. T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys-Davids, trans.. Dialogues o f the Buddha Translated
from the Pali o f the Digha N ikaya (London: Oxford University Press, 192 1),
p. 7-
20. I. 13. Horner, trans., 77 /c Book of Discipline ( l ltiaya-Pitaka), vol. 2,
Suttavihhanga (London: Oxford University Press, 1940), pp. 1 1 3 - 1 1 7 .
2 1. Ibid, p. 1 1 4 .
22. Ibid., pp. 259-290. E. Burlingame, trans., Buddhist Legends Translated from
the Original Pali Text of the Dhammapada Commentary (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 19 21), vol. 1, pp. 230-242, hereafter cited as
DhA.
23. H. Francis, trans., The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha’s Fortner Births
(London: Cambridge University Press, 1905), vol. 5, pp. 17 5 -18 5 .
24. E. Cowell and W . Rouse, trans., The Jataka or Stories of the Buddhha’s
Fortner Births (London: Cambridge University Press, 1907), vol. 6,
pp. 264-305.
25. T T , vol. 1, pp. 3-8.
26. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, pp. 2—13 1.
27. I. B. Homer (assisted by N. A. Jayawickrama), The Minor Anthologies of the
Pali Canon, Part 4, Vimanavatthu: Stories of the Mansions (London: Pali Text
Society, 1974), p. xxvii; D B, p. 54.
28. M. Muller, trans., The Dhammapada: A Collection of Verses. Being One of the
Canonical Books o f the Buddhists (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1898).
29. I. B. Horner, trans., 77/e Minor Anthologies o f the Pali Canon Part 3,
Chronicle o f Buddhas (Buddhavamsa) and Basket o f Conduct (Cariyapitaka)
(London: Pali Text Society, 1975), pp. 1-99, hereafter cited as Be and
Cyp; I. B. Horner, trans., The Clarifier o f Sweet Meaning
(.Madhuratthavilasini) Commentary on the Chrotiicle of the Buddhas by
Buddhadatta Thera (London: Pali Text Society, 1978), hereafter cited as
M V; H. Gehman, trans., The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Part 4,
Petavatthu: Stories of the Departed (London: Pali Text Society, 1974),
hereafter cited as Pv; U. Ba Kyaw, trans., Elucidation of the Intrinsic Meaning
so named The Commentary on the Peta-Stories (Paramatthadipani nama
Petavatthu-atthakatha by Dhammapala) (London: Pali Text Society, 1980),
hereafter cited as PvA.
30. PvA. p. 3.
31. Ibid., pp. 9 - 1 1 , 258-263.
32. G. P. Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names (London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1974), vol. 1, pp. 296-297; p. 114 6 states that
Dhammapala, the author o f PvA, also wrote a commentary on
Buddhaghosa’s Vsm.
33. Pv, p. xii.
34. B. Nanamoli, trans., The Path of Purification ( Visuddhimagga) (Berkeley:
Shambhala, 1976), hereafter cited as Vsm; Nanamoli, trans., The Path of
Discrimination (Patisambhidamagga) (London: Pali Text Society, 1982),
hereafter cited as Vsm.
35. Vsm, p. 1.
36. Ibid., p. 487.
37. Malalasekera, Dictionary, Vol. 2, pp. 719, 865-866, and 115 4 ; DhA, vol. 1.
pp. 228, 282, 292, vol. 2, pp. 12, 144, 194, vol. 3, p. 183.
38. Vsm, p. 2 5 0 -2 5 1.
39. Ps, p. 384.
40. Sec Pe Maung Tin, The Path o f Purity: Being a Translation o f Buddhaghosa's
I'isuddhitnagga (London: Pali Text Society, 1975), pp. 39, 264—268.
Pe Maung Tin provides citations to C o w e ll’s edition o f the jataka for
quotations included in Vsm.
4 1. A, p. 37.
42. Malalasekera, Dictionary, vol. 2, pp. 1 1 1 6 - 1 1 1 7 .
43. A, pp. 3 7 -38 .
44. DhA, vol. 3, pp. 35 -56 .
45. A, pp. 20—2 1.
46. A, p. 6.
47. B. C. Law, trans.. The Debates Commentary ( Kathavatthuppakarana —
Atthakatha) (London: Pali Text Society, 1940), pp. 1 —2, hereafter cited
as K.
48. Ibid., p. 1.
49. I. B. Horner, trans., M alinda's Questions (London: Luzac and Company,
1969), p. 4, hereafter cited as Mil.
50. Ibid., p. 5.
51. Ibid.
52. For discussions o f the problems surrounding the authorship o f the jataka,
Dhammapada, and Vsm, see Burlingame, Buddhist Legends, vol. 1,
pp. 59-60; and Nanamoli, Path o f Discrimination, pp. x v -x x v i.
53. Burlingame, Buddhist Legends, pp. 59—60.
54. B. Nanamoli, trans., The M inor Readings (Khudakapatha) (London: Pali
T ext Society, 1978), pp. x - x v .
55. Vsm, vol. r, p. 137 .
56. N. Jayawickrama, trans., 77 /c Sheaf of Garlands of the Iipochs of the (Conqueror
(London: Pali T ext Society, 1978), p. 12.
57. D B , p. 53.
58. Rhys-Davids, Dialogues, pp. 8—18.
59. For a disc ussion o f the characteristics shared by the Buddhas, see
Malalasekera, Dictionary , vol. 2, pp. 296-297.
60. Horner, The M inor Anthologies o f the Pali Canon, Part 3, p. xx.
61. Ibid. pp. xxii-xxiii.
62. B U , pp. 9—25. The story ot Sumedha is repeated in many other accounts
o f the lives o f the Buddha Gotama, including the Nidatiakatha (Rhys-
Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, pp. 2 - 1 8 ) , hereafter cited as N D .
63. B U , pp. 1 6 - 1 7 .
64. DhA, vol. 1, p. 194.
65. J M , Jayawickrama, Sheaf of Garlands, p. 2.
66. Ibid., p. 7.
67. Ibid.
68. N D , p. 15; B U (p. 16) includes a shorter variant o f the narrative.
69. See Saddhatissa (Birth Stories, pp. 3 1 —33). This identification is significant
for understanding esoteric Buddhism in contemporary Theravada societies
because it show's that it is possible for a monk to be a Bodhisattva.
70. Malalasekara, Dictonary, vol. I, pp. 322—323.
7 1. B U , p. 24.
72. Only the verse elements o f the jataka tales are held to be canonical. The
prose sections are commentaries explaining the verses. Reynolds (“ The
Many Lives o f the Buddha,” p. 42) has argued that despite the fact that
the collection o f 547 stories did not assume its final form until the fifth
century C .E ., the jataka are among the oldest elements o f the Theravada
biographical tradition. The fact that carvings o f some o f the ten great
jataka are found on second- and third- century monuments is one line o f
argument for this position. Another can be found in the texts themselves.
The Khandha-vattaJataka (no. 203) mentions the seven Buddhas. The tale
itself is o f minor importance. It is about charms for warding o ff snake
bites. The fact that it mentions seven Buddhas may be taken as evidence
that the text is older than the Buddhavamsa.
73. P. Jaini, ed., Patmasajataka or Zimme Pannasa. (London: Pali Text Society,
1983).
74. M V, p. 206.
75. D B, p. 72.
76. M V, p. 206; Mil, p. 95.
77. DhA, vol. 1, p. 214.
78. Ibid., p. 216.
79. The account o f Ananda’s resolve is found in the Therigatha Commentary\
cited in Malalasekera, Dictionary, vol. 1, pp. 265—266.
80. DhA, vol. 1, p. 240.
81. D B, p. 40; JM , p. 81.
82. Vv, Horner, The Minor Anthologies o f the Pali Canon, Part 4, p. xxvii.
83. Pv, pp. 4-5.
84. T T , p. 9.
85. Ibid., pp. 25-26.
86. Ibid., pp. 40-4 1.
87. Ibid., pp. 2 1 1 .
88. Malalakasekara, Dictionary, vol. 1, pp. 257-258.
89. M V, p. 425.
90. Malalasekara, Dictionary, vol. 1, p. 808.
91. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 323.
92. M. Eliade, The Myth o f Eternal Return or, Cosmos and History (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 19 71), pp. 1 4 1 —162.
93. P. Almond, The British Discovery of Buddhism (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1988).
94. C. A. F. Rhys-Davids, Sakya or Buddhist Origins (London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Triibner and Co., 1928) pp. 9 -10 .
95. Carrithers, The Forest Monks o f Sri Lanka, p. 44.
96. DB, p. 54.
 yCarratiue as tco n : t /ie f/dtaha
S to ries in CTlncient tn cfian a n d
So u th east CTtsian C ftrcJiitecture
Robert L. Brown

T h e jatakas are stories, often very good ones, filled w ith w hat makes sto­
ries interesting (action, intrigue, rom ance, love, death, the m arvelous) and
constructed around plots that have the twists and turns and unexpected
events to keep the listener or reader fascinated. Each deals w ith a past life
o f the Buddha by narrating various in d ivid uals’ actions described in a
ch ro n o lo g ica l sequ ence. T h e listener or reader m en tio n ed ju st above
im plies a spoken, or possibly a w ritten, text. B ut the jatakas w ere fre­
quently represented visually in the art o f India and Southeast Asia, and
placed w ithin architectural contexts. It is som e o f these representations
that 1 wish to discuss here.
Scholars m ake certain assumptions with regard to the visual representa­
tions o f the jatakas, or m ore broadly, to visual representations o f stories, and
1 wish to challenge some o f these assumptions. O n e assumption is that the
same things (the narrative content, the story line) hold the attention o f the
view er o f the jatakas and the attention o f the listener/reader. D oes the nar­
rative content o f the stories interest the w orshiper, and if so, h o w does the
story content relate to the w ritten text and to the image? And, can assump­
tions regarding the nature and function o f the worci texts be applied to the
visual texts o f the jatakas ?
 I wish to argue that considering the visual representations o f the jatakas
on certain ancient Southeast Asian and Indian m onum ents as illustrated
versions o f the w o rd stories is incorrect. T h ese visual im ages, in m y op in ­
ion, are not present on the m onum ents to tell stories at all, but are there
w ith an iconic function. T h e jatakas w ere considered as units, functioning
w ithin the context o f the m onum ent as a w h ole and w ith particular n o n ­
narrative roles defined by their locations and uses.

Th e Indian M o n u m en ts
I w ant to begin w ith som e com m ents on Buddhist narratives on Indian
m onum ents. A n article on the topic o f Buddhist narrative in early Indian
art, V id ya D e h ejia ’s “ O n M od es o f Visual N arration in Early Buddhist
A rt,” 1 quickly focuses som e o f the issues for us. D eh ejia has used for her
analysis Indian art that dates from B harh ut (ca. 10 0 —80 b . c .e .) to Ajanta (ca.
4 6 0 -4 8 0 C .E . ) , and includes both sculpture and painting. H er categoriza­
tion divides the w a y narrative content is visualized by analyzing its artistic
organization, such as m onoscenic narratives, synoptic narratives, conflated
narratives,2 and so forth. T h ere is one basic verbal or textual story, but it
can be told in a num ber o f different artistic m odes. As she bases her identi­
fication o f visual narrative form s in Indian art on scholarship o f narrative in
W estern art, one m ight initially ask h o w it relates to Indian art. Perhaps
visual narrative types are universal, but even so, one m ight w o n d er i f sim i­
lar form al arrangem ents indicate similar intentions or m eanings in Indian
and W estern art. A t least w e m ight anticipate the possibility o f explicating
visual narrative types in Indian, not W estern, terms.
For exam ple, D ehejia uses the Ajatas'atru pillar from Bharhut (see fig. 1),
w h ich has three life-scenes o f the Buddha stacked one above the other to
illustrate w hat she calls “ static m onoscenic narration, diachronic m od e.” 3
T h e arrangement o f the scenes is the miracle o f Sravasti at the bottom , next
the descent at Sarikasya, and at the top, the preaching in Indra’s H eaven.
D eh ejia’s m ain assumption in explicating the arrangem ent o f these three
scenes is that they w ou ld have been “ read” diachronically as i f m im icking a
verbal or written narrative sequence. Indeed, that the visual should be read
as i f illustrating a verbal narrative is the m ajor assumption o f her article. I f the
Ajatasatru pillar scenes are put into a ch ron ological narrative order, the
events begin at Sravasti (bottom), then m ove to Indra’s H eaven (top), and
end at Sarikasya (middle), so that D ehejia suggests that the “ view er must
m o ve ” from the bottom to the top panel and “ end w ith the central panel.”
She feels that because the Sarikasya and Sravasti panels have a similar com ­
position (crowds o f worshipers centered on a tree above a throne), “ in isola­
tion, [the Indra’s heaven scene] w ould present problems o f identification,” 4
Figure i. Ajatas'atru pillar (with scenes from bottom: Miracle of Sravasti, Descent at Sankasya, and
Preaching in Indra’s Heaven). Stone. From Bharhut (India). Indian Museum, Calcutta.
(Photofrom Vidya Dehejia, “ On Modes of Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art, ’’
The Art Bulletin 72, no. 3 [September 1990).)
and that the identification o f the top scene o f the preaching in Indra’s
H eaven w o uld rely on the view e r’s visual familiarity w ith the other tw o
scenes and the know ledge o f the chronology o f the three events. I f w e accept
her interpretation, it m akes the relationship o f the three artistic scenes
(chronologically from bottom to top to middle) som ething o f a puzzle.
T h ere are, h ow ever, principles o f narrative organization at Bharhut
that are not based on telling a story through time. O n e principle is the asso­
ciation o f events in spatial or geographical terms. F o r exam ple, the descent
at Sankasya is placed b elo w the scene in Indra’s H eaven because the descent
d ow n the ladders to Sankasya from the H eaven is visualized as b e lo w
H eaven. T h e tw o upper scenes can thus be considered as a unit in space. A
second principle used to organize the narrative at B harh u t centers on
notions o f cause and effect. T h e Sravasti m iracle scene is placed together
w ith the preaching and descent group because the m iracle is the event
(cause) that leads to the preaching/descent (effect). T h e y are events that all
Buddhas repeat, and here Sakyam uni B u d d h a’s m iracle at Sravasti leads
inevitably to the other tw o events. In other w ords, the organization o f the
three scenes has, to m y m ind, little to do w ith the narrative as a story told
through time.
W e m ay loo k at a second exam ple that D eh ejia illustrates, the great
departure o f Sakyam uni on the east gatew ay at Sancl (fig. 2), w hich she uses
as an exam ple o f continuous narration. She correctly notes that this re lie f
is a “ classic instance” o f continuous narration, one in w h ich successive

Figure 2. Great Departure (detail on east gateway). Stone. Sana (India). (Photo: Robert L. Brown)
episodes o f a story' are placed w ithin a single artistic frame with the protag­
onist repeated in each. T h e departure is depicted w ith the riderless horse
m ovin g from left to right across the space in four images from the gates o f
Kapilavastu to before the B u d d h a’s footprints at the far right, and then, just
b elow , 111 a single im age returning to the palace, a sequence that m im ics the
narrative sequence. N evertheless, D ehejia does not m ention that in the
center o f the picture-space is a tree surrounded by a fence and w ith atten­
dants. T h e tree is a jatubu tree, and it is there for both o f the reasons m en­
tioned above regarding the “ Indian” organization o f the Bharhut scenes. It
is there because it was in the vicinity o f Kapilavastu that the yo u n g Prince
Sakyam uni sat under the jain bu tree in his first m editation (associated, there­
fore, geographically with the departure) and because it was during this first
spontaneous m editation that the prince began to have the initial thoughts
regarding the pain and sorrow o f the human condition (cause) that eventu­
ally led to his decision to abandon his princely life (effect). In other words,
the organization o f the narrative has to do w ith concerns other than the
attempt to “ tell” a linear story.
D ehejia discusses in relation to continuous narration the m ethod ot
worship w e associate with stupa w orship, circum am bulation, as the narra­
tive reliefs at Bharhut and S a n d are 011 the fences and gates that surround
the stupas. In this regard, she speaks o f circum am bulation m ovin g the w o r­
shiper in a clockw ise rotation, and thus with regard to the scroll-like space
o f the S a n d architraves, the passing w orshiper w ould read the narrative
from right to left as he or she passed it from the front, or from left to right
if circum am bulating on the inner pradaksinapatha (circum am bulation path),
and thus seeing the arch itrave from the “ b a c k .” 5 T h e artist th erefore
w ould, supposedly, m ove the narration linearly across the artistic space in
either right to left or left to right directions, depending on the location o f
the relief and the approach o f the view er. D ehejia, h ow ever, im m ediately
notes in her discussion that the Vessantara Ja tak a relief does not follow this
organization, leading her to state: “ It w ou ld appear that the sculptor carved
one face o f the architrave, and then com m enced the inner face at the end
he had just com pleted, apparently disregarding the m anner in w h ich the
circum am bulating view e r w ou ld experience the story. In any event, the
v iew er must perforce abandon the general m ovem ent o f circum am bulation
if he wishes to experience this story in its entirety.” 6 B u t the most obvious
point to m ake here is that, unless the view e r is on a ladder or using a tele­
photo lens or binoculars, the jataka relief at S a n d cannot be seen in any
detail at all from the ground as (at over five meters above the ground) it is
sim ply too high up (fig. 3). T h e view er w ould not be called upon to aban­
don circum am bulation to experience the story in its entirety because he or
she could not have experienced any o f it in the first place.
Figure j . Stupa I, south gateway. (Compare size offigure to gate and height of architraves.)
Sand (India). (Photo: Robert L. Broum)
 W hat about the scenes on the Ajatasatru pillar from Bharhut? These are
on an upright o f the stupa fence and are m ore accessible to the view er, but
even here the bottom panel is only about tw enty centim eter from the
ground . A lth o u gh a person in circum am bulation can see the panel, it
requires kneeling, squatting, or bending to see it w ell. R e m e m b e r that
D ehejia has talked about the view er m ovin g from panel to panel, by w hich
I assume she means m ovin g o n e’s body and eyes, i f not o n e ’s feet.
All o f this is to say that D ehejia is assuming that the reliefs are being
read by the view ers and that their interest is to recreate the story in its
chronological sequence from the images. H ere she is very explicit. In dis­
cussing the m onoscenic narratives, for exam ple, she says “ a single, easily
identifiable scene . . . is presented to stimulate the v ie w e r’s recognition o f
the story,” but “ having given enough inform ation to identify the tale, the
artist leaves the view e r to narrate the story him self.” 7 O r w hen later dis­
cussing the m onoscenic narratives again she writes that they “ must . . . con ­
tain sufficient narrative content to stimulate the story-telling process in the
mind o f the ob server.” 8 H o w m ight this w ork? Are w'e to im agine the w o r­
shiper stopped in front o f the im age going through the story in detail in his
or her m ind? H o w lon g m ight this take? I f the w orshiper w ere a m onk
with the story fam iliar to him in som e detail, w ould he recreate the story'
from start to finish, pausing for ten, tw enty, or m ore m inutes silently telling
h im self the story?9 W hat w ould he be doing with his eyes, with the art,
with the m onum ent during this “ silent read” ?
D eh ejia’s discussion o f the narrative scenes (again the B u d d h a’s life sto­
ries and jatakas ) 111 the Ajanta paintings is also grounded on the assumption
that the paintings w'ere read as a linear narrative. Again, there are problem s,
as the paintings are on the w h ole extrem ely com plicated in their organiza­
tion, so m uch so that their identification and explication by scholars is an
on goin g question. D eh ejia’s response is that “ it appears that only an inti­
mate know ledge o f the Buddhist texts popular in the fifth century' w ould
enable one to unravel these tortuous sequences.” 10 She speaks a little later
o f the absence o f w h at she considers k ey scenes in a p ainting o f the
I vssantaraJataka in C a ve 17 as “ strange.” 11 Surely that the sequence is “ tor­
tuous” or the subject ch oice is “ strange” is in the eyes ot the m odern
scholar, not o f the artist or the contem porary w orshiper. And the use o f the
paintings is dealt with in a similar fashion to that o f the Bharhut and S a n d
reliefs: “ W h en lit on ly by flickerin g oil lamps, the murals w o u ld have
required ‘strong eyes, great persistence and an excellent retentive m em o ry’
in order to follow' the narrative course. As a purely practical matter, one
wonders if any view er was inclined to put 111 so m uch effort. Y e t, the sense
o f the narrative must have been clear to him through fam iliarity with the
subject.” 12 I11 other words, the murals w ere there to be read and a story
told, yet D eh ejia recognizes that m any factors (the organization o f the
paintings, the scenes chosen, the placem ent w ithin a dark cave) m ade the
v iew in g process difficult or practically im possible.
M y o w n suggestion is that the paintings w ere not there to be read or to
tell a story. T h e paintings w ere there for w orshipers, not for view ers, and
the choice o f “ v ie w e r” as the w a y to characterize m ost often the person
relating to the Indian art is to “ art historicize” the material, to m ake it an
issue betw een art historian and object. Instead, the issue for m e is betw een
w orshiper and deity. T h e paintings at Ajanta are part o f the overall adorn­
m ent o f the caves, w h ich included, according to V arahadeva’s inscription
in C a ve 1 6, “ w in dow s, doors, beautiful picture-galleries, ledges, statues o f
the nym phs o f Indra and the like . . . [and] beautiful pillars and stairs,” all
o f w h ich w ere intended to m ake the cave resem ble “ the palaces o f the lord
o f gods [that is, Indra].” 13 T h e picture-galleries are listed here along w ith
such items as doors and ledges as adorning the cave. A t least Varahadeva is
not singling the paintings out as o f greater im portance, w h ich m ight give us
pause w h en assessing their intended purpose.
T h e same inscription m entions that the cave “ has a tem ple o f the
B uddh a inside.” 14 Inside the cave, w h ich is a uihara, there is an enorm ous
Buddha seated w ith his legs pendant (pralambapadasana) and his hands turn­
ing the w h eel o f the law (dharmacakramudra) (fig. 4).15 T h e im age is placed
at the center rear o f the cave in a shrine.16 T his im age, in its particular
seated posture and w h eel-tu rn in g gesture, is am ong the first such images in
Indian iconography, a type that quickly spread throughout northern India
in the second h alf o f the fifth and sixth centuries.17 Specifically, the gesture
o f w h eel-turn in g was introduced at this tim e,18 and although it has been
associated w ith the B uddh a delivering the First Serm on at Sam ath and is
frequently so indicated b y the inclusion o f d eer and the w h eel b e lo w the
im age, the C a ve 16 Buddha lacks these symbols. N evertheless, the gesture
is one o f teaching.
A lso perhaps introduced at Ajanta, or at this same tim e, is the place­
m ent o f the ro ck-cu t Buddha im age w ithin the uihara in w hat amounts to
an enlarged and elaborated m o n k ’s cell. T h e im age was thus brought into
the m o n k ’s residence to w orship, and this appears to coincide w ith the
“ falling o f f ’ o f w orship in the caitya halls w ith their focus on the stupa.19
T h e re is no reason, h o w e ve r, not to suppose that m onks had portable
Buddha im ages— in bronze, stone, or w o o d — that they had been w orship­
ing in the context o f the uihara earlier. T h e difference is thus o f permanently
installing an im age. T h ere seems little doubt that the im age in the cell was
worshiped, by the m onks and probably b y lay people as w e ll.20 I w o u ld like
to shift, h ow ever, the focus som ew hat aw ay from the im age as a focus for
worship. G re g o ry Schopen, in his article “ T h e Buddha as an O w n e r o f
Figure 4. Cave 16 Buddha image. Stone. Ajanta (India). (Photo: Robert L. Brown)
 Property and Perm anent R esid en t in M ed ieval Indian M onasteries,” 21 has
used the C a ve 16 inscription, am ong others, to argue that the im age was
considered the actual person o f the Buddha in residence in the vihara, his
central cell called the Perfum e C h am ber (gandhakuft). I f this is correct, w e
can see w h y the Buddha im age was perm anently installed in the cell. At the
same tim e that it made the cell into a shrine, it also, and perhaps m ore
im portantly and m ost obviously, installed the Buddha in his residence cell
w ith in the m onastery, w h ich he shared w ith the other m onks. T h e Buddha
was in residence— a fellow m onk— and, as w h en he resided w ith his m onks
and follow ers during his “ hum an” existence, he taught them the doctrine.
T h us the introduction o f the w h eel-tu rn in g gesture indicates his teaching
o f the law to the m onks and lay p eo ple w ith in the c o n te xt o f the
m onastery.
N o w returning to the Ajanta paintings o f the jatakas and life scenes o f
the B uddha, it m ay be possible to interpret them as bringing his presence
into this context. T h e y are there to indicate, to m ake “ actual,” the Buddha
through his life and history. T h e y do this sim ply by being there, and per­
haps are best seen as allow ing the B uddh a through his “ history” to partici­
pate w ith the m onks and lay w orshipers. T h e purpose is to m ake the
B u d d h a ’s presence felt, his form s and teachings manifest. Indeed, the m an­
ifestation o f the Buddha— in terms o f his form , vo ice, and know ledge— are
according to A n d rew R a w lin so n , the very essence o f the M ahayana.22 It is
the vision o f the Buddha (buddha-darsana), hearing his vo ice (buddha-sabda),
and im m ersion in his know ledge (buddha-jnana) that brings about “ nothing
less than direct contact w ith the B u d d h a .” 23 R a w lin so n makes it clear that
the contact itself is sufficient to transform the w orshiper, be it contact w ith
the form o f the Buddha or w ith the sound o f his teaching: “ form s ( rupa)
display a truth ju st b y being seen. T h e y are thus ju st as m uch a language as
the sounds w h ich are encountered in satnadhi and w h ich transmit a truth
ju st b y b e in g h ea rd .” 24 F o r o u r purposes, these notions (d erived b y
R a w lin so n from texts) fit w ith S ch o p en ’s conception o f the Buddha im age
as a “ liv in g ” Buddha in m edieval Indian m onasteries (derived by Schopen
from inscriptions), and they support the point that “ truth” can be realized
instantly and spontaneously through physical contact w ith the B uddha. T h e
painted and plastic im agery o f the B u d d h a’s past lives must have w o rk ed in
this fashion to deliver the truth through contact w ith the worshiper. It is
unlikely that the Ajanta jatakas w ere used as didactic devices by the m onks,
som ething like illustrated Sunday school texts, that w ere w orked through
episode by episode.
T h us the im agery was not “ read,” or even looked at in any logical or
analytical fashion. This is not to say that w e cannot learn from attempts to
order the paintings, to identify the textual relationships, and so forth, or
that the Ajanta artists and m onks had no “ lo g ic ” to the w ay they organized
and chose the scenes. It is to say that they did not organize the paintings as
a silent narrative.
Finally, w e can return to the reliefs from Bharhut and SaricT and ask
what was their purpose, if w e conclude that they w ere not there to produce
a narration w ithin the heads o f the worshipers. For the reliefs on the SaricT
gates, m any o f w h ich are too high to be seen by the worshiper, there can
really be no argum ent for their use to tell a story. W e need not argue that
the artist was uninterested in organizing the images in a coherent ch ron o­
logical narrative sequence (seen or otherwise), but I have already suggested
that, although a portion o f the chronological sequence o f the departure
scene (fig. 2) is indicated through continuous narration, there are “ Indian”
principles other than a chronological sequence that w ere used to organize
the events of the story w ithin the artistic space. I11 other w ords, a story can
be told visually in ways not available to the verbal or textual telling. W hile
a w ord text can m ove back or ahead in time, it must always keep the
chronology' o f the events in the story manifest to avoid confusion. T h e
visual text begins w ith the know ledge o f the story.25 In a sense, this frees
the visual text to rearrange the events in the narrative, to m ake new co n ­
nections that are not narrative in nature, to arrange the events by principles
other than a telling through time. T h e artist can bring into the SaricT depar­
ture scene, for exam ple, the jam bu tree and the story' of the first m editation,
m aking a statement not found in any w ord text.26
T h e purpose o f the relief depictions 011 the fence and gates o f Bharhut
and SaricT must, I think, be seen in relation to the stupas w hich they sur­
ro u n d .27 As w ith the Ajanta murals, the jataka reliefs at Bharhut and SaricT
w ere intended to historicize and manifest the presence o f the Buddha. T h e
notion of m anifestation o f Hindu deities is w idely accepted. U n d erlyin g
the idea is that the deity is norm ally in an unmanifest form , and he or she
takes a manifest form (as in an image) for the benefit of the w orshiper.28 In
the context o f the H indu tem ple, the notion has been particularly used for
Saivite temples, as the liiiga in the central shrine (garbhagrha ) is S iva ’s most
unmanifest visual form that is then m ore specifically revealed in anthropo­
m orphic images 011 the walls o f the tem ple.29 1 believe that som ething sim ­
ilar is involved with the Buddha images. T h e stupa, in its unmanifest nature
at the center w ith the figurative representations 011 the surrounding gates
and fences, at least suggests a relationship o f unmanifest to manifest. T h e
organization o f B o ro b u d u r, discussed b e lo w , very strongly places the
Buddha into a continuum of unmanifest to manifest, with the stupa being
the unm anifest and the anthropom orphic form s the manifest. H o w the
manifestation of the Buddha and that of H indu deities differs needs to be
analyzed in detail, but in part the Buddha manifests h im self in terms o f a
history, a biography (and this includes the jataka tales) m uch m ore strongly
than do the H indu deities, w h o m anifest themselves in m ythic terms, often
o f a cosm ic nature.

The S o u th e a st A s ia n M o n u m e n t s
I w ant to argue n o w along similar lines w ith regard to the depictions o f the
jataka stories on fou r Southeast Asian m onu m ents.30 In each case the depic­
tion o f th e jatakas is a significant part o f the visual decoration, yet in no case
w ere they intended to be read as stories. Indeed, in tw o instances the jataka
reliefs w ere not intended to be seen in any detail at all, rem inding one o f
the inaccessibility o f the S a n d gatew ay reliefs. T h e specific reason w h y the
jatakas are depicted on the m onum ents and the w ay in w h ich they are
show n vary w ith each, as the jataka representations did on the Indian m o n ­
uments, yet they share the lack o f a narrative intent (that is, the telling o f a
story) and any overridin g didactic purpose. A fter discussing the Southeast
Asian m onum ents, I w ill conclude by suggesting that these jataka “ pictures”
function m ore as icons than as narrative illustrations, and ask h o w this m ay
affect our v ie w o f the B u d d h a’s sacred biography.

Chula Pathon Chedi, Thailand (ca. eighth century)

C h ula Pathon C h e d i31 is located in N akh on Pathom in Thailand. As

Chula Pathon is called a chedi (P. cetiya, S. caitya), the assumption is that the
m onum ent is a stupa, but it is unlike stupas (as w e shall see) in In dia.32 It was
first excavated by Pierre D u p on t and Luang Boribal Buribhand in 19 3 9 and
19 4 0 , and D u p o n t’s discussion o f it was published posthum ously in 19 59 in
his book L ’archcologic Mone de Dvaravati.n A lthough D u pon t recognized
that the brick m onum ent was built in several stages, he did not k n o w that
under the decoration on its base w ere covered reliefs o f jatakas. T h ese
reliefs, in stucco and terracotta, w ere discovered accidentally in 1968 w hen
a section o f the m onum ent was inadvertently bulldozed.
T h e Fine Arts D epartm ent undertook an excavation, but due to the
broken and incom plete nature o f the finds, m any questions remain unan­
swered. M y concern is to ask: W hat is the narrative nature o f the reliefs, and
second, h o w do they fit into the conception o f the m onum ent as a w hole?
T h e reliefs, each a panel placed in a shallow niche o f about a square meter,
are simple com positions w ith fe w figures depicted. Figure 5 is a typical
exam ple, show ing a turtle on w hose back ride tw o m en. Piriya Krairiksh
identifies the scene as the Kacchapavadana, in w hich the Buddha bom as a tur­
tle saves 500 merchants from drow ning. His identification is based 011 com ­
parison w ith similar depictions o f this birth story in such distant places as
 Figure S- Buddha in birth as a turtle (Kacchapavadana). Stucco. From Chula Pathon Chedi
(Thailand). The National Museum, Phra Pathom Cedi. (Seefig. 6for original placement.)
(Photo: Robert L. Brown)

B oro bu d u r (Java) and Kizil (Central Asia), examples that date from the ninth
and the fourth/fifth centuries, respectively.34 A lthough the significance o f
such comparisons can be variously interpreted, w e k n o w at least that because
these various places participated in a shared Buddhist oral and textual tradi­
tion ,35 they also shared in an artistic tradition. This tradition involves the
reduction o f the narrative to a few figures, the turtle and just tw o (o f the 500)
merchants in the Kacchapavadana scene at C hula Pathon C hedi.
It is m isleading, perhaps, even to describe it as a reduction o f the nar­
rative, as the narrative is clearly not the focus in these visual depictions.
Such reductions o f stories into a single scene are presum ed to be like freez­
in g a particularly significant or identifiable frame from a m otion picture, so
that the view e r (who has “ seen” the film before) can recall the story both
before and after the frozen frame. W h ile D eh ejia makes this assum ption in
her discussion o f “ m onoscenic narratives” in Indian art, she interestingly
divides the m onoscenic narratives into “ being in a state” and “ being in
ac tio n ,” categories b o rro w e d from M e y e r S ch a p iro .36 T h o se scenes in
action fit closely m y analogy to a frozen frame o f a m otion picture. D ehejia
says: “ T h e m onoscenic m ode centers around a single event in a story, one
that is generally neither the first nor the last, and w h ich introduces the
them e o f action. Such a scene is usually an easily identifiable event from a
story, and it serves as a reference to the narrative. . . . M onoscenic narra­
tives must, o f course, contain sufficient narrative content to stimulate the
story-telling process in the m ind o f the observer.” 37 In contrast, scenes in a
state have “ the narrative content . . . sharply reduced, and the reliefs repre­
sent scenes in w h ich the action has already taken p lace.” A nd, referencing
Schapiro, she says that the “ static depictions w ere regularly used in situa­
tions w h ere theological concerns w ere p redom inant.” 38 T h e exam ples she
uses to illustrate the tw o types o f m onoscenic narratives in Buddhist art are
very interesting, because those in action are all jatakas and those in a state
are all B u d d h a’s life stories. I w o n d er i f the artistic organization in sculpted
reliefs o f the tw o categories o f B u d d h a’s biography, in w h ich the life-scenes
tend to have the Buddha (or his symbols) centralized, lends a static feeling
to the life-scenes not found in the (usually) m ore snapshot-like jataka
scenes? I do not feel, in any regard, that there is m ore or less narrative con ­
tent in the tw o types o f m onoscenic depictions, as neither attempts to create
a narrative.39 T h e y certainly refer or relate to stories, but their recognition
by the w orshiper is not to allow them to be read but to m ake the m on u ­
m ent m eaningful b y clearly m anifesting the Buddha. T h us the answer to
the first part o f m y question posed above (W hat is the narrative nature o f
the C h ula Pathon C h ed i jataka reliefs?) is that they have little narrative
function; they are not illustrations to a story. R ath er, they are aspects o f the
B u d d h a’s history or nature that are being recorded on the chedi.
W h ich brings up the second part o f m y question: H o w do the jataka
reliefs fit into the m onum ent as a w hole? U nfortunately, this is difficult to
answer precisely. T h e panels w ere located around the base o f the chedi,
w h ere there are a total o f seven ty-tw o niches for panels, o f w h ich forty-
eight contained jataka scenes (fig. 6). B u t less than h a lf o f the jataka panels

Figure 6. Chula Pathon Chedi, southeast face (Thailand). (Figure 5 ’s original location is noted as
24 .) (Drawing after Piriya Krairiksh, Buddhist Folk Tales Depicted at Chula Pathon Cedi
[Bangkok, 1974].)
are extant, and m any o f these are fragm entary. Furtherm ore, the attempts
to identify even those that are extant have not been entirely successful, and
there are a num ber o f other controversies regarding their dates and the
ways in w hich they have been reconstructed.40 And finally, the superstruc­
ture o f the chedi itself is largely in ruins. T h ere is not, therefore, sufficient
inform ation to piece together the identification, order, and organization o f
the jataka panels and h o w they relate to the iconography o f the rest o f the
m on u m en t.41 N evertheless, they are placed around the base, w h ile the
upper levels o f the m onum ent, although badly damaged, appear to have
been a stepped or p yram idal structure w ith niches for im ages o f the
B uddh a.42 T h e significance o f this (jatakas b elow or “ first” with Buddha
images above or “ second” ) will com e up again.

Borobudur, Java (late eighth—

first h a lf of the ninth centuries)

B orobud ur dates perhaps a century later than Chula Pathon C h e d i.43 It

is a m uch m ore elaborate m onum ent than C hula Pathon C h edi and has
been the focus o f an enorm ous am ount o f scholarship, w ithout, h ow ever,
p roducing any consensus as to its m eaning or use.44 I want first to give my
thoughts regarding a general organization that appears to have been at play
at Borobudur, based on the manifestation o f the Buddha that w e have been
discussing. It is w ithin this fram ew ork that I place the B oro bu d u r jataka
reliefs. I pose the same tw o questions I asked in regard to the Chula Pathon
C h ed i reliefs: W hat is the narrative nature o f the jataka reliefs, and h o w do
they fit into the conception o f the m onum ent?
As at C h ula Pathon C h ed i, the B o ro b u d u r jataka reliefs are placed
around the base o f the m onum ent (fig. 7). T h ey are not the lowest reliefs, this
is true, but those that are “ b e lo w ” the jataka reliefs are com pletely covered by
an enormous stone toot and thus cannot be seen. T h e overall sculptural and
architectural organization o f Borobudur is extrem ely com plicated, and some
notion o f this organization is needed to understand the meaning and nature
o i the jataka illustrations. Borobudur is essentially a Hat-topped pyramid with
three circular terraces and a large, closed stupa on top. Starting from the bot­
tom, there is the added foot that covers the earlier base. This base was largely
finished, with carved moldings and a series o f relief panels, before being c o v ­
ered. A bove the foot are four galleries. Access to these and then to the upper
circular terraces is from four directional stairways. T h e four galleries make up
the “ steps” o f the pyramid, with each gallery having an outer balustrade wall
and an inner wall made up o f the sides o f the solid m onum ent, with carved
reliefs on both the inside o f the balustrades and 011 the inner walls (which
include the jataka reliefs). There is 110 roof and the galleries are open to the
sky. Decorating the outside ot the balustrades at each level are Buddha images
 Figure 7. Borobudur, cross section (Indonesia). (Drawing afterJohn Miksic, Borobudur: Golden
Tales of the Buddha [Boston, 1990 ].)

and miniature stupas. As there is a balustrade around the open area between
the end o f the top gallery and the first circular terrace, there are five
balustrades altogether decorated w ith Buddha images and stupas.
T h us one can circum am bulate the m onum ent in the four galleries and
at four different levels. From the fourth and top gallery, one w alks out into
an area on w h ich are located the three circular terraces and the central
stupa. U n lik e in the galleries, a person is not enclosed on this top area; you
can see all the circular terraces at once and the surrounding countryside.
O n these circular terraces are perforated stupas, each containing a Buddha
im age. T h ere are a total o f seven ty-tw o o f these perforated stupas, thirty-
tw o on the lo w er terrace, tw en ty-fou r on the next, and sixteen on the top.
Finally, centered at the top is the closed stupa, w h ich , h ow ever, is not solid.
W ithin this stupa originally was the famous unfinished Buddha im age.45
T h e decoration o f the m onum ent can be organized into three cate­
gories: reliefs, stupas, and Buddha images. T h e reliefs begin on the original
base that is today covered. These covered reliefs consist o f 16 0 panels and
can be identified as illustrating the results o f people’s karma, that is, their
actions that result in either good or bad situations, usually in a future life;
thus the Buddha is not represented in them. These reliefs have long been
identified as illustrating a specific Indian text, the Kartnavibhanga. Indeed, the
reliefs at B orobudur have been related to several specific Indian texts in an
often astoundingly close relationship, in w hich details o f the text are clearly
represented in the visual image. T h e often on e-to -o n e correspondence in
details between visual image and w ord text argues that the w ord texts w ere
used as sources that the artists attempted to “ co p y” in the visual illustrations.
Furtherm ore, the reliefs often tell the stories chronologically in multipaneled
formats. In sum, the B orobudur reliefs com e close to fulfilling D eh ejia’s
assumption that the visual should be read as if m im icking a verbal narrative.
It is im portant to pause here to reiterate that I am not arguing that such
a visual telling o f a verbal narrative never happened in the art o f South and
Southeast Asia.46 I am restricting m yself to jataka illustrations on certain
Buddhist architectural m onum ents, w here such telling, although unusual,
does exist (as here at B orobudur). W hat I am suggesting, rather, is that even
when it does exist, it is not there to elicit a mental telling of the story in a
view er. That is, even w hen the visual images are organized to reflect the
narrative nature o f a verbal text (events related through time), the visual
images are there to express the Buddhistic nature o f the m onum ent, to
locate the Buddha and his teaching, not to tell a story. W hat evidence do
w e have for this? W e have already seen that frequently the very elaborate
and carefully produced images on the Indian m onum ents (the architraves o f
SancT, the paintings at Ajanta) w ere not intended to be seen in any detail.
Indeed, the Karniavibhatiga reliefs at B oro b u d u r bring hom e with stunning
force the inability to see and read the visual images: they w ere covered over
shortly after their installation and cannot be seen at all. T h e makers of
B oro bu d u r did not feel it necessary even to see the (detailed and text-
specific47) reliefs for the proper functioning o f the m onum ent.
A possible Indian reference that helps explain the B oro bu d u r kan)ia
reliefs can be found in Buddhaghosa’s ca. fourth-century Sarattha-pakasinl:

There arc Brahmin sectaries whose general name is Nakha. They

having a (movable or portable) picture-gallery made, roam about with it,
exhibiting thereupon (apparently upon the outer faces of'the four piece-
boards serving as walls) the various kinds of representation o f happy or
woeful states o f existence according to good or bad destinies, and causing
the labels to be inscribed to the effect:
"H avin g done this deed, one attains to this state.”
"‘ Having done that, one attains to that state.”
Thus showing different destinies, they wander about with these pic­
tures.48

T h e organization of these pictures, show ing the positive or negative results

o f certain acts, is exactly that o f the Borobudur reliefs, and the pictures’ labels
reflect the organization o f the Kartnavibhahga text. T h e w andering N akh a’s
exhibition o f these karma pictures was, apparently, pitched toward a nonsec­
tarian popular audience (that o f the marketplace) and was h o w the show m en
earned their living. T h e popular interest in h o w on e’s actions w ou ld m ani­
fest themselves in the future is reflected as w ell in the widespread Indian
practice o f showm en displaying pictures on cloth o f the Brahm anical god o f
death, Yam a, allotting rewards and punishments to people, according to
their accumulated actions, upon their deaths. M air traces these displays from
M auryan (ca. 323 to 18 5 B.C.E.) to m odern tim es.49 M air also gives an
eighth-century reference in a Jain context to a cloth scroll painting depicting
the cycle o f transmigration (samsara-cakra-pata), w h ich essentially deals w ith
similar karmic issues.50 In short, on e’s karmic destiny was o f intense popular
concern and was presented in visual narratives, probably because this made
them vividly real. T h e Karmavibhahga reliefs o f B oro bu d u r appear to relate to
this Indian visual tradition o f karmic narratives. W hile there was some trans­
ference o f such im agery onto Indian tem ples,51 it was extrem ely lim ited and
certainly not in the extensive fashion as at Borobudur. Y e t, as I have said, the
B orobud ur reliefs w ere covered over, w ith no attempt to rem ove them first
in order to display them elsewhere. W e must conclude that the B orobu d u r
Karmavibhahga panels w ere not intended to be the focus o f a spoken or m en­
tal narrative, unlike the Indian painted cloth karma images.
R etu rn in g n o w to the organization o f the reliefs at B orobudur, w e m ove
into the first gallery, w here there are tw o row s o f relief panels on both the
inside o f the balustrade and on the inner wall. T h e jataka and avadana 52 reliefs
occupy the balustrade and the low er ro w (12 0 panels) on the inner wall. T h e
upper 12 0 w all panels are scenes from the life o f the Buddha and, as w ith
the hidden base reliefs, are closely related to an Indian text, this time the
Lalitavistara ,53 This text and the reliefs end w ith the Buddha’s first sermon at
Samath. T h e jatakas and avadanas continue onto the balustrade o f the second
gallery, n o w w ith a single ro w o f reliefs, but the rem ainder o f the panels (488
panels) on both the walls and the balustrades o f all the rem aining galleries are
devoted to illustrations related to a single Indian text, the G andavyuha (and
the attached Bhadracan) ,54 T h e large num ber o f G andavyuha reliefs alone indi­
cates the im portance o f this text for Borobudur. T h e text tells the story o f
Sudhana, a m erchant’s son, w h o undertakes a search for spiritual wisdom .
T h e search involves his interview ing a vast array o f people and gods, and the
reliefs usually show him seated before these different teachers, frequently
bodhisattvas, talking to them in his pursuit o f spiritual understanding.
Sudhana ends his quest by interview ing the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra and
reaching a region o f spiritual attainment o f that o f a Buddha.
T h e other tw o categories o f decoration, the Buddha images and the stupas,
can be considered together as they are organizationally and iconographically
linked. Both decorate the outside o f the five balustrades and can be seen
from the ground before the m onum ent, as w ell as w hen w alkin g in the gal­
leries. T h e Buddha images are set in niches, each niche being topped by
three stupas, with a single stupa betw een each niche. T h e four galleries with
their balustrades have on each side (and thus in one o f the four cardinal
directions) Buddha images perform ing the same gestures. Assum ing the tra­
ditional nam ing, these Buddhas are:

A ksobhya East bhumisparsamudra (earth-touching gesture)

Ratnasam bhava South varadamudra (bo on -givin g gesture)
Am itabha W est dhyauaiuudra (meditation gesture)
Am oghasiddhi N orth abhayamudra (fear-not gesture)

There are ninety-tw o Buddhas on each side, with a total o f 368 images. T he
top or fifth balustrade has sixty-four Buddha images (sixteen on a side), all o f
which perform the same gesture, that o f exposition (intarkamudra). T h e iden­
tification of this Buddha is controversial, but fo llo w in g van L ouh izen -
de L e eu w ,55 I identify him as Samantabhadra, that is, the Buddha form o f the
bodhisattva from w hom Sudhana in the reliefs o f the top gallery took the vo w
o f bodhisattvahood. T h e seventy-tw o perforated hollow stupas 011 the three
circular terraces each contain a seated Buddha m aking yet a sixth gesture, the
turning o f the wheel gesture (dharmacakramudra ), and can be identified as a
sixth Buddha, Vairocana. Finally, the unfinished Buddha makes the earth-
touching gesture, and as with the ninety-tw o earth-touching Buddhas in the
eastern balustrade niches, could be Aksobhya, although Sakyamuni Buddha
is also, in m y opinion, a (not mutually exclusive) possibility'.56
W ith this organization o f B orob ud u r in m ind, w e can ask h ow the
notion of the B udd h a’s manifestation m ight help to explain it, and h ow the
jataka reliefs fit in. B o ro b u d u r as a m anifestation o f the B u dd h a was
intended to bring the devotee to the Buddha and the Buddha to the d e v o ­
tee. T h e devotee is, like Sudhana, a pilgrim 011 a quest for spiritual truth.
Each individual must begin by w o rkin g him self or herself up, starting from
this w orld of desires (represented 011 the m onum ent on a level with the
earth, but covered and left behind, ju st as it is actually left behind by the
devotee). T h en , by circum am bulating the m onum ent and m ovin g upward,
he or she first retraces the steps o f Sakyam uni, participates with Sakyam uni
111 his past lives, then his last earthly life ju st to the point that Sakyam uni
reaches Buddhahood and gives his first serm on. T h e sequence ends (as it
does in the Lalitavistara) with the sermon and does not continue to recount
the last forty years o f Sakyam un i’s life up until his death (jnuiuiwana). T h e
last forty years w ere not essential to the devotee, because it was Sakyam u n fs
m om ent o f Buddhahood and then sermon, the essential goal achieved and
advice and teaching given, that the devotee must know . T h e devotee then
 goes beyond this, by retracing Sudhana’s steps, participating w ith Sudhana
on his quest, w h ich involves apparently the d evotee’ s ow n v o w o f b o d -
hisattvahood, paralleling that o f Sudhana.
Perhaps Samantabhadra’s ow n transition from a bodhisattva to a Buddha
is implied by the transition from the bodhisattva form depicted in the reliefs o f
the fourth gallery to the Samantabhadra Buddha images in vitarkamudra just
above in the niches o f the top balustrade.57 In any regard, a very high spiritual
state is im plied at the level o f the top balustrade. A t this level the devotee
enters out onto the plane o f the circular terraces, a w orld o f perfected form. It
is seen in terms o f the Buddha image and, primarily, the stupa. T h e perforated
stupas reveal but glimpses o f the Buddhas inside. T h e tw o symbols are becom ­
ing one, w ith the closed stupa on top “ filled” w ith the unfinished Buddha
image. T h e stupa must represent the ultimate image o f spiritual realization.
T h at the makers o f B orobudur intended spiritual perfection to be seen in
perfection o f form is also seen in the use o f geom etric shapes. T h e perforations
on the stupas go from diamonds on the tw o lo w er terraces to squares on the
top terrace. T h e closed stupa is circular. W e have diamond to square to circle,
an apparent refinem ent o f perfection in geom etric shapes. Likew ise, the cir­
cular terraces themselves show a similar geom etric developm ent. T h e tw o
low er terraces are not exactly circular (as they are almost always incorrectly
shown on drawings), but are like bulging squares with rounded com ers. O n ly
the top terrace is perfectly round, w ith the closed stupa in the center. Thus in
geom etric forms the makers o f B oro bu d u r attempted to show a building
toward a perfection and absolute indicated by a perfect circle.
B u t the manifestation o f the B u dd h a is also show n in the opposite
direction, d ow n w ard from the absolute w orld o f perfected form and spiri­
tuality to the w orld o f humans. From the hidden and not fully created
B uddha in the top stupa, to the com pleted but on ly partially seen Buddhas
in the perforated stupas,5* to the fully visible Buddhas o f the balustrades, the
Buddhas m anifest themselves in ever easier to apprehend and m ore num er­
ous form s for the benefit o f the devotee on earth.
M ost o f these ideas are not n e w ,59 nor are they presented here as the
only m eaning o f the m onum ent, but they help us create a lik ely context for
the jataka reliefs. As w ith the Karmavibhahga reliefs, the jataka reliefs at
B oro b u d u r can som etim es be clearly related to texts, but not in such a
com prehensive fashion. Indeed, except fo r one text, A ryasu ra’s fou rth -
century Jatakamala, no other extant text has been identified as being used at
B oro b u d u r, and the Jatakamala series is only th irty-fou r stories com prising
13 5 reliefs out o f a total o f 720 reliefs d ep ictin g jatakas and avadanas. B ernet
Kem pers says another tw en ty-five stories, com prising 13 6 reliefs, have been
identified, leaving som e 449 jataka and avadana reliefs (in fact, the m ajority
o f them) still unidentified.60
 For our purposes, w e need to ask if the reliefs w ere intended to be read
as i f they w ere a w o rd text. T h e issue o f being able to see the reliefs is, sur­
prisingly, at play because the lo w er series o f 12 0 panels on the inner wall o f
the first gallery is difficult to see clearly by a standing adult (the top o f the
panel com es to about 1 1 5 cm. from the floor), w h ile the lo w er panels o f the
balustrade are impossible to see clearly w ith ou t bending or kneeling dow n
(the top o f the panel com es to about 75 cm. from the floor) (fig. 8). H o w
do w e im agine these reliefs being used i f w e assume they are being read like
a text? It is difficult to envision m onks and pilgrim s 011 their hands and
knees, w ell-thum bed jataka texts in hand, follow in g the narrative of the
lo w er balustrade reliefs.
I f this seems unlikely, there is other evidence that the reliefs w ere not
intended to be read. T h e one text thus far identified that is depicted am ong
the jataka reliefs is the Jatakam ala. As with the Karmavibhanga, one m ay read
the Jatakamala and follow the stories while looking at the reliefs.61 But the
num ber o f reliefs dedicated to each o f the thirty-four stories varies consider­
ably, going from one relief for story 16 to eight for story 32 (see the table).62
In terms o f the stories’ lengths, story 16 is m uch shorter than story 32
(53 versus 18 4 lines), relating perhaps in som e rough w ay “ am ount to be
said” to num ber o f panels. B u t story 32 is in no w ay the longest o f the
Jatakatnala stories. A glance at the chart shows that there are several stories
o f about the same length, and nine stories that are considerably lo n ger.64
O ne o f the longest, story 22 w ith 358 lines, gets on ly four panels, the same
num ber that the ju st prior story, 2 1 , received w ith 14 5 lines o f text, and
that story 4 received w ith only 84 lines. T h e sheer length of the story
needs not be the criterion used for choosing the am ount o f detail and
num ber o f panels show n in the visual depiction, although I cannot p ro ­
pose, after reading the stories along w ith view in g the panels, what criteria
w ere used. N evertheless, the lack o f correspon dence betw een the length
o f the text (in words) and the length o f the images (in space) w o u ld force
our hypothetical pilgrim , assum ing he or she was “ reading” the images
(with the Jatakatnala in hand or head), to stand before som e panels for a
lon g period o f tim e, w h ile m ovin g rapidly from panel to panel at other
times. In short, the vision o f people m ovin g in fits and starts along gallon'
one, at times standing, at others bending, kneeling, or craw ling, fits that of
visiting m odern tourists and scholars, but does not appear to fit that of
m onks and pilgrim s in w orship. I can best see the reliefs used by the w o r­
shiper as the (very differently organized) Ajanta paintings w ere, to m ani­
fest and m ake real the Buddha and his history for the w orshiper, but w h o,
in the context o f B oro bu d u r, was on his or her ow n parallel spiritual quest
111 w h at S ylva in L evi calls “ la p rod ig ieu se gestation qui prepare 1111
B o u d d h a.” 65
Figure 8. First gallery. (Comparefigure’s size and relation to rows of relief carvings, tu>o rows on the
inside wall and two on outer balustrade.) Borobudur (Indonesia). (Photo from A .J . Bcmet Kempers,
Ageless Borobudur jWassetiaar: Servire, 1976].)
 Jatakam alan Reliefs. A natida Temple, Pagan, Burma (ca. n o o / i.D .)
story no. no. of relief panels no. of lines in Sanskrit text 63

I 4 13 2
2 5 201
3 5 105
4 4 84
5 4 12 0
6 2 15 2
7 3 18 2
8 7 (?) 268
9 4 393
10 4 145
11 4 77
12 i(?) 89
13 5 18 3
14 3 176
15 2 71
16 1 53
17 3 12 3
18 2 84
19 5 175
20 4 (?) 14 1
21 4 145
22 4 358
23 5 316
24 3 17 2
25 5 116
26 5 203
27 3 154
28 5 256
29 4 19 4
30 4 18 3
31 4 421
32 8 18 4
33 5 77
34 3 103
Total 13 4

There remain two Southeast Asian jataka series to discuss, both o f which
are m ajor elements o f architectural decoration. In the case o f the Ananda
Tem ple at Fagan, there are 9 12 small jataka plaques o f glazed terracotta on the
temple, but they are situated on the root with no access and are far too high
up to be seen (except as small articulated squares) from the ground (fig. 9). In
the case o f the Sukhothai m onum ent, W at Si C h um , there are some 10 0 stone
relief panels o f jatakas embedded in the ceiling w ithin an extrem ely narrow,
almost com pletely dark, stairway o f the m ondop, m aking the reliefs very dif­
ficult, and at times impossible, to see clearly. In m y discussion o f the tw o series
o f jatakas, I want to suggest (briefly) h o w they fit into the significance o f their
respective monuments. B u t the point is already made that the series o f jataka
images cannot be seen easily (Wat Si Chum ) or at all (Ananda) and could not
have been used for telling (mentally, orally, or textually) stories.
T h e A nanda T e m p le at Pagan was built b y K in g K yanzittha (r.
10 8 4 —1 1 1 3 C .E .) , probably around 1 1 0 5 . 66 It is perhaps the most w ell know n
o f the literally thousands o f temples at Pagan and is still in active worship
today. It is often seen by m odem scholars as som ething o f a culm ination o f
the Pagan artistic tradition, and it is usually tied directly to Kyanzittha in
terms o f his personality and professed ideology. As w ith most notions regard­
ing Pagan, w e must turn to the writings o f G ord on Luce for the d evelop­
m ent o f the Ananda. W hile I feel that m uch o f what Luce suggests is helpful,
I w ant nevertheless to argue against one o f his fundam ental assumptions
regarding the Ananda and Kyanzittha’s m otivations in building it, w h ich is
that it was— above all— used to teach Buddhism to the unconverted masses.
L u c e ’s notion that the Ananda was som ething o f a giant textb oo k for
use in proselytizing m ust be contextualized w ith in his general interpreta­
tions o f early Pagan B udd h ism and m onum ents. H e feels that the first
Pagan k ings— A n iru d d h a (r. ca. 1 0 4 4 - 1 0 7 7 ) , S aw L u (d. 10 8 4 ), and
K y an zitth a— w e re attem p tin g to co n v ert th eir subjects to T h eravad a
Buddhism , w h ich had been brought to B urm a from C e y lo n , and that they
used art to teach the p eo p le and to p roselytize this n e w Sinhalese
Buddhism . A niruddha, already a Buddhist (but apparently o f som e type o f
M ahayana o r Tantric B uddhism , reflecting the current B uddhism in eastern
India67), spent m uch o f his reign attem pting to obtain copies o f the texts o f
the Tipitaka and relics o f the B uddh a Sakyam uni. T h at A niruddha was
focused on these dual preem inently Theravadin concerns o f texts w ritten in
Pali and relics o f the historical B u d d h a m ay seem strange, g iv e n his
M ahayana backgroun d, and indeed this p roblem is n ever addressed b y
Luce. It is perhaps im portant to realize that the evidence for this focus is not
really in question, alth ou gh it com es p rim arily from later T h eravad in
chronicles and as such m ay be exaggerated.
L u ce identifies the Pahtotham ya T e m p le as the first m on um en t at
Pagan that reveals a know ledge o f the Buddhist (Sinhalese) Tipitaka and,
dating to ca. 10 8 0 , is w h en “ the pendulum o f purpose w ill sw in g from
D e v o tio n to In stru ction .” 68 Indeed, L u ce finds the eleventh century a
period o f crisis for B uddhism in Southeast Asia, w ith Pagan one o f the few
Figure p. View of the Ananda Temple showing the jataka plaques in rows on the levels of the roof.
Pagan (Burma). (Photo: Robert L. Broum)
 places rem aining w h ere B uddhism existed.69 In such an atm osphere, it is
K in g K yan zitth a w h o w ill unite B u rm a under the flag o f T h e ra va d in
Buddhism b y creating “ mass religious enthusiasm” 70 through a program o f
teaching and proselytizing. T h e Pahtotham ya is the earliest tem ple to be
used for “ Instruction,” built ju st before Kyanzittha came to the throne, and
has on its walls paintings w ith ink-glosses that are literally the texts made
visible. T h ere was undoubtedly an attempt to record carefully in visual form
the Buddhist doctrine, but it is curious to m e that L u ce felt these w ere used
for teaching. T h e paintings are almost entirely high up on the walls. Luce
writes that “ C lim b in g w ith difficulty these dark high coigns, C o l. B a Shin
and I could do little but try and read the broken lines o f frittered gloss.” 71
T o tterin g on their ladders in the pitch darkness, it is surprising, perhaps, for
them to conclude that the paintings w ere part o f a didactic program .
T h e A nanda T em p le is the culm ination, according to Lu ce, o f the
interest in religious education begun in the Pahtotham ya. T h e am ount o f
visual im agery associated w ith the Ananda T em p le is overw h elm ing. T h e
jataka plaques on the roof, visible only as row s o f regular indentations from
the ground, are a series o f the Sinhalese recension o f 5 47 jatakas arranged in
tw o parts, the first 537 jatakas each depicted on an individual plaque and a
second set, placed above the first on the roof, depicting in 375 plaques the
last ten jatakas, the M ahanipdta. T h ere is, in addition, a series o f 5 5 2 plaques
sh ow in g M ara’s arm y and a procession o f gods around the plinth o f the
tem ple.71 Inside the tem ple, the sheer num ber o f images is trem endous as
w ell, w ith o ver 1,5 0 0 stone images and, although today they are w h ite­
washed, once extensive wall paintings. It w ill not surprise the reader to learn
that m any, i f not most, o f these stone images cannot be seen clearly, i f at all
(see fig. 10). B u t i f Kyanzittha’s m otive was not to produce such detail and
num ber to teach the ignorant and illiterate,73 w hat m ight it have been?
W hile the question deserves careful and lengthy discussion, I w ant here
at least to suggest an alternative to the didactic theory. Kyanzittha was con­
cerned w ith the purity and com pleteness o f the Buddhism he professed.
Indeed, the p o w e r o f Theravadin B uddhism lies in its accuracy and authen­
ticity ju d g ed in its approxim ation to the B uddha, his teachings, and his
m onks. A lthough Kyanzittha certainly saw him self as teaching the Buddhist
doctrine to his people, he was also, in his role as upholder o f the L aw , puri­
fier and recorder o f the doctrine: “ (He) [Kyanzittha] shall purify (and) m ake
straight, w rite d ow n (and) establish all the H o ly Scriptures. (He) shall pro­
claim (and) vo ice the L aw , w h ich is even as a resounding drum . (He) shall
arouse all the people that are slum bering carelessly. (He) shall stand steadfast
in the observance o f the com m andm ents at all tim es.” 74 I think the Ananda
T em p le had to do w ith the goals o f the first sentence o f this excerpt from
one o f K yanzittha’s inscriptions: to purify, m ake straight, w rite dow n, and
Figure 10. Corridor in Ananda Temple with niches, reaching (o the ceiling, in which stone sculptures
are placed. Pagan (Burma). (Photo: Robert L. Brown)
establish. Kyanzittha was aim ing toward com pleteness and correctness in the
iconographical program o f the Ananda. Ju st as having the com plete Tipitaka
in written form was im portant, not to be read but to be kept, so was having
the Ananda as a com plete visual form o f the doctrine im portant.75
K yanzittha’s interest in com pleteness and correctness can be argued in
several ways. For one, he undertook the extraordinary elaboration o f the
Sakyam un i B uddh a iconograph y, as seen in the careful num bering and
labeling o f the jataka plaques, so that a com plete set is depicted, and then
one must consider the incredibly detailed elaboration o f the last ten jatakas.
T h ese jataka plaques, each about th irty-five centim eters square, are very
sim ply and repetitively organized, w ith from one to three figures, m inim al
props, and the M o n label and num ber across the bottom (fig. 1 1 ) . 76 T h e y

Figure 1 1 . Jataka plaque. Inscription reads “culajanaka jat 52. ” Ananda Temple, Pagan
(Burma). (Photo and readingfrom Gordon H. Luce, Old Burma— Early Pagan
[Locust Valley, N .Y., 1970].)
are, in other w ords, stripped o f m ost narrative content and context and
w o uld, in m ost instances, be im possible to identify w ith ou t the label.
T h is elaboration o f iconography, coupled w ith the lack o f narrative
content, is true for the stone images inside the tem ple as w ell. L uce charac­
terizes the stone reliefs in term s o f K y an z itth a ’s personal taste, w h ic h
included an insistence on sym m etry, an emphasis on the figure o f the
Buddha w ith any identification o f the narrative scantly placed in the pre-
della, and a use o f architectural and geom etric backgrounds to lock the fig­
ures into place (fig. 12 ). Luce finds, h ow ever, that “ though the total effect
. . . m ay please, or even m ove the devout, it gets m onotonous. I f the archi­
tectural background forced som e unity in design, it also num bed m o ve ­
m ent, life and action. . . . T h e ten d en cy has b een to p etrify religiou s
sculpture in a lifeless, hieratic g ro o v e .” 77 A gain, I w o n d er w h y L u ce felt
this type o f petrified, lifeless sculpture (that he says m ay m ove the devout)
w o u ld have been chosen in order to teach the ignorant. I feel that these for­
mal characteristics m ay, instead, indicate K yanzittha’s desire to purify, m ake
straight, w rite d ow n , and establish the doctrine. T h e y are an interesting
attempt to use form al means to situate the iconography in strict, regular,
clear formats, to lock in and regularize the im agery and its m eaning so that
it is, like the Tipitaka, the com plete, correct, final, and here quite literally
unshakeable (visual) doctrine.

Wat S i C hu m , Sukhothai, Thailand (fourteenth century)

T h e plaques on the Ananda T em p le are the m ost extensive depictions

o f the ja ta k a s in B u rm ese arch itectu re. T h e m ost e x te n sive series in
Thailand, used in conju nction w ith architecture, is at W at Si C h u m at
Sukhothai. T h e W at Si C h u m series consists o f som e one hundred stone
plaques enigm atically em bedded in the ceiling o f an extrem ely narrow
tu nnel-like passageway in the walls o f the m ondop that encloses a fifteen-
m eter-h ig h B u d d h a im age. O n e enters the passage to the left o f the
entrance into the m ondop and then, by a series o f stairways, goes up and
around behind the huge B u dd h a im age, and ends by em erging onto the
r o o f on its left side (fig. 13 ). T h e narrowness o f the tunnel (about fifty cen­
timeters w id e), the almost total lack o f light, the panels’ placem ent in the
ceiling w h ere they are very difficult to see, and the delicacy o f the linear
incised re lie f carving (see fig. 14) have led scholars to suggest that the
plaques w ere not intended to be placed in the dark passage, but w ere at
som e point m oved from another location and m onum ent, one in w h ich
they could have been easily seen.78 T h e m ystery has then been to explain
w h y they w ere placed in such an inaccessisble setting. M ost scholars have
follow ed G eo rge C o e d e s’ suggestion that the plaques w ere placed in the
Figure 12. Sakyamuni standing between his horse and his groom. Stone. Ananda Temple, Pagan
(Burma). (Photo: Robert L. Broum).
 Monumental
Buddha image

a. entrance to jataka galleries

b. window
C. Buddha footprints in ceiling
d . window

Figure 13 . The galleries of the motidop, plan. Wat Si Chum, Sukhothai (Thailand).
(Plan afterJean Boisselier, Thai Painting [Tokyo, 1976 }.)

passage for safekeeping.79 O n ly B etty G oslin g has argued that there was a
d octrinal reason for “ h id in g ” th em , basically that jatakas b ecam e less
acceptable to the increasingly orth odox T h eravadin Buddhist in the second
h alf o f the fourteenth cen tu ry.80
B o th suggestions are based on the assum ption that the panels w ere
made to be displayed clearly, w ere then rem oved from their original site,
and placed in the passage to be hidden, no lon ger seen, and no longer used.
Based on the discussion in this essay, it m ay be that these are w ro n g
assumptions, as w e need not assume that the inaccessible areas w ere places
art was not displayed and used. W hat use m ight the passage w ith the jatakas
have had? T h ere are tw o small w in do w s that look out from the passage into
the inside o f the m ondop (fig. 13 b and d). W in d o w d is centered behind
the neck o f the Buddha im age and was, it is thought, used to m ake the
Buddha speak. T h at the W at Si C h u m Buddha could speak is still a legend
in the area, and the small w in d o w w o u ld have allow ed a m onk to speak
w ith the v o ice o f the B uddh a w ith ou t b ein g seen. T h e second w in d o w
 Figure 14. Bhojajania Jataka. Stone, (enhanced) From Wat Si Chum, Sukhothai (Thailand).
National Museum, Bangkok. (Photo from Jean Boisselier, Thai Painting [Tokyo, 1976].)

(b) could, I think, have been used by the m onks to hear and see the w o r­
shiping petitioners b e lo w and in front o f the im age (see figure 15 ). T h e
inside o f the m on d op w o u ld have been v e ry dark w ith the n o w -lo st
w o o d en roof, and this second w in d o w , high up on the dark wall, w o u ld
not have been seen from b elow , or perhaps was masked b y cloth hangings.
H o w e v e r, i f the m onks w ish ed m erely to trick the d evotees into
b elievin g that the B uddh a could speak, it appears a rather overly elaborate
physical arrangem ent. A ladder directly behind the im age w o u ld have suf­
ficed. Indeed, the d oo rw ay to the passage, w h ich is very small (about 35 X
53 cm .), does not appear to be hidden, but com es d irectly ofF o f the
entrance into the m ondop. In other w ords, the speaking Buddha m ay be
linked to the passage and its jataka decoration in an overt fashion.
T h e jataka plaques are arranged in m ore or less the order o f the Pali text,
w e can at least say that the arrangem ent is not haphazard and is intended to
fo llo w the chronological order o f the B u d d h a’s past lives. Som eone m oving
through the passage w o u ld be tracing these lives w h ile also m ovin g up, as at
B orobud ur. Indeed, each stair step is m ore or less coordinated w ith tw o
panels above, and then the panels are set one after the other in the level pas­
sageways as w ell, as i f m arking the steps o f the person w alking b elo w (fig.
16 ). T h is notion o f (re)tracing the steps o f the Buddha is, as I have argued
elsewhere, a popular im agery during the Sukhothai period, w ith the foot­
prints and images o f the w alking Buddha and his bhiksus.8l T h at the im agery
Figure i j. Looking down from the small window inside the rnondop (marked b on fig. 13) to the lap
and area infront of the monumental Buddha image. Wat Si Chum, Sukhothai (Thailand).
(Photo: Robert L. Broum)
Figure 16. Figure 16 . The southern gallery of the mondop, cross section. Wat Si Chum, Sukhothai
(Thailand). (Plan afterJean Boisselier, Thai Painting [Tokyo, 1976 ].)

is intended to be seen w ith the W at Si C h u m jataka plaques is supported by

the actual im plantation o f the B u d d h a’s footprints in the ceiling am ong the
panels (fig. 13 c). It appears to me, therefore, that a m onk w alkin g through
the passage was on a spiritual jo u rn e y , one that m ay have prepared him
(am ong oth er things) to speak authoritatively and authentically for the
Buddha.

C o n clu sio n
B efo re m aking som e final com m ents on the narrative functioning as icons, I
w ant briefly to bring up the issue o f the didactic purpose o f the jataka images
w e have discussed. Th at the jataka stories w ere (and are) used for teaching
B uddhist m oral and ethical values and lessons has been stressed b y m any
scholars. A lm ost one hundred years ago M a x M u ller advised us “ to look
upon these Birth-stories as hom ilies used for educational purposes and for
inculcating the moral lessons o f B u dd h ism .” 82 T h e stories’ often didactic
purpose cannot be denied, but the assumption that images o f the jatakas have
a similar purpose is not at all clear. R e lig io u s visual im agery is often regarded
from the dual com m onsense v ie w that “ a picture is w o rth a thousand
w o rd s” and that a visual im age is m ore accessible to the uneducated masses
than the w o rd text. T h e jataka images seem to fit the didactic purpose so
perfectly: the narratives are teaching morals that the images m ake im m edi­
ately accessible to the (uneducated) pilgrim . T h e issues raised are in reality
extrem ely com plicated,83 but I w ant only to point out that it is difficult after
the discussion above to argue that the jataka images on the m onum ents in
this article can be considered as having such a didactic function. T h e most
obvious im pedim ent to their being used for teaching ethical values is that
they frequently cannot be seen, or are seen only w ith great difficulty.
T h e re is, h o w e ve r, a second argum ent against their didactic function,
w h ich has to do w ith the lack o f narrative content o f m ost o f the images
w e have discussed. A m oral value can be expressed in a narrative in tw o
w ays, in terms o f its content and in terms o f the process o f its telling and
hearing (or w ritin g and reading). T h e significance o f content is usually
fairly straightforw ard, and the jatakas often even sum up exp licitly the
m oral lesson at the end o f the narratives. T h e im portance o f telling and
hearing a narrative for teaching m orality is perhaps less apparent, but I am
fo llo w in g such scholars as L yn ne T irrell, w h o has argued that “ storytelling,
because o f its narrative structure, is an aid to m oral epistem ology and so
m oral developm ent. It is not the product [i.e., content], but rather the
process o f articulation that is o f the first significance.” 84 In both content and
process the narrative nature o f the jataka im ages (and visual im ages as a
w hole) differ from that o f w o rd narratives. Im ages do not “ tell” stories. As
I have said, the story or narrative m ust be k n o w n i f the im ages illustrating
the story are to m ake sense (at least in terms o f the w o rd story). T h ere is no
w ay anyone could ever, even after seeing all the visual depictions extant o f
any particular jatak a story, be able to tell w hat the names o f the characters
are, w hat their exact relationships are, the exact sequence o f their inter­
actions, and the som etim es surprising m oral point being m ade,85 w ith ou t
h aving read the text or heard the story; in other w ords, no one could loo k
at the images and sit d ow n and w rite a story that w o u ld be close to the
actual w o rd text. In order for the im age to be “ an aid to m oral epistem ol­
ogy and so m oral d evelo p m en t,” it w o u ld have to function as D eh ejia has
suggested, as a sw itch to turn on the w o rd narrative in the v ie w e r’s head.
I f this is accurate, the im age is, except for the initial rem inder, com pletely
extraneous to the process. As I do not believe this is w h at to o k place
b etw een im age and w orshiper, I do not feel the images w ere intended to
teach Buddhist m orality.

T h e term icon is loaded w ith im plications. I intend it in a specifically Indie

religious sense, sim ply as a form o f the deity that is the focus o f reverence
and w o rsh ip .86 T h e form here is highly diverse. A lth ou gh w e tend to think
o f it in terms o f an im age, it has a m uch broader and inclusive m eaning
because o f the notion that deities can m anifest themselves in a variety o f
forms. T h is is m ost apparent w ith H indu deities, but the concept o f m ani­
festation is, as I have said above, seen in B uddhism as w ell.
 D aniel B o u c h e r speaks o f “ one o f the on goin g struggles w ithin the
Buddhist tradition: to maintain the presence o f the all-too-absent B uddh a.” 87
H e continues: “ the Buddhist tradition has since the death o f the Buddha, or
perhaps m ore p recisely, because o f the death o f the B u dd h a, w restled
betw een tw o tendencies: to locate the Buddha in his corporeal body, espe­
cially as left behind in his relics; or to locate the ‘true’ Buddha in the dharma,
his teach in gs.” 88 B o u c h e r places this struggle b etw een the cults o f the
stupa/relic and the dharma. H e shows that the dharma, essentialized in the
pratityasamutpadagatha and further shortened to a four-line verse (the often-
called Buddhist creed),89 becom es in m edieval India “ synthesized” w ith the
stupa/relic presence o f the Buddha. B u t w hether in terms o f the stupa/relic or
the dhartna, both are to identify and locate the Buddha for the worshiper.
B o u c h e r’s discussion is o f particular interest for us because it illustrates a
process by w hich the dharma (given in words) has becom e iconized, reduced
to a short form ula that can easily be inscribed (made into an object) and w o r­
shiped, one w hich “ becam e a manifestation o f the B u dd h a’s real presence at
cultic centers . . . in the same w ay as relics w ere thought to infuse the living
presence o f the Buddha in stupas."90 W e have thus the manifestation o f the
Buddha in an image com posed o f a b rie f verse, a verse that refers to a m uch
longer w ord text, and ultimately to the com plete teachings (dhartna) o f the
Buddha. T h e jataka illustrations w e have been discussing are iconized w ord
texts similar in some ways to the iconized dharma. B o th are visual im ages;91
both are references to (longer) w o rd texts; both are placed within the context
o f the B uddh a’s biography; both are used in conjunction with architectural
m onum ents;92 and both manifest the presence o f the Buddha. E ven such an
obvious difference betw een these images o f the Buddha as that one is in
words and one is in plastic figural forms is blurred in the examples o f the
jatakas from Pagan, w here the nam ing and num bering are often given equal
w eight to the plastic figures.93
T h e relationships betw een w o rd text and plastic im age are central to m y
discussion. I have shown that the jataka illustrations on the m onum ents I
have discussed cannot be considered m erely illustrations o f a w o rd text; they
are not rem inders to start a mental telling o f w hat is (considered by scholars
as) really important, the narrative stated in w ords; and they w ere not used to
teach others. R ath er, the exam ples I have discussed, h o w e ve r varied they are
artistically, all share meanings and uses rooted in the context o f the m onu­
ments w ith w h ich they are associated. In other w ords, although other schol­
ars have sought the m eaning o f the jataka illustrations in the context o f the
w o rd texts, I believe it is found in the context o f the m onum ents.
C o n sid ered in these term s, the jatakas on the m onum ents w o rk e d as
icons, units o f m eaning and reveren ce, expressions o f an aspect o f the
B u d d h a ’s nature and life that is (m ore) fu lly expressed b y the entire
m onum ent. O n e m igh t say that a story is bein g told on these m onum ents,
but it is told in a different w a y than th rough a narrative as read from a
w o rd text. It is told in terms o f the presence o f the B u dd h a, his m anifes­
tation bein g p rod u ced th rough a visual (re)presentation o f his history.
A lth o u gh his b io grap h y is b e in g “ to ld ,” it is not in terms o f a “ h eard ”
im agery, but through the w o rsh ip e r’s physical en cou n ter w ith the m o n ­
um ent as part o f w h at G u stav R o th calls “ the habit to be near the physi­
cal presence o f the B u dd h a, and to lo o k at his b o d y .” 94 I believe that the
B udd h a has a visual bio grap h y, but it m ust be ju d g e d in terms separate
from those used for his textual biography.

N o te s

1. Vidya Dehejia, “ On Modes o f Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art,”

The Art Bulletin 72, no. 3 (September 1990), pp. 374—392. Because I use
Dehejia’s paper only to contrast with my own views, I do not discuss here
those aspects o f her argument with which I agree. In spite o f my
disagreements, I feel that her paper is an important contribution toward
organizing the narrative sculpture.
2. Monoscenic narrative is when only a single narrative event is used to
identify the entire story; synoptic narrative is when “ multiple episodes
from a story are depicted within a single frame, but their temporal
sequence is not communicated with regard to either causality or
temporality” [ibid., p. 382]; and conflated narrative is similar to synoptic
except that rather than the protagonist being repeated, the protagonist is
conflated into a single figure in the scene.
3. Ibid., pp. 380—381.
4. It is not clear to me why the Sravasti miracle would be more easily
identifiable than the Indra’s Heaven scene.
5. Dehejia, “ On Modes o f Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art,”
pp. 385-386.
6. Ibid., p. 386. Likewise, the departure relief she has just discussed, and
which I discuss above in the text, would not hold for her theory, as the
action is predominandy left to right, whereas the circumambulating
worshiper would be reading it from right to left.
7. Ibid., p. 374.
8. Ibid., p. 378.
9. The Pali Vessantara Jataka runs to about one-hundred pages in the English
translation. To tell this story mentally in any detail would take a very long
time indeed. For the English translation, see Margaret Cone and Richard
F. Gombrich, The Perfect Generosity of Prince Vessantara (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1977).
10. Dehejia, “ On Modes o f Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art,” p. 388.
11. Ibid., p. 390.

IO O
12. Ibid., p. 392. The quotation is from Richard Brilliant, Visual Narratives:
Storytelling in Roman and Etruscan Art (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1984), p. 63.
13. V. V. Mirashi, Inscriptions o f the Vakatakas, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum,
vol. 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963), p. 1 1 1 .
14. “ [nijvesitabh yantaracaityamandiratn ’ (ibid., p. 109, verse 20).
15. See Walter M. Spink, “ Ajanta’s Chronology: The Crucial Cave,” Ars
Orientalis 10 (1975), pp. 14 3 -17 0 , for a discussion o f Cave 16 and
illustrations.
16. See ibid., text fig. 1, for ground plans.
17. Ibid., p. 166.
18. See Sheila L. Weiner, Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art (Berkeley: University
o f California Press, 1977), pp. 57-63.
19. O f the twenty-three Mahayana caves (that is, fifth-century caves) at
Ajanta, only two are caitya halls.
20. The development o f the Buddha image within the shrine in fifth- and
sixth-century Buddhist caves can be traced from their appearance (as in
Cave 16) in the center o f the cell so that the image can be
circumambulated, to being placed against the back wall o f the shrine, to
being moved along with the entire shrine into the center o f the vihara
itself. That lay people worshiped the image is indicated most graphically
by the placement o f stone lay “ donors” in eternal adoration before the
image, perhaps most impressively in Cave 3 at Aurangabad.
2 1. Gregory Schopen, “ The Buddha as an Owner o f Property and Permanent
Resident in Medieval Indian Monasteries,” Journal o f Indian Philosophy 18
(1990), pp. 18 1 - 2 1 7 .
22. Andrew Rawlinson, “ Visions and Symbols in the Mahayana,” in
Perspectives on Indian Religion: Papers in Honour o f Karel Werner, ed. Peter
Connolly (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1986), pp. 19 1—214.
23. Ibid., p. 19 1.
24. Ibid., p. 204.
25. Dehejia also argues that there has to be a knowledge o f the story in order
to read the image, but she confines the visual merely to reminding the
viewer o f this remembered narrative, to acting like a switch to turn on the
mental recording.
26. The association o f the first meditation under the jambu tree with the
departure occurs in other examples in the art o f India. It appears, for
example, in a third-century c.E. relief fragment from Andhra Pradesh now
in the Los Angeles County Museum o f Art (see Pratapaditya Pal, Indian
Sculpture [Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum o f Art, 1986], vol. 1,
pp. 205-206, fig. S82) and in a second Andhra example now in the British
Museum (see Masterpieces o f Buddhist and Hindu Sculpture from the British
Museum [n.p.: The British Museum, Asahi Shimbun, 1994], no- 7)-
27. The fence and single remaining gate at Bharhut have been removed from
the site and are now mostly in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

IO I
28. Precisely what this manifestation entailed is, however, subject to a variety of
interpretations, focusing on whether the image is considered the deity or is a
symbol o f the deity. See Richard Davis, “ Enlivening Images: The Saiva Rite
o f Invocation,” in Shastric Traditions in Indian Arts, ed. Anna Libera
Dallapiccola (Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden 1989), vol. 1, pp. 351-359 .
29. Stella Kramrisch may be the writer who has argued this dynamic most
influentially. See, for example, her discussion o f the Saiva cave at Elephanta
in The Presence o f Siva (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp.
443—468. Compare Richard Davis: “ Because in form the liriga is without
parts (niskala), it is the most appropriate support for Siva in his highest,
encompassing, undifferentiated aspect. This aspect o f Siva is similarly non­
partitive, with the most human-like bronze images o f Siva, with parts
(sakala), correspond to the encompassed, differentiated manifestations of
Siva as he has acted on earth” (“ Loss and Recovery o f Ritual Self Among
Hindu Images,” Journal of Ritual Studies 6, no. 1 [Winter 1992], pp. 49-50).
30. These four monuments were chosen primarily because they are among
those with the most extensive representations o f jataka stories. Certainly
other monuments could be added, particularly the many stupas in Burma
that include jataka representations, but this would involve a much too
lengthy essay. The four monuments I discuss are Chula Pathon Chedi
(Thailand), Borobudur (Indonesia), Ananda Temple (Burma), and Wat Si
Chum (Thailand).
3 1. The monument is also called Wat Pra Pathon.
32. Cetiya appears to be the Pali word-equivalent for stupa. See Gregory
Schopen, “ The Stupa Cult and the Extant Pali Vinaya,” Journal of the Pali
Text Society 13 (1989), pp. 83-10 0.
33. Pierre Dupont, L ’archeologie Mone de Dvaravatl (Paris: Ecole fran9aise
d’Extreme-Orient, 1959), pp. 65—98.
34. I am using the dating (earlier than the traditional dating) proposed by
Angela F. Howard, “ In Support o f a N ew Chronology for the Kizil Mural
Paintings,” Archives of Asian Art 44 (1991), pp. 68-83.
3 5. The case o f the Kacchapavadana is particularly intriguing, as this particular
jataka occurs only in one extant collection in Sanskrit, which is unlike
most jatakas that occur in a variety o f textual sources, thus arguing for
some specific connection. See Jan Fontein, “ Notes on the Jatakas and
Avadanas o f Barabudur,” in Barabudur: History and Significance of a Buddhist
Monument, ed. Luis O. Gomez and Hiram Woodward, Jr. (Berkeley: Asian
Humanities Press, 19 81), p. 10 1.
36. Dehejia, “ On Modes o f Visual Narration in Early Buddhist Art,”
pp. 378-382.
37. Ibid., p. 378.
38. Ibid., p. 380.
39. Word texts tell the story themselves. They may have illustrations included
in the actual physical text, and often do in the Indian tradition, but these
illustrations relate to the text in a number o f complicated ways that must
 be looked at in the context o f each specific text. W e are not dealing with
these examples here, however, as I am speaking o f images on monuments,
which are not included within written texts.
I am not arguing that visual images are never used in the telling o f
stories. They are, o f course, but the examples o f which I am aware are
paintings or drawings used in oral tellings or in conjunction with written
texts. The images in the context o f monuments that I am discussing could
be used as props for telling the story, and undoubtedly were used as such
at times, just as today the jataka and life story reliefs at Borabudur are used
by the many local Muslim guides to tell tourists the biography o f the
Buddha. I cannot argue categorically that monks were not doing exactly
the same thing with pilgrims at Borobudur in the ninth century C .E .,
although I doubt it (as I will elaborate below). Nevertheless, my point is
that the jataka images on the monuments discussed here were part o f an
overall schema that empowered the entire monument with the Buddha’s
presence, and only make sense in that context.
40. Articles in which these issues are discussed, presented in chronological
order, include: Jean Boisselier, “ Recentes recherches a Nakhon Pathom,”
Journal o f the Siam Society 58, part 2 (July 1970), pp. 55-65; Piriya
Krairiksh, Buddhist Folk Tales Depicted at Chula Pathon Cedi (Bangkok:
privately published, 1974) (text in Thai and English); M. C. Subhadradis
Diskul, “ Porangatl-Vicarana,” Archaeology 5, no. 3 (August 1974), pp.
3 15 -3 2 0 (in Thai); and Nandana Chutiwongs, “ On the Jataka Reliefs at
Cula Pathon Cetiya,” review o f Piriya Krairiksh, Buddhist Folk Tales
Depicted at Chula Pathon Cedi, in Journal o f the Siam Society 66, part 1
(January 1978), pp. 1 3 3 - 1 5 1 .
4 1. Jan Fontein has pointed out that the total number o f possible jataka
panels at Chula Pathon Chedi (48) is the same as the number o f jatakas
at the Choir Cave at Kizil, which “ suggests the possibility that there
existed in the kingdom o f Dvaravatl a jataka collection very similar to
that which was illustrated at Q yzil” (Fontein, “ Notes on the Jatakas and
Avadanas o f Barabudur,” p. 10 1. But compare Chutiwongs, “ On the
Jataka Reliefs at Cula Pathon Cetiya,” p. 14 1). Piriya Krairiksh has
suggested that the additional twenty-four panels on the base (out o f the
total o f seventy-two)— that apparently contained images o f elephants,
lions, and several mythical creatures— are there to suggest the chedi's
symbolism as Mount Sumeru, although he makes no attempt to
integrate the jataka panels into this imagery (Krairiksh, Buddhist Folk
Tales Depicted at Chula Pathon Cedi, pp. 1 1 - 1 2 [in Thai] and p. 7 [in
English]).
42. See Dupont, L ’archeologie Mone de Dvaravafi, for possible reconstruction o f
the superstructure.
43. While the date o f Borobudur is generally agreed upon by scholars, the
date o f Chula Pathon Chedi is less certain, complicated by the fact that
there were several rebuildings o f the chedi, one o f which, o f course,
 involved the covering up o f the jataka reliefs. The jataka reliefs were part
o f the initial stage o f the monument, and date, in my opinion, roughly to
the eighth century. See discussions in the references cited in note 40
above.
44. See my comments in Robert L. Brown, “ Recent Stupa Literature: A
R eview A r t ic le Jo u r n a l o f Asian History 20 (1986), pp. 223—228. For
bibliographies on Borobudur, see N . J. Krom, Barabudur: Archaeological
Description (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1927); and Gomez and
Woodward, Barabudur: History and Significance o f a Buddhist Monument.
45. The image, after years sitting under a large tree at ground level (perhaps
reflecting the acceptance o f its not being originally in the solid stupa), has
been moved to the new site museum (perhaps reflecting its acceptance as
original). It has been the focus o f extensive debate as to whether it was or
was not originally in the central stupa. J. E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw has
argued, convincingly to me, for its originality in “ The Dhyani-Buddhas o f
Barabudur,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenktmde 12 1 (1965),
pp. 389-416.
46. For example, it is clear that portable paintings were used as props for
story-telling in ancient India and Southeast Asia. The best introduction to
this topic is Victor H. Mair, Painting and Performance: Chinese Picture
Recitation and Its Indian Genesis (Honolulu: University o f Hawai Press,
1988). One point that comes out o f reading Mair, however, is that the
storyteller in the Indian context, with few exceptions, was considered
socially inferior, ranked with entertainers such as dancers, singers, mimes,
wrestlers, conjurors— individuals Mair would call showmen. The purpose
o f the pictures and stories was entertainment, and they seem in this regard
far from the supposed revered images on the Buddhist monuments we
have been discussing. Nevertheless, what the audience found in the
paintings may tie them to the monument images.
47. Jan Fontein says “ the first 85 reliefs o f the Karmavibhahga series represent,
in all probability, the most meticulous and detailed, word-for-word
illustration o f a text in the entire Buddhist world” (Jan Fontein, The Law of
Cause and Effect in Ancient Java [Amsterdam: n.p., 1989], p. 75).
48. Quoted in Mair, Painting and Performance, p. 33.
49. Ibid., pp. 25—26. The significance o f the Yama depictions within this
picture-telling tradition is reflected in contemporary Bengal, where the
picture scrolls, painted today on paper, often end with a depiction o f
Yama, no matter what the story being told, and have the storyteller sing:
“ Oh hearken you sinners! The righteous will be led to heaven by the
messengers o f Krishna, but the sinners will be dragged to hell by the
messengers o f Yama (Death), who will punish them for their misdeeds.
They will push an adulteress down a spiky date palm; force a man who has
refused drinking water to another to drink out o f a cesspool; pull the
tongues out o f the mouths o f liars and dissemblers and those who fail to
sing the name o f God. G od’s name cleanses all sin” (K. G. Subramanyan,
 “ The Comic-strip o f the Bengal Village,” in India [Bangkok: Media
Transasia, 1985], p. 50).
50. Mair, Painting and Performance, pp. 28—29.
51. I am thinking specifically o f the Buddhist bhavacakra painted in the veranda
o f Ajanta Cave 17, which appears to relate (in theme but not format) to
the Jain samsara-cakra-pata mentioned in the text; see Jean Przyluski, “ La
Roue de la Vie a Ajanta "Journ al Asiatique 16, no. 2 (October-December
1920), pp. 313-331
52. Avadanas are stories o f previous births that include individuals other than
the Buddha, but they function like jatakas and need not be differentiated
for our purposes.
53. See N . J. Krom, The Life of Buddha on the Stupa o f Barabudur according to the
Lalitavistara (The Hague: Marinus Mijhoff, 1926).
54. See Jan Fontein, The Pilgrimage o f Sudhana: A Study o f Gandavyuha
Illustrations in China, Japan and Java (The Hague: Mouton, 1967).
55. van Louhizen-de Leeuw, “ The Dhyani Buddhas o f Barabudur.”
56. A similarly incomplete Buddha image in the earth-touching gesture,
identified as Sakyamuni, was the primary icon according to myths at
Bodhgaya in India. See Robert L. Brown, “ Bodhgaya and South-East
Asia,” in Bodhgaya: The Site of Enlightenment, ed. Janice Leoshko (Bombay:
Marg, 1988), pp. 1 1 8 - 1 1 9 .
57. The identification o f the vitarkamudra Buddha as Samantabhadra is,
however, only a possibility. The problem is that Samantabhadra as a
supreme Buddha (Adibuddha) is represented in art, as far as I know, in
royal garb only.
58. The stupas here are literally dissolving to reveal the fully formed Buddhas,
while the two, Buddha and stupa, will be placed side by side on the
balustrades.
59. Studying Borobudur, one has the particular frustration o f discovering in
subsequent readings that an (“ original” ) insight has already been suggested.
The biblography is too extensive even to begin to reference here these
various ideas, but A. J. Bemet Kempers has discussed Borobudur in the
framework o f a similar overall conception: “ The major mystery expressed in
Barabudur . . . is the meeting o f the Holy and Mankind, enacted by the
descent o f the Holy— o f Ultimate Reality, Totality— and the ascent o f Man”
(A. J. Bemet Kempers, “ Barabudur: A Buddhist Mystery in Stone,” in
Barabudur: History and Significance of a Buddhist Monument, ed. Gomez and
Woodward, p. 112 ); see also his Ageless Borobudur (Wassenaar: Servire, 1976).
60. Bernet Kempers, “ Barabudur: A Buddhist Mystery in Stone,” p. 107.
61. See Krom ’s Barabudur: Archaeological Description for illustrations.
62. The Jatakamala has been translated into English. See J. S. Speyer, The
Jatakamala or Garland o f Birth-Stories of Aryasura, Sacred Books o f the
Buddhists, vol. I (London: Henry Frowde, 1895; reprint: Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1982); and Peter Khoroche, Once the Buddha Was a Monkey:
Arya Sura’s Jatakamala (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 1989).
63. I am using Hendrik Kern’s edition published in the Harvard Oriental
Series, vol. I: TheJataka-Mala or Bodhisattvavadana-Mala by Arya-Sura
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1891).
64. Stories 2, 8, 9, 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, and 31.
65. Sylvain Levi, “ Les Jataka: Etapes du Bouddha sur la Voie des
Transmigrations,” in Memorial Sylvain Levi (Paris: Paul Hartmann, 1937),
P- 39-
66. In truth, that Kyanzittha built the Ananda Temple is not stated overtly in
any inscriptons, but is based largely on art historical arguments, although
there seems little doubt that he was its patron.
67. His interest in Mahayana Buddhism, for example, is shown by his
preference for Lokanatha.
68. Gordon H. Luce, Old Burma— Early Pagan (Locust Valley, N .Y .: J. J.
Augustin, 1970), vol. 1, p. 304. See also his references on pp. 9, 26, 49,
and 62.
69. Ibid., p. 27.
70. Ibid., p. 64.
7 1. Ibid., p. 309.
72. The actual number o f plaques is confusing to determine from the
published sources. Just a survey o f three authors (Shorto, Strachan, and
Luce) produces these descrepancies (in fact, Luce offers different counts in
the same source) as to numbers o f plaques in the three series (H. L.
Shorto, “ The Devata Plaques on the Ananda Basement,” in Essays Offered
to G . H. Luce by His Colleagues and Friends in Honour of His Seventy-fifth
Birthday, vol. 2 [Ascona: Artibus Asiae, 1966], pp. 156—165; Paul Strachan,
Pagan: Art and Architecture of Old Burma [Whiting Bay: Kiscadale, 1989];
and Luce, Old Burma— Early Pagan :

plinth roof roof total

(Mara’s army) (numbered jatakas) (Mahanipata)

Shorto 552 537 389 1,478

Strachan 554 537 375 1,466
Luce (p. 79) 552 532* 375 1,459
Luce (p. 359) 552 537 375 1,464

*(I assume this is a typographical error.)

73. Luce writes that Kyanzittha “ was a devotee o f Buddhism. But he knew
that his common people, still illiterate and animist, were only skin-deep
Buddhists. Many passages in his inscriptions prove that both he and his
mahathera Arahan made popular religious education their prime concern”
(Old Burma— Early Pagan, p. 381).
74. Epigraphia Birmanica, vol. 2, part 2, p. 14 1.
75. It is perhaps the history o f the Emerald Buddha, now in Bangkok, with its
various chronicles and stories that traces best the complementarity o f the
 written and visual forms, and the necessity o f having them kept together.
Remember that it was Aniruddha who instigated the travels o f the
Emerald Buddha from Ceylon along with a full set o f the Tipitaka. See
Frank Reynolds, “ The Holy Emerald Jewel: Some Aspects o f Buddhist
Symbolism and Political Legitimation in Thailand and Laos,” in Religion
and Legitimation o f Power in Thailand, Laos, and Burma, ed. Bardwell L.
Smith (Chambersburg, Penn.: Anima, 1978), pp. 175—193.
76. The size o f the plaques actually decreases as they go up, increasing the
illusion o f the temple’s height when seen from the ground. The numbers
on the plaques cease at 754, with those o f the final three jatakas without
numbers. The Mahanipata plaques are discussed and illustrated in Epigraphia
Birmanica, vol. 2, parts 1 and 2 (by Charles Duroiselle, they are separately
titled The Taliang Plaques on the Ananda ).
77. Luce, Old Burma— Early Pagan, p. 364.
78. The only scholar I know who has suggested that the plaques were made
for the site is Jean Boisselier, although his suggestion is very brief, just a
few sentences, and without any argument. See Jean Boisselier, “ Recentes
recherches archeologiques en Thailande,” Arts Asiatiques 12 (1965),
p. 128; and Jean Boisselier, Thai Painting (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1976), p. 75.
79. George Coedes, Recueil des Inscriptions du Siam. Premiere partie: Inscriptions
du Sukhodaya (Bangkok: Bangkok Times Press, 1924), p. 177.
80. Betty Gosling, “ W hy Were the Jatakas ‘Hidden Away’ at Wat SIchum?”
Journal of the Siam Society 72, parts 1 and 2 (1984), pp. 14 - 18 . Also see
Betty Gosling, “ Once More, Inscription II— An Art Historian’s V iew ,”
Journal of the Siam Society 6 9, parts 1 and 2 (1981), pp. 13 —42; Michael
Wright, “ Note on Betty Gosling’s Article: Why Were the Jatakas ‘ Hidden
A w ay’ at Wat Si Chum ?” Journal of the Siam Society 73, parts 1 and 2
(1985), pp. 226—234; and Betty Gosling, “ Betty Golsing’s Reply to
Michael Wright’s Note ‘Why Were the Jatakas ‘Hidden A w ay’ at Wat SI
Chum?’ ” Journal of the Siam Society 74 (1986), pp. 199—206.
81. Robert L. Brown, “ God on Earth: The Walking Buddha in the Art o f
South and Southeast Asia,” Artibus Asiae 50, nos. 1 and 2 (1990),
pp. 7 3 -10 7 .
82. In the editor’s preface to Speyer, The Jatakamala or Garland o f Birth-Stories
o f Aryaiura, p. xiii.
8 3. The literature discussing the two notions is extensive, although it deals
almost exclusively with Western art.
84. Lynne Tirrell, “ Storytelling and Moral Agency,” The Journal o f Aesthetics
and Art Criticism 48, no. 2 (Spring 1990), p. 118 (emphasis in original).
8 5. These points come at the end o f the story and often, at least to me, seem
extremely contrived with little relation to the narrative.
86. I perhaps should bring up the terms iconic and atiiconic used by Indian art
historians, particularly in writing about the early Buddhist art o f India, as
my use o f icon here is not intended to relate to this dialectic. In Indian art
historical scholarship, the terms iconic and aniconic are used to indicate the
 presence (iconic representation) or absence (aniconic representation) o f the
anthropomorphic image o f the deity. Although aniconic art can mean in
art historical writing nonfigurative art, in early Buddhist art it means only
the absence o f the human-figured Buddha; otherwise, the art is fully
figurative.
87. Daniel Boucher, “ The Pratityasamutpadagathd and Its R o le in the Medieval
Cult o f the Relics,” The Journal o f the International Association o f Buddhist
Studies 14, no. 1 (1991), p. 1. It was not only the Buddhists who saw the
absent Buddha as a problem, but also their rivals. Glenn Yocum , for
example, notes how Buddhists were defeated in a debate with Saivas in
seventh-century Tamilnadu on a challenge as to “ how the Buddha can
receive the homage o f his devotees and reward their worship, if in his case
the five khandhas have been destroyed and he is no longer present” (Glenn
E. Yocum , “ Buddhism through Hindu Eyes: Saivas and Buddhists in
Medieval Tamilnad,” in Traditions in Contact and Change: Selected
Proceedings of the X lV th Congress of the International Association fo r the History
o f Religions, ed. Peter Slater and Donald Wiebe [Waterloo, Ontario:
Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1980], p. 150).
88. Boucher, “ The Pratityasamutpadagathd and Its R o le in the Medieval Cult
o f the Relics,” p. 1.
89. The verse (dhammapariydya) in Pali is:

ye dhamma hetuppabhabva tesam hetum tathagato

aha tesdfi ca yo nirodho evamvddi mahasamano ‘ti

Boucher’s English translation:

Those dhammas which arise from a cause

The Tathagata has declared their cause
And that which is the cessation o f them.
Thus the great renunciant has taught (ibid., p. 6).

90. Ibid., p. 1 5.
9 1. The pratityasamutpadagathd as a “ visual image” may not at first seem
obvious, and Boucher does not argue its importance in these terms.
Nevertheless, the ye dharma . . . verse was created to be inscribed on
objects, and was so used to inscribe literally thousands o f objects
throughout the Buddhist world, evidence for which is thoroughly
presented by Boucher. The point was to create an object (to function
like the “ concrete” relics) out o f the more “ abstract” dharma (“ concrete”
and “ abstract” are Boucher’s terms). The central importance o f the verse
as an object is shown by the many instances in which the verse cannot be
read: it is written in Sanskrit or Pali (in areas where or periods when
these languages are not known); in a foreign (and unreadable) script; in
forms that are not clear and cannot be read (as with many o f the stamped
votive tablets); or in forms that showed “ that this so-called creed was
 frequently inscribed by ‘someone who did not know what he was
writing’ ” (ibid., p. 15; Boucher is quoting Maurizio Taddei, “ Inscribed
Clay Tablets and Miniature Stupas from GaznT,” East and West n.s. 20
[1970], p. 76).
92. See Boucher (ibid.) for discussions o f the pratityasamutpadagatha in the
context o f the Buddha’s life and architectural monuments.
93. And o f course the prafityasamutpadagatha is usually inscribed on an object
that also has or is a plastic form.
94. Gustav Roth, “ The Physical Presence o f the Buddha and Its
Representation in Buddhist Literature,” in Investigating Indian Art, ed.
Marianne Yaldiz and Wibke Lobo (Berlin: Museum fur Indische Kunst,
1987), p- 298.
 PdRt 2

& x/ensions o f t/ie QSucfcfJia

C B io jra p /iy in Z/exts

In t h is s e c t io n , S t r o n g , R a y , a n d W a lt e r s illu m in a t e t e x t u a l s o u r c e s a c r o s s a

v a r ie t y o f B u d d h is t t r a d it io n s . T h e ir e s s a y s illu s t r a t e t h e w a y s in w h i c h

s a lie n t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f th e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y w e r e e x t e n d e d t o e n c o m ­

p a s s t h e liv e s o f o t h e r e n lig h t e n e d b e in g s a n d r e lig io u s c o m m u n it ie s o r

“ k a r m ic c o lle c t iv it ie s .”

I n h is e x a m in a t io n o f t h e p a t h t o e n lig h t e n m e n t p r a c t ic e d b y t h e

B u d d h a ’s f a m ily , S t r o n g c h a lle n g e s c o n v e n t io n a l p r e s u m p t io n s o f b io g r a ­

p h y a n d a r g u e s th a t m e a n in g f u l s e q u e n c e s in B u d d h is t s a c r e d b io g r a p h y

e n c o m p a s s lo n g it u d in a l a n d la t e r a l e x t e n s io n s th a t t r a n s c e n d in d iv id u a l life

s p a n s .

R a y s im ila r ly o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e h a g io g r a p h ic m o d e l o f B u d d h is t s a in ts

a c r o s s s e v e r a l b r a n c h e s o f t h e t r a d it io n c h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly in v o lv e s e x t r a o r d i­

n a r ily lo n g life s p a n s . B y e x a m in in g lo n g e v it y a s a m a r k e d c h a r a c t e r is t ic in

B u d d h is t h a g io g r a p h y , R a y u n c o v e r s s t r u c t u r a l c o m m o n a lit ie s in t h e p a th

t o s a in t h o o d th a t a r e p e r v a s iv e t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r a d it io n .

W a lt e r s ’ e s s a y fo c u s e s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t io n s o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s b io g r a p h y

a m o n g t h e r e lig io u s c o m m u n it y o f th e p o s t - A s o k a n e m p ir e . H is d e s c r ip ­

t io n s o f m e r it - m a k in g r it u a ls c e n t e r e d o n t h e c e le b r a t io n o f th e B u d d h a

b io g r a p h y d r a w o n e p ig r a p h ic , a r t h is t o r ic a l, a n d t e x t u a l e v id e n c e t o a r g u e

th a t th e fu n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y w a s a lr e a d y

p r e s e n t d u r in g th e p e r io d im m e d ia t e ly f o ll o w in g A s o k a .

in
 uft ta m ify Q uest: t h e CQucfcffia,
ya so cfJia rd , ancfCRdhufa in the
JK ufasaruds/iodcfa TJinaya
John S. Strong

A lm o s t e v e r y in t r o d u c t o r y t e x t b o o k o n B u d d h is m r e c o u n t s , in o n e fa s h io n

o r a n o t h e r , t h e t o u c h in g T h e r a v a d a t a le o f t h e B u d d h a ’s f a r e w e ll t o h is s le e p ­

in g w if e a n d h is n e w b o r n s o n o n th e n ig h t o f h is G r e a t D e p a r t u r e . D is g u s t e d

b y th e s ig h t o f th e d r o o lin g d e n u d e d d a m s e ls o f h is h a r e m , G o t a m a r e s o lv e s

to le a v e , b u t o n h is w a y o u t , h e p a u s e s a t h is b e d r o o m d o o r : “ A t th a t

m o m e n t a la m p , fe d w it h s w e e t - s m e llin g o il, w a s b u r n in g d im ly in t h e in n e r

c h a m b e r . T h e m o t h e r o f R a h u la w a s a s le e p o n a b e d s t r e w n w it h m a n y ja s ­

m in e f lo w e r s , a n d r e s t in g h e r h a n d o n th e h e a d o f h e r s o n . S t o p p in g w it h h is

f o o t o n th e th r e s h o ld , th e B o d h is a t [ t v a ] t h o u g h t , ‘ I f I lift h e r h a n d to t a k e m y

s o n , s h e w ill a w a k e ; a n d th a t w ill p r e v e n t m y g o in g a w a y . I w ill c o m e b a c k

a n d s e e h im w h e n I h a v e b e c o m e a B u d d h a .’ A n d h e le ft th e p a la c e .” 1

T h e o ld e r s tra ta o f t h e P a li c a n o n k n o w n o t h in g o f t h is p o s t c a n o n ic a l

s t o r y ; in m o s t s u tta s th a t r e c o u n t t h e G r e a t D e p a r t u r e , t h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e

a t a ll t o th e B u d d h a ’s w if e o r c h ild , a n d in s t e a d , a s A n d r e B a r e a u h a s

p o in t e d o u t , h e is p o r t r a y e d a s le a v in g b e h in d h is s o b b in g m o t h e r a n d

fa t h e r .2 N o n e t h e le s s , t h e c o m m e n t a r ie s ’ ta le o f t h e B u d d h a ’s a t t e m p t e d

f a r e w e ll to t h e s o n h e h a d ju s t c a lle d a “ f e t t e r ” ( rahula) d id fin d f o r t u n e

a m o n g W e s t e r n B u d d h o lo g is t s w h o h a v e s o u g h t t o a n a ly z e it, a n t h o lo g iz e

it, a n d im p a r t it to t h e ir s t u d e n t s .3

ii 3
 T h i s in i t s e l f is n o t s u r p r is in g , f o r th e s t o r y is n o t o n ly p s y c h o lo g ic a lly

p o ig n a n t , b u t it r e fle c t s a n d r e in f o r c e s w h a t m ig h t b e c a lle d o u r b ia s t o w a r d

in d iv id u a lis m in th e s t u d y o f s a c r e d b io g r a p h y . T h i s is th e a s s u m p t io n th a t

t h e life s t o r ie s o f r e lig io u s fo u n d e r s , s a in t s , a n d f o llo w e r s a r e c h ie f ly c o n ­

c e r n e d w it h r e c o u n t i n g t h e r e lig io u s q u e s t s o f i n d iv id u a lly s ig n if ic a n t

s e lv e s . T o b e s u r e , t h e s e “ s e lv e s ” a r e t h o u g h t t o in t e r a c t w it h o t h e r

“ s e lv e s ,” b u t g e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , t h e m a jo r t h r u s t o f t h e ir b io g r a p h ie s is

s e e n t o b e t h e ir o w n s e p a r a t e s p ir it u a l jo u r n e y s a n d in d e p e n d e n t a c c o m ­

p lis h m e n t s .

T h is in d iv id u a lis t ic b ia s m a y b e m it ig a t e d s o m e w h a t b y t h e r e a liz a t io n

th a t B u d d h is t (a s in d e e d m o s t In d ia n ) s a c r e d b io g r a p h ie s d o n o t p r o p e r ly

b e g in a n d e n d w it h a s in g le p e r s o n ’s lif e t im e b u t in c o r p o r a t e a w h o l e

k a r m ic h is t o r y , in c lu d in g p r e v io u s liv e s a n d fu t u r e e x is t e n c e s a s “ o t h e r ”

b e in g s . T h u s t h e b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a , f o r e x a m p le , is c o m m o n ly

“ e x t e n d e d ” to c o m p r is e n o t o n ly h is “ h is t o r ic a l” life a s G o t a m a , b u t a ls o

h is p r e v io u s b ir t h s (Jatakas) a s a g r e a t v a r ie t y o f p e r s o n a e ( a n im a l, h u m a n ,

a n d d iv in e ) , a s w e ll a s th e s a g a o f h is o n g o in g p r e s e n c e in h is r e lic s a n d in

h is t e a c h in g s .4

B u t s u c h lo n g it u d in a l e x t e n s io n s o f in d iv id u a l b io g r a p h ie s o v e r m a n y

life t im e s r u n th e r is k o f m e r e ly r e in f o r c in g a s e n s e o f s e lf, i f t h e y a r e n o t c o m ­

p le m e n t e d b y la te r a l e x p a n s io n s . K a r m a is n o t o n ly in d iv id u a l, it is c o lle c t iv e

a s w e ll, a n d as a r e s u lt , k a r m ic b io g r a p h ie s tr e a t n o t o n ly o f th e “ h is t o r ie s ” o f

id e n t ifia b le k a r m ic c o n t in u a o v e r a s e r ie s o f liv e s , b u t a ls o o f o n g o in g k a r m ic

n e x u s e s . In th is lig h t , th e in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d in b io g r a p h ie s m a y s o m e t im e s

c e a s e to b e th e s ig n ific a n t b io g r a p h ic a l u n its , a n d in s te a d , th e fo c u s o f th e

s t o r y m a y s h ift to a d iffe r e n t le v e l to e x p lo r e a n d sta te th e m u lt ip le a n d c o l­

le c t iv e d im e n s io n s o f c e r t a in c o m m o n b io g r a p h ic a l e v e n t s .5

In w h a t f o ll o w s , I illu s t r a t e t h is b y r e e x a m i n in g t h e s t o r y o f t h e

B o d h is a t t v a ’ s G r e a t D e p a r t u r e a n d its a ft e r m a t h , n o t o n ly a s it a ffe c t e d h im ,

b u t a ls o a s it in t e r a c t e d w it h th e liv e s o f t w o o f h is k a r m ic c o m p a n io n s : h is

w if e , Y a s 'o d h a r a , a n d h is s o n , R a h u la . T o d o t h is , I fo c u s o n th e t a le a s it is

p r e s e n t e d n o t in p o s t c a n o n ic a l P a li t e x t s , b u t in t h e Sanghabhedavastu s e c ­

t io n o f t h e S a n s k r it Mulasarvastivada Vinaya6 a n d c o r r o b o r a t iv e s o u r c e s .7

T h e Sanghabhedavastu, i n f a c t , i s m u c h r i c h e r th a n t h e P a li t r a d it io n w it h

r e g a r d to b o t h R a h u la a n d h is m o t h e r , a n d s h o w s a r e m a r k a b ly d iffe r e n t

v e r s io n o f t h e ir e a r ly r e la t io n s h ip to t h e B u d d h a .

T o b e g in w it h , it m a k e s n o m e n t io n o f t h e B o d h is a t t v a ’s t o u c h in g

f a r e w e ll t o h is s le e p in g w if e a n d s o n . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h is is n o t h a r d t o fin d :

in t h is t r a d it io n , R a h u la h a s n o t y e t b e e n b o m . I n d e e d , th e n ig h t o f th e

G r e a t D e p a r t u r e m a r k s n o t th e b ir t h b u t t h e c o n c e p t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s

s o n , f o r fa r f r o m n o t w a k in g h is w if e o n h is w a y o u t t h e d o o r , t h e

B o d h is a t t v a d e c id e s t o m a k e lo v e t o h e r . T h e Sanghabhedavastu is e x p lic it
a b o u t th is : “ L e s t o t h e r s s a y t h a t t h e p r in c e S a k y a m u n i w a s n o t a m a n

(apuman— a e u n u c h ) a n d th a t h e w a n d e r e d f o r t h w it h o u t ‘p a y in g a t t e n t io n ’

t o Y a s o d h a r a , G o p ik a , M r g a ja , a n d h is o t h e r s ix t y t h o u s a n d w iv e s , [th e

B u d d h a e n t e r e d h is b e d c h a m b e r ] . A n d t h in k in g ‘le t m e n o w “ p a y a t t e n ­

t io n ” to Y a s o d h a r a ,’ h e d id s o , a n d Y a s o d h a r a b e c a m e p r e g n a n t .” 8

O b v io u s l y , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly , t h is p r e s e n t s a r a t h e r d iffe r e n t p ic t u r e o f

t h e B o d h is a t t v a a t t h is c r u c ia l m o m e n t . In s t e a d o f t u r n in g a w a y in d is g u s t

f r o m s e x u a lit y a n d a b a n d o n in g t h e f a m ily life , t h e B o d h is a t t v a h e r e , in h is

la s t a c t a s a p r in c e , a ffir m s t h e h o u s e h o ld e r ’ s s ta te a n d fu lfills h is s e x u a l d u t y

b y e n g e n d e r in g a s o n .

A s a r e s u lt , w e a r e t o ld , th a t n ig h t , v a r io u s p e o p le in t h e S a k y a h o u s e ­

h o ld h a d v a r io u s d r e a m s . M a h a p r a ja p a t l, t h e B o d h is a t t v a ’s s t e p m o t h e r , s u b ­

c o n s c io u s ly d e lig h t e d th a t h e r d a u g h t e r - in - la w w a s w it h c h ild , d r e a m t f o u r

a u s p ic io u s d r e a m s : s h e s a w th e m o o n e c lip s e d b y R a h u , t h e s u n r is in g in

th e E a s t , a n d a g r e a t c r o w d o f p e o p le b o w i n g d o w n b e f o r e h e r , a n d s m il­

in g a t h e r .9

T h e B o d h is a t t v a , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , h a d f iv e d r e a m s . T h e s e a r e s a id to

h a v e b e e n p r e s a g e s o f h is im m in e n t a t t a in m e n t o f B u d d h a h o o d , b u t p s y ­

c h o lo g ic a lly s p e a k in g , t h e y a r e p e r h a p s a ls o in t e r e s t in g r e fle c t io n s o f h is n e w

s e n s e o f h im s e lf a s a “ g r e a t m a le ” (mahapurusa). H a v in g ju s t im p r e g n a t e d h is

w if e , t h e B o d h is a t t v a d r e a m t h e w a s ly in g o n h is b a c k w it h t h e w h o le o f th e

e a r t h a s h is b e d , M o u n t M e r u a s h is p illo w , h is le ft a r m in th e E a s t e r n

O c e a n , h is r ig h t a m i in t h e W e s t e r n o n e , a n d h is t w o fe e t in t h e S o u t h e r n

o n e . A n u p r ig h t r e e d g r e w u p o u t o f h is n a v e l a n d r e a c h e d a s fa r a s th e s k y . 10

B i g b ir d s (sakunaka), w h ic h w e r e a ll w h it e w it h b la c k h e a d s , s t o o d a t h is fe e t

a n d c a m e u p to h is k n e e s . O t h e r b ir d s o f d iffe r e n t c o lo r s (varna) c a m e fr o m

th e fo u r d ir e c t io n s a n d , s t a n d in g in f r o n t o f h im , b e c a m e o n e c o lo r . F in a lly ,

h e d r e a m t h e w a lk e d b a c k a n d fo r t h o v e r a m o u n t a in o f f e c e s .11

A s in t e r e s t in g a s a ll t h is m a y s o u n d , t h e Sanghabhedavastu’s r e a l fo c u s

h e r e is o n Y a s o d h a r a ’s d r e a m s , w h ic h s e e m to h a v e b e e n m u c h le s s a u s p i­

c io u s a n d , fa ir ly c le a r ly , m a y b e v ie w e d a s s t r a ig h t fo r w a r d e x p r e s s io n s o f

h e r u n d e r ly in g a n x ie t y . Y a s o d h a r a h a d e ig h t d r e a m s : s h e d r e a m t th a t h e r

o w n m a t e r n a l lin e a g e ( matrkavamsa) w a s c u t o ff, th a t h e r m a g n ific e n t c o u c h

w a s b r o k e n , th a t h e r b r a c e le t s w e r e b r o k e n , th a t h e r t e e t h fe ll o u t , th a t th e

b r a id o f h e r h a ir w a s u n d o n e , th a t h a p p in e s s d e p a r t e d fr o m h e r h o u s e , th a t

th e m o o n w a s e c lip s e d b y R a h u , a n d t h a t th e s u n r o s e in t h e E a s t b u t th e n

s e t t h e r e a g a in .

W a k in g u p , s h e t o ld t h e B o d h is a t t v a o f h e r d r e a m s , b u t h e , s e e k in g to

c o m f o r t h e r , e x p la in e d t h e m a w a y : “ Y o u s a y y o u r m a t e r n a l lin e a g e w a s

b r o k e n , b u t is it n o t e s ta b lis h e d ? Y o u s a y y o u r c o u c h w a s b r o k e n , b u t lo o k ,

it is s t a n d in g . Y o u s a y y o u r b r a c e le t s w e r e b r o k e n , b u t y o u s e e t h e y a r e n o t.

Y o u s a y y o u r t e e t h fe ll o u t , b u t y o u y o u r s e lf k n o w t h e y h a v e n ’t. Y o u s a y

US
t h e b r a id o f y o u r h a ir w a s u n d o n e , b u t it is it s e lf, lo o k . Y o u s a y ‘ h a p p in e s s

h a s le ft m y h o u s e ,’ b u t f o r a w o m a n a h u s b a n d is h a p p in e s s , a n d I a m r ig h t

h e r e . Y o u s a y t h e m o o n w a s e c lip s e d b y R a h u , b u t is th a t n o t t h e m o o n

o v e r t h e r e ? Y o u s a y th e s u n r o s e in th e E a s t a n d t h e n s e t a g a in , b u t it is n o w

m id n ig h t , t h e s u n h a s n o t y e t r is e n , h o w t h e n c a n it s e t ? ” 12

T h is in t im a t e m o m e n t b e t w e e n h u s b a n d a n d w if e is r a t h e r t o u c h in g

a n d g iv e s u s a r a r e g lim p s e o f t h e B u d d h a a s a f a m ily m a n . Y a s o d h a r a , h o w ­

e v e r , is o n ly p a r t ia lly c o m f o r t e d . S h e p o n d e r s h e r h u s b a n d ’ s w o r d s in

s ile n c e a n d t h e n , s t ill w o r r ie d , e x t r a c t s a p r o m is e f r o m h im : “ L o r d ,” s h e

r e q u e s t s , “ w h e r e v e r y o u g o , t a k e m e w it h y o u .” A n d t h e B o d h is a t t v a

r e p lie s : “ S o b e it. W h e r e v e r I g o , I w ill t a k e y o u . ” 13

B y m o r n in g , h o w e v e r , t h e B o d h is a t t v a is g o n e , a n d Y a s o d h a r a h a s

b e e n le ft b e h in d . T h e t e x t e x p la in s th a t h is p r o m is e t o h e r h a d b e e n m a d e ,

t h in k in g th a t h e w o u l d t a k e h e r a lo n g w it h h im — n o t p h y s ic a lly o n h is

G r e a t D e p a r t u r e — b u t s p ir it u a lly t o nirvana. T h i s e x p la n a t io n c o u ld b e

in t e r p r e t e d a s a lit t le p ie c e o f p r e v a r ic a t io n , b u t it s e e m s t o m e to b e d e e p e r

a n d m o r e s ig n ific a n t th a n t h is ; it r e fle c t s t h e fa c t th a t in t h is t r a d it io n th e

B u d d h a is n o t a lo n e in h is q u e s t f o r e n lig h t e n m e n t . In s te a d , a s w e s h a ll s e e ,

b o t h h e a n d Y a s o d h a r a , e a c h in t h e ir o w n w a y , e m b a r k o n t h e ir q u e s t

t o g e t h e r , a n d t h e s y m b o l o f t h a t q u e s t is t h e ir s o n R a h u la . In t h e

Sanghabhedavastu, R a h u la , e n g e n d e r e d b y th e B u d d h a o n t h e n ig h t o f h is

G r e a t D e p a r t u r e , is n o t b o r n u n t il t h e d a y o f h is e n li g h t e n m e n t a t

B o d h g a y a , a n d Y a s 'o d h a r a th u s b e a r s h im in h e r w o m b f o r s ix fu ll y e a r s .

T h is a s s e r t io n u n d e r s t a n d a b ly r a is e d a t le a s t t w o im p o r t a n t q u e s t io n s ,

w it h in th e t r a d it io n : H o w d id it h a p p e n th a t R a h u la r e m a in e d u n b o r n , in

t h e w o m b , fo r s o lo n g , a n d did it h a p p e n ? W a s t h e B u d d h a r e a lly R a h u la ’s

fa t h e r , o r w a s t h is s t o r y o f a s ix - y e a r g e s t a t io n p e r io d a n a t t e m p t t o c o v e r

u p t h e fa c t th a t Y a s o d h a r a h a d b e e n u n fa it h fu l t o h e r h u s b a n d d u r in g h is

q u e s t ? T h e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t io n s fo r m t h e f r a m e w o r k f o r th e r e s t o f

t h e Sanghabhedavastu s s t o r y , a n d s o w e s h a ll d e a l w it h t h e m in tu r n .

S ix Y e a c s in th e W om b
Y a s o d h a r a ’s e x t e n d e d p r e g n a n c y is u n u s u a l b u t n o t u n iq u e in t h e B u d d h is t

t r a d i t i o n . 14 B a s ic a lly , t w o t y p e s o f e x p la n a t io n s a r e g iv e n f o r it, k a r m ic a n d

n a t u r a lis t ic o n e s .

T h e k a r m ic e x p la n a t io n s t a k e th e f o r m o f jataka t a le s th a t fo c u s e it h e r o n

th e d e e d s th a t Y a s o d h a r a d id th a t r e s u lt e d in h e r e x t e n d e d p r e g n a n c y , o r o n

th e d e e d s th a t R a h u la d id th a t b r o u g h t a b o u t h is b e in g th e o n e w h o s t a y e d

s o lo n g in h e r w o m b . In th e Sanghabhedavastu , b o t h ty p e s o f t a le a r e fo u n d .

In t h e fir s t c a s e , lo n g a g o , w e a r e t o ld , t h e r e w e r e t w o c o w h e r d e s s e s , a

m o t h e r a n d a d a u g h t e r , w h o w e r e in t h e h a b it o f c a r r y in g t h e ir m ilk to th e
 m a r k e t in h e a v y p a ils . O n e d a y t h e d a u g h t e r , w h o w a s d is h o n e s t , t o ld h e r

m o t h e r t o t a k e h e r m ilk p a il f o r a b it , a s s h e h a d t o r e lie v e h e r s e lf b y th e s id e

o f t h e r o a d . T h e d a u g h t e r t h e n h id in t h e b u s h e s a n d d e lib e r a t e ly d id n o t

c a t c h u p w it h h e r m o t h e r , w h o in t h is w a y w a s f o r c e d t o c a r r y th e e x t r a

m ilk f o r a d is t a n c e o f s ix le a g u e s (krofa). T h e d a u g h t e r , h o w e v e r , e v e n t u ­

a lly r e a p e d t h e b a d m e r it o f h e r t r ic k y w a y s : r e b o r n a s Y a s o d h a r a , s h e h a d

t o c a r r y h e r c h ild n o t f o r s ix le a g u e s , b u t f o r s ix y e a r s . 15

In t h e s e c o n d c a s e , lo n g a g o , n o t fa r f r o m B e n a r e s , t h e r e w e r e t w o

b r o t h e r s , S a n k h a a n d L i k h i t a , w h o li v e d a s rsis in a f o r e s t h e r m it a g e .

S a n k h a , t h e e ld e r , w a s t h e t e a c h e r , a n d L ik h it a , th e y o u n g e r , w a s h is p u p il.

O n e d a y S a n k h a fille d h is p o t w it h d r in k in g w a t e r , a n d t h e n , le a v in g it a t

th e h e r m it a g e , h e w e n t o f f in t o th e fo r e s t t o g a t h e r r o o t s a n d fr u its . D u r in g

h is a b s e n c e , L ik h it a , w h o h a d b e e n o f f o n h is o w n e x p e d it io n , c a m e b a c k .

T h ir s t y , h e s a w h is e ld e r b r o t h e r ’s w a t e r p o t a n d p r o c e e d e d t o d r in k it d r y .

W h e n S a n k h a r e t u r n e d a n d f o u n d h is p o t e m p t y , h e e x c la im e d : “ W h a t

t h ie f h a s t a k e n m y w a t e r ? ” L ik h it a , a s h a m e d , r e p lie d , “ M a s t e r , I a m th a t

t h ie f; I d r a n k it; p u n is h m e !” S a n k h a , h o w e v e r , f o r g a v e h im , s a y in g h e

w a s n ’t r e a lly a r o b b e r , h e w a s h is b r o t h e r , h is p u p il. B u t L ik h it a in s is t e d th a t

h e p a y f o r h is b a d d e e d , a n d fin a lly , in e x a s p e r a t io n , S a n k h a t o ld h im : “ I

c a n ’t p u n is h y o u , i f y o u w a n t t o b e p u n is h e d , g o s e e t h e k in g .” S o o f f

L ik h it a w e n t t o B e n a r e s t o fin d K in g B r a h m a d a t t a ; h e t o ld h im w h a t h e

h a d d o n e , a n d in s is t e d o n b e in g p u n is h e d f o r it. B r a h m a d a t t a , h o w e v e r ,

s a id th a t d r in k in g w a t e r w a s n o c r im e a n d d is m is s e d t h e c h a r g e a g a in s t h im .

B u t t h e n , d is t r a c t e d b y o t h e r b u s in e s s , h e w a s c a lle d a w a y fr o m t h e c o u r t .

T e l li n g L ik h it a to w a it — h e w o u l d b e r ig h t b a c k — h e s t e p p e d o u t s id e .

H o w e v e r , o n e t h in g le d t o a n o t h e r , a n d B r a h m a d a t t a , f o r g e t t in g a b o u t th e

w h o l e a ffa ir , n e v e r d id c o m e b a c k a n d in s t e a d w e n t o f f o n a h u n t in g e x p e ­

d it io n f o r s ix d a y s . U p o n h is r e t u r n , h e f o u n d L ik h it a s t ill s t a n d in g t h e r e ,

w a it in g f o r h im . B e c a u s e o f t h is , B r a h m a d a t t a , w h o w a s e v e n t u a lly r e b o r n

a s R a h u la , h a d to w a it h im s e lf, in th e w o m b , fo r s ix y e a r s . 16

T h e s e k a r m ic e x p la n a t io n s o f Y a s o d h a r a ’ s e x t e n d e d p r e g n a n c y a r e

n o t e w o r t h y b u t n o t a t a ll u n u s u a l. M o r e in t e r e s t in g , f o r o u r p u r p o s e s , is th e

Sanghabhedavastus a d d it io n a l c la im t h a t t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f R a h u la in h e r

w o m b w a s r e t a r d e d n o t b y karma, b u t a s t h e n a t u r a l r e s u lt o f h e r p r a c t ic e o f

a u s t e r it ie s , a u s t e r it ie s w h i c h in e v e r y w a y p a r a lle le d t h o s e o f t h e

B o d h is a t t v a . In th is r e g a r d , it is im p o r t a n t t o r e a liz e th a t in t h is t r a d it io n ,

w h e n t h e B o d h is a t t v a le a v e s h is h o m e t o g o o u t o n h is q u e s t , h is fa m ily

r e m a in s v e r y m u c h a w a r e o f w h a t h e is d o in g a n d k e e n ly k e e p s t r a c k o f h is

p r o g r e s s . F o r e x a m p le , in t h e Sanghabhedavastu, th e f iv e m e n d ic a n t s w h o

jo i n th e B o d h is a t t v a in h is a s c e t ic p r a c t ic e s a n d t o w h o m h e la t e r p r e a c h e s

h is F ir s t S e r m o n a t S a r n a t h , a r e n o t s im p ly f e llo w sramatiic q u e s t e r s , b u t a r e

a t t e n d a n t s ( upasthayaka) w h o w e r e s e n t b y t h e B o d h is a t t v a ’s f a t h e r ,
K in g S u d d h o d a n a , a n d b y h is m a t e r n a l g r a n d fa t h e r , S u p r a b u d d h a , t o lo o k

a fte r h i m . 17

M o r e o v e r , S u d d h o d a n a a n d S u p r a b u d d h a a ls o s e n d a t e a m o f 5 0 0 s p ie s

( n e w s - c a r r ie r s , vartavahaka) w h o r e p o r t b a c k d a ily to t h e S a k y a n c o u r t o n

t h e B o d h is a t t v a ’s a c t iv it ie s : “ T h e b o d h is a t t v a is c a r r y in g o u t s u c h a n d s u c h

a n a u s t e r it y . H e is e a t in g a m e a l o f o n e s e s a m e s e e d ; o n e g r a in o f r ic e ; o n e

ju ju b e ; o n e p u ls e p o d ; o n e k id n e y b e a n ; o n e m u n g o b e a n . H e m a k e s h is

b e d o n d a r b h a g r a s s ,” e t c . H e a r in g th is , w e a r e t o ld , Y a s o d h a r a “ w a s o v e r ­

c o m e w it h s o r r o w f o r h e r lo r d , a n d , h e r fa c e w e t w it h te a r s , h e r o r n a m e n t s

a n d g a r la n d s c a s t a s id e , d e s p o n d e n t , s h e t o o u n d e r t o o k a u s t e r it ie s . S h e t o o

b e g a n t o e a t ju s t o n e s e s a m e s e e d , o n e g r a in o f r ic e , o n e ju ju b e , o n e p u ls e

p o d , o n e k id n e y b e a n , o n e m u n g o b e a n . A n d s h e m a d e h e r b e d o n s t r a w

(trna g r a s s ) . ” 18

A s a r e s u lt o f t h e s e a s c e t ic p r a c t ic e s , Y a s o d h a r a , lik e th e B o d h is a t t v a ,

b e c o m e s v e r y t h in , a n d h e r p r e g n a n c y is u n n o t ic e d . W o r s e , t h e life in h e r

w o m b is t h r e a t e n e d , fo r g r a d u a lly , a s t h e t e x t p u t s it, h e r “ fo e t u s w a s t e d

a w a y ” (garbho lay am gatah). U p o n h e a r in g t h is , K in g S u d d h o d a n a g r o w s

c o n c e r n e d f o r th e fa te o f h is u n b o r n g r a n d s o n a n d p o t e n t ia l h e ir . “ I f ,” h e

r e fle c t s , “ Y a s o d h a r a c o n t in u e s to h e a r n e w s o f th e b o d h is a t t v a , a n d t h e r e b y

to b e s t r ic k e n w it h s o r r o w f o r h e r h u s b a n d a n d to p e r s is t m is e r a b ly in h e r

p e n a n c e , s h e w ill n o t b e a b le to b e a r th is fo e t u s . It w ill p e r i s h . ” 19 S u d d h o ­

d a n a , t h e r e f o r e , u n d e r t a k e s m e a s u r e s to e n s u r e th a t Y a s o d h a r a b e t o ld n o

m o r e n e w s o f t h e B o d h is a t t v a .

S u d d h o d a n a ’s n e w s b la c k o u t is e f f e c t iv e ; Y a s 'o d h a r a , n o lo n g e r a b le to

e m u la t e h e r h u s b a n d , r e c o m m e n c e s e a t in g m o r e s u b s ta n tia l m e a ls , a n d th e

in t e r r u p t e d g r o w t h o f R a h u la in h e r w o m b r e s u m e s . W h a t is in t e r e s t in g is

th a t, in t h e t e x t , th is c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e e n d o f th e B o d h is a t t v a ’s fa s t a s w e ll.

R e a l iz in g th a t th e e x t r e m e o f a s c e t ic is m is g e t t in g h im n o w h e r e , G o t a m a

a b a n d o n s h is a u s t e r it ie s a n d a c c e p t s N a n d a a n d N a n d a b a la ’s o f f e r in g o f

m i l k r i c e . 20 T h e s e t w o s is t e r s , in t h e S a n s k r it t r a d it io n , p la y t h e r o le o f

S u ja t a , w h o s e g ift o f m ilk r ic e , it w ill b e r e m e m b e r e d f r o m P a li s o u r c e s , w a s

a v o t iv e o f f e r in g in t e n d e d f o r a t r e e s p ir it a n d c o n n e c t e d t o h e r d e s ir e to

g iv e b ir t h t o a s o n .21

In a n y c a s e , in t h e Sanghabhedavastu, f o r t ifie d b y h is r e s u m p t io n o f e a t ­

in g , t h e B o d h is a t t v a p r o c e e d s w it h h is q u e s t ; a n d Y a s o d h a r a , fo r t ifie d b y

th e r e s u m p t io n o f h e r e a t in g , p r o c e e d s w it h h e r p r e g n a n c y . N o t h in g c a n

n o w s t o p t h e s e j o i n t p r o c e s s e s , w h i c h w il l e n d in e n li g h t e n m e n t a t

B o d h g a y a a n d b ir t h in K a p ila v a s t u .

T h e fin a l s c e n a r io , in fa c t , g o e s o u t o f its w a y t o stre s s t h is p a r a lle lis m .

T h e B u d d h a is a t B o d h g a y a , w h e r e h e d e fe a t s M a r a u n d e r t h e B o d h i t r e e ,

b u t t h e la t t e r , in a fin a l s p it e fu l g e s t u r e o f n a s t in e s s , s e n d s s o m e o f h is

g o d lin g s t o K a p ila v a s t u t o a n n o u n c e th a t t h e B u d d h a , a s a r e s u lt o f h is
in t e n s e a u s t e r it ie s , h a s d ie d b e f o r e a t t a in in g e n lig h t e n m e n t . L e a r n in g t h is ,

Y a s o d h a r a ( w h o h a s h e a r d n o t h in g a b o u t h e r h u s b a n d s in c e S u d d h o d a n a ’s

n e w s b la c k o u t ) fa lls o n t h e g r o u n d in a fa in t a n d is r e v iv e d o n ly to r e c o m ­

m e n c e w a ilin g a n d w a s t in g a w a y . B e c a u s e o f h e r g r ie f, s h e is lit e r a lly in

d a n g e r o f lo s in g h e r c h ild a n d d y in g h e r s e lf, w h e n , f o r t u n a t e ly , s o m e o t h e r

d iv in it ie s w h o h a v e fa it h in t h e B u d d h a (in o n e v e r s io n o f t h is s t o r y , t h is is

t h e d e it y in h a b it in g th e B o d h i tr e e ) a r r iv e a n d c o n t r a d ic t M a r a ’s d e v a s t a t ­

in g m e s s a g e . “ T h e b o d h is a t t v a S a k y a m u n i is n o t d e a d ,” t h e y a n n o u n c e ,

“ b u t h e h a s a t t a in e d to h ig h e s t k n o w l e d g e . ” 22

Y a s o d h a r a ’s r e a c t io n is im m e d ia t e ; f r o m th e d e p t h s o f d e s p a ir , s h e g o e s

to h ig h e s t h a p p in e s s a n d p r o m p t ly g iv e s b ir t h t o a s o n . H e is c a lle d R a h u la

b e c a u s e , a t t h a t v e r y m o m e n t , t h e m o o n w a s b e in g e c lip s e d b y R a h u .

S im u lt a n e o u s ly , it m ig h t b e a d d e d , A m r t o d a n a ’s w if e (t h e B u d d h a ’s a u n t)

g iv e s b ir t h t o a c h ild w h o is g iv e n t h e n a m e A n a n d a b e c a u s e o f t h e f a m ily ’s

g r e a t “ j o y ” ( ananda) a t t h e n e w s o f th e B u d d h a ’s a c c o m p lis h m e n t . 23

Proofs o f P a te n n ity
R a h u l a ’s b ir t h is a jo y o u s o c c a s io n f o r Y a s o d h a r a , b u t c o m in g a s it d o e s s ix

y e a r s a ft e r h e r h u s b a n d ’ s d e p a r t u r e , it n o t s u r p r is in g ly r a is e s c e r t a in q u e s ­

t io n s in t h e m in d s o f h e r in - la w s , th e S a k y a s . B e f o r e lo n g , t h e m a lig n e r s

a m o n g t h e m s ta r t a s k in g : C a n t h is r e a lly b e G o t a m a ’s s o n o r h a s Y a s o d h a r a

b e e n u n fa it h fu l to h e r h u s b a n d ?

In t h is r e g a r d , it is im p o r t a n t t o r e a liz e th a t R a h u l a ’s b ir t h , d e s p it e h is

lo n g g e s t a t io n p e r io d , w a s c o n s id e r e d t o b e a n o r d in a r y b ir t h a n d n o t a

m ir a c u lo u s o r v ir g in a l o n e . I n d e e d , a t le a s t o n e v e r s io n o f th e s t o r y is q u it e

c a r e fu l to p o in t o u t th a t, u n lik e B o d h is a t t v a s a n d u n lik e cakravartins w h o

a r e b o m n o t a s a r e s u lt o f t h e in t e r c o u r s e o f t h e ir fa t h e r a n d m o t h e r b u t b y

“ s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a t io n ” (aupapaduka), f r o m t h e ir o w n m e r it s , R a h u la is

n o t s o b o r n . 24 T h u s , d e s p it e t h e k a r m ic a n d p h y s ic a l e x p la n a t io n s f o r th e

e x t e n d e d p r e g n a n c y g iv e n a b o v e , Y a s o d h a r a s o o n fe e ls p r e s s u r e d t o o f f e r

g r a p h ic p r o o f o f h e r s o n ’s le g it im a c y a n d h e r o w n fid e lit y .

T h e fir s t o f t h e s e p r o o f s c o m e s n o t lo n g a f t e r R a h u l a ’ s b ir t h .

Y a s o d h a r a ta k e s h e r c h ild a n d s its h im o n t o p o f t h e B o d h is a t t v a ’s o ld

e x e r c is e s t o n e (vydydmas'ila), w h i c h s h e t h e n h a s t h r o w n in t o a n e a r b y

p o n d , w it h h e r s o n s t ill o n it . “ T h e n , u n d e r t a k i n g a n a c t o f t r u t h ,

Y a s o d h a r a s o le m n ly d e c la r e d : ‘ I f t h is b e t h e s o n o f t h e b o d h is a t t v a , m a y h e

[ a n d t h e s t o n e o n w h i c h h e is s it t in g ] n o t s i n k .’ A n d , in s t a n t ly , h e

r e m a in e d a flo a t . T h e n s h e s a id : ‘L e t h im n o w g o f r o m t h is s h o r e t o t h e

o t h e r s h o r e a n d b a c k a g a i n .’ H e d id s o a n d e v e r y o n e w a s a m a z e d .

Y a s o d h a r a t h e n s a id : ‘ S ir s , I h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t o y o u th a t t h is is th e c h ild

o f t h e b o d h is a t t v a ; I h a v e n o t g o n e a s t r a y !’ ” 25
 C r o s s in g o v e r a b o d y o f w a t e r t o t h e “ o t h e r s h o r e ” a n d t h e n r e t u r n in g

b a c k t o th is s id e is , o f c o u r s e , s y m b o lic a lly s ig n if ic a n t in t h e B u d d h is t

c o n t e x t , w h e r e it fo r e t e lls R a h u la ’ s t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f samsara f o llo w e d b y

h is r e m a in in g in t h is w o r l d . 26 H e r e , h o w e v e r , it m o r e im m e d ia t e ly a c ts a s

a m ir a c u lo u s c o n fir m a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s p a t e r n it y .

B u t t h is is n o t th e o n ly w a y in w h ic h t h is p a t e r n it y is d e m o n s t r a t e d . In

a n im m e d ia t e s e q u e l t o t h is s t o r y , t h e Sanghabhedavastu r e c o u n t s t h e t a le o f

R a h u l a ’s r e c o g n it io n o f t h e B u d d h a u p o n h is r e t u r n to K a p ila v a s t u s ix y e a r s

a ft e r h is e n lig h t e n m e n t . 27 T h e a n e c d o t e is c o m p lic a t e d b y th e a t t e m p t o f

Y a s o d h a r a t o w in b a c k h e r h u s b a n d ; h o p in g t o b e w it c h h im , s h e g iv e s

R a h u la a n a p h r o d is ia c s w e e t m e a t {vasikaranamodaka) a n d te lls h im t o ta k e it

t o t h e B u d d h a , t h in k in g h e w ill n o t r e fu s e s o m e t h in g o f f e r e d t o h im b y h is

o w n s o n . T h e B u d d h a , h o w e v e r , k n o w i n g t h e c a lu m n ie s t h a t Y a s o d h a r a

h a s s u ffe r e d , tu r n s th is in t o a n o t h e r o c c a s io n to c le a r h e r g o o d n a m e b y

d e m o n s t r a t in g to th e a s s e m b ly R a h u l a ’s le g it im a c y . U s in g h is m a g ic a l p o w ­

e r s , h e c r e a t e s t h e r e in t h e m id s t o f t h e h a ll 5 0 0 id e n t ic a l r e p lic a s o f h im ­

s e lf. B u t a t r u e s o n a lw a y s k n o w s h is r e a l fa t h e r , a n d th u s R a h u la is n o t

c o n fu s e d b y th is ; h e q u ic k ly p a s s e s b y t h e 4 9 9 fa ls e c lo n e s a n d g iv e s th e

a p h r o d is ia c t o t h e r e a l B u d d h a , t h e r e b y p r o v in g h is s o n s h i p . 28

T h is s t o r y is d r a m a t ic e n o u g h t o w a r r a n t , in o u r t e x t , a jataka t a le th a t

s e e k s to e x p la in it k a r m ic a lly . L i k e m a n y jatakas, t h is is a B u d d h is t r e w o r k ­

i n g o f a w e ll - t r a v e le d p ie c e o f f o lk lo r e . In H e r o d o t u s ’ Persian Wars, it

a p p e a r s a s th e s t o r y o f th e T r e a s u r e o f K in g R h a m p s in it u s . In a p r e v io u s life ,

w e a r e t o ld , th e B u d d h a w a s b o m a s a g r e a t t h ie f ( mahdcora) w h o r e p e a t e d ly

t r ic k e d a k in g , e lu d in g a ll t h e tr a p s th a t w e r e s e t f o r h im a n d a lw a y s g e t t in g

a w a y w it h h is b o o t y . F in a lly th e k in g d e c id e s to lu r e th e t h ie f w it h h is o w n

d a u g h t e r . H e se ts h e r o n a b o a t p la n t e d w it h a ll k in d s o f v e g e t a t io n — a s o r t

o f f lo a t in g r a ft - g a r d e n — in th e m id d le o f th e G a n g e s , a n d h e t e lls h e r to c r y

o u t s h o u ld a n y o n e t r y t o r o b h e r o r m o le s t h e r . H e t h e n s t a tio n s g u a r d s h id ­

d e n o n e it h e r b a n k t o lie in w a it . B u t o n c e a g a in , th e m a s t e r t h ie f o u t w it s

h im . G o i n g u p s t r e a m , h e r e p e a t e d ly t h r o w s e m p t y p o ts in t o th e r iv e r ; th e

g u a r d s , s u s p ic io u s a t fir s t , s m a s h th e s e to p ie c e s w h e n t h e y a p p r o a c h th e

b o a t - is la n d . E v e n t u a lly , h o w e v e r , t h e y tir e o f b r e a k in g th e s e a lw a y s e m p t y

p o t s a n d s ta rt ig n o r in g t h e m . T h is , o f c o u r s e , is t h e m o m e n t th e t h ie f h a s

b e e n w a it in g fo r . S lip p in g a p o t o v e r h is h e a d , h e flo a ts d o w n s t r e a m a n d

c lim b s o n b o a r d t h e b o a t . T h e r e h e t h r e a t e n s th e p r in c e s s a n d r a p e s h e r . B y

t h e t im e s h e c a n s o u n d th e a la r m , h e is lo n g g o n e a n d s h e h a s b e e n im p r e g ­

n a t e d . N i n e m o n t h s la te r , s h e g iv e s b ir t h t o a b a b y b o y .

T h is , h o w e v e r , g iv e s th e k in g o n e la s t c h a n c e t o c a t c h t h e t h ie f. H e h a s

a n im m e n s e ly la r g e a s s e m b ly h a ll b u ilt — it ta k e s h im s ix y e a r s — a n d t o it,

o n a g iv e n d a y , h e c o n v o k e s th e e n t ir e p o p u la t io n o f h is k in g d o m . H e t h e n

g iv e s a g a r la n d t o h is litt le g r a n d s o n , t e llin g h im t o g o a n d g iv e it t o h is
fa t h e r . T h e b o y , d e s p it e th e fa c t t h a t h e h a s n e v e r m e t h is fa t h e r , h a s n o d if­

f ic u lt y in r e c o g n iz in g h im — th e m a s t e r t h ie f — in a ll t h e c r o w d . T h e la t t e r

is im m e d ia t e ly a r r e s t e d , b u t in s t e a d o f h a v in g h im e x e c u t e d o n th e s p o t , th e

k in g d e c id e s t o g iv e h im h is d a u g h t e r in m a r r ia g e , h a v in g g r a d u a lly o v e r

t h e y e a r s c o m e to a d m ir e h is c le v e r n e s s a n d s k i l l . 29

W h a t t h is t e lls u s a b o u t t h e r e la t io n s h ip o f t h e B u d d h a t o h is w if e I a m

n o t q u it e c e r t a in , b u t in t h is s t o r y , t h e i d e n t if ic a t io n s a r e c le a r : t h e

B o d h is a t t v a w a s t h e r a p is t t h ie f, Y a s o d h a r a w a s t h e p r in c e s s , a n d R a h u la

t h e lit t le b o y . J u s t a s in th a t lif e , h e h a d n o t r o u b le r e c o g n iz in g t h e fa t h e r

h e h a d n e v e r s e e n , s o t o o in th is o n e , h e is a b le to d e liv e r t o t h e B u d d h a

t h e a p h r o d is ia c s w e e t m e a t in t e n d e d f o r h im .

T h e p lo t in t h is lif e t im e , h o w e v e r , b a c k fir e s . F o r , a lt h o u g h in t h e jataka

t h e B o d h is a t t v a is c a p t u r e d a n d f o r c e d t o s t a y w it h t h e m o t h e r o f h is c h ild ,

in t h e Sanghahhedavastu t h a t d o e s n o t h a p p e n . I n d e e d , in s t e a d o f c o n s u m ­

in g t h e s w e e t m e a t o f f e r e d h im , t h e B u d d h a g iv e s it b a c k t o R a h u la , a n d

R a h u la e a ts it a n d is u t t e r ly c a p t iv a t e d b y h is fa t h e r , s o m u c h s o th a t w h e n

t h e B u d d h a le a v e s t h e a s s e m b ly h a ll, R a h u la g o e s w it h h im a n d is s o o n

o r d a in e d in t o t h e sangha. Y a s o d h a r a , in s t e a d o f r e g a in in g h e r h u s b a n d , h a s

n o w lo s t h e r s o n . 30

S h e m a k e s o n e m o r e a t t e m p t to g e t t h e m b a c k , h o w e v e r . I n v it in g t h e

B u d d h a t o c o m e a n d e a t in t h e in n e r a p a r t m e n t s o f t h e p a la c e , s h e u s e s th e

o c c a s io n to t r y t o s e d u c e h im , a n a t t e m p t th a t h a s its k a r m ic p r e c e d e n t in

th e t a le o f t h e u n ic o r n h e r m it R s y a s r n g a , w h i c h is t o ld in o u r t e x t a s a ju s ­

t ific a t o r y jataka b u t w h i c h is s o w e ll k n o w n th a t w e s h a ll n o t r e c o u n t it

h e r e .31 It n e e d h a r d ly b e s a id th a t in t h is s e c o n d a t t e m p t Y a s o d h a r a fa ils

a g a in . T h i s t im e , h o w e v e r , u t t e r ly d e p r e s s e d a n d fille d w it h h o p e le s s n e s s ,

s h e tr ie s to c o m m it s u ic id e b y ju m p in g o f f th e p a la c e r o o f . F o r t u n a t e ly , t h e

B u d d h a , e v e r m in d fu l, s a v e s h e r w it h h is m a g ic a l p o w e r s . 32

B u t t h e p o in t h a s b e e n m a d e : Y a s o d h a r a h a s r e a c h e d th e d e p t h s o f s u f­

f e r in g ( duhkha ), a n d fr o m t h o s e d e p t h s t h e r e c a n b e o n ly o n e r e fu g e , th e

B u d d h a . T h e la tte r , t h e r e fo r e (a fte r a q u ic k jataka t o e x p la in h o w h e h a d

o n c e s a v e d h e r in a p r e v io u s life w h e n h e w a s a kinnara a n d s h e a kinnari),

p r e a c h e s to h e r t h e f o u r n o b le tr u t h s , a n d Y a s o d h a r a , u p o n h e a r in g h is s e r ­

m o n , im m e d ia t e ly b e c o m e s e n lig h t e n e d , a n d w a n d e r in g fo r t h f r o m th e

h o u s e h o ld life h e r s e lf, s h e is o r d a in e d a s a n u n . T h e B u d d h a p r o c la im s h e r

t o b e t h e f o r e m o s t in m o d e s t y o f a ll h is fe m a le d is c ip le s w h o a r e bhiksunls.u
A s f o r R a h u la , h e , in th e S a n s k r it t r a d it io n , g o e s o n t o b e c o m e a n

im p o r t a n t e ld e r w h o o u t liv e s h is fa t h e r . A c c o r d in g t o t h e Ekottardgama a n d

t h e Sdriputrapariprcchd, h e is o n e o f f o u r arhats w h o m t h e B u d d h a , p r io r to

h is parinirvana, a s k s to p r o lo n g t h e ir life t im e s a n d r e m a in in t h is w o r l d a s

g u a r d ia n s o f t h e D h a r m a u n t il th e c o m in g o f t h e fu t u r e B u d d h a M a i t r e y a . 34

It is n o s u r p r is e , t h e n , t o fin d h im in c lu d e d in la t e r C h in e s e lis t in g s o f th e
s ix t e e n o r e ig h t e e n arhats ( lo-han ) w h o d o m u c h th e s a m e t h in g , a n d in

B u r m e s e s c h e m e s o f e ig h t arhats w h o a b id e g e o g r a p h ic a lly in t h e e ig h t

d i r e c t i o n s . 35 N o r s h o u ld w e b e a s t o n is h e d t o r e a d , in H s iia n - t s a n g , a s t o r y

o f a n e n c o u n t e r o f a w e a lt h y B u d d h is t w it h a s t r a n g e o ld m o n k w it h b u s h y

e y e b r o w s a n d w h it e h a ir w h o a ffir m e d th a t, in h is d a y , t h e w a t e r w h i c h h e

u s e d t o c le a n t h e B u d d h a ’s b o w l w a s t a s tie r th a n t h e w o n d e r f u l r e p a s t h e

h a d ju s t b e e n g iv e n . U p o n in q u ir y , th e m o n k ( b e fo r e m y s t e r io u s ly v a n is h ­

i n g f r o m s ig h t ) r e v e a l e d h i m s e lf t o b e n o n e o t h e r t h a n R a h u la , t h e

B u d d h a ’s s o n , s t ill in t h is w o r ld , p r e s e r v in g t h e D h a r m a a n d e n h a n c in g th e

fa ith o f d e v o t e e s . 36

C o n clu sio n
I h a v e t r ie d to s u g g e s t th a t t h e s t o r y o f th e B o d h is a t t v a ’s G r e a t D e p a r t u r e

w a s n o t u n iv e r s a lly , in th e B u d d h is t t r a d it io n , t r e a t e d a s th e s o lo q u e s t o f a

s o lit a r y s e e k e r a ft e r e n lig h t e n m e n t ; it w a s a ls o , a t le a s t in p a r t, a f a m ily

a ffa ir . T h e B u d d h a ’s r e n u n c ia t io n is, o f c o u r s e , g e n u in e ; w h a t e v e r h is f e e l­

in g s , h e w a n d e r s fo r t h , a b a n d o n in g h is fa m ily a n d t h e h o u s e h o ld e r ’s life ,

a n d h is G r e a t D e p a r t u r e , e v e n t o d a y , p r o v id e s a m y t h ic m o d e l f o r t h e o r d i­

n a t io n o f B u d d h is t m o n k s . B u t s u c h a r e n u n c ia t io n is n o t h is a lo n e . It h a s

r e p e r c u s s io n s in th e liv e s o f o t h e r s ; it is a n a c t n o t o n ly f o r th e a b a n d o n e r ,

b u t f o r t h o s e w h o a r e a b a n d o n e d , t h o s e w h o a r e le ft b e h in d in t h e h o u s e ­

h o ld e r ’s s ta te . I h a v e p o in t e d to t h e s e p a r a lle lis m s t h r o u g h o u t t h is a r t ic le ,

b u t a t th is p o in t , it m a y b e h e lp fu l to s u m m a r iz e t h e m in ta b u la r fo r m :

Bodhisattva/Buddha Yasodhara /Rahula

B u d d h a im p r e g n a t e s Y a s o d h a r a c o n c e iv e s a s o n

Y a s o d h a r a

B u d d h a ’s c o n fid e n t d r e a m s Y a s o d h a r a ’s a n x io u s d r e a m s

o f a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f d o w n f a ll a n d

a b a n d o n m e n t

B u d d h a c o m f o r t s Y a s 'o d h a r a , Y a s 'o d h a r a d e s ir e s to

p r o m is in g t o t a k e h e r g o w h e r e v e r B u d d h a g o e s

w it h h im (to Nirvana)
B u d d h a w a n d e r s fo r t h Y a s o d h a r a s ta y s a t h o m e

B u d d h a p r a c t ic e s a u s t e r it ie s , Y a s 'o d h a r a p r a c t ic e s

b e c o m e s t h in : n o a u s t e r it ie s , b e c o m e s t h in :

p r o g r e s s in s p ir it u a lit y n o p r o g r e s s in p r e g n a n c y

B u d d h a e a ts m ilk r ic e o f Y a s o d h a r a r e s u m e s e a t in g ,

m a id e n s d e s ir in g to b e a r fo e t u s r e s u m e s g r o w t h ,

c h ild r e n a n d r e g a in s a n d p r e g n a n c y b e c o m e s

w h o le s o m e b o d y . a p p a r e n t
 B u d d h a b la m e d a n d Y a s o d h a r a b la m e d a n d

a b a n d o n e d b y f iv e a b a n d o n e d b y

c o m p a n io n - a s c e t ic s S a k y a c la n

(s e n t b y S a k y a c la n )

n e w s s e n t b y M a r a th a t Y a s o d h a r a c o lla p s e s

B u d d h a is d e a d

n e w s s e n t b y d e it ie s th a t Y a s o d h a r a r e v iv e s a n d g iv e s

B u d d h a is a liv e a n d b ir t h t o R a h u la

a t t a in e d e n lig h t e n m e n t

B u d d h a d e c id e s t o s t a y in Y a s o d h a r a h a s R a h u la

samsara a n d p r e a c h c r o s s o v e r p o n d o n r o c k

a n d r e t u r n

B u d d h a r e t u r n s t o K a p ila v a s t u Y a s o d h a r a tr ie s to r e g a in h e r

h u s b a n d , a n d R a h u la ,

h is fa t h e r

B u d d h a c o n v e r t s a n d o r d a in s R a h u la b e c o m e s a m o n k ,

R a h u la a n d t h e n Y a s o d h a r a b e c o m e s

Y a s o d h a r a a n u n ; b o t h a r e

e n lig h t e n e d

W h a t t h e p a r a lle ls o n t h is c h a r t f u r t h e r r e v e a l is th a t th e a c t o f th e

B u d d h a ’s G r e a t D e p a r t u r e is a t le a s t a d o u b le d e e d . It m a k e s f o r a c h ie v e ­

m e n t s in b o t h th e h o m e le s s a n d t h e h o u s e h o ld e r ’ s s ta te s . I n d e e d , in a c h ie v ­

in g t h e g o a l o f r e n u n c ia t io n — e n lig h t e n m e n t — t h e B u d d h a a ls o a c h ie v e s

t h e g o a l o f la y life — f a t h e r h o o d . B u t c o n v e r s e ly , a n d ju s t a s im p o r t a n t ly , in

a c h ie v in g t h e g o a l o f m o t h e r h o o d , Y a s o d h a r a m a k e s p o s s ib le th e g o a l o f

r e n u n c ia t io n . T h is s t o r y , t h e n , c o u ld s e r v e a s a s o t e r io lo g ic a l m o d e l n o t ju s t

f o r m o n k s a n d n u n s a t t h e t im e o f t h e ir “ w a n d e r in g f o r t h ” b u t a ls o fo r

la y p e r s o n s ( b o t h f e m a le a n d m a le ) w h o , w il ly - n i ll y , c h o o s e th e fa m ily life .

It im p lie s a p a r a lle lis m a n d b a la n c e b e t w e e n a t le a s t t w o B u d d h is t p a th s ,

b o t h o f w h i c h le a d to e n lig h t e n m e n t : a sramanic o n e i n v o l v i n g o r d in a t io n

a n d a s t a y - a t - h o m e o n e f o r h o u s e h o ld e r s .

In t h is lig h t , t h e q u e s t io n “ f o r w h o m is t h e G r e a t D e p a r t u r e — o r , in

p r e s e n t - d a y r it u a l t e r m s , f o r w h o m is B u d d h is t o r d in a t io n — r e lig io u s ly s ig ­

n if i c a n t ? ” b e c o m e s a n i m p o r t a n t o n e . T h e a s s u m p t io n o f t r a d it io n a l

a p p r o a c h e s to s a c r e d b io g r a p h y is th a t it is p r im a r ily s ig n ific a n t f o r t h e in d i­

v id u a l q u e s t e r . T h e Sanghahhedavastu, h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s w e s h o u ld e x p a n d

o n th a t a n s w e r .

A n t h r o p o lo g is t s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e lo n g b e e n a w a r e o f th e fa c t th a t B u d d h is t

o r d in a t io n is a t le a s t a s s ig n ific a n t a n e v e n t fo r th e o r d a in e d ’s fa m ily as it is fo r

th e o r d in a n d h im s e l f . 37 G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , h o w e v e r , th e y h a v e a s s e r te d o r

a s s u m e d th a t t h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f “ s ig n ific a n c e s ” in v o lv e d h e r e , th a t, b y
v ir t u e o f h is o r d in a t io n , a n e w m o n k is e n g a g in g u p o n a nibbanic q u e s t, w h ile

h is r e la tiv e s , w h o r e m a in la y h o u s e h o ld e r s , s e e k to a c c u m u la t e la r g e a m o u n ts

o f kammatic m e r it b y s p o n s o r in g th e c e r e m o n y a n d g iv in g u p th e ir s o n s . 38 In

r e c e n t t im e s , h o w e v e r , s u c h c le a r - c u t d is t in c t io n s b e t w e e n t w o t y p e s o f

B u d d h is t s o t e r io lo g y h a v e in c r e a s in g ly b e e n c h a lle n g e d b y s c h o la r s w h o h a v e

h ig h lig h t e d b o t h th e kammatic a s p e c ts o f m e d it a t io n a n d th e nibbanic d im e n ­

s io n s o f m e r it - m a k in g , w h e t h e r b y la y p e r s o n s o r m o n a s t i c s . 39

T h e e v id e n c e o f t h e Sanghabhedavastu r e c o u n t e d in th is p a p e r w o u l d

t e n d to s u p p o r t t h is m o r e in t e g r a t e d v ie w . Y a s o d h a r a , a s a p r e g n a n t la y -

w o m a n , e x p e r ie n c e s s o m e o f th e s a m e in t e n s e a u s t e r it ie s , u n c e r t a in t ie s , a n d

b r e a k t h r o u g h s a s h e r B o d h is a t t v a - h u s b a n d . O f c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e d iffe r e n c e s

b e t w e e n t h e ir p a th s : h e le a v e s a w if e , s h e lo s e s a h u s b a n d ; h e g iv e s b ir t h to

b o d h i, s h e g iv e s b ir t h t o a s o n ; h e e m p h a s iz e s D h a r m a , s h e e m p h a s iz e s

r u p a . B u t in t h e fin a l a n a ly s is , t h e b r o a d t h e m e s o f t h e ir q u e s t in g r e m a in th e

s a m e , f o r s h e t o o , a lo n g w it h h e r s o n , 40 is o n a p a t h th a t in v o lv e s th e r e a l­

iz a t io n o f t h e t r u t h o f s u f fe r in g a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t a t t a in m e n t o f nirvana.

N o te s
1. T. W. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories (London: Triibner and Co.,
1880), p. 82. Cf. The Jataka, ed. V. Fausb0ll (London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Triibner, 18 77 -18 9 6 ), vol. 1, p. 62, herafter cited as J. See also
Madhuratthavilasim, ed. I. B. Horner (London: Pali Text Society, 1946),
p. 282 (English trans., I. B. Horner, The Clarifter o f the Sweet Meaning
[London: Pali Text Society, 1978], p. 404), hereafter cited as M V;
Dhatnmapadatthakatha, ed. H. Smith and H. C. Norman (London: Pali
Text Society, 1906—19 15), vol. 1, p. 85 (English trans., E. W.
Burlingame, Buddhist Legends [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 19 2 1], vol. 1, p. 195), hereafter cited as DhA.
2. Andre Bareau, “ La jeunesse du Buddha dans les sutrapitaka et les vinayapitaka
anciens,” Bulletin de t’Ecolefratifaise d ’Extreme-Orient 61 (1974), pp. 248—250.
The same is true in the sutras and vinayas o f almost all o f the other schools;
only the Mahlsasaka Vinaya develops the harem women scene (which it
models on the story o f the wandering forth o f Yasas), but it too fails to
mention the Buddha’s son and wife (see ibid., pp. 2 5 1—253). Note that in
these texts, the Buddha’s mother is portrayed as still being alive at the time o f
his Great Departure. On this, see also Andre Bareau, “ Un personage bien
mysterieux: l’epouse du Buddha,” Indological and Buddhist Studies in Honour of
ProfessorJ . W. dejong, ed. L. A. Hercus, F. B. J. Kuiper, T. Rajapatiran, and
E. R . Skrzypczak (Delhi: Satguru Publications, 1982), pp. 31-59.
3. See, for example, Henry Clarke Warren, Buddhism in Translations
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1922), p. 62. For a recent
demythologization (or remythologization) o f the tale, see David J.
 Kalupahana and Indrani Kalupahana, The Way o f Siddhartha (Lanham:
University Press o f America, 1987), pp. 6 1—66.
4. For one example o f such a treatment, see Frank E. Reynolds, “ The Many
Lives o f the Buddha,” in The Biographical Process, ed. Frank E. Reynolds
and Donald Capps (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), pp. 37—61. Obviously
such extended lives reflect complex interactions o f myth and history,
doctrine and ritual, local and pan-regional pilgrimage traditions.
5. Much the same point may be found, albeit in a very different context, in
Ranjini Obeyesekere and Gananath Obeyesekere, “ The Tale o f the
Demoness Kali: A Discourse on Evil,” History o f Religions 29 (1990),
pp. 318 -3 34 .
6. The Gilgit Manuscript o f the Sanghabhedavastu, Being the iyth and Last Section
o f the Vinaya o f the Mulasarvastivadin, ed. Raniero Gnoli (Rome: Istituto
Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1977), vol. 1, pp. 8 1—83,
1 0 6 - m , 11 9 —12 1; vol. 2, pp. 30-44 (partial English trans., John S.
Strong, The Experience o f Buddhism [Belmont: Wadsworth, 1995],
pp. 10—18), hereafter cited as SBhV. Partial translations and synopses o f the
relevant portions o f the Chinese and Tibetan versions o f the SBhV may be
found in Bareau, “ Un personage bien mysterieux,” pp. 42-46; Etienne
Lamotte, Le traite de la grande vertu de sagesse (Louvain: Institut Orientaliste,
1949—1980), pp. 229n and ioo3n; and W. W. Rockhill, The Life o f the
Buddha (London: Kegan Paul, Trench and Triibner, 1907),
pp. 28-33, 53- 58.
7. These include the Mahasanghika Vinaya, the Mahavastu, the
Mahaprajmparaniita s'astra, and such Buddha biographies as the
Abhiniskramanasutra. For references, see Lamotte, Traite, pp. 10 0 1-10 0 2 .
The story has been curiously neglected in the English-speaking world,
although in its general outline, it has been known at least since the
publication o f Samuel Beal, The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha (London:
Triibner and Co., 1875), see pp. 359—366. Etienne Lamotte, in his Histoire
du bouddhisme indien (Louvain: Institut Orientaliste, 1958), pp. 733—736,
highlighted it as an example o f the way in which Buddhist legends develop.
8. SBhV, vol. 1, p. 81.
9. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 82. The reference to Rahu here is significant because, as
we shall see, in the Sanskrit tradition, the origin o f Rahula’s name is
connected not to the word for “ fetter” but to the name o f the
mythological being Rahu, who, in Indian astrology, is thought to create
eclipses by swallowing the sun or the moon.
10. In the Mahavastu, ed. E. Senart (Paris, 18 8 2-18 97), vol. 2, p. 13 7 (English
trans., J. J. Jones, The Mahavastu [London: Pali Text Society, 1949—1956],
vol. 2, p. 13 1), hereafter cited as Mtu, this is specified as a reed with milky
sap (kslrika). Note also, here, the possible parallelisms with the image o f
Visnu reclining on the waters.
1 1 . SBhV, vol. 1, pp. 82—83. These dreams o f the Bodhisattva are well known
from various sources, e.g., the Mtu (vol. 2, pp. 136—137; English trans.,
 Jones, vol. 2, pp. 1 3 1- 13 2 ) , the Lalitavistara (French trans., Ph. Ed.
Foucaux, Le Lalita Vistara [Paris: E. Leroux, 1884], pp. 17 3 -17 4 ), and the
Abhiniskramanasutra (English trans., Beal, pp. 12 8 -12 9 ).
12. SBhV, vol. 1, p. 83.
13. Ibid. Contrast these dreams to those recounted in the Mahavastu (English
trans., Jones, vol. 2, pp. I29ff.), the Lalitavistara (French trans., Foucaux,
pp. 17 2 -17 3 ), and in the Abhiniskramanasutra (English trans., Beal,
12 6 -129 ). In the latter text, Yasodhara has twelve dreams, and the
Bodhisattva makes love to her after she wakes up frightened in order to
allay her fears and suspicions.
14. Compare the case o f Slvall, who spent seven years in his mother’s womb.
For references, see G. P. Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names
(London: J. Murray for the Pali Text Society, 19 37-19 38 ), vol. 2, p. 116 3 .
15. SBhV, vol. 2, p. 42. The same story may be found in the
Abhiniskramanasutra (English trans., Beal, p. 363) and in Ksemendra’s
Avadanakalpalata, ed. P. L. Vaidya (Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1959),
p. 484, hereafter cited as AvK.
16. SBhV, vol. 2, p. 43. The Sankha and Likhita story is a variant o f the more
commonly found jataka o f the two ascetics Surya (the Buddha) and
Candra (Rahula), versions o f which may be found in Beal, p. 363; Jones,
vol. 3, pp. 16 7 -17 0 ; Edouard Chavannes, Cinq cents contes et apologues
extraits du Tripitaka chinois (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1934), vol. 1,
pp. 197—20 1; and Lamotte, Traite, p. 1006. For a fuller bibliography, see
Lamotte, Traite, p. 1006, n. 1, to which should be added AvK, p. 482.
17. SBhV., vol. 1, p. 99. These five were chosen from among 500 sent to the
Bodhisattva. Three were from the paternal side and two from the maternal
one.
18. SBhV, vol. 1; p. 106.
19. Ibid.
20. Actually, in the SBhV, vol. 1, p. 107, the Bodhisattva first eats an
“ unpalatable meal” (the excrement o f newborn calves who have been
separated from their mothers). He then lies down next to a corpse in a
graveyard and is pelted with clods o f dirt by the local village boys and
girls, who mistake him for a ghoul (piscica). Then he recommences eating.
Then his five companions desert him; then he accepts Nanda and
Nandabala’s offering.
2 1. See sources in Malalasekera, Dictionary, vol. 2, p. 118 6 . In the SBhV,
Nanda and Nandabala are asked what they would like to obtain from their
meritorious offering; they reply that they have heard that the Sakyan
prince will become a cakravartin king and they hope to be his wives.
22. SBhV, vol. 1, p. 119 . See also Lamotte, Traite, p. 229.
23. SBhV, vol. 1, pp. 11 9 —120. See also vol. 2, p. 30. The tradition o f
Amrtodana (Pali Amitodana) as Ananda’s father is also known (along with
others) in Pali sources. See Malalasekera, Dictionary, vol. 1, p. 148.
24. Mtu, pp. 145, 15 3 - 15 4 (English trans., Jones, vol. 1, pp. 1 1 5 , 12 1- 12 2 ) .
25. SBhV, vol. i, p. 120 and vol. 2, p. 312 . See also Lamotte, Traite, p. ioo3n.
For a similar tale, more influenced perhaps by the story o f Rama and SIta,
see Chavannes, Cinq cents contes, vol. 3, pp. 13 6 -13 7 . There, the Sakyas
force Yasodhara to enter a blazing fire. She, swearing that she has
remained pure and loyal, invokes the Buddha’s aid: the inferno is
transformed into a cool pond, in the midst o f which Yasodhara is found to
be sitting on a lotus blossom with her son in her anus.
26. See discussion in text below.
27. The story o f the Buddha’s encounter with Rahula upon his return to
Kapilavastu is also known in Pali tradition. According to the Vinaya, on
this occasion, Rahula, acting on instructions from his mother, goes up to
the Blessed One and asks for his inheritance. The Buddha responds by
giving his son his “ true inheritance,” the Dharma, and he more or less
shanghais Rahula into the sangha by conferring on him the pabajja
ordination and thus making him into the first Buddhist novice. See
Vinayapitaka, ed. H. Oldenberg (London: Williams and Norgate, 1879),
vol. 1, p. 82 (English trans. T. W. Rhys-Davids and Hermann Oldenberg,
Vinaya Texts [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1882], vol. 1, pp.
208—209). For other versions, see Bareau, “ Un personage bien
mysterieux,” p. 33. Beyond this, the Pali canon has little more to say
about Rahula: a few verses are attributed to him in the Theragatha; the
Buddha preaches a few sermons to him in the Majjhima Nikaya (one o f
which even gets mentioned in Asoka’s Bhabra Edict), and in the Anguttara
Nikaya, he is proclaimed the “ foremost among those disciples who are
anxious for training (sik k h a k a m a ) For references, see Malalasekera,
Dictionary, vol. 2, pp. 737—740. Even less is said about his mother, the
Bodhisattva’s wife, who in the Pali tradition is identified here and there
under various names, but who for the most part is presented anonymously
as “ Rahulamata” (see ibid., p. 741).
28. SBhV, vol. 2, p. 3 1—32. See also Lamotte, Traite, pp. 1003—1005. The
same story is found in the Mtu, pp. 142—143 (English trans., Jones, vol. 3,
pp. 13 7 -13 8 ) without, however, the detail o f the Buddha’s multiplication
o f his body. See also Bareau, “ U n personage bien mysterieux,” pp. 42-44.
29. SBhV, vol. 2, pp. 32-36. See also Herodotus, The Persian Wars, English
trans., George Rawlinson (New York: The Modern Library, 1942),
pp. 174—177; and Edouard Huber, “ Le tresor du roi Rhampsinite,”
Bulletin de VEcoleJrangaise d ’Extreme-Orient 4 (1904), pp. 704-707.
30. SBhV, vol. 2, pp. 32.
3 1. Ibid., pp. 38—40. See also Heinrich Liiders, “ Die Sage von Rsyas'rnga,”
Nachrichten von der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschajten, Gottingen,
Philologisch-historicsche Klasse (1897), pp. 8 7 -13 5 , and (1902), pp. 28-56;
and Wendy Doniger O ’ Flaherty, Asceticism and Eroticism in the Mythology of
Siva , (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 42-52.
32. SBhV, vol. 2, pp. 4 0 -4 1. Here too a jataka is told to show that this is not
the first time that the Buddha has saved Yasodhara in this way. For
 another version o f the suicide story and its jataka, see also A vK,
pp. 386-410.
33. SBhV, vol. 2, p. 41.
34. Sylvain Levi and Edouard Chavannes, “ Les seize arhat protecteurs de la
loi,” Journal asiatique 8 (1916), pp. 19 2 -19 4 . See also Ernst Leumann,
Maitreya samiti, das Zukunftsideal der Buddhisten (Strasbourg: K arlJ. Triibner,
1919), p- 250.
35. On this, see John S. Strong, The Legend and Cult of Upagupta (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 237—241.
36. Thomas Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India (reprint, Delhi:
Munshi R am Manohar Lai, 1961), vol. 2, p. 43. Hsiian-tsang also
mentions that in Mathura, Rahula’s shrine was especially revered by
novices; see ibid., vol. 1, p. 302.
37. In present-day Theravada countries, this is especially true for the parents o f
a new monk, but in ancient India, it may also have been the case for his
wife and children.
38. The terms were popularized by Melford E. Spiro, Buddhism and Society
(Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1982).
;,9. See, most recently, Russell F. Sizemore and Donald K. Swearer, eds.,
Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics (Columbia,
S.C.: University o f South Carolina Press, 1990).
40. More investigation would also show here a further coordination with the
spiritual development o f the Bodhisattva’s stepmother, Mahaprajapatl
(who later becomes a leader o f the community o f nuns), and with that o f
his father, Suddhodana.
 C
}C a ya rju n a ’s /oonyeuity
Reginald A . Ray

T h e B u d d h is t m a s t e r N a g a r ju n a ( s e c o n d - t h ir d c e n t u r y ) 1 is o n e o f t h e

g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t c e le b r a t e d o f a ll I n d ia n B u d d h is t s a in t s . H e is id e n t if ie d a s

t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e M a d h y a m a k a s c h o o l, a u t h o r o f n u m e r o u s im p o r t a n t

t e x t s , g u r u o f a n u m b e r o f im p o r t a n t fig u r e s , a n d e v e n , in s o m e a c c o u n t s ,

t h e fir s t p r o p o u n d e r o f M a h a y a n a B u d d h is m it s e lf .2 Y e t in s p it e o f h is

im p o r t a n t a n d w e ll- d o c u m e n t e d p r e s e n c e w it h in I n d ia n B u d d h is m , M a x

W a lle s e r , J a n Y i i n - h u a , a n d o t h e r s c h o la r s w h o h a v e t a k e n u p “ t h e p r o b ­

le m o f N a g a i ju n a ” a g r e e th a t h e r e m a in s a n e n ig m a t ic f ig u r e , d e s c r ib e d in

a h a g io g r a p h y t h a t is r a m p a n t w it h d if f ic u lt ie s .3 P r o m in e n t a m o n g p e r p le x ­

in g e le m e n t s o f N a g a i ju n a ’s s t o r y is t h e e x t r a o r d in a r y life s p a n a t t r ib u t e d t o

h im , in s o m e s o u r c e s s e v e r a l c e n t u r ie s , in o t h e r s s p e c ifie d a s 6 0 0 , 6 2 9 , o r

7 0 0 M anjuhm ulakalpa , f o r e x a m p l e , s a y s ,
y e a r s .
T h e “ T h is is a p r e d ic t io n

o f tathagata h i m s e l f — t h a t [ N a g a i j u n a ] w i l l r e a c h
t h e t h e g r a d e (bhumi) o f

pramudita, l i v e s i x h u n d r e d y e a r s , o b t a i n t h e c h a r m s o f t h e M a h a m a y u r i;

a ft e r h a v in g t h r o w n o f f h is b o d y h e w il l r e - a p p e a r in S u k h a v a t l.” 4 A n o t h e r

I n d ia n t e x t , th e Caturasitisiddhapravrtti ( C s p ) 5 o r History o f the Eighty-four

Siddhas b y A b h a y a d a t t a , s im ila r ly a t t r ib u t e s t o N a g a iju n a a lo n g e r th a n n o r ­

m a l ( b u t u n s p e c ifie d ) lif e s p a n .6 I n t h e C s p a c c o u n t , o n e fin d s t w o a d d i­

t io n a l m o t ifs , t h e s ig n ific a n c e o f w h i c h w ill p r e s e n t ly b e c o m e c le a r : fir s t , h e

is a bodhisattva— th e e n lig h t e n e d id e a l o f t h e M a h a y a n a — a n d h is e x c lu s iv e

m o t iv a t io n d u r in g h is lo n g life is c o m p a s s io n f o r o t h e r s ; s e c o n d , h e fin a lly

d ie s b e c a u s e h e is , in e ffe c t , a s k e d to d o s o : th e g o d B r a h m a a s k s N a g a iju n a

f o r h is h e a d a n d , s e e m in g ly b e c a u s e h e is a bodhisattva a n d t h e r e f o r e u n a b le

t o r e fu s e a n y b e i n g ’s r e q u e s t ,7 t h e s a in t a c c e d e s .
 T h e I n d ia n a ffir m a t io n s o f N a g a i ju n a ’s lo n g life a n d m a n n e r o f d e a th

a r e r e p e a t e d in T ib e t a n s o u r c e s . T a r a n a t h a , f o r e x a m p le , in h is History o f the
Seven Special Transmissions (bk a’ .babs.bdun.ldan [ K b d d ] ) ( w r it t e n in 1 6 0 0 ) ,

s a y s th a t N a g a iju n a , p r a c t it io n e r o f t h e lo n g - lif e mantra o f A m it a y u s a n d

p o s s e s s o r o f t h e e lix ir o f lo n g e v i t y ,8 w a s p r e d ic t e d t o liv e 6 0 0 y e a r s b u t fe ll

s h o r t o f t h is v e n e r a b le a g e b y s e v e n t y - o n e y e a r s o w in g t o t h e f o ll o w in g c ir ­

c u m s t a n c e s . A c e r t a in s o u t h e r n I n d ia n k in g , N a g a r ju n a ’ s d is c ip le , w a s a ls o

v e r y lo n g - li v e d b e c a u s e h is life s p a n w a s t ie d to th a t o f t h e A c a r y a . H is

e ld e s t s o n , d e s ir o u s o f g a in in g th e t h r o n e , k n e w th a t b y b r in g in g a b o u t

N a g a i ju n a ’s d e a t h h e c o u ld a ls o c a u s e h is fa t h e r ’ s, s o h e w e n t to t h e s a in t

a n d a s k e d f o r h is h e a d . N a g a iju n a d id n o t r e fu s e a n d , w h e n t h e p r in c e w a s

n o t a b le t o s e v e r h is h e a d , e v e n o b lig e d b y p e r f o r m in g t h e d e e d h im s e lf .9

A s in N a g a r ju n a ’s life in t h e History o f the Eighty-four Siddhas, s o h e r e w e

fin d t h e t h e m e o f t h e bodhisattva w h o h a s t h e p o w e r o f lo n g e v i t y , b u t

w h o s e a b ilit y to e x e r c is e it is s o m e h o w b o u n d u p w it h t h e w is h e s a n d

r e q u e s t s o f s e n t ie n t b e in g s .

S c h o la r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o e x p la in t h e o r i g i n a n d s i g n i f ic a n c e o f

N a g a i ju n a ’s lo n g e v it y b y r e f e r e n c e t o h is t o r ic a l id io s y n c r a c ie s o f h is b io g ­

r a p h y . N a lin a k s h a D u t t , 10 in a n e x t e n d e d d is c u s s io n o f N a g a i ju n a ’s lo n g

l i f e ,11 e x p la in s th a t t h e w e ll - k n o w n s e c o n d - c e n t u r y B u d d h is t f ig u r e k n o w n

a s N a g a iju n a w a s f o llo w e d s o m e s ix h u n d r e d y e a r s la t e r b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e

o f a n o t h e r N a g a iju n a , t h is t im e a T a n tr ie a u t h o r t o w h o m a r e a t t r ib u t e d

m a n y w o r k s in th e T e n j u r . 12 D u t t s ta te s th a t t h e M anjus'rimulakalpa ( M m k ) ,

r e f le c t in g t h is s a m e t im e p e r io d a n d f o llo w e d b y la t e r B u d d h is t t r a d it io n ,

h a s t a k e n t h e s e t w o N a g a r ju n a s “ t o b e a s in g le p e r s o n [a n d ] h is s p a n o f life

h a s b e e n s u p p o s e d t o b e o f 6 0 0 y e a r s .” T h u s “ t h e M anjusrTm ulakalpa,
b e lo n g in g t o a d a te p r io r t o t h e n in t h c e n t u r y A .D ., h a s v e r y p r o b a b ly

m ix e d u p t h e t r a d it io n s r e la t in g t o m o r e th a n o n e p e r s o n b e a r in g t h e n a m e

o f N a g a r j u n a . ” 13 O t h e r s c h o la r s d is c u s s in g N a g a r ju n a ’ s lo n g e v i t y h a v e

t e n d e d t o a c c e p t D u t t ’s e x p l a n a t i o n . 14

T h e I n d ia n a n d T ib e t a n s o u r c e s c it e d a b o v e a ll p o s t - d a t e t h e r is e o f

T a n t r ic B u d d h is m in I n d ia , a n d w o u l d s e e m to s u p p o r t o r a t le a s t n o t to

c o n t r a d ic t D u t t ’s t h e o r y . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e t w o p r o b le m s w it h D u t t ’ s

e x p la n a t io n . F ir s t , it is n o t p o s s ib le to h a v e a n y c o n fid e n c e in th e d a t in g o f

t h e M anjus'rimulakalpa, a n d p a r t ic u la r ly th e s e c t io n in w h ic h t h e p r e d ic t io n

o f N a g a r ju n a is g iv e n , to s u c h a la te t im e a s t h e o n e s u g g e s t e d b y D u t t . '5

T h e r e is, in fa c t , n o s o u n d r e a s o n f o r b e lie v in g th a t t h e t e x t w o u ld b e in

a n y p o s it io n t o c o n fu s e t w o a u t h o r s o f th e s a m e n a m e , o n e liv in g in t h e

s e c o n d o r t h ir d c e n t u r y a n d t h e o t h e r s ix h u n d r e d y e a r s la t e r , w h e n T a n t r ic

B u d d h is m w a s a lr e a d y in a m a t u r e f o r m in I n d ia . S e c o n d , a n d e v e n m o r e

d e c is iv e , t w o C h i n e s e w o r k s d is c u s s in g N a g a r ju n a ’s lif e , H s u a n - t s a n g ’ s

s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y r e p o r t a n d K u m a r a jl v a ’ s e a r ly f if t h - c e n t u r y b io g r a p h y
( 4 0 2 - 4 1 7 ) 7 b o t h n o n - T a n t r ic s o u r c e s a n d b o t h p r e c e d in g t h e t im e o f th e

s o - c a ll e d s e c o n d “ T a n t r i c N a g a r ju n a ,” p r o v i d e s im ila r in d ic a t io n s o f

N a g a r ju n a ’s lo n g e v it y a n d t h e m a n n e r o f h is d e a t h . H s iia n - t s a n g , in h is

a c c o u n t o f h is t r ip t o In d ia , te lls u s t h a t N a g a iju n a liv e d f o r “ m a n y h u n ­

d r e d s o f y e a r s ” a n d r e c o u n t s a s t o r y o f h is p a s s in g th a t c lo s e ly r e s e m b le s

T a r a n a t h a ’s [ K b d d ] , in c lu d in g t h e t h e m e t h a t N a g a r ju n a e n d e d h is life

o w in g t o th e r e q u e s t f r o m a n a m b it io u s p r i n c e .'6 E ls e w h e r e , H s iia n - t s a n g

a t t r ib u t e s t o N a g a iju n a a life s p a n o f 7 0 0 y e a r s . 17 K u m a r a jl v a ’s b io g r a p h y ,

r e v e a lin g s im ila r t h e m e s , t e lls u s t h a t t h e r e w a s a c e r t a in H I n a y a n a d h a r m a

m a s t e r w h o w a s a lw a y s a n g r y . W h e n N a g a iju n a w a s c lo s e to d e a t h , th e

s a in t a s k e d t h e “ H I n a y a n is t ,” “ W o u l d y o u lik e m e t o r e m a in f o r a lo n g

t im e in th is w o r l d ? ” H e r e p lie d , “ T r u t h f u lly , I d o n o t w is h i t .” T h e r e a f t e r ,

N a g a iju n a p a s s e d a w a y . 18

T h is s t o r y c o n t a in s t w o in t e r e s t in g im p lic a t io n s : fir s t , th a t N a g a iju n a

c o u ld h a v e liv e d “ a lo n g t im e ” h a d t h e H I n a y a n is t w is h e d it; s e c o n d , th a t

N a g a iju n a p a s s e d a w a y b e c a u s e t h e H I n a y a n is t d id n o t w is h it. T h e e x is ­

t e n c e o f r e fe r e n c e s to N a g a i ju n a ’s lo n g e v it y p r io r t o th e t im e p o s t u la t e d f o r

t h e “ s e c o n d , T a n t r ic N a g a r ju n a ” a n d its p r e s e n c e in n o n - T a n t r ic e v id e n c e

m o r e o r le s s u n d e r c u t s t h e a t t e m p t to e x p la in N a g a r ju n a ’s lo n g life b y r e f ­

e r e n c e t o a c o n fu s io n o f p r e - T a n t r ic a n d T a n t r ic fig u r e s . T h is b r in g s u s

b a c k , t h e n , to t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e o r ig in a n d s ig n ific a n c e o f N a g a i ju n a ’s

lo n g e v it y . In w h a t f o llo w s , w e a d d r e s s t h is q u e s t io n n o t b y r e f e r r in g to

p e c u lia r it ie s o f N a g a i ju n a ’s in d iv id u a l h is t o r y a s D u t t a n d o t h e r s h a v e t r ie d

t o d o , b u t r a t h e r b y t a k in g a d iffe r e n t t a c k , a t t e m p t in g to s e e N a g a iju n a

w it h in t h e la r g e a n d m u lt if a c e t e d t r a d it io n o f B u d d h is t s a in t s in In d ia ,

w it h in w h i c h h e w a s a p r im a r y a c t o r .

T h e Longevity o f S a in ts in th e V ajn ayana

In t h e T a n t r i c History o f the Eighty-four Siddhas [ C s p ] , it is n o t o n ly

N a g a iju n a w h o liv e s to a n u n n a t u r a l a g e , b u t m a n y o t h e r siddhas a s w e ll

w h o a r e e it h e r s a id to liv e a lo n g t im e o r a r e a s s ig n e d s p e c ific life s p a n s .

B h i k s a n a 19 [ 6 1 ] , f o r e x a m p le , is s a id t o h a v e liv e d “ m a n y y e a r s ,” a s a r e

M e k h a la [6 6 ] a n d K a n a k h a la [ 6 7 ] . T h e C s p te lls u s th a t G o r a k s a [9 ] is s t ill

a liv e a t t h e t im e o f t h e t e x t ’s c o m p o s it io n s u c h th a t th e s o u n d o f h is r it u a l

d r u m ( damaru) c a n b e h e a r d b y th o s e p u r e in h e a r t . 20 S a v a r ip a [5 ] is g iv e n a

t r u ly s t u p e n d o u s life s p a n , f o r h e “ w ill r e m a in in J a m b u d v lp a in th is v e r y

b o d y u n t il th e c o m in g o f M a it r e y a .” 21 M a n y o t h e r siddhas h a v e s p e c ific life

s p a n s a t t r ib u t e d t o t h e m : K a iik a n a [ 2 9 ] liv e d f o r 5 0 0 y e a r s , K u c ip a [ 3 5 ]

w o r k e d f o r t h e b e n e fit o f b e in g s f o r 7 0 0 y e a r s , M a h ip a [ 3 7 ] t a u g h t b e in g s in

M a g a d h a f o r 3 0 0 y e a r s , a n d s o o n . T h e f o llo w in g lis t s u m m a r iz e s t h e i n f o r ­

m a t io n o n th e lo n g e v it y o f th e e ig h t y - f o u r siddhas, a s p r o v id e d in th e C s p .
 io o Years 600 Years
B h u s u k u ( S a n t id e v a ) [ 4 1 ] S a r v a b h a k s a [ 7 5 ]

G o r u r a [ 5 5 ] 700 Years
j o o Years K u c ip a [ 3 5 ]

M a h ip a [ 3 7 ] Ja y a n a n d a [5 8 ]

A c in t a [ 3 8 ] D h a h u li [7 0 ]

400 Years K ir a v a [ 7 3 ]

N a lin a [4 0 ] 800 Years

SOO Years P a n a h a [7 9 ]

K a r ik a n a [2 9 ] 20 0 0 Years
K a p a la p a [ 7 2 ] N a g a b o d h i [7 6 ]

P u t a li [7 8 ]

E x c lu d i n g t h o s e siddhas f o r w h o m a m o r e t h a n n a tu r a l lo n g e v it y is n o t

u n e q u i v o c a l ly s t a t e d ,22 w e f in d t h a t f if t e e n o r n e a r ly o n e - f if t h o f t h e

e i g h t y - f o u r siddhas a r e c o n n e c t e d w it h lo n g e v it y o f a n u n u s u a l d u r a t io n ,

w it h a n a v e r a g e a g e ( e x c lu d in g S a v a r ip a , b e c a u s e o f h is v a s t life s p a n , a n d

N a g a iju n a , b e c a u s e t h e t e r m o f h is lo n g e v it y is n o t s p e c if ic a lly s t a te d ) o f

b e t w e e n 6 0 0 a n d 7 0 0 y e a r s ( 6 6 9 t o b e e x a c t ) , r ig h t in t h e n e ig h b o r h o o d o f

t h e s p e c if ic a g e s a s c r ib e d t o N a g a r ju n a in o u r s o u r c e s . S o fa r , in h is

lo n g e v it y , N a g a iju n a is n o t id io s y n c r a t ic , b u t r a t h e r a t y p ic a l siddha.
I n g a in in g a v ie w o f t h e siddhas’ life s p a n s in th e C s p , it is a ls o p e r t in e n t

t o a s k w h a t p u r p o s e t h is lo n g e v it y is s u p p o s e d t o s e r v e . T h e a n s w e r n e a r ly

a lw a y s g iv e n is th a t t h e siddhas a r e a c t in g o u t o f c o m p a s s io n a n d th a t t h e y

s p e n d t h e ir t im e w o r k i n g f o r t h e w e lf a r e o f s e n t ie n t b e i n g s . 23 T h is p u r p o s e

is s o m e t im e s a r t ic u la t e d in in s t r u c t io n s g iv e n b y t h e g u r u t o t h e n e w ly r e a l­

iz e d d is c ip le . M o r e o f t e n , th e siddhas a r e s im p ly s a id to s p e n d t h e ir t im e

h e lp in g b e in g s , p r o v id in g in s t r u c t io n , a n d b r in g in g b le s s in g s to t h e m . 24

T h e c e n t r a l r o le o f t h is t h e m e is s e e n in t h e fa c t th a t o f t h e t h ir t e e n siddhas
w h o s e lo n g e v it y is g iv e n a s p e c if ic t e r m , in e v e r y c a s e t h e siddha is e it h e r

in s t r u c t e d t o s p e n d h is t im e a c t in g c o m p a s s io n a t e ly f o r t h e b e n e f it o f b e in g s

o r is s a id t o h a v e s p e n t h is life in s u c h a c t iv it ie s .

T h e s t o r y o f N a g a b o d h i [ 7 6 ] s h e d s s o m e f u r t h e r lig h t o n t h e t e x t ’s

u n d e r s t a n d in g o f s a in t ly lo n g e v it y . N a g a b o d h i ’s g u r u , w h o h a p p e n s t o b e

N a g a iju n a , te lls h im “ Y o u s h o u ld r e m a in o n S r i P a r v a t a it s e lf, a c c o m p lis h ­

in g t h e w e lf a r e o f b e in g s ( ’gro.don.gyis.shig) . ” 25 “ It is s a id ,” t h e s t o r y c o n ­

t in u e s , “ th a t h e w ill r e m a in t h e r e f o r 2 ,0 0 0 y e a r s . ” 26 T h is s t o r y e x h ib it s a

t h e m e s e e n in t h e life o f N a g a i ju n a h im s e lf, n a m e ly th a t t h e lo n g e v it y o f

t h e s a in t is s o m e h o w d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e w is h e s a n d r e q u e s t s o f o t h e r s .

W h e r e a s in N a g a r ju n a ’s c a s e t h e s a in t d ie s in f u lf illm e n t o f s o m e o n e ’s

r e q u e s t , in th is c a s e t h e siddha is a s k e d t o r e m a in o n S r i P a r v a t a a c c o m ­

p lis h in g t h e w e lf a r e o f b e in g s , a n d s o h e liv e s o n . T h e lo n g e v it y o f th e
 siddhas, t h e n , r e v e a ls t h e s a m e t h r e e f o ld s t r u c t u r e a lr e a d y o b s e r v e d in

N a g a i ju n a ’ s life : ( i ) t h e siddhas, a s r e a liz e d s a in t s , h a v e t h e p o w e r to e x t e n d

t h e ir liv e s t o g r e a t le n g t h s ; (2 ) t h e e x p lic it p u r p o s e o f t h is lo n g e v it y is to

e n a b le t h e siddhas t o a c t c o m p a s s io n a t e ly f o r t h e w e lf a r e o f s e n t ie n t b e in g s ;

a n d (3 ) th e siddhas’ p r o lo n g a t io n o f t h e ir liv e s is s o m e t im e s d e p e n d e n t u p o n

o t h e r s ’ r e q u e s t s .27 T h is , t h e n , p r o v id e s a p a r t ia l a n s w e r t o th e p r o b le m o f

N a g a r ju n a ’s lo n g e v i t y . O n e r e a s o n t h a t N a g a r ju n a liv e s a lo n g t im e is

b e c a u s e t h is is t y p ic a l a n d a n t ic ip a t e d b e h a v io r f r o m a T a n t r ic s a in t .

Longevity am ong S a in ts in th e M a h a ya n a
A t t h e s a m e t im e , h o w e v e r , w e s a w a b o v e th a t in t im a t io n s o f N a g a i ju n a ’s

l o n g e v i t y a r e f o u n d in p r e - a n d n o n - T a n t r i c m a t e r ia ls , a n d t h is r a is e s

t h e q u e s t io n o f w h e t h e r it is o n ly T a n t r ic s a in ts w h o a r e b e lie v e d t o h a v e

t h e p o w e r t o liv e a lo n g t im e . In fa c t , a v a r ie t y o f e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s th a t th e

p o w e r o f lo n g e v it y is a ls o c o m m o n ly a t t r ib u t e d t o M a h a y a n a s a in t s w it h n o

e x p lic it c o n n e c t io n t o t h e V a jr a y a n a , in c lu d in g t h e t h r e e m o s t im p o r t a n t

c la s s e s o f M a h a y a n a s a in t s : arhats, bodhisattvas, buddhas. a n d

A f a ir ly d e t a ile d d is c u s s io n o f t h e o f arhats, s e e n
lo n g e v i t y f r o m a

M a h a y a n a v ie w p o in t , is f o u n d in t h e Nandimitravadana ( N m a ) , a n In d ia n

M a h a y a n a t e x t (a t le a s t in its fin a l f o r m 28) p r e s e r v e d in b o t h T ib e t a n a n d

C h i n e s e , 29 w h i c h e n jo y e d p a r t ic u la r p o p u la r it y a m o n g t h e f o llo w e r s o f

C h ’a n B u d d h i s m in C h i n a a n d Z e n B u d d h i s m in J a p a n , a n d a m o n g

M a h a y a n a B u d d h is t s in T i b e t . 30 T h e N m a p r e s e n t s it s e lf a s s p o k e n b y th e

g r e a t arhat N a n d im it r a w h o liv e d in S r i L a n k a “ 8 0 0 y e a r s a ft e r t h e nirvana o f

th e B u d d h a ,” 31 a c h r o n o lo g y w h ic h , i f f o llo w e d , w o u l d p la c e N a n d im it r a

in o r a b o u t t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . 32 I n a n y c a s e , t h e t e x t w a s in e x is t e n c e

s o m e t im e p r io r t o t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , a t w h ic h t im e it w a s tr a n s la te d in t o

C h in e s e b y H s i i a n - t s a n g . 33 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e N m a , w h e n t h e B u d d h a w a s

a b o u t t o e n t e r parinirvana, h e e n t r u s t e d h is dharma t o s ix t e e n g r e a t arhats a n d

t h e ir e n t o u r a g e , a n d c o m m a n d e d t h e m to p r o t e c t it a n d p r e s e r v e it f r o m

e x t in c t io n . A m o n g th e s e arhats w e r e P in d o la b h a r a d v a ja a s fir s t a n d c h i e f o f

t h e g r o u p , a n d a ls o K a n a k a v a t s a , K a n a k a p a r id h v a ja , S u b in d a , N a k u la ,

B h a d r a , K a l ik a , V a jr a p u t r a , S v a p a k a , P a n t h a k a , R a h u l a ( n a m e o f t h e

B u d d h a ’s s o n ) , N a g a s e n a , I n g a d a , V a n a v a s i, A jit a , a n d C u d a p a n t h a k a . 34

A c c o r d in g to t h e N m a , t h e B u d d h a a s k e d t h e s e s ix t e e n s a in t s t o p r o t e c t th e

dharma a n d t o m a k e t h e m s e lv e s a v a ila b le t o t h e la it y a s fie ld s o f m e r it , s o th a t

th e la it y , b y m a k in g d o n a t io n s to t h e m , m ig h t e a r n g r e a t r e w a r d . In o r d e r

t o f u lf ill t h e B u d d h a ’s r e q u e s t , t h e s i x t e e n arhats, b y m e a n s o f m a g ic a l

p o w e r , h a v e e x t e n d e d t h e ir liv e s in d e f in it e ly . T h u s w e r e a d , “ B e c a u s e [th e

s ix t e e n arhats] h a v e r e c e iv e d th e c o m m a n d o f t h e B u d d h a , o w in g t o th e

p o w e r o f t h e ir s u p e r n a t u r a l p e n e t r a t io n s , t h e y h a v e p r o lo n g e d t h e d u r a t io n
o f t h e ir o w n liv e s . A n d a s lo n g a s th e c o r r e c t dharma o f th e B le s s e d O n e

e n d u r e s . . . t h e y w ill c o n s t a n t ly p r o t e c t a n d m a in t a in it, a n d w ill a c t a s a

v e r it a b le f ie ld o f m e r it s o th a t t h e ir b e n e fa c t o r s w ill o b t a in g r e a t r e w a r d . ” 35

T h e s ix t e e n arhats h a v e t a k e n u p a b o d e s in m y s t e r io u s a n d o u t o f th e w a y

p la c e s , in c lu d in g c e r t a in m o u n t a in s k n o w n f o r m e d it a t in g h e r m it s , t h e

m a jo r c o n t in e n t s o f t h e w o r ld , s e m im y t h ic a l la n d s , a n d e v e n t h e r e a lm s o f

t h e g o d s . F r o m t h e s e p la c e s , i f p r o p e r ly s u p p lic a t e d , t h e y w ill c o m e a m o n g

o r d in a r y f o lk , s in g ly a n d a n o n y m o u s ly , p r e s e n t in g t h e m s e lv e s a s a lm s s e e k ­

e r s . H o w lo n g w ill b e th e life s p a n s o f t h e s e arhats? T h e Nandimitravaddna

t e lls u s th a t t h e y w ill s t a y in t h e w o r ld t h r o u g h a d e c r e a s e a n d t h e n a n

in c r e a s e in t h e o r d in a r y h u m a n life s p a n . W h e n h u m a n s w ill liv e f o r 7 0 ,0 0 0

y e a r s , t h e dharma w i l l d i s a p p e a r f r o m th e w o r ld f o r e v e r . A t th a t t im e , th e

s ix t e e n g r e a t arhats w i l l g a t h e r t o g e t h e r , e r e c t a g r e a t stupa c o n t a in in g a ll th e

r e lic s o f B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i a n d , a ft e r p r a is in g it e f f u s iv e ly , w ill a s c e n d in t o

t h e a ir , b u r s t in t o fla m e , a n d s p o n t a n e o u s ly c r e m a t e t h e m s e l v e s . 3 *5 T h e s e

e v e n t s w ill b e a p r e lu d e t o t h e c o m in g o f M a it r e y a , w h o w ill a r r iv e w h e n

t h e d u r a t io n o f h u m a n life w ill h a v e r e a c h e d 8 0 ,0 0 0 y e a r s . 37 T h u s it is th a t

t h e s ix t e e n arhats w i l l l i v e n e a r ly t o t h e e n d o f t h e kalpa ,38 T h e lo n g e v it y o f

t h e s ix t e e n arhats, t h e n , e x h ib it s t h e s a m e t h r e e fo ld s t r u c t u r e th a t w e h a v e

a lr e a d y s e e n in t h e b io g r a p h y o f N a g a r ju n a a n d a m o n g t h e e i g h t y - f o u r

siddhas: ( 1 ) t h e arhats a r e a b le t o g r e a t ly e x t e n d th e le n g t h s o f t h e ir liv e s ; (2 )

t h e ir m o t iv a t io n is c o m p a s s io n , f o r t h e y w o u l d p r o t e c t t h e dharma a n d b e

fie ld s o f g r e a t m e r it f o r s e n t ie n t b e in g s ; a n d (3 ) t h e ir o n g o in g p r e s e n c e in

t h e w o r ld is b o u n d u p w it h t h e ir b e in g a s k e d t o r e m a in — in t h is c a s e , it is

t h e B u d d h a w h o a s k s t h e m to d e la y t h e ir parinirvanas.39
T h e M a h a y a n a a ls o k n o w s o f a n o t h e r lo n g e v it y , t h is t im e o f fu t u r e

buddhas, th e bodhisattvas, w h o a c h ie v e lo n g e v it y t h r o u g h t h e ir p o w e r to

c o n t r o l t h e le n g t h o f t h e ir liv e s . T h e Dasabhutnika Sutra,4 0 f o r e x a m p le , te lls

u s th a t w h e n t h e bodhisattva a t ta in s th e e ig h t h bhumi k n o w n a s acala o r “ th e

i m m o v a b l e ,” h e d e v e lo p s t h e t e n vasita. A m o n g t h e s e is i n c lu d e d

ayur-vasita, o r t h e p o w e r o v e r life s p a n e n a b lin g o n e to p r o lo n g o n e ’ s life

a c c o r d in g t o o n e ’s w is h e s .4 ' T h e t e x t e x p la in s t h is a s t h e a b ilit y t o liv e u p

to a n im m e a s u r a b le n u m b e r o f kalpas ,42 T h is c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n is , o f c o u r s e ,

f o u n d q u it e w id e ly a m o n g M a h a y a n a sutrasAl a n d sastras,44
F in a lly , t h e M a h a y a n a , p a r t ic u la r ly in its sutra l i t e r a t u r e , s p e a k s o f th e

lo n g e v it y n o t o n ly arhats a n d bodhisattvas, b
o f e x a m ­ u t a l s o o f buddhas. O n e

p le is p r o v i d e d b y t h e Dasabhumika Sutra j u s t m e n t i o n e d , w h e r e i t i s
a s s u m e d th a t e v e r y buddha h a s a l r e a d y g a i n e d t h e p o w e r o f l o n g e v i t y a s a
bodhisattva a t th e e ig h t h bhumi. T h e Sukhavadvyuha Sutra s t a t e s t h a t , b a s e d
o n t h e p o w e r o f h is m e d it a t iv e a t t a in m e n t , t h e T a t h a g a t a c o u ld , i f h e

w is h e s , liv e f o r “ a w h o l e kalpa . . . o r f o r a h u n d r e d kalpas, o r f o r a t h o u ­

s a n d kalpas, o r f o r a h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d kalpas, t o a h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d
niyutas o f kotis o f kalpas, n a y , h e c o u ld liv e b e y o n d . ” 45 A n d w e a r e t o ld th a t

“ t h e le n g t h o f t h e life o f t h e B h a g a v a t A m it a b h a , th e tathagata, is im m e a ­

s u r a b le , s o th a t it is n o t e a s y t o k n o w its le n g t h , s o a s t o b e a b le t o s a y (th a t

it c o m p r is e s ) s o m a n y kalpas, s o m a n y h u n d r e d s o f kalpas . . . s o m a n y h u n ­

d r e d t h o u s a n d s o f niyutas o f kotis o f k a lp a s."* 6 F u r t h e r , t h e M a h a y a n a

M ahaparinirvana Sutra, h a s t h e B u d d h a s a y in g “ y o u c a n n o t c o u n t t h e le n g t h

o f m y l i f e . ” 47 T h e t e x t f u r t h e r r e m a r k s , “ t h e le n g t h o f life o f th e tathagata is

u n c o u n t a b le . . . h e is t h e fir s t o f a ll e t e r n a l t h in g s . . . . H o w c o u ld it n o t b e

th a t h e c a n liv e f o r h a lf a kalpa, a kalpa, a h u n d r e d kalpas, a h u n d r e d t h o u ­

s a n d kalpas, o r in n u m e r a b le kalpas. B e c a u s e o f t h is k n o w th a t t h e tathagata

is a n e t e r n a l a n d u n c h a n g in g e x i s t e n c e . ” 48 T h e M a h a y a n a c o m m e n t a r ia l

t r a d it io n s f o ll o w t h e s e t h e m e s , a s in t h e Ratnagotravibhaga Sastra, w h i c h

c o n fir m s t h e te n vasitas, w it h lo n g e v it y a s t h e fir s t it e m , a s a d e fin in g f e a ­

t u r e o f t h e tathagata a s a t y p e . 49 A m o r e c u lt ic g lim p s e o f t h e bu ddh a' s

lo n g e v it y is p r o v id e d b y S a n t id e v a ’ s Bodhicaryavatara. In th e c o n t e x t o f a n

a c c o u n t o f t h e c la s s ic a l “ s e v e n f o ld s e r v i c e ,” w e r e a d ,

With fo ld ed hands, I beseech

The conquerors who wish to pass away
To remain fo r countless kalpas
A n d not to leave the world in darkness.50

N o t e t h e t h e m e s o f buddhas w h o c a n e x t e n d t h e ir p r e s e n c e n e a r ly in d e f i­

n it e ly , w h o s e p r e s e n c e is b o u n d u p w it h th e h e lp t h e y p r o v id e to th e w o r ld ,

a n d ( im p lic it in th is p a s s a g e ) w h o a r e a b le a n d w illin g t o r e s p o n d t o s e n t ie n t

b e in g s ’ r e q u e s t s th a t t h e y r e m a in . T h e r e f o r e , in th e M a h a y a n a d is c u s s io n s o f

t h e lo n g e v it y o f bodhisattvas a n d buddhas, w e fin d t h e s a m e t h r e e in t e r c o n ­

n e c t e d b e lie fs s e e n a b o v e in th e lo n g e v it y o f N a g a iju n a , th e siddhas, a n d th e

s ix t e e n arhats: ( 1 ) th a t s a in ts h a v e th e p o w e r t o g r e a t ly e x t e n d t h e ir life s p a n s ;

(2 ) th a t t h e y d o s o in o r d e r to b e n e f it s e n t ie n t b e in g s ; a n d (3 ) th a t r e q u e s t ­

in g t h e m t o r e m a in is s o m e h o w p e r t in e n t t o t h e ir d o in g s o .

The Longevity o f S a in ts in N ikaya B u d d h is m

T h e lo n g e v i t y o f B u d d h is t s a in t s is a ls o a n im p o r t a n t t h e m e in N i k a y a

B u d d h is m , in T h e r a v a d a , S a r v a s t iv a d a , a n d M a h a s a n g ik a n t r a d it io n s . In

a c c o r d w it h a ll o t h e r B u d d h is t s , th e N ik a y a s c h o o ls m a in t a in th a t B u d d h a

S a k y a m u n i, lik e a ll buddhas, h a s t h e p o w e r o f lo n g li f e .51 T h u s t h e

S a r v a s t iv a d in s h e ld t h a t t h e B u d d h a c o u ld h a v e li v e d f o r a k alp a,52 t h e

M a h a s a n g h ik a s th a t h is life is u n lim i t e d , 53 a n d th e T h e r a v a d in s th a t th e le n g t h

o f h is life c a n n o t b e c o n c e i v e d . 54

T h e N ik a y a t r a d it io n s a ls o e x h ib it b e lie fs in th e lo n g e v it y o f arhats.55
T h e r e is e v id e n c e , f o r e x a m p le , th a t th e S a r v a s t iv a d in s e n g a g e d in th e c u lt
o f t h e s ix t e e n arhats.56 In a d d it io n , o n e fin d s o t h e r e v id e n c e o f c u lt ic tr a d i­

t io n s a m o n g t h e T h e r a v a d in s c lo s e ly r e s e m b lin g t h e c u lt o f t h e s ix t e e n

arhats. M a u n g K i n , 57 f o r e x a m p le , t e lls u s t h a t t h e B u r m e s e c u lt o f th e

B u d d h is t m a s t e r U p a g u p t a ( U p a g u t t a o r U p a g u t t a N a g a 58) ( fo r w h ic h th e

Lokapannati is a n im p o r t a n t t e x t u a l s o u r c e ) in v o lv e s t h e b e li e f th a t th e s a in t

h a s p r o lo n g e d th e life o f h is b o d y t h r o u g h th e p o w e r o f rddhi ( P . iddhi)

g a in e d t h r o u g h h is m e d it a t io n a n d r e a liz a t io n . U p a g u p t a n o w liv e s in a

p a la c e h id d e n in th e d e p t h s o f t h e s o u t h e r n o c e a n a n d w ill r e m a in a liv e

t h e r e , p r o t e c t in g th e dharma, a s lo n g a s it s h a ll s u r v iv e u p o n e a r t h . A s e c o n d

e x a m p le , f r o m t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n t e x t s r e c o u n t in g th e le g e n d o f A s o k a [th e

Asokavadana, c o n t a in e d in th e D ivyavadan a 5 9 a n d th e Asokarajavadana ( C ./ l -

yii-wang-chuan60)], is th a t o f P in d o la b h a r a d v a ja . In th e Asokavadana v e r s io n ,

t h is s a in t s u d d e n ly a n d m ir a c u lo u s ly a p p e a r s b e fo r e K in g A s o k a t o o c c u p y

t h e p la c e o f h o n o r a t a g r e a t fe a s t o f f e r e d b y t h e k in g t o t h e B u d d h is t

sahgha .6l A s o k a ’s g u r u h a s p r e v io u s ly t o ld th e k in g o f P in d o l a ’s m ir a c u lo u s

lo n g e v it y , th a t th is s a in t w a s a liv e in t h e t im e o f B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i h im s e lf,

a n d th a t it is o n ly h e w h o m a y o c c u p y t h e p la c e o f h o n o r a t t h e fe a s t.

P in d o la a r r iv e s , e x h ib it in g t h e m a r v e lo u s b o d y o f a pratyekabuddha, w it h

w h it e h a ir a n d h e a v y e y e b r o w s . W h e n th e k in g a s k s w h e t h e r P in d o la h a s in

fa c t s e e n t h e B u d d h a , th e s a in t r e p lie s th a t h e h a s , a n d g o e s o n to g iv e a lo n g ,

d e t a ile d , a n d e v o c a t iv e d e s c r ip t io n o f s o m e o f h is e x p e r ie n c e s o f s e e in g th e

B le s s e d O n e . T h e s e t w o e x a m p le s a r e in t e r e s t in g b e c a u s e , t a k e n t o g e t h e r

w it h th e M a h a y a n a c u lt o f th e s ix t e e n arhats, t h e y r e v e a l a v e r y s p e c ific t y p e

o f B u d d h is t s a in t q u it e in d e p e n d e n t o f s e c t a r ia n d iv is io n s .

A d iffe r e n t k in d o f th e lo n g e v it y o f arhats w it h in N ik a y a B u d d h is m is

f o u n d in th e v a r ie t y o f le g e n d s s u r r o u n d in g M a h a k a s y a p a , a c lo s e d is c ip le o f

th e B u d d h a a n d , a c c o r d in g to S a r v a s t iv a d a a n d M a h a s a n g h ik a s o u r c e s , h is

p r in c ip a l lin e a g e h o ld e r . M a h a k a s y a p a ’s u n iq u e s ta tu s is e m b o d ie d in th e

B u d d h a ’s pamsukfda o r m e n d ic a n t ’s r o b e , w h ic h th e B u d d h a h a s e n tr u s te d to

h im , a s k in g h im t o k e e p it u n til th e c o m in g o f M a it r e y a , th e fu t u r e buddha.
W h e n th is la tte r a r r iv e s u p o n e a r t h , M a h a k a s y a p a is to p a s s it 0 11 to h im , th u s

s y m b o liz in g th e c o n t in u it y o f lin e a g e fr o m th e B u d d h a to M a h a k a s y a p a to

M a it r e y a . In th e Asokarajavadana, in th e c h a p t e r d e s c r ib in g th e nirvana o f

M a h a k a s y a p a , w e r e a d th a t o n e d a y w h ile h e is in R a ja g r h a , th is s a in t r e a liz e s

th a t h is w o r k is n o w c o m p le t e a n d th e t im e o f h is fin a l p a s s in g c lo s e a t h a n d .

H e t r a n s m its h is lin e a g e to A n a n d a a n d m a k e s a fin a l p ilg r im a g e to a d o r e th e

r e lic s o f th e B u d d h a . M a h a k a s y a p a ’s d e v o t e e s , b o t h h u m a n a n d d iv in e , r e a liz e

th a t th e e n d o f th e ir m a s te r is n e a r , a n d th e y e x h ib it s o r r o w a n d la m e n ta tio n .

S o o n M a h a k a s y a p a q u it s R a ja g r h a a n d a s c e n d s M o u n t K u k k u t a p a d a , w h e r e

h e w ill e n t e r nirvana. In th e m id d le o f t h r e e p e a k s , h e s its d o w n in m e d it a t io n

p o s t u r e , r e fle c t in g th a t h is b o d y is n o w c lo t h e d in th e pamsukula th a t th e

B u d d h a g a v e h im , w h ic h h e w ill w e a r u n til th e c o m in g o f M a it r e y a . T h e
e a r t h n o w q u a k e s in s ix w a y s a n d S a k r a a n d h is r e t in u e o f d e it ie s a r r iv e , s h o w ­

e r in g o ffe r in g s o f c e le s t ia l flo w e r s a n d p e r fu m e d p o w d e r s o n th e s a in t. T h e n

M a h a k a s y a p a p a s se s in t o th e tr a n c e o f c e s s a t io n ( nirodha-samapatti) a n d th e

m o u n t a in c lo s e s o v e r h is b o d y . K in g A j a t a s 'a t r u , th e s a in t ’s p r in c ip a l r o y a l

p a t r o n , a r r iv e s a lo n g w it h A n a n d a , M a h a k a s y a p a ’s lin e a g e h o ld e r , a n d in

a c c o r d a n c e w it h a p r e d ic t io n p r e v io u s ly m a d e b y M a h a k a s y a p a , t h e m o u n t a in

o p e n s a llo w in g th e k in g t o s e e a n d v e n e r a t e h im . H o w e v e r , w h e n th e k in g

s u g g e s ts a c r e m a t io n , A n a n d a t e lls h im th a t M a h a k a s y a p a is n o t d e a d , b u t

p lu n g e d in m e d it a t io n a n d h e m u s t n o t b e b u r n e d , b u t a llo w e d to r e m a in

in t a c t s o th a t h e c a n f u lfill h is m is s io n w h e n M a it r e y a a r r iv e s . T h u s

M a h a k a s y a p a r e m a in s a n d s h a ll r e m a in , a b id in g in nirodha-samapatti u n til th e

fu t u r e B u d d h a w a lk s u p o n e a r t h .62 I n t h e e v id e n c e o f M a h a k a s y a p a ’ s

lo n g e v it y , w e th u s s e e th e s a m e t h r e e fo ld p a tt e r n : ( i) M a h a k a s 'y a p a h a s th e

p o w e r to p r o lo n g h is life — in h is c a s e , t h r o u g h h is m e d it a t io n in nirodha-sama­
patti; (2 ) h is d o in g s o is a n e x p r e s s io n o f h is c o m p a s s io n fo r s e n t ie n t b e in g s —

h e r e , h e a c c o m p lis h e s g r e a t b e n e fit fo r th e w o r ld b y p r o v id in g c o n t in u it y

fr o m B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i to M a it r e y a ; a n d (3 ) h e p r o lo n g s h is life b e c a u s e h e

h a s b e e n a s k e d to d o s o , in th is c a s e , b y th e B u d d h a h im s e lf. In c o n c lu d in g o u r

d is c u s s io n o f M a h a k a s y a p a , it m a y b e n o t e d th a t M a h a k a s y a p a ’s t y p e o f

lo n g e v it y is n o t e n t ir e ly id io s y n c r a t ic fo r , in fa c t, a n u m b e r o f s p e c ific th e m e s

c o n n e c t e d w it h it a r e fo u n d e ls e w h e r e . F o r e x a m p le , H s iia n - t s a n g r e p o r ts th a t

th e bodhisattva B h a v a v iv e k a , d e e p ly d e s ir in g to s e e th e B u d d h a M a it r e y a , w a s

in s t r u c t e d t o m a k e s u p p lic a t io n to V a jr a p n i a t h is s h r in e a t th e “ A s u r a ’s

P a la c e ” in a c e r ta in c li f f n e a r D h a n y a k a t a k a . A s a r e s u lt , th e c lif f w o u ld o p e n ,

w h e r e u p o n h e w o u ld b e a b le to e n t e r a n d th e r e , lik e M a h a k a s y a p a , a w a it th e

c o m in g o f M a it r e y a . B h a v a v iv e k a fo llo w s th e s e in s tr u c tio n s a n d , a fte r t h r e e

y e a r s , th e c li f f o p e n s a n d h e p a s se s in a lo n g w it h s ix o t h e r s . 63

T h e f o r e g o in g a n a ly s is s h o w s , t h e n , th a t N a g a r ju n a ’s lo n g e v it y is n o t

a n id io s y n c r a t ic p h e n o m e n o n , n o r e v e n r e s t r ic t e d to th e V a jr a y a n a a n d

M a h a y a n a b u t is r a t h e r o n e e x a m p le o f a w id e s p r e a d p a t t e r n w it h in I n d ia n

B u d d h is m . L o n g e v it y is o ft e n a t t r ib u t e d t o th e B u d d h is t s a in ts a s s u c h , ir r e ­

s p e c t iv e o f s e c t a r ia n a ffilia t io n , b e t h e y arhats, bodhisattvas, siddhas, o r bud­

dhas , a n d r e g a r d le s s o f t h e t r a d it io n w it h w h i c h t h e y a r e a s s o c ia t e d .

T h e L o n g e v it y of th e B u6 6 ha
T h e p r e c e d in g d is c u s s io n is b a s e d o n t e x t s d a t in g fr o m t h e c o m m o n e r a , a n d

th is le a v e s u n a n s w e r e d a c r u c ia l q u e s t io n : T o w h a t e x t e n t d o th e B u d d h is t

s a in ts a n d t h e ir lo n g e v it y r e fle c t e a r ly B u d d h is m , a n d to w h a t e x t e n t d o t h e y

r e p r e s e n t a la t e r d e v e lo p m e n t ? E t ie n n e L a m o t t e , in h is H istoire du
Bouddhism e indien, h a s s u g g e s t e d t h e c o m m o n ly a c c e p t e d in t e r p r e t a t io n .

T h e B u d d h a , L a m o t t e s a y s , o r i g i n a ll y t a u g h t a p h i lo s o p h i c o - m y s t i c a l
d o c t r in e to h is c lo s e d i s c i p le s 64 a n d w a s o r ig in a lly u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e m a s a

h u m a n b e in g , w it h a ll t h e lim it a t io n s im p lie d t h e r e b y . 65 In t im e , o w in g

la r g e ly t o p r e s s u r e f r o m th e la it y , B u d d h is m c h a n g e d f r o m a p h ilo s o p h y in t o

a r e l i g i o n 66 a n d , a s p a r t o f th is t r a n s it io n , b e g a n t o d e v e lo p m o r e g r a n d io s e

n o t io n s o f its e n lig h t e n e d o n e s , fo r , a s L a m o t t e p u t s it, “ n o t h in g c o u ld p r e ­

v e n t th e B u d d h is t s f r o m a ls o h a v in g t h e ir s a in t s .” 67 A c c o r d i n g to th is e x p la ­

n a t io n , f o u n d v a r ia n t ly in t h e w o r k s o f B a r e a u , 68 P a c h o w , 69 a n d m a n y

o t h e r s , th e e x t r a v a g a n t b e lie fs a b o u t t h e B u d d h is t s a in t s a n d th e c u lt th a t

s u r r o u n d s t h e m a r e r e la t iv e ly la te p h e n o m e n a a n d d o n o t r e p r e s e n t e a r ly

B u d d h is m .

L e t u s r e c o n s id e r th is is s u e b y s e e in g w h a t , i f a n y , r o le o u r t h e m e o f th e

lo n g e v it y o f th e B u d d h is t s a in ts m a y p la y in o ld e r te x ts . A s a n e x a m p le , w e

c a n c o n s id e r th e M ahaparinirvana Sutra ( M p s ) ( P . M ahaparinibbana Sutta ),

w h ic h , in its o ld e r s e c t io n s , is b e lie v e d b y F r a u w a l l n e r 70 a n d o t h e r s to s ta n d

a t th e b e g in n in g s o f B u d d h is t lit e r a t u r e it s e lf. In c h a p t e r t h r e e o f th e P a li v e r ­

s io n , w e in fa c t fin d a n e x t e n d e d d is c u s s io n o f th e B u d d h a ’s lo n g e v i t y .71 T h e

P a li M p s r e la te s h o w o n e d a y t h e B u d d h a , a fte r s e e k in g a lm s in V a is a li, w a lk s

w it h A n a n d a t o th e C a p a la C e t i y a .72 S it t in g d o w n t h e r e , h e c o m m e n t s t o

A n a n d a th a t “ W h o s o e v e r h a s t h o u g h t o u t , d e v e lo p e d , p r a c t is e d , a c c u m u ­

la te d , a n d a s c e n d e d to th e v e r y h e ig h t s o f th e f o u r p a th s t o iddhi (iddhi-pada),
a n d s o m a s t e r e d t h e m a s t o b e a b le t o u s e t h e m a s a m e a n s o f (m e n ta l)

a d v a n c e m e n t , a n d a s a b a s is f o r e d ific a t io n , h e , s h o u ld h e d e s ir e it, c o u ld

r e m a in in th e s a m e b ir t h f o r a kalpa, o r f o r th a t p o r t io n o f a kalpa w h ic h h a d

y e t t o r u n .73 In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d th is p a s s a g e , w e n e e d t o k n o w th a t th e

iddhi-pada ( S k t . R ddhi-pada) a r e f o u r samadhi o r m e d it a t iv e a t t a in m e n t s , 74

w h ic h a r e c la s s ic a lly u n d e r s t o o d t o le a d to fa c ilit y in th e s ix abhinna (S k t.

abhijna) o r s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s . 75 T h u s th e B u d d h a is h e r e s a y in g th a t th e

m e d it a t o r w h o h a s p e r fe c t e d th e iddhi-pada a n d is t h e r e fo r e in p o s s e s s io n o f

th e s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s c a n in d e fin it e ly e x t e n d h is life s p a n , e v e n to th a t

u n im a g in a b ly d is t a n t t im e w h e n a ll w o r ld s s h a ll e n d .76 T h e n , in o r d e r to

c la r ify h is m e a n in g , th e B u d d h a c o n t in u e s , “ N o w th e tathagata h a s t h o u g h t

t h e m o u t , a n d t h o r o u g h ly p r a c t ic e d a n d d e v e lo p e d t h e m [in a ll r e s p e c t s as

ju s t m o r e fu lly d e s c r ib e d ] , a n d h e c o u ld , t h e r e fo r e , s h o u ld h e d e s ir e it, liv e

o n y e t fo r a kalpa, o r fo r th a t p o r t io n o f th e kalpa w h ic h h a s y e t t o r u n . 77

H e r e w e h a v e th e c la im o f e x t r a o r d in a r y lo n g e v it y m a d e b y th e B u d d h a fo r

h im s e lf: b e c a u s e o f h is a t t a in m e n t , h e is n o t s u b je c t to th e u s u a l o p e r a t io n o f

d e a th , b u t m a y liv e in d e fin it e ly , u n t il th e e n d o f th e kalpa. It is im p o r t a n t to

n o t e th a t th is c la im — a s p r e s e n t e d in t h is p a s s a g e — is u n d e r s t o o d to a p p ly n o t

ju s t to S a k y a m u n i, n o r to a n y o n e c la s s o f s a in t s ( e .g ., buddhas), b u t is to b e

g a in e d b y a n y o n e , a s th e t e x t s a y s , w h o h a s th e r e q u is it e a t ta in m e n ts . T h is

e n d s u p b e in g a c la im , o n th e p a r t o f th e M p s , th a t r e a liz e d s a in t s , a s s u c h ,

h a v e th e p o w e r o f lo n g e v i t y , e v e n to th e e n d o f th e kalpa.
 T h e M p s h a s a lr e a d y t o ld u s th a t th e B u d d h a ’s lo n g e v it y is n o t a u t o ­

m a t ic : h e w il l liv e o n o n ly i f h e w is h e s t o d o s o (akankhamdna) . B u t u n d e r

w h a t c o n d it io n s w ill h e w is h t o d o s o ? T h e a n s w e r is p r o v id e d in t h e f o l­

lo w i n g s e c t io n o f t h e t e x t . T h e B u d d h a , p r e s u m a b ly b e c a u s e h e is h im s e lf

w it h o u t p e r s o n a l d e s ir e , m u s t b e s u p p lic a t e d to r e m a in in samsara, o t h e r ­

w is e h e w ill n o t d o s o . I n fa c t , t h e M p s t e lls u s , th e r e a s o n w h y t h e B u d d h a

b r in g s t h is s u b je c t u p t o A n a n d a in t h e fir s t p la c e is t o p r o d h im t o m a k e

th e n e c e s s a r y r e q u e s t . H o w e v e r , t h e t e x t c o n t in u e s , “ e v e n t h o u g h a s u g ­

g e s t io n s o e v id e n t a n d a h in t s o c le a r w e r e th u s g iv e n b y t h e B le s s e d O n e ,

t h e v e n e r a b le A n a n d a w a s in c a p a b le o f c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e m ; a n d h e

b e s o u g h t n o t t h e B le s s e d O n e . ” 78 It is v e r y in t e r e s t in g th a t t h e M p s t h e n

te lls u s exactly w h a t A n a n d a s h o u ld h a v e s a id : “ h e b e s o u g h t n o t th e B le s s e d

O n e s a y in g , ‘V o u c h s a fe , L o r d , t o r e m a in ( titthatu ) d u r in g t h e kalpal L iv e o n

t h r o u g h t h e kalpa, O B le s s e d O n e ! f o r t h e g o o d a n d t h e h a p p in e s s o f th e

g r e a t m u lt it u d e s ( bahujana-hitaya . . . bahujana-snkhaya) , o u t o f p it y f o r th e

w o r l d ( lokanukam paya ) , f o r t h e g o o d a n d t h e g a in a n d t h e w e a l o f g o d s a n d

m e n ( atthaya hitaya sukhaya deva-manussanan)V ” 79

A n d w h y d id A n a n d a n o t a s k th e B u d d h a t o liv e o n ? T h e M p s s a y s th a t

h is h e a r t w a s p o s s e s s e d b y M a r a . 80 I n fa c t , M a r a h a s a lr e a d y p r e v io u s ly a s k e d

t h e B le s s e d O n e t o d ie n o w , a n d A n a n d a n o t in t e r v e n in g , M a r a ’s r e q u e s t

r e m a in s in f o r c e .81

H e r e , t h e n , in t h is a n c ie n t B u d d h is t t e x t , w e fin d a b e li e f in t h e p o w e r

o f lo n g e v it y n o t o n ly o f B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i, t h e p a r a d ig m a t ic B u d d h is t

s a in t , b u t o f r e a liz e d s a in t s a s s u c h . In t h e a t t r ib u t io n o f t h is p o w e r to

B u d d h a S a k y a m u n i, w e a ls o fin d t h e s a m e t h r e e f o ld p a t t e r n : ( i ) S a k y a m u n i

B u d d h a p o s s e s s e s t h e p o w e r t o liv e u p to t h e e n d o f t h e kalpa; (2 ) i f h e d id

s o , it w o u l d b e “ f o r t h e g o o d a n d th e h a p p in e s s o f t h e g r e a t m u lt it u d e s , o u t

o f p it y f o r t h e w o r ld , f o r t h e g o o d a n d t h e g a in a n d th e w e a l o f g o d s a n d

m e n ” ; a n d (3 ) h is a c t iv a t io n o f t h is p o w e r is d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e w is h e s

a n d e x p lic t r e q u e s t s o f s e n t ie n t b e in g s — i f A n a n d a h a d a s k e d h im t o liv e o n ,

h e w o u l d h a v e . S in c e A n a n d a d id n o t , t h e B le s s e d O n e a c c e d e s t o M a r a ’ s

r e q u e s t f o r a s p e e d y e n t r y in t o fin a l nirvana.62 T h e s e t o f b e lie fs t a k in g s h a p e

in t h e t r a d it io n o f N a g a i ju n a ’s lo n g e v it y , t h e n , is n o t o n ly o n e e x a m p le o f

a s e t o f b e lie fs c o n c e r n in g th e lo n g e v it y o f r e a liz e d p e r s o n s c o m m o n ly h e ld

in I n d ia n B u d d h is m , b u t a ls o o n e d a t in g b a c k t o e a r ly t im e s .8 j

H o w e v e r , m o r e y e t c a n b e s a id . B a r e a u , a s a r e s u lt o f h is e x t e n s iv e

a n a ly s is o f t h e Mahaparinirvana Sutra, c o n c lu d e s th a t t h e t e x t a s it n o w e x is t s

in its s ix e x t a n t v e r s io n s w a s c o m p o s e d o v e r a lo n g p e r io d o f t im e , t h e e a r ­

lie s t s e c t io n s d a t in g f r o m s o o n a ft e r th e p a s s in g o f th e B u d d h a , th e la te s t

s e c t io n s b e i n g c o m p le t e d s h o r t ly b e f o r e t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e c o m m o n

e r a . 84 It is s ig n ific a n t th a t t h e s e c t io n d e a lin g w it h t h e B u d d h a ’s lo n g e v it y

o c c u r s in th a t p a r t o f t h e M p s ju d g e d b y B a r e a u to b e th e o ld e s t , a n d it a ls o
o c c u r s in a ll s ix v e r s io n s o f t h e t e x t , fu r t h e r s u g g e s t in g its r e la t iv e a n t iq u it y ,

e v e n w it h in t h is o ld e s t p a r t . 85 T h is im p lie s , o f c o u r s e , th a t t h e b e li e f in th e

lo n g e v it y o f t h e B u d d h a ( a n d o t h e r s a in ts ) s t a n d s c lo s e t o t h e in it ia l c o m ­

p o s it io n o f t h e M p s its e lf, th u s p u s h in g t h is b e li e f b a c k t o w a r d t h e b e g in ­

n in g s o f B u d d h is t lit e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r , o n e m a y p e r h a p s g o a b it fu r t h e r

y e t . N o t o n ly is th is b e li e f f o u n d in th e e a r lie s t s e c t io n s o f th is t e x t , b u t it

c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e M p s a c t u a lly p r e s u p p o s e s t h e B u d d h a ’s

lo n g e v it y a n d o t h e r fe a t u r e s o f th e B u d d h is t s a in t s , a n d c o n s t r u c t s m a n y o f

its a r g u m e n t s a s r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s e . 86 I n lig h t o f t h is , it w o u l d n o t b e u n r e a ­

s o n a b le t o h y p o t h e s iz e t h a t t h e s p e c if ic b e l i e f in t h e lo n g e v i t y o f t h e

B u d d h is t s a in t s , a s d e fin e d in t h is e s s a y , a c t u a lly p r e d a t e s t h e in it ia l c o m p o ­

s it io n o f th e M p s its e lf.

C o n clu sio n
W e m a y c o n c lu d e b y s u m m a r iz in g o u r fin d in g s a n d s u g g e s t in g s o m e o f

t h e ir m o r e o b v io u s im p lic a t io n s .

N a g a i ju n a ’ s lo n g e v it y is c le a r ly n o t a n id io s y n c r a t ic p h e n o m e n o n o f

th e in d iv id u a l h is t o r y o f a p a r t ic u la r s a in t, b u t r a t h e r o n e e x a m p le o f a v e r y

w id e s p r e a d p a t t e r n w it h in I n d ia n B u d d h is m L o n g e v it y is o ft e n a s c r ib e d to

th e B u d d h is t s a in t s a s s u c h , w h e t h e r buddhas, arhats, bodhisattvas o r siddhas.

M o r e o v e r , t h is b e l i e f is f o u n d in e a c h o f t h e m a jo r I n d ia n t r a d it io n s —

N ik a y a , M a h a y a n is t , a n d T a n t r ic — a n d f r o m t h e e a r lie s t d a y s o f B u d d h is m

in I n d ia d o w n t o its la t e s t m a n ife s t a t io n s .

T h e lo n g e v it y o f e a c h o f t h e s e s a in t s , t h r o u g h o u t t h e v a r io u s t r a d it io n s

a n d p e r io d s o f In d ia n B u d d h is t h is t o r y , is c o n c e iv e d in a r e m a r k a b ly s im i­

la r m a n n e r , c o n t a i n in g t h r e e r e la t i v e ly c o n s is t e n t f e a t u r e s . F ir s t , t h e

B u d d h is t s a in t s h a v e t h e p o w e r t o g r e a t ly e x t e n d t h e ir liv e s . S e c o n d , th is

e x t e n s i o n is i n t im a t e ly b o u n d u p w it h t h e ir c o m p a s s io n f o r s e n t ie n t

b e in g s — t h e y liv e lo n g e r t h a n n o r m a l, s p e c if ic a lly in o r d e r t o h e lp t h o s e s t ill

e n t r a p p e d w it h in samsara. A n d t h ir d , th e lo n g e v it y o f th e B u d d h is t s a in ts is

c lo s e ly c o n n e c t e d w it h th e w is h e s a n d e x p lic it r e q u e s t s o f o t h e r s . T h is

t h r e e f o ld p a t t e r n , t h e n , p r o v id e s a k in d o f r e la t iv e ly s t a b le a n d e n d u r in g

s t r u c t u r e th a t w a s in t e g r a l t o t h e w a y in w h i c h B u d d h is t s a in ts w e r e id e n ­

t ifie d , d e fin e d , a n d u n d e r s t o o d in I n d ia .

H o w e v e r , t h is t h r e e f o ld p a t t e r n , a lt h o u g h r e la t iv e ly u n if o r m w it h in

I n d ia n B u d d h is t t r a d it io n , is a t t h e s a m e t im e a b le to m a k e r o o m f o r c o n ­

s id e r a b le d iv e r s it y , s u g g e s t in g th a t it w a s a b le t o p r o v id e a n a c c o m m o d a t ­

in g f r a m e w o r k w it h in w h i c h v a r io u s a n d c h a n g i n g id e a s o f B u d d h is t

s a in t h o o d c o u ld t a k e s h a p e a n d d e v e lo p . A s o n e e x a m p le o f t h is d iv e r s it y ,

w e m a y c o n s id e r t h e w a y in w h ic h t h e fa c t o r s b r in g in g a b o u t t h e s a in t s ’

lo n g e v it y a r e d is c u s s e d . O u r e v id e n c e id e n t ifie s t h r e e , o ft e n c o o p e r a t in g
c a u s e s , ( i ) a c c o m p lis h m e n t in m e d it a t io n ; (2 ) t h e e x p lic it r e q u e s t s a n d

w is h e s o f o t h e r s ; a n d (3 ) t h e c o m m it m e n t o f t h e s a in t t o r e m a in . In r e la t io n

to t h e fir s t c a u s e , it is a fu n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t io n o f I n d ia n B u d d h is m th a t

a c c o m p lis h m e n t in m e d it a t io n is a c c o m p a n ie d b y t h e a t t a in m e n t o f v a r io u s

s u p e r n a t u r a l a b ilit ie s ( rddhi) , in c lu d in g t h e p o w e r o f lo n g e v it y , a n d a s w e

h a v e s e e n , f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e M p s o n w a r d s , lo n g e v it y is a n a s s u m e d

p o w e r o f t h e s a in t s , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y e x e r c is e i t . 87 S o m e t im e s o u r

s o u r c e s e x p li c it l y li n k m e d it a t io n a n d l o n g e v i t y , a s in t h e c a s e o f

M a h a k a s y a p a . A t o t h e r t im e s , t h is lin k a g e is im p lic it , a s in t h e D asabhum ika

Sutra, w h e r e a g r e a t d e a l o f m e d it a t io n a l a t t a in m e n t (in t h e lo w e r bhumis)
p r e c e d e s t h e a t t a in m e n t o f t h is p o w e r . A t s t ill o t h e r t im e s , it fu n c t io n s

m o r e a s a n a s s u m e d b a c k g r o u n d , in t h e s e n s e th a t t o b e a buddha, arhat,
h ig h - le v e l bodhisattva o r siddha im p lie s r e a liz a t io n , a n d t h is in tu r n im p lie s

m e d it a t io n a l a t t a in m e n t . In th is c o n t e x t , it m a y a ls o b e o b s e r v e d th a t th e

k in d o f m e d it a t io n th a t r e s u lt s in t h e p o w e r o f lo n g e v i t y is s o m e w h a t

t r a d it io n - s p e c if ic . T h u s th e arhat a t ta in s r e a liz a t io n t h r o u g h t h e e a r ly c la s s i­

c a l p r a c t ic e o f m in d fu ln e s s a n d th e dhyanas, th e bodhisattva j o i n s t h e s e p r a c ­

t ic e s w it h t h o s e o f c o m p a s s io n , w h i le t h e siddhas f o ll o w m o r e t a n t r ic

m e t h o d s . H e r e N a g a iju n a , in t h e t a n t r ic s o u r c e s , is a n a p t e x a m p le w it h h is

p r a c t ic e o f t h e lo n g lif e mantra o f A m it a y u s a n d h is a t t a in m e n t o f t h e e ig h t

siddhis, a m o n g w h i c h is in c lu d e d t h e e lix ir o f lo n g life . B u t i f t h e s o u r c e s

a g r e e o n t h e c e n t r a l r o le o f m e d it a t io n , t h e y p r e s e n t v a r y in g d e s c r ip t io n s

o n e x a c t ly h o w it w o r k s . In t h e m a jo r it y o f c a s e s — e .g ., t h e B u d d h a , th e

s ix t e e n arhats, t h e h ig h - le v e l bodhisattvas— o n e is in p o s s e s s io n o f t h e p o w e r

s im p ly b y v ir t u e o f h a v in g a t t a in e d r e a liz a t io n . A lt e r n a t iv e ly w e a r e t o ld

th a t it is w h ile o n e is a c t u a lly in t h e s ta te o f r e a liz e d m e d it a t io n it s e lf th a t

lo n g e v it y is a c h ie v e d . T h u s M a h a k a s y a p a s e e m s t o a t ta in h is lo n g e v it y b y

v ir t u e o f e n t e r in g in t o th e “ t r a n c e o f c e s s a t io n ” (nirodha-samapatti).88
T h e s e c o n d c a u s e o f lo n g e v i t y , t h e r e q u e s t s a n d w is h e s o f o t h e r s ,

m a k e s it p o s s ib le , a s w e h a v e s e e n , f o r t h e s a in ts t o a c t iv a t e t h e p o w e r t h e y

p o s s e s s . H e r e , a s n o t e d , t h e c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n t h e lo n g e v it y o f t h e s a in t

a n d t h e w is h e s a n d r e q u e s t s o f s e n t ie n t b e in g s ta k e s o n e o r a n o t h e r o f t h r e e

p o s s ib le fo r m s : ( 1 ) t h e s a in t is a s k e d to liv e a lo n g t im e , a n d d o e s s o (t h e

arhats, siddhas, buddhas ) ; (2 ) h e is n o t s p e c ific a lly a s k e d t o liv e a lo n g t im e ,

a n d s o h e d ie s ( S a k y a m u n i B u d d h a a ft e r A n a n d a ’s fa ilu r e ) ; o r (3 ) h e is

e x p lic it ly a s k e d t o b r in g h is life t o a n e n d (t h e B u d d h a , N a g a r ju n a ) , a n d h e

c o m p lie s . It is in t e r e s t in g th a t a ll t h r e e o f t h e s e p o s s ib ilit ie s a r e a lr e a d y

im p lic it ly a c k n o w le d g e d in th e M ahaparinirvana Sutra, f o r t h e p o s s ib ilit y o f

t h e B u d d h a ’ s liv in g o n is s t a te d ( 1 ) , A n a n d a fa ils to m a k e t h e n e c e s s a r y

r e q u e s t ( 2 ) , a n d M a r a s p e c ific a lly a s k s h im t o d ie ( 3 ) . S ig n if ic a n t ly , th e s e

v a r ia t io n s p r o v id e a n e x p la n a t o r y f r a m e w o r k th a t c a n a c c o m m o d a t e d if f e r ­

in g c ir c u m s t a n c e s . T h u s t h e b e li e f in t h e s a in t s ’ lo n g e v it y c a n b e r e t a in e d
n o t o n ly w h e n th a t lo n g e v it y is b e lie v e d t o h a v e b e e n a c h ie v e d , b u t a ls o

w h e n a s a in t d ie s a n u n t im e ly d e a t h o r liv e s o u t a m e r e ly n o r m a l lif e s p a n :

h e d ie d b e c a u s e h e w a s n o t a s k e d t o r e m a in , w a s n o t a s k e d in t h e p r e s c r ib e d

m a n n e r , d e s ir e d to d ie o r w a s e x p lic it ly a s k e d to d o s o . T h is f r a m e w o r k c a n

a ls o a c c o u n t f o r h o w a s a in t , w h o is in p o s s e s s io n o f e x t r a o r d in a r y s u p e r ­

n a t u r a l p o w e r , c a n b e k ille d b y a m a le fa c t o r . T h is e x p la n a t o r y s c h e m a is

in t e r e s t in g a d d it io n a lly in t h e w a y in w h i c h it s t r e s s e s t w o i m p o r t a n t

B u d d h is t d o c t r in e s . F ir s t , it m a k e s it p o s s ib le t o r e t a in t h e id e a o f t h e g r e a t

p o w e r s o f t h e s a in t w h i le a t t h e s a m e t im e a f f i r m in g t h a t t h e a c t u a l

lo n g e v i t y o f a s a in t is n o t in d e p e n d e n t o f c a u s e s a n d c o n d it io n s . S e c o n d , it

p r o v id e s a f ir m b a s is f o r t h e B u d d h is t c u lt o f s a in t s , w it h o u t a t t h e s a m e

t im e f a llin g in t o t h e p it fa ll ( fr o m t h e B u d d h is t v ie w p o in t ) o f d e n y in g in d i­

v id u a l r e s p o n s ib ilit y . T h e s a in ts m a y f r o m o n e v ie w p o i n t b e a ll- p o w e r fu l,

b u t f r o m a n o t h e r t h e s u p p lia n t ’s o w n a w a r e n e s s a n d a c t io n s a r e c r it ic a l, a n d

o r d in a r y b e in g s b e a r m a jo r r e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r t h e s a in t ’s a b ilit y t o r e m a in in

t h e w o r l d a n d t e a c h .

T h e t h ir d c a u s e o f th e s a in ts ’ lo n g e v it y , t h e c o m m it m e n t ( o r v o w ) to

r e m a in in samsara th a t is fr e q u e n t ly a s s o c ia t e d w it h th e s a in t ’s lo n g e v it y ,

a ls o s h o w s v a r ia t io n s . In th e B u d d h a ’s c a s e , t h is c o m m it m e n t ( a lo n g w it h

t h e p o w e r t o d o s o ) is a s s u m e d , a n d th u s t h e M p s m u s t o f f e r s o m e e x p la ­

n a t io n a s t o w h y h e a p p e a r s n o t t o h a v e s e e n t h is c o m m it m e n t t h r o u g h . In

t h e c a s e s o f M a h a k a s 'y a p a a n d th e s ix t e e n arhats, t h e c o m m it m e n t a r is e s

s p e c ific a lly a t t h e r e q u e s t o f th e B u d d h a . In t h e c a s e o f t h e bodhisattva, th e

c o m m it m e n t is p a r t o f t h e s a in t ’s v o w t o s a v e s e n t ie n t b e in g s . In t h e siddhas ’
“ li v e s ,” t h e v o w t o r e m a in is a s s u m e d a n d o n ly o c c a s io n a lly e x p lic a t e d .

P a r t ic u la r ly in t e r e s t in g is t h e fa c t th a t t h e v o w t o r e m a in in samsara a n d its

a s s o c ia t io n w it h c o m p a s s io n , w h ic h is u s u a lly a s s o c ia t e d b y m o d e r n s c h o l­

a r s h ip s p e c if ic a lly w it h t h e bodhisattva a n d th e M a h a y a n a , is r e v e a le d b y o u r

e v i d e n c e t o b e a m u c h m o r e g e n e r a l p h e n o m e n o n w it h in I n d ia n

B u d d h is m , a n d in fa c t it is a s s o c ia t e d w it h buddhas, arhats, bodhisattvas, a n d

siddhas. T h is , o f c o u r s e , h a s im p o r t a n t im p lic a t io n s f o r c o r r e c t ly u n d e r ­

s t a n d in g th e p la c e o f t h e M a h a y a n a id e a l w it h in th e la r g e r I n d ia n B u d d h is t

c o n t e x t . 89

O u r fo u r t h c o n c lu s io n is th a t d iffe r e n c e s s u c h a s t h e s e r a is e a n o b v io u s

q u e s t io n : D o w e in a n y s e n s e h a v e to d e a l h e r e w it h d is t in c t t r a d it io n s o f

lo n g e v i t y w it h in t h e la r g e r f r a m e o f t h e g e n e r a l B u d d h is t b e li e f in th e

lo n g e v i t y o f its s a in t s ? S o m e h in ts in th is d ir e c t io n a r e p e r h a p s p r o v id e d b y

t h e in t e r e s t in g fa c t th a t, w it h in o u r e v id e n c e , o n e c a n d is c r im in a t e s e v e r a l

d is t in c t a n d d if f e r e n t w a y s o f c o n c e iv in g t h e p r e c is e t e m p o r a l s p a n o f t h e

s a in t s ’ lo n g e v it y . F ir s t , t h e r e is t h e t y p e o f lo n g e v it y d e s c r ib e d in t h e M p s ,

w h e r e in a n y m e d it a t o r w h o h a s a t t a in e d th e iddhi-padas h a s t h e p o w e r to

liv e u n t il t h e e n d o f t h e kalpa.90 A s a v a r ia t io n o f t h is t y p e ( i f n o t u n d e r ­
 s t o o d a s id e n t ic a l to it) is th e lo n g e v it y w h e r e in a s a in t liv e s e it h e r u n t il th e

c o m in g o f M a it r e y a o r a s lo n g t h e dharma s h a ll s u r v iv e u p o n th e e a r t h . T h is

fa n ta s tic b u t u lt im a t e ly lim it e d t y p e o f lo n g e v it y c le a r ly h a d c o n s id e r a b le

c u lt ic im p o r t a n c e , f o r w e fin d it t u r n in g u p n o t o n ly in th e M p s , b u t a ls o

in t h e M a h a y a n a c u lt o f t h e s ix t e e n arhats, t h e B u r m e s e c u lt o f U p a g u p t a ,

t h e M a h a y a n a d o c t r in e o f t h e bodhisattva, a n d t h e t r a d it io n o f siddhas, a s

s e e n in t h e e x a m p le o f S a v a r ip a in t h e C s p . A s p e r h a p s a s p e c ia l s u b c la s s o f

t h is t y p e is t h e n o t io n th a t th e s a in t is r e s id in g w it h in a m o u n t a in ( o r stupa
o r t e m p le ) , a n d in M a h a k a s y a p a ’s c a s e a b id in g in nirodha-samapatti, f r o m

w h i c h h e w il l a r is e a t t h e t im e o f M a it r e y a ’s c o m in g , a p a t t e r n c o n n e c t e d

w it h b o t h M a h a k a s y a p a a n d B h a v a v iv e k a . A s e c o n d t y p e o f lo n g e v it y is

th a t f o u n d p r e d o m in a n t ly a m o n g t h e siddhas, w h e r e a s p e c ific n u m b e r o f

y e a r s is a s s ig n e d to e a c h s a in t. T h is lo n g e v it y , a lt h o u g h e x t r a v a g a n t b y n o r ­

m a l s t a n d a r d s , is s t ill fa r c lo s e r t o a n o r d in a r y h u m a n s c a le th a n th e “ e n d o f

t h e kalpa ” t y p e , w it h its v a s t ly lo n g e r t im e s p a n s . T h e “ r e la t iv e ly h u m a n ”

s c a le o f t h e siddhas ’ lo n g e v it y is p e r h a p s a ls o r e fle c t e d in t h e fa c t th a t w e a r e

t y p ic a lly t o ld th a t, d u r in g t h e ir lo n g s o jo u r n s in t h is w o r ld , t h e y r e m a in e d

o n e a r t h in s t r u c t in g s e n t ie n t b e in g s . T h is s t a n d s in c o n t r a s t t o t h e fir s t k in d

o f s a in t w h o , a lt h o u g h liv in g s o lo n g , is n o w h e r e d e p ic t e d a s r e s id in g in o r

a m o n g p e o p le . F in a lly , a t h ir d w a y o f t h in k in g a b o u t lo n g e v it y a s c r ib e s t o

t h e s a in t a life s p a n o f in d e f in it e le n g t h . T h is t r a d it io n s e e m s s p e c ific a lly

a s s o c ia t e d w it h t h e buddhas a n d w it h t h o s e h ig h - le v e l bodhisattvas w h o a r e

a p p r o a c h in g t h e s t a tu s o f a bu ddh a.91 T h e s e t h r e e w a y s o f c o n c e i v i n g

l o n g e v i t y a r e n o t a lw a y s d is t in c t , a s in t h e c a s e o f M a h a k a s 'y a p a a n d

B h a v a v iv e k a w h o , lik e t h e lo n g - li v e d arhats, h a v e a v a s t life s p a n b u t , lik e

t h e siddhas, s e e m to h a v e a c o r p o r e a l lo n g e v it y : t h e ir p h y s ic a l fo r m s r e m a in

h e r e , i f e n c lo s e d w it h in t h e ir m o u n t a in fa s tn e s s e s .

A fift h a n d fin a l c o n c lu s io n c o n c e r n s th e p a r t ic u la r c o n t e x t o f r e lig io u s

life in w h ic h th e lo n g e v it y o f N a g a r ju n a a n d t h e o t h e r B u d d h is t s a in t s w a s

im p o r t a n t . M a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o la r s o f B u d d h is m w o u ld h a v e it th a t

t h e B u d d h is t s a in ts a n d t h e ir c u lt s , w h e t h e r o f N i k a y a , M a h a y a n a , o r

V a jr a y a n a B u d d h is m , a r e p r im a r ily a r e fle c t io n o f p o p u la r (la y ) a s o p p o s e d

t o e lit e ( m o n a s t ic ) B u d d h is m .92 A t le a s t in te r m s o f th e e v id e n c e e x a m in e d

h e r e , s u c h a p o s it io n w o u l d s e e m d if f ic u lt t o m a in t a in . F o r e x a m p l e ,

H s iia n - t s a n g , A b h a y a d a t t a , a n d T a r a n a t h a , e n e r g e t ic in t h e ir r e p o r t s o f

N a g a r ju n a ’ s lo n g e v it y , r e p r e s e n t th e e lit e a m o n g th e e lit e o f t h e ir r e s p e c t iv e

t r a d it io n s . In a s im ila r v e i n , t h e D asabh um ika Sutra, V a s u b a n d h u ’ s

Abhidharmakosa, A s a n g a ’ s Bodhisattvabhumi, a n d S a n t id e v a ’s Bodhicaryavatdra,

a ll o f w h ic h m a in t a in t h e lo n g e v it y o f th e B u d d h is t s a in ts , c a n h a r d ly b e

t h o u g h t o f p r im a r ily a s e x p r e s s io n s o f p o p u la r r e lig io n . F u r t h e r , th e c u lt o f

t h e s ix t e e n arhats w a s c le a r ly d e v e lo p e d a n d p r a c t ic e d b y m o n k s a n d e lit e

m e d it a t o r s . W e s e e t h is b o t h in t h e a c t u a l c o n t e n t o f th e t e x t it s e lf, w h ic h
r e fle c t s m o n a s t ic c o n c e r n s , a n d a ls o in t h e c e n t r a l r o le o f th is c u lt in C h in a

a n d J a p a n a m o n g t h e e lit e o f C h ’a n a n d Z e n B u d d h i s m . 93 F in a lly , th e

Mahdparinirvdna Sutra s t a n d s r ig h t a t t h e h e a r t o f e a r ly e lit e m o n a s t ic

B u d d h is m , t h e in it ia l f o r m a t io n a n d ju s t if ic a t io n o f w h ic h , F r a u w a lln e r h a s

c o n v in c in g ly a r g u e d , is r e fle c t e d in t h e t e x t .94 C le a r ly , t h e n , th e lo n g e v it y

o f t h e B u d d h is t s a in ts is a m a t t e r o f e x t r e m e im p o r t a n c e to th e e lit e o f

B u d d h is t t r a d it io n , b o t h m o n a s t ic a n d y o g i c , o f v ir t u a lly e v e r y p e r io d o f

In d ia n B u d d h is t h is t o r y a n d c a n h a r d ly b e r e s t r ic t e d t o o r p e r h a p s e v e n p r i­

m a r ily lo c a t e d in t h e s p h e r e o f la y o r p o p u la r B u d d h is m . 95 W e b e g a n th is

e s s a y w it h a s in g le , s m a ll, a n d s e e m in g ly s im p le p r o b le m : W h y is s u c h a n

e x t r a o r d in a r y life s p a n a t t r ib u t e d t o N a g a iju n a ? O u r s e a r c h f o r a n a n s w e r

le d to a s u r p r is in g ly w id e fie ld o f e v id e n c e a n d t o c o n c lu s io n s th a t h a v e

b e a r in g o n t h e h is t o r y o f In d ia n B u d d h is m a s a w h o le a n d , w it h in th a t, o n

th e id e n t it y o f th e B u d d h is t s a in ts a n d t h e ir r o le w it h in t h e t r a d it io n . T h is

s u g g e s ts w h a t is ( b y n o w ) th e o b v io u s p o in t , th a t t h e r e is m u c h th a t c a n b e

le a r n e d f r o m a n e x a m in a t io n o f B u d d h is t m a s te r s w it h in t h e la r g e r c o n t e x t

o f th e B u d d h is t s a in ts in In d ia . B e y o n d t r y in g t o s e e t h e s e fig u r e s a s s p e c ific

in d iv id u a ls b o u n d u p w it h p a r t ic u la r h is t o r ic a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s , t e x t s , a n d

s c h o o ls , it is in f o r m a t iv e to c o n s id e r th e e le m e n t s o f t h e ir b io g r a p h ie s in

r e la t io n t o t h e a s c e t ic , h a g io g r a p h ic , a n d c u lt ic c o n v e n t io n s o f t h e B u d d h is t

s a in t ly t r a d it io n s a s a w h o le , o f w h i c h th e b e li e f in th e s a in ts ’ lo n g e v it y is

c le a r ly a g o o d e x a m p le .

A c k n o w le d g m e n ts

I w o u l d lik e t o t h a n k G r e g o r y S c h o p e n f o r r e a d in g a d r a ft o f t h is e s s a y a n d

p r o v id in g a n u m b e r o f u s e fu l s u g g e s t io n s .

N o te s
i. Cf. discussions o f Nagaijuna’s dates in D. S. Ruegg, “ The Literature o f
the Madhyamaka School o f Philosophy in India,” in A History of Indian
Literature, vol. 7, fasc. 1, ed. Jan Gonda (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz,
19 81), pp. 4—5 n. 1 1 ; and Etienne Lamotte, Le Traite de la Grande vertue de
Sagesse (Louvain-la-neuve: Institut Orientaliste, 1981), vol. 3, pp. ff. See
also Richard Robinson, Early Madhyamika in India and China (Madison:
University o f Wisconsin Press, 1967), pp. 25-26; and Etienne Lamotte,
L ’ Enseignement de Vimalaklrti (Louvain: Universite de Louvain, 1962),
pp. 7 0 —7 7 .
2. The principal Buddhist sources for the life o f Nagarjuna include:
In Sanskrit: (1) the Lahkavatara (Sagathakatn), ed. P. L. Vaidya,
Lahkavatara (Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, no. 3) (Darbhariga: Mithila Institute,
1963), vol. 118 , pp. 16 5 -16 6 (D. T. Suzuki, The Lahkavatara Sutra
[London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1932], pp. 239-240); (2) the
Manjusnmulakalpa, ed. Ganapati Sastri, Maiijufnmulakalpa (Trivandrum
Sanskrit Series, vols. 70, 76, and 84)(Trivandrum: Government Press,
19 20-19 25), pp. 6 16 -6 17 , hereafter cited as Mmk; (3) a Sanskrit
biography o f the siddhas, G. Tucci, Animadversiones indicae: 6, “ A Sanskrit
Biography o f the Siddhas and Some Questions Connected with
Nagarjuna,” Journal and Proceedings o f the Asiatic Society o f Bengal, vol. 26
(1930), pp. 138—155 (S. Levi, “ Un nouveau document sur le bouddhisme
de basse epoque dans l’Inde, Bulletin o f the School of Oriental and African
Studies 6 [1930—1932], pp. 4 17 —429); (4) Bana’s Hanacarita, Parab, Bana's
Harsacarita (Bombay, 1946); subsequently edited with copious notes by
P.V. Kane, The Harshacarita o f Banabhatta (Text of Uchchhvasas I - VIII)
(Delhi, 1965), 137.20 £f. and 6 12; and (5) Rajataraiiginl o f Kalhana, Vishva
Bandhu, Rajataraiiginl o f Kalhana (Hoshiarpur, 1963), 1. 173 and I.17 7; cf.
also M. A. Stein, Rajataraiiginl of Kalhana (Westminster, 1900), 2 vols.
(English trans., M. A. Stein, Kalhana’s Rajataraiiginl; A Chronicle o f the
Kings o f Kashmir [Delhi, 19 61], 2 vols. (introduction, translation,
commentary, and appendixes) (originally published, Westminster, 1900,
2 vols.), vol. 1, pp. 76 and book 1, verses 173 and 177. (6) Nagaijuna is
also mentioned in the Brhatkatliamatljan (X V I.392—407) and the
Kathasaritsagara (Kane, The Harshacarita, p. 612).
In Chinese: (1) the biography o f Nagarjuna attributed to Kumarajlva
(T .50 .i8 4 a-i8 5b and T .50.185b—186c) (in this essay, I follow an
unpublished translation o f R oger Corless, for the use o f which I thank the
translator); and (2) the biographical account in Hsiian-tsang’s Hsi-yii-chi
(T.2087), 929a—930a (Samuel Beal, Si-yu-ki, Buddhist Records o f the Western
World [Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 19 81], vol. 2, pp. 97 ff; Thomas
Watters, On Yuan Chim ng’s Travels in India [New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal, 1973], v°h 2, pp. 200-208).
In Tibetan: (1) Abhayadatta’s Caturasitisiddhapravrtti (translated into
Tibetan as grub.thob.brgyad.cu.rtsa.bzhi’i.lo.rgyus), ed. Sempa Doije, The
Biography of the Eighty-four Saints (Samath: Central Institute o f Higher
Tibetan Studies, 1979), pp. 65—74 hereafter cited as Csp; (2) Bu.ston’s
chos.’byung, E. Obermiller, trans. (Heidelberg: Otto Harrassowitz, 1932);
(3) Taranatha’s bka’ .babs.bdunJdan [hereafter cited as Kbdd], in Tseten
Dorji, Five Historical Works of Taranatha (Arunachal Pradesh, India: Tibetan
Nyingmapa Monastery, 1974) and his chos.’byung (Lama Chimpa and
Alaka Chattopadhyaya, Taranatha’s History of Buddhism in India [Simla:
Indian Institute o f Advanced Study, 1970]); and (4) Sum.pa.mkhan.po’s
dPag.bsam.ljon.bzang, S.C. Das, dPag.bsam.ljon.bzang (Calcutta: Presidency
Jail Press, 1908). Tibetan tradition contains other works on Nagaijuna
which, when investigated, will undoubtedly reveal information pertinent
to the development o f his biography in India and Tibet. Biographies in
Hindu and Jain traditions may also be mentioned, the latter being the
subject o f a study by Phyllis Granoff, “Jain Biographies o f Nagaijuna:
 Notes on the Composing o f a Biography in Medieval India,” in Monks and
Magicians: Religious Biographies in Asia, ed. Phyllis Granoff and Koichi
Shinohara (New York: Mosaic Press, 1988), pp. 45—66.
3. Cf., e.g., Jan Yiin-hua, “ Nagaijuna, One or More? A N ew Interpretation of
Buddhist Hagiography,” History o f Religions 10, no. 2 (1970), p. 139. Etienne
Lamotte remarks that, o f figures in Buddhism, “ the bodhisattva Nagaijuna . . .
is one o f the most enigmatic” (Le Traite, vol. 1, p. x). Some representative
discussions o f the life o f Nagaijuna, listed in chronological order o f
appearance, include: S. C. Das, “ Life and Legend o f Nagaijuna,” Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal 51, pt. 1 (1882), pp. 115 - 1 2 0 ; Max Walleser,
“ The Life o f Nagaijuna from Tibetan and Chinese Sources,” Hirth
Anniversary Volume (London: Probsthain and Co., 1922),
pp. 4 2 1—455; Tucci, Animadversiones indicae, (Levi, “ Un nouveau
document” ); L. La Vallee Poussin, “ Madhyamaka,” Encyclopedia of Religion
and Ethics, vol. 8 (1908-1926), pp. 235-237 and Le dogme et la philosophic du
Bouddhisme (Paris, 1930), pp. 1 1 3 - 1 1 8 ; Th. Stcherbatsky, Conception of
Buddhist Nirvana (Leningrad: 1927; reprint, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1968),
pp. 35-39; N. Dutt, “ Notes on the Nagaijunikonda Inscriptions,” Indian
Historical Quarterly 7 (1931), pp. 633-653; M. Wintemitz, History o f Indian
Literature (Calcutta: University o f Calcutta, 1933), vol. 2, pp. 341-348;
Lamotte, Traite, vol. 1, pp. x—xiv; V. W. Karambelkar, “ The Problem o f
Nagaijuna,” Journal of Indian History 2 (1952), pp. 2 1—33; Sunitikumar
Pathak, “ Life o f Nagaijuna (from the Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang),” Indian Historical
Quarterly 30 (1954), pp. 93—95; Prafulla Chandra Ray, History of Hindu
Chemistry (Calcutta, 1956), pp. 116 —119 ; K. V. Ramanan, Nagarjuna’s
Philosophy as Presented in the Maha-Prajhaparamita Sastra (Rutland, Vt.: Charles
E. Tutde, 1966), pp. 25-37; Robinson, Early Madhyamika, pp. 2 1—27; Jan,
“ Nagaijuna,” pp. 139—155; Ruegg, The Literature of the Madhyamaka,
pp. 4—9; and Frederick Streng, “ Nagaijuna,” Encyclopcdia of Religion, ed.
Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987), vol. 10, pp. 290—293.
4. Manjus'rimulakalpa, p. 440.
In addition, other texts give predictions concerning Nagaijuna
including: (1) Lahkavatara (Sagathakatn), passage discussed by J. Takasaki,
“ Sources o f the Lahkavatara and Its Position in Mahayana Buddhism,”
Indological and Buddhological Studies: Volume in Honour of ProfessorJ . W. de
Jong on His Sixtieth Birthday (Canberra: Faculty o f Asian Studies, 1982),
p. 550. The Lahkavatara prophecy reveals similar themes to those o f the
Matljusnmillakalpa without, however, mentioning Nagarjuna’s long life:

daksinapatha-vedalyam bhiksuh sntnan mahayasah/

tiagalwayah sa namna tu sadasatpakiadarakah // (165)
prakasya loke madyanatn ttiahayanam anuttaramf
asiidya bhutnim muditam yasyate ‘sau sukhavatlm// (1 66)

In Vedall, in the southern part, a bhiksu most illustrious and

distinguished /will be born];
 his name is Nagahvaya, he is the destroyer o f the one-sided views based
on being and non-being (165).
H e will declare my Vehicle, the unsurpassed Mahayana, to the world;
attaining the stage o f Jo y he will go to the land o f bliss (166) (Suzuki,
The Larikavatara Sutra, pp. 2 4 0 -2 4 1) .

(2) Mahameghasutra, cited in the Madhyamakavatara, Tibetan ed. by La

Vallee Poussin (St. Petersburg, 19 12), p. 76 (translation, Le Museon,
[ 19 1 o], p. 274); Chinese translation by Dharmarakia, Taisho 387, k. 5,
1099—110 0 ; examined by P. DemieviUe, “ Sur un passage du
Mahameghasutra,” Bulletin de I’Ecolefranfaise d ’Extreme Orient 24 (1924),
pp. 227-228; mentioned by Bu.ston, chos. 'byung, vol. 2, p. 129; and
(3) the Mahamdyasutra, Taisho 383, k. 2, 10 13c ; discussed by J.
Przyluski, Legende de Vempereur Aioka (Paris; Paul Geuthner, 1923),
pp. 16 3 -16 4 . Cf. Lamotte, Le Traite, vol. 1, p. xi, n. 4—7 for additional
references.
5. T; grub.thob.brgyad.cu.rtsa.bzhi’i.lo.rgyus.
6. One o f his pupils revisits him after an interval o f 100 years [Csp, pp.
65—74]-
7. See n. 15, where this is made explicit.
8. Kbdd, p. 36$.
9. Ibid., pp. 369—370. Taranatha gives essentially the same account in his
chos.’byung (History , p. 110 ), written in 1608, eight years after the Kbdd.
10. Dutt, “ Notes,” pp. 633—653.
11. Ibid., pp. 636—639.
12. Other scholars believe that there were as many as three or four separate
Nagaijunas, for which cf. Tucci, Animadversioncs indicac, pp. 138 If.
13. Dutt, “ Notes,” pp. 636—637.
14. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya gives essentially the same explanation o f
Nagaijuna’s longevity (Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism [Varanasi:
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1932], pp. 67—68), as does Lai Mani
Joshi, Studies in the Buddhistic Culture o f India (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
l 977 ), P- 262. See also Ramanan, Nagarjuna’s Philosophy, p. 366, n. 5, who
appears to follow the essentials o f Dutt’s explanation. Most scholars dealing
with Nagaijuna’s life, however, have subsequently tended to bypass his
longevity, lumping it in with other similar “ magical elements,” and have
moved on to examine other features o f his life.
15. Cf. Matsunaga’s discussion o f some issues involved in the attempt to date
the Mmk (Yukei Matsunaga, “ On the Date o f the Manjusrimulakalpa,”
Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour o f R .A . Stein, vol. 3 [Melanges chinois et
bouddhiques, no. 22], ed. M. Strickmann [Brussels: Institut Beige des Hautes
Etudes Chinoises, 1985], pp. 882-894). I*1 an analysis accepted by
Matsunaga, Przyluski had previously determined that the Mmk may be
divided into two parts, chapters 4 and following, which were composed at
an earlier time, and chapters 1- 3 composed at a later time. Significantly, the
 prediction regarding Nagaijuna is found in the part o f the text deemed by
Przyluski to be the earlier one. Matsunaga has examined the Sanskrit text in
relation to translations into Tibetan and Chinese and— extending and
refining the work o f Przyluski— hypothesizes that the Mmk originated
gradually over a long period o f time, during which relatively independent
compositions were added to the text. Through his analysis, Matsunaga is
able to make some initial hypotheses concerning the times o f origin o f
certain sections o f the text. However, he shows that a great deal o f further
analysis is needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn regarding the
dating o f these various sections o f the text. Matsunaga thus dismisses
scholars’ (rather uncritical) dating o f this text, including both those
proposing a late date for the text as a whole, e.g., the one assumed by Dutt
in the article cited here, as well as those proposing an early date, e.g., by
Bhattacarya who holds for a first—second century composition. For an
earlier discussion o f the text’s dating, cf. Ariane Macdonald, Le Mandala du
Matijusnmulakalpa (Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1962), pp. 3—20.
16. Hsiian-tsang reports that Nagarjuna, upon being asked for his head, replied
that “ my constant vow [as a bodhisattva] has been not to oppose the desires
o f living things” (Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. 2, pp. 2 12 —214).
17. Jan, “ Nagarjuna,” p. 129. Similarly Tao-shih (seventh century) [Jan, ibid.,
pp. 148 -14 9 ]. The Korean pilgrim Hui-ch’ao also believed that Nagaijuna
died at the age o f 700 years (Jan, ibid., p. 149).
18. Corless, unpublished translation, p. 12.
19. In citing the names o f the siddhas, 1 follow the spelling in Sempa D o ije’s
edition o f the Csp, in spite o f the fact that, as in the present case (as often
in Tibetan transliterations if not in the Indian original), the spelling
violates the rules o f classical Sanskrit orthography.
20. Caurarigi [10] should not be included among those to whom an
extraordinary lifespan is attributed. In Robinson’s translation o f the Csp
we read o f “ the immortal Caurarigi” (James B. Robinson, Buddha’s Lions,
The Lives of the Eighty-four Siddhas [Berkeley: Dharma Press, 1979], p. 56).
However, the Tibetan reads “ ’chi.med.bmyes.pa’i.cauranggi” (Sempa Doiji,
Biography o f the Eighty-four Saints, p. 45), “ Caurarigi who acquired the
deathless,” a common enough epithet o f the siddhas, referring simply to
their realization and not necessarily intending any reference to their life
spans.
2 1. hyains.pa 'i. bstan.pa.ma.shar.gyi.bar.du.sku. 'di.nyid.kyis.
’dzam.bu'i.gling.’dir.bzhugs.so (Csp 26.12—3). For additional remarks on
Savaripa, cf. n. 37.
22. Those said to live many years, those given a life span o f 100 years, and
Goraksa.
23. The typical phrase is, as in Kapalapa’s story, [72], “ (lo.lnga.
brgyar).'gro.doti.mdzad” (Csp 225:12).
24. This compassionate activity receives further specification in the various
examples. O f these, their activities include generally “ accomplishing the
 benefit o f beings,” recounting one’s realization (i.e., in the Tantric
context, providing teaching dharma), and bringing down great blessings.
25. Csp, 239.
26. Ibid.
27. This understanding o f the siddhas’ longevity seems to have been the
prevalent one in the Indian Vajrayana and is commonly found in other
Tantric texts either deriving from India or Tibet in composition but
basing themselves on Indian texts or traditions. Thus, to mention just a
few prominent authors, ‘Gos.blo.tsa.ba (G. N. Roerich, trans., Blue Annals
[Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976]); Bu.ston’s chos. ’byting (E. Obermiller,
trans. [Heidelberg: Otto Harrassowitz, 1932]); Padmakarpo (C hos.’byting,
xyl., sPungs.thang edn. sixteenth century); and Taranatha (Kbdd, and
History), in their treatment o f Indian saints, all depict a key role played by
longevity.
28. In this text, for example, we find an early summary o f Indian Mahayana
canonical literature.
29. Chinese, Ta A-Io-han N an-t’i-mi-to-lo so chouofa tchou ki, T. 2030; Tibetan,
’phags.pa.dga’.ba’i.bshes.gnyen.gyi.rtogs.pa.brjod.pa, Peking bstan. ’gytir,
vol. 127, vol. 8 o f ‘dul.ba’i .’grel.pa, 299b~3o6a. Text no. 4146 o f the
sde.dge.bstan.’gyur, Nyingma edition (Berkeley, 1980), vol. 91, vol. su,
240a, 1. 4—244 b, 1 . 2 . Chinese text translated into French in Sylvain Levi
and Edouard Chavannes, “ Les seize arhat protecteurs de la loi,” Journal
Asiatique 8 (1916), pp. 205-275, and into English in Shan Shih, The
Sixteen Arhants and the Eighteen Arhants (Peking: Buddhist Association o f
China, 1961).
30. M. W. De Visser, The Arhants in China and Japan (Berlin: Oesterheld and
Co., 1922—1923), pp. 105 ff.
31. Levi and Chavannes, “ Les seize arhat protecteurs,” p. 6.
32. Paul Williams mentions a Nandimitra who plays a chief role in the
Ajitasena Sutra (Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations [London:
Routledge, 1989], pp. 26-27). Williams remarks that this sutra, found in a
mound near Gilgit early in this century, “ is undoubtedly much earlier in
origin” and indicates “ a stage o f proto-Mahayana, a stage o f Mahayana
prior to its own self-awareness as ‘Mahayana’” (p. 26). The Nandimitra o f
this text is a great sravaka (mahasrauaka), a disciple o f the Buddha whom
the Buddha sends as a spiritual friend (kalyanamitra) to King Ajitasena
(pp. 26-27).
33. Levi and Chavannes, “ Les seize arhat protecteurs,” p. 5.
34. Lamotte’s rendering (Histoire du bouddhisme indien, 769; Shan Shih, 77ic
S ixteen Arhants, p. 9).
35. Levi and Chavannes, “ Les seize arhat protecteurs,” pp. 9 -10 ; Shan Shih,
similarly, The Sixteen Arhants, p. 9. The Tibetan (see n. 29 above) reads
“ [the sixteen arhats] were commanded by the Blessed one to extend their
livespans by means o f the blessing (byin.gyis.brlabs) [of their lives] [effected]
by the power (bala) o f their rddhi (supernatural abilities), rdzu. ’p hml.gyi.
 stobs.kyis. (she.byin.gyis. brlabs.te.bsrings.nas.bcom.ldan. ’das.
kyis.bka’ .gnas.pa.yin.no. (300b). A comparison o f the translations from the
Chinese with the Tibetan text suggests that there are a number o f
differences, some important, between the two versions.
36. During their stay, the arhats will see several stages o f human history. First,
the life span o f ordinary humans will decline to ten years, when Buddhism
will temporarily disappear from the earth. The arhats will continue to
remain until the human life span has increased again to 100 years, at which
time they will again spread the dharma abroad, teaching, converting beings,
and bringing blessings to all. These arhats will continue to remain until the
human life span will have increased to 60,000 years, when the dharma will
be propagated throughout the world. When the length o f human life has
reached 70,000 years, the dharma will disappear forever, and the arhats will
pass beyond.
37. As we saw above, in the Csp, the siddha Savaripa is predicted to live “ in
this very body” until the coming o f Maitreya. Among the eighty-four
siddhas, Savaripa’s enormous longevity is unique. However, the present
discussion reveals that Savaripa embodies a common though different type
o f longevity, namely that o f the long-lived arhat.
38. Evidence o f the belief o f the longevity o f arhats in China considerably
precedes evidence o f the cult o f the sixteen arhats. For example, one may
cite the first Buddhist literature translated into Chinese, reflecting Indian
Buddhism in the middle o f the first century A.D. (Rev. Soyen Shaku,
Sertnotis of a Buddhist Abbot, translated from the Japanese by Daisetz Teitaro
Suzuki [New York, 19 71], pp. 3—2 1; see p. 3). In this work, we find a
description o f the four classes o f aryas or Buddhist holy persons. O f the
arhat we read, “ The arhatit is able to fly through space and assume different
forms; his life is eternal and there are times when he causes heaven and
earth to quake” [ibid., p. 5]. In other words, in this text, the arhat is
defined chiefly by his magical powers, among these are mentioned two
classic Buddhist rddhi and, right with them as a chief defining feature o f
the arhat, the power o f longevity.
39. The cult o f long-lived arhats is found not only in scriptural evidence such
as the Nandimitrauadana, but also in other evidence o f Buddhist cultic life
in India. A significant body o f this sort o f evidence is provided by Levi and
Chavannes and by De Visser in examples o f the cult o f arhats in China and
Japan, which must, to an extent difficult to specify, reflect Indian usages
(Levi and Chavannes, “ Les seize arhat protecteurs,” p. 79 and De Visser,
The Arhants in China and Japan, pp. 105 ff). An intriguing glimpse o f the
cult is provided by Hsiian-tsang’s description o f the cult o f Rahula, one o f
the sixteen arhats. Thus the pilgrim tells us that one day, when he was
passing through a certain village, he chanced upon the dwelling o f a
wealthy and eminent Brahman. By his house, this worthy had constructed
a shelter for wandering mendicants, and he would beg them to stop and
stay there for a period o f from one up to seven days in length. Some time
 not long before the pilgrim’s visit, a certain sramatta, with thick eyebrows
and a shaven head, had accepted the Brahman’s invitation to stay awhile.
When in the morning the Brahman gave him some food, the sramatta took
a bit, sighed, and returned the remainder to the donor. Distressed, the
Brahman asked if his offering were in some way amiss. The sramatta
replied, “ When I sighed, it was not on account o f your offering o f rice;
for during many hundreds o f years I have not tasted such food. When
[the] tathagata was living in the world, I was a follower o f his when he
dwelt in the Venuvana-vihara, near Rajagrha; there . . . I washed his patra
in the pure stream o f the river— there I filled his pitcher— there I gave
him water for cleansing his mouth; but alas! the milk that you offer now is
not like the sweet water o f old! It is because the religious merit o f devas
and men has diminished that this is the case!” (Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. 2,
pp. 42-43). Astounded, the Brahman then asked his guest if he meant to
say that he had, in fact, seen the very Buddha himself. The sramana
replied, “ Have you never heard o f Rahula the Buddha’s own son? I am
he! Because I desire to protect the true law I have not yet entered
nirvana.” Having said this, the saint suddenly disappeared, and the amazed
Brahman made a shrine out o f the place he had stayed and, in Hsiian-
tsang’s words, “ placed there a figure o f him, which he reverenced as
though he were present” (ibid.).
40. Daiabhumika Sutra, P. L. Vaidya, ed., Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, no. 7
(Darbhariga: Mithila Institute, 1967), hereafter cited as Dbs; Chinese: T.
278, 279, 285, 286, 287; Tibetan: sde.dge bka’ . ’gyur, 44:31 (Nyingma
edition, Oakland, Calif., 1980). English translation from the Sanskrit by
M. Honda, Annotated Translation o f the Dasabhumika Sutra, in Studies in
South, East, and Central Asia, ed. Dennis Sinor, Sata-Pitaka Series 74 (New
Delhi: International Academy o f Indian Culture, 1968).
41. The ten vasita, including ayur-vaJita, are powers that are ascribed to fully
enlightened buddhas. For an enumeration, see Kenjiu Kasawara, F. Max
Muller, and H. Wenzel, eds., Dharma-samgraha (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1885), sec. 74.
42. DbS, p. 46; Honda, Annotated Translation, p. 227; Har Dayal, Bodhisattva
Doctrine in the Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (London, 1932; Delhi: Motlal
Banarsidass), p. 140; cf. Nalinaksha Dutt, Aspects o f Mahayana Buddhism and
Its Relation to Hinayana (London: Luzac and Co., 1930), p. 281.
43. E.g., Lahkavatara Sutra, p. 1:6. Also important in the Avatamsaka Sutra,
Gandavyuha section, discussed in D. T. Suzuki, Studies in the Lahkavatara
Sutra (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1930), pp. 230 and 234.
44. Asariga, Bodhisattvabhumi, pp. 38, 240. Cf. also Jikido Takasaki, A Study of
the Ratnagotravibhaga (Uttaratantra) (Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed
Estremo Oriente, 1966), p. 214. In addition, it may not be irrelevant in this
context to point out that the high-level bodhisattvas achieve what amounts
to a kind o f longevity within the world through their intentional rebirths
within the six realms o f samsara over countless eons, as they journey on
 toward complete and perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi).
This quasi-longevity, based on their vow before a buddha and motivated by
compassion for sentient beings, allows the bodhisattvas to maintain a
continual presence within samsara, with no more than periodic gaps when
they die and take rebirth. It may be argued that this does not really
constitute “ longevity” in the strict sense o f the term, since bodhisattvas die
and then take rebirth. Although this argument is not without merit, it
should at the same time be pointed out that in general structure and also in
many details, this process among the bodhisattvas closely parallels the other
types o f longevity being discussed in this essay. To provide one example,
the bodhisattva’s presence is, in effect, not as different from that o f the
sixteen arhats as might first appear. As we have seen, these arhats live in far
off places, including the realm o f the gods, from which they come
periodically among humans. Interestingly, the theme o f the anonymous
coming characterizes not only arhats but also bodhisattvas (cf. Asanga,
Bodhisattvabhumi, pp. 40 ff. This theme o f the bodhisattva who comes
anonymously among men to teach them is found already in a mature form
in the Mahaparitiibbana Sutta (Dlghanikaya, hereafter cited as Dn), edited by
T. W. Rhys-Davids andj. E. Carpenter (London, 1890—19 11), x vi.3 .2 1—3
(T. W. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Suttas, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 11
[Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1881], vol. 3, pp. 2 1—23).
45. F. Max Muller, “ The Larger Sukhavatl-vyitha Sutra,” in F. Max Muller,
ed., Buddhist Mahayana Texts, part 2, The Sacred Books o f the East, vol. 49
(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1972), p. 5.
46. Ibid., p. 32.
47. Kosho Yamamoto, The Mahayana Mahaparitiirvana Sutra (Ube City, Japan,
I 973 )> v°l- P- 61.
48. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 69.
49. Takasaki, A Study o f the Ratnagotravibhaga (Uttaratantra), p. 178 and p. 178
n. 45.
50. nirvatukatnamsca jinan yacayami krtafijalih // kalpananantamstisthantu tna
bhudatidhamidam jagat (Bodhicarya vatara 38, v. 5 [Marion Matics, Entering
the Path o f Enlightenment (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 153]).
51. Discussed in Padmanabh S. Jaini, “ Buddha’s Prolongation o f Life,” Bulletin
of the School o f Oriental and African Studies 2 1 (1958), pp. 546—552.
52. Louis de La Vallee Poussin, L ’Abhidharmakofa de Vasubandhu (Brussels:
Melanges chinois et bouddhiques, 19 71), vol. 2, pp. 120—12 1.
53. Andre Bareau, Les sectes bouddhiques du petit vehicule (Saigon, 1955), p. 260.
This does not mean, however, that the Buddha lives forever, but rather
that, in Dutt’s words, “ Buddha’s length o f life (ayus) is unlimited on
account o f his past accumulated merits. Buddha lives as long as the sentient
beings live” (Nalinaksha Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India [Calcutta:
Mukhopadhyay, 1970], p. 79).
54. One o f the four acinteyyas o f the Anguttara-nikaya, ii.8o, cited by La Vallee
Poussin, L ’Abhidharmakos'a de Vasubandhu, vol. 2, p. 83, n. 3. Cf. F. L.
 Woodward, Gradual Sayings (London: Luzac, 19 5 1 —1955), vol. 2,
pp. 89-90 (vii. 77).
55. Both cultic, as we are about to see, and scholastic. As an example o f this
latter, Vasubandhu, in his Abhidharmakosa, discusses the ability o f arhats to
prolong their lives (La Vallee Poussin, VAbhidharmakosa de Vasubandhu,
vol. 2, pp. 12 0 -12 1) .
56. For example, a group o f Uighur-language fragments, almost certainly
Sarvastivadin, makes explicit reference to Pindola-bharadvaja and the rest
o f the sixteen arhats, within a cultic frame o f reference (texts published by
F.W .K. Muller, Uigurica II, 7 and 8, [Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Klasse, 19 10 , pp. 76—89; and
W. Bang and A. von Gabain, Tiirkische Turfan-Texte IV, A and B
(Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-
Hist. Klasse, 1930, pp. 432-450)] [referred to by APAW , SPAW , Jan
Nattier, unpublished manuscript in possession o f the author]).
57. Maung Kin, “ The Legend o f Upagutta,” Buddhism, vol. 1 (1903),
pp. 219 -24 2.
58. Ibid., 219.
59. P. L. Vaidya, ed., Divyavadanam, Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, no. 20
(Darbhariga, 1959), pp. 216 —282.
60. Przyluski’s translation, Legende de Vempereur Asoka, pp. 264 ff. This text, a
translation o f a no longer extant Sanskrit original (with the likely title o f
the Asokarajavaddna) and a version o f the legend o f King Asoka in many
ways quite different from the version contained in the Divyavadana, was
translated into Chinese in about 300 a . d . by Fa-ch’in. For a discussion o f
these and the two other major recensions (partial and complete) o f the
legend o f King Asoka, cf. ibid., pp. xi—xv.
61. John Strong, The Legend o f King Asoka (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1973), PP- 260—264.
62. The tradition o f Mahakasyapa’s longevity receives treatment in a number
o f other texts, for a summary o f which cf. Lamotte, Histoire, pp. 226 ff. As
in the case o f the sixteen arhats, we have a variety o f evidence indicating
that the tradition o f Mahakasyapa’s longevity was a matter not only o f
textual, but also o f living, cultic importance in India. The As'okavaddna, for
example, shows King Asoka coming to the mountain and addressing
Mahakasyapa, who is considered to be alive and present at the place, ready
to receive offerings and veneration (Divyavadana, p. 90 [Strong, Legend,
pp. 253-254]). The Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien (Samuel Beal, The Travels of
Fah-hian and Sung Yun [London: Susil Gupta, 1869], pp. 13 2 —133) and
Hsiian-tsang (Samuel Beal, Si-yu-ki, vol. 2, pp. 142—144) both provide
similar insights into the cult o f Mahakasyapa, as carried on at Mount
Kukkutapada.
63. Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, vol. 2, pp. 2 14 —216.
64. Lamotte, Histoire, pp. 7 12 —7 13 .
65. Ibid., p. 765.
66. Ibid., pp. 7 12 - 7 13 .
67. Ibid., p., 756.
68. A. Bareau, “ The Place o f the Buddha Gautama in the Buddhist Religion
During the Reign o f King As'oka,” in Buddhist Studies in Honour o f Walpola
Rahula (London: Gordon Fraser, 1980), pp. 1 —9.
69. W. Pachow, “ Gautama Buddha: Man or Superman,” in Malalasekera
Commemoration Volume (Colombo, 1976), pp. 257—269.
70. Erich Frauwallner, The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist
Literature (Rom e: Is. M. E. O., 1956).
7 1. Jaini has discussed some o f the doctrinal debates in Nikaya Buddhism
concerning longevity generated by this passage in the Mahaparinibbana
Sutta (Jaini, “ Buddha’s Prolongation o f Life,” pp. 546-552).
72. This episode is found in all six surviving versions o f the Mps (Bareau,
Recherches sur la biographie de Buddha vol. 1, p. 147). Within this section
Bareau discerns a “ primitive” core, and later additions (ibid.). Among the
different versions, the Pali shows signs o f being particularly close to the
primitive version (ibid., vol. 1, p. 149).
73. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Suttas, pp. 40—41 (chap. 3, sec. 3). Yassa kassaci
Ananda cattaro iddhipada bhavita bahuti-kata yani-kata vatthu-kata anutthita
paricita susamaraddha, so akankhamano kappam va tittheyya kappavasesam va
(Dn xvi.3.3). Franklin Edgerton believes that the term kalpavasesam (Skt.
equivalent o f kappavasesam) means “ more than a kalpa” rather than “ for
that portion o f a kalpa” (Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, hereafter cited
as BH SD [Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970], p. 173), a position with
which Jaini agrees (Jaini, “ Buddha’s Prolongation o f Life,” p. 547). At the
same time, as we shall presently see, certain Pali commentaries would like
to claim for the Buddha a no more than normal human life span (see note
76). Owing to this interpretation, they must understand kappavasesam after
the fashion o f Rhys-Davids’ translation, “ for that portion o f a kalpa
[ordinary human life span] which had yet to run.” This does not say,
however, that other Pali materials, or the Sanskrit tradition, may not have
understood the matter as Edgerton suggests.
74. These include the samadhis o f intention (chanda), energy (viriya),
consciousness (citta), and investigation (vlmamsa) (Nyanatiloka, Buddhist
Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines [Kandy: Buddhist
Publication Society, 1980J, pp. 76-77). Cf. also Edgerton, BH SD ,
pp. 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 , s.v., rddhi-pada.
75. Edgerton, BH SD . The six supernormal powers include (in Pali) (1) the
various miraculous physical abilities (iddhi), (2) divine ear (dibba-sota), (3)
penetration o f the minds o f others (parassa ceto-pariya-nana), (4)
remembrance o f former existences (pubbenivasanussati), (5) divine eye
(dibba-cakkhu), and (6) extinction o f all cankers (asavakkhaya) (Nyanatiloka,
Buddhist Dictionary, pp. 2—3).
76. Buddhaghosa (Sumatigalavilasim, P.T.S., vol. 2, p. 554) and the Milinda-
pafiha (ed. Trenckner [London: Pali Text Society], p. 14 1) both provide a
 different interpretation o f the word kalpa, claiming that it should be
understood to refer to the normal span o f a person’s life. Figuring this life
span as, at best, 100 years, according to these texts, the Buddha is here
not relinquishing a vast life span, but really only a few years. However,
this interpretation must be judged a later, polemical one. Bareau points
out, for example, that this interpretation o f the term kalpa occurs only in
these two relatively late texts. M oreover, it does not occur in the two
Chinese versions o f the Milinda-paiiha. This leads him to conclude that
this interpretation was not the one in the minds o f the authors o f the
Mps, “ bien qu’elle paraisse beaucoup plus raisonnable et acceptable que
l’autre” (Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les Sutrapitaka et les
Vinayapitaka anciens, vol. 2, Les demiers mois, le parinirvana et les funerailles
[Paris: Ecole fran^aise d’Extreme-Orient, 1970], vol. 1, p. 152 n. 1. Jaini,
writing earlier, comes to similar conclusions. According to Jaini, unlike
the Mahasarighika and Sarvastivada, the Theravada rejected the idea that a
saint could prolong his life through meditation. They were for that reason
forced to conclude that the Buddha could not have lived beyond what
was understood as the natural human life span, and therefore chose to
reject the obvious meaning o f the Mps in favor o f an obscure and
idiosyncratic one (Jaini, “ Buddha’s Prolongation o f Life,” pp. 548—552).
However, this led to certain inconsistencies in their interpretation o f the
events o f the Mps (p. 549). In addition, the Theravadin sources
themselves are not consistent in the interpretation o f kalpa as an ordinary
human life span, and even the Milinda-paiiha contradicts itself on this
point (ibid).
77. Rhys-Davids, Buddhist Suttas, pp. 40—41 (chap. 3, sec. 3). Tathagatassa klio
Ananda cattaro iddhipada bhavita bahuti-kata yani-kata vatthu-kata anutthita
paricita susamaraddha. So akahkhamano Ananda Tathagato kappam va tittheyya
kappavasesam va ‘ti (Dighanikaya , xvi.3.3).
78. Dn xvi.3.4 (R III.4, 41).
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Just how important the themes o f the Buddha’s power o f longevity and its
activation are to the authors o f the Mps is seen in the fact that both o f the
quoted passages occur several other times in chapter 3 o f the text. The
passage concerning the Buddha’s longevity (Dn xvi.3.3), for example,
occurs no less than five additional times in the Rhys-Davids edition
(Dn xvi.3.40, 4 1, 44, 45, 47 [R III.54, 56, 59, 60, 62]). In these
occurrences o f the passage, either the Buddha is reminding Ananda that he
could have lived for a kalpa, if only he had been asked (Dn x vi.3.4 1, 44,
45, 47 [R 111:56, 59, 60, 62]) or Ananda is repeating to the Buddha what
the Buddha had previously said to him concerning the Buddha’s ability to
live for a kalpa (Dn xvi.3.40 [R IIL54]). The closely aligned formula for
supplicating the Buddha to remain and not pass away, also occurs— in
addition to Dn xvi.3.4— five other times in this chapter (Dn xvi.3.38, 39
 [two occurrences], 40, and 41 [R III.49, 51, 52, 55, and 56]). At Dn
xvi.3.38, for example, when Ananda has come to realize the tragic mistake
he has made, he implores the Buddha to live on, employing exactly the
supplication just quoted and repeating it three times (Dn xvi.3.38—39
[R III.49—52]). However, the Buddha tells him that the time for making
this request is past. The Buddha then asks Ananda why he has put this
request to the tathagata three times. N ow Ananda repeats the words the
Buddha had uttered to him previously, “ Whoever has thought out,
Ananda, and developed, practised, accumulated . . . should he so desire it,
could remain in the same birth for a kalpa” (Dn, xvi.iii.40 [R III.54]).
Then the Buddha says that had Ananda, on the early occasion, uttered the
appropriate supplication two times the Buddha might have refused to
grant it, but had he uttered it a third time, the Buddha would have
granted the request (Dn xvi.iii.41 [R III.5 5]). The second occurrence o f
this passage at Dn xvi.iii.41 (R III.$6) communicates the same
information. These occurrences tell us something about the use o f this
passage: the Buddha’s desire to live on can only be roused when the
supplication is repeated in precisely the right way, i.e., three times.
82. The Mps exhibits other themes noted in one or another o f the texts
examined above. For example, it is the Buddha’s accomplishment as a
meditator that has brought him his supernatural powers, and prominent
among these is the power o f longevity.
83. Gregory Schopen comments “ for the Mps passage, see the very early stele
from Amaravati— 2nd B . C . — on which this incident is represented and
labelled. The label contains something like a paraphrase o f the text. All o f
this indicates the age and w ide currency o f the episode” (A. Ghosh and
H. Sarkar, “ Beginnings o f Sculptural Art in South-east India: A Stele from
A m a r a v a t i Ancient India 20—21 (1964—1965), pp. 16 8 -17 7 ; Schopen,
personal communication.
84. On this, cf. Andre Bareau, “ Les recits canoniques des funerailles du
Buddha et leurs anomalies: nouvel essai d’interpretation,” Bulletin de I’Ecole
frati(aise d ’Extreme-Orient, 62 (1975), pp. 1 5 1- 18 9 .
85. Bareau, in his analysis o f six versions o f the Mps (one version each in Pali
[P] and Sanskrit [S], four in Chinese [Ch. A—D]), tells us that this episode is
recounted in all six versions, suggesting its antiquity (“ Recherches,” vol. 1,
pp. 14 7-156 ). Five texts (P, S, Ch. A, B, and C) place this episode near the
end o f the Buddha’s stay in Vaisali, while Ch. D places it at the very
beginning o f the sutra, after the words evam mayatsrutam (ibid., vol. 1, 147).
86. This point is developed in my Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist
Values and Orientations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994),
pp. 358-367.
87. Jaini’s discussion o f doctrinal disputes arising in the Nikaya schools
concerning the Buddha’s longevity makes it clear that for most Buddhist
commentators (Theravada commentators excepted), the longevity o f saints
is a result o f their meditation, either through prolonging the life span o f
 the present body or through creating an entirely new body altogether
Qaini, “ Buddha’s Prolongation o f Life” ).
88. Adikaram has brought forward similar themes in relation to the cult o f
arhats in Sri Lanka; cf. Adikaram, Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon
(Migoda: D. S. Pusmella, 1946). Along similar lines, pratyekabuddhas
(“ solitary buddhas” ) become invulnerable to death by entering into nirodha-
samapatti; e.g., cf. Dhammapada Commentary (5 vols., H. Smith and H.
C. Norman, eds., [London: L. S. Tailang, 1905—19 15 ], vol. 1,
pp. 224-226 [Burlingame, trans., Buddhist Legends (London: Luzac, 1969,
first published, 19 21), vol. 1, pp. 290-291]).
89. A study o f sectarian views o f the Buddhist saints reveals discontinuity and
tension: the Nikaya schools contested with one another concerning the
status o f arhats; the Mahayana denigrated the arhat ideal; the Vajrayana
criticized both arhats and conventional bodhisattvas for their limitations; and
so on. Such polemics often leave us with the impression that the Buddhist
schools were quite separate from one another and their enlightened ideals
quite different. A contrasting viewpoint is afforded by our examination o f
the longevity o f the Buddhist saints. Here we have seen that similar claims
o f realization, power, and long life are made o f the saints, they all share a
compassionate motivation, and their dependence upon the requests o f
others is equally insisted upon. Whatever the schools may say, even the
brief glimpse o f the saints offered here suggests that, in important respects,
the Buddhist saints are much more equivalent figures than their various
designations, doctrinal definitions, and sectarian affiliations, as articulated
by their various proponents and detractors, would lead us to believe.
When we scholars think historically about Buddhism in India in terms o f
relatively discrete orientations we call HTnayana, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana, it may be that as much as anything else we are playing into
polemical hands.
90. The text explicitly applies this to the buddha, but by saying “ anyone w ho,”
it clearly intends to include in this statement other kinds o f saints also
attained through meditation; in the context o f the Mps, this includes the
other two types o f saints central to the thought o f this text, the arhats and
pratyekabuddhas.
91. T o this, one may wish to add the interesting case o f the bodhisattva who
maintains a “ long-lived” presence within samsara through intentionally
taking death and rebirth, over and over, for vast periods o f time. The
Tibetan savant Lama Taranatha (b. 1575) mentions yet another mode o f
longevity, namely the resurrection o f the body. His account o f Nagarjuna
describes the death o f the saint through the severing o f his head from his
body. Taranatha then proceeds to tell us that when Maitreya arrives,
Nagaijuna’s head will be joined with his body, and the saint will live once
more (Kbdd, pp. 369 ff).
92. Cf. Lamotte, Histoire, pp. 765—775. Cf. Maung Kin, “ The Legend o f
Upagutta,” pp. 2 19 ff. On the famous passage in the Mps that supposedly
 restricts monks in regard to the stupa cult (“ Hinder not yourselves,
Ananda, by honouring the remains o f the Tathagata,” Dn x v i.5 .10 —1 1
[R V.24—26 (91-2)1), cf. Gregory Schopen, “ Monks and the R elic Cult
in the Mahaparinibbanasutta: An Old Misunderstanding in Regard to
Monastic Buddhism,” in From Benaras to Beijing: Essays on Buddhism and
Chinese Religion in Honor o f Ja n Yiin-Hua, ed. G. Schopen and K.
Shinohara (Toronto, 1990). In this illuminating article, Schopen argues,
first, that the passage in question does not refer to the worship o f relics,
but rather to the cultic reverence o f the body o f the Buddha, after his
death but prior to his cremation and thus clearly prior also to the
existence o f relics and the building o f stupas, a cultic pattern that is found
widely in the early evidence in reference not only to the Buddha but
also to other saints. Second, Schopen argues that the injunction to
Ananda does not apply to all bhiksus, but rather specifically to Ananda:
while this ritual action is proscribed in the case o f Ananda, it is in fact
appropriately carried out by the great arhat Mahakasyapa (Ananda is not
enlightened at this point). This shows that it is not the action itself that is
problematic, but rather the action as performed by Ananda. These two
points lead Schopen to conclude that the interpretation o f this passage
that monks are prohibited from the worship o f relics is a completely
inaccurate reading.
93. De Visser, The Arhants in China and Japan, pp. 105 ff.
94. We have seen that, in later times, the belief in the longevity o f the
Buddhist saints cannot be classified as a feature primarily o f popular
religion, but is equally if not more important to the elite o f the tradition.
The passage in the Mps referred to above (note 92) has seemed to many as
a text advocating the worship o f the Buddha’s relics as a particularly lay
phenomenon (cf. Schopen, “ Monks and the Relic Cult” ). Not fully
appreciated, however, is the fact that the Mps nowhere repudiates the
phenomenon o f the Buddhist saint, and nowhere denies that he has great
attainment and power, including that o f longevity. Again, Weber,
Frauwallner, and others have suggested that the elite monastic community
behind a text like the Mps rather simply wants to shift the central
authority for the religious life away from the Buddhist saints as such
toward the more stable and regularized foundation provided by the textual
dharma and the vinayas.
95. We can in this context question the status o f the widespread scholarly
categorization o f Buddhist phenomena as either “ elite” or “ popular.” One
o f the reasons that scholars, beginning with T. and C. Rhys-Davids and
continuing down to the present (as seen in the works o f Lamotte, Bareau,
Pachow, and many others), have been so strongly attracted to Buddhist
studies as a field is that Buddhism itself often appears to speak with a
remarkably contemporary voice, one that is urbane, learned, and
reasonable. Whatever else it may reveal, scholarly insistence on relatively
clear divisions between elite monastic Buddhism on the one hand and
popular Buddhism on the other has one interesting result: it enables the
maintenance o f the reasonability o f Buddhism (elite Buddhism) in the face
o f so much that is not reasonable by any known standard (popular
Buddhism). However, we have just seen that one o f the more outlandish
aspects o f Buddhism, namely its belief in the enormous longevity o f its
saints, is characteristic o f every period and every level o f Indian Buddhist
religious life. It cannot be relegated to the sphere o f popular religion. If
this conclusion is accepted, then I suppose we have to begin to rethink
what Buddhism in India really was, and whether— in any o f its
manifestations— it was really as reasonable as we want it to be.
 S /u p a , (S/osy, an cf E m p ire:
G on s/ru c/ion s o f/fie QSucfcffia
C /S io jra p fiy in fja r fy
7 Jost~ CTlsofan fJncfia
Jonathan S. Walters

In “ T h e M a n y L i v e s o f B u d d h a : A S t u d y o f S a c r e d B i o g r a p h y a n d

T h e r a v a d a T r a d it i o n ,” F r a n k R e y n o l d s s k e t c h e d o u t a d y n a m ic c o n c e p ­

t io n o f t h e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y in w h i c h B u d d h is t life s t o r ie s a r e v ie w e d ,

n o t a s c o m p a r a t iv e ly a c c u r a t e o r in a c c u r a t e r e f le c t io n s o f t h e e v e n t s in

“ t h e h is t o r ic a l B u d d h a ’ s ” lif e , b u t a s a lo c u s f o r c r e a t iv it y a n d c h a n g e

w it h in t h e s t r e a m s o f B u d d h is t h i s t o r y .1 In t h is e s s a y I w a n t t o d e v e lo p

R e y n o l d s ’ v ie w th a t B u d d h is t b io g r a p h ie s b o t h r e f le c t e d a n d s h a p e d th e

h is t o r ic a l s it u a t io n s in w h i c h t h e y w e r e c o m p o s e d , b y e x a m in in g a s e t o f

t h r e e b io g r a p h ic a l t e x t s in P a li v e r s e th a t w e r e p r o d u c e d in B u d d h is t I n d ia

d u r in g a b o u t t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B .C . R e y n o l d s h a s a lr e a d y p o in t e d to t w o

o f t h e s e t e x t s — Cariyapitaka a n d Buddhavamsa — a s e s p e c ia lly im p o r t a n t f o r

a h is t o r ic a l r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f t h e c u lt u r a l r o le t h a t B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y

p la y e d in t h e e a r ly p o s t - A s o k a n p e r io d .2 A d d in g a t h ir d , c lo s e ly r e la t e d

t e x t c a lle d Apadana, I in t e n d t o n u a n c e R e y n o l d s ’ a c c o u n t o f t h is p a r t ic u ­

la r p e r io d w it h in t h e g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k th a t h e s e ts o u t . S p e c if ic a lly , I

s h a ll a n a ly z e t h e s e t h r e e t e x t s in lig h t o f w h a t R e y n o l d s c a lls “ t h e m o s t

c r u c ia l p r o b le m s w h i c h a r e a m e n a b le t o fu t u r e i n v e s t ig a t io n ,” n a m e ly , t h e
is s u e s t h a t “ c lu s t e r a r o u n d t h e id e n t if ic a t io n o f t h e v a r io u s le v e ls o r s t a g e s

in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e b io g r a p h ic a l t r a d it io n , t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e s t r u c ­

t u r e o f t h e v a r io u s b io g r a p h ic a l f r a g m e n t s a n d t e x t s , a n d t h e r o le w h i c h

t h e s e f r a g m e n t s a n d t e x t s h a v e p la y e d w it h in t h e b r o a d e r t r a d it io n .” 3

T h e s e t e x t s , in a n d o f t h e m s e lv e s , c a n n o t r e v e a l th e h is t o r ic a l s it u a t io n

th a t is t o b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d . T h e y a r e p o e m s a b o u t in c o n c e iv a b ly a n c ie n t

p e r io d s o f t im e , n o t s c ie n t ific h is t o r ie s . I m a k e t h is fa ir ly o b v io u s p o in t

b e c a u s e it is n o t a lw a y s g r a s p e d in B u d d h o lo g y . T h e t e n d e n c y in

B u d d h o lo g ic a l s t u d ie s t o w e a v e h is t o r y d ir e c t ly o u t o f lit e r a r y r e m a in s , a s

t h o u g h th e a u t h o r s o f s a c r e d t e x t s w e r e t r y in g to d e s c r ib e o b je c t iv e ly th e

t im e s a n d p la c e s in w h ic h t h e y liv e d , h a s e lic it e d a d e v a s t a t in g c r it iq u e , in

v a r io u s f o r m s o v e r t h e la s t t e n y e a r s , b y G r e g o r y S c h o p e n , w h o h a s c h a l­

le n g e d fu n d a m e n t a l p illa r s o f t h e B u d d h o lo g ic a l c o n s t r u c t — in c lu d in g v a r ­

io u s d is t in c t io n s b e t w e e n m o n k s a n d la y f o l k 4 a n d t h e o r i g i n o f t h e

M a h a y a n a 5— w it h a n a p p e a l t o e p ig r a p h ic e v id e n c e th a t c a n b e d a t e d c e n ­

tu r ie s e a r lie r th a n t h e n o t o r io u s ly r e c e n t e x t a n t t e x t u a l m a n u s c r ip t s . W it h

g o o d r e a s o n S c h o p e n h a s in s is t e d th a t, e x c e p t f o r c e r t a in a n c ie n t m a n u ­

s c r ip t fin d s m o s t ly f r o m C e n t r a l A s ia , e p ig r a p h y a n d a r c h a e o lo g y p r o v id e u s

w it h t h e o n ly o b je c t s f o r r e c o n s t r u c t in g t h e fir s t t w o m ille n n ia o f t h e

B u d d h a e r a th a t a c t u a lly s u r v iv e in t a c t f r o m th e p e r io d s t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d

t o b e t a lk in g a b o u t .

I a g r e e w it h S c h o p e n t h a t e p ig r a p h y m u s t n o w t a k e t h e le a d in a c r i­

t iq u e a n d n e w c o n s t r u c t io n o f a n c ie n t B u d d h is t h is t o r y ; b u t I a m e q u a lly

c o n v i n c e d t h a t e p i g r a p h y c a n n o t d o w i t h o u t t h e t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e

e n t i r e ly .6 A m o n g o t h e r t h in g s , t h e s e t e x t s h a v e b e e n v it a l t o t h e p r o je c t

o f r e c o n s t r u c t in g e p ig r a p h ic la n g u a g e s a n d d a t in g a n d i d e n t i f y i n g t h e

k in g s in w h o s e r e ig n s t h e e p ig r a p h s w e r e in c is e d . S c h o p e n ’ s c r it iq u e s ta r ts

t o r e a c h f r u it io n o n ly w h e n t h e e p ig r a p h s b r i n g n e w q u e s t io n s t o b e a r o n

t h e t e x t s a n d , it is im p o r t a n t t o a d d , w h e n t h e t e x t s a r e t h e n e n a b le d t o

r a is e n e w q u e s t io n s a b o u t t h e e p ig r a p h s .7 T o g e t h e r , t h e w o r k o f e p ig r a -

p h e r s a n d h is t o r ic a l lin g u is t s a llo w s u s t o id e n t if y c e r t a in e p ig r a p h s a n d

t e x t u a l c o m p o s it io n s a s c o e v a l; b o t h t e x t u a l a n d e p ig r a p h ic s t u d ie s a r e

r e e n e r g iz e d w h e n w e c a n s e e p a r t ic u la r t e x t s a s p r o d u c t s o f p a r t ic u la r a g e s

t h a t c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e b a s is o f ( e p ig r a p h ic a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l)

e v i d e n c e t h a t is p a r t ia lly e x t e r n a l t o t h e t e x t s t h e m s e lv e s . A s S c h o p e n ’s

w o r k s o c le a r ly s h o w s , s it u a t in g t e x t u a l s t u d ie s w it h in e p ig r a p h ic h is t o r y

o p e n s w h o l e n e w f r o n t ie r s f o r B u d d h o lo g y . T h i s p a p e r f o ll o w s S c h o p e n ’s

le a d in its a t t e m p t t o s it u a t e t h e t e x t s in q u e s t io n w it h in t h e h is t o r y t h a t

c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e b a s is o f “ h a r d ” e v id e n c e . In fa c t , S c h o p e n

h i m s e lf h a s t r e a t e d t h e Apadana a n d r e la t e d jataka t e x t s a s p o t e n t ia lly v a lu ­

a b le f o r t h e e p ig r a p h ic a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s t u d y o f e a r ly p o s t - A s 'o k a n

I n d i a .8
 T h e t h r e e b io g r a p h ic a l t e x t s th a t I s h a ll d is c u s s in t h is e s s a y a r e e s p e ­

c ia lly w e ll s u it e d t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f b o t h R e y n o l d s ’ a n d S c h o p e n ’s

m e t h o d o lo g ic a l p r o je c t s . I n t e r m s o f B u d d h is t lif e s t o r ie s , t h e y a r e t h e o n ly

c o m p r e h e n s iv e c a n o n ic a l t e llin g s o f t h e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y t h a t c o n t a in

d e s c r ip t io n s o f p r e v io u s liv e s in a d d it io n to t h e p r e s e n t lif e , a c o m p le t e n e s s

th a t r e m a in e d t h e sine qua non f o r a ll B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y u n t il t h e n in e ­

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h a t s t ill r e m a in s d o m in a n t in la r g e p a r t s o f t h e

B u d d h is t w o r l d t o d a y . T h e s e t e x t s c o n s t it u t e d , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e fir s t

c r u c ia l t r a n s fo r m a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y in its lo n g a n d v a r ie d h is ­

t o r y ; t h e s e t e x t s c o n s t it u t e d t h e r u le s f o r p o s t - A s o k a n B u d d h is t a n t h r o p o l­

o g y . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t iv e o f e p ig r a p h y , th e p e r io d in w h i c h t h e s e t e x t s

w e r e w r it t e n is e x t r e m e ly r ic h : w e ll o v e r t w o t h o u s a n d e p ig r a p h s f r o m th e

la s t t w o c e n t u r ie s B .C ., in s c r ib e d in v a r ie t ie s o f th e e a r ly B r a h m l s c r ip t th a t

a d a p t e d A s o k a ’ s M a u r y a n a lp h a b e t t o n e w p u r p o s e s , a n d d i s c o v e r e d

t h r o u g h o u t t h e a n c ie n t I n d ie w o r ld , f r o m S r i L a n k a t o S r a v a s t i, h a v e b e e n

p u b lis h e d . A s t h e Cariyapitaka, Buddhavamsa , a n d Apadana e k e d o u t w h a t

w a s to b e c o m e t h e f o u n d a t io n f o r a ll s u b s e q u e n t B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y , s o

th e e a r ly B r a h m l in s c r ip t io n s o f S a n c h i a n d S a m a t h , A n u r a h a p u r a a n d

A m a r a v a t l, e f f e c t e d t h e fir s t m a jo r t r a n s f o r m a t io n — p o lit ic a l a s w e ll a s

p a la e o g r a p h ic a l— o f t h a t d is c o u r s e in s t o n e t h a t, in a u g u r a t e d b y I n d ia ’s fir s t

e m p e r o r , A s o k a , w a s to d o m in a t e a ll s u b s e q u e n t I n d ia n im p e r ia l p r a c t ic e .

B u t B u d d h is t I n d ia ju s t a ft e r A s o k a is e s p e c ia lly im p o r t a n t f o r t h e lig h t

it p o t e n t ia lly c a n s h e d o n t h e overlap o f t e x t u a l a n d e p ig r a p h ic / a r c h a e o lo g -

ic a l h is t o r ie s . H e r e m o r e t h a n a n y w h e r e e ls e in t h e v a s t w o r l d o f

B u d d h o lo g y , t h e w o r k o f e p ig r a p h e r s a n d t e x t u a l s p e c ia lis t s h a s c lo s e ly

o v e r la p p e d f o r m o r e th a n a c e n t u r y . T h e d is c o v e r y o f t h e la b e le d c a r v in g s

a t B h a r h u t m e r e ly c o n fir m e d w h a t h a d b e e n o b v io u s e v e n to t h e e a r lie s t

O r ie n t a lis t s : t h e B u d d h is t m o n u m e n t s f r o m w h ic h t h e in s c r ip t io n s c o m e

c o n t a in illu s t r a t io n s o f b io g r a p h ic a l s t o r ie s t h a t a r e a ls o t o ld , a lw a y s in

g r e a t e r d e t a il, in t h e t e x t s . M o r e o v e r , t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e in s c r ip t io n s a n d

t h a t o f t h e t e x t s is s o c lo s e th a t u n t il r e c e n t ly it w a s s t a n d a r d p r a c t ic e a m o n g

e p ig r a p h e r s to c a ll m o s t in s c r ip t io n a l P r a k r it s “ P a li .” T h e r e s u lt h a s b e e n a n

e n o r m o u s in d u s t r y in a ll c o u n t r ie s th a t h o s t I n d o lo g ic a l s t u d ie s , a n in d u s t r y

t h a t h a s a t t e m p t e d t o d e s c r ib e t h e c a r v in g s a n d in t e r p r e t t h e in s c r ip t io n s o n

t h e b a s is o f t h e t e x t s , o n o n e h a n d , a n d th a t h a s a t t e m p t e d t o d e s c r ib e th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e t e x t u a l t r a d it io n o n t h e b a s is o f t h e c a r v in g s a n d

in s c r ip t io n s , o n t h e o t h e r .

I r o n ic a lly , it is a r a r e t h in g th a t R e y n o l d s a n d S c h o p e n s h o u ld c o n s id e r

t h e Cariyapitaka, Buddhavamsa, a n d / o r Apadana e s p e c ia lly im p o r t a n t f o r a

r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f e a r ly p o s t - A s o k a n B u d d h i s t h is t o r y . T h e e n o r m o u s

in d u s t r y th a t I ju s t d e s c r ib e d h a s in fa c t la r g e ly ig n o r e d t h e t e x t s th a t h is ­

t o r ic a l lin g u is t s a c t u a lly d a te t o t h e p e r io d u n d e r d is c u s s io n . A lm o s t w it h ­
 o u t e x c e p t io n t h e s e t e x t s r e m a in u n m e n t io n e d in t h e w o r k s o f e v e n th e

b e s t s c h o la r s c o n c e r n e d w it h t h is p e r io d , in c lu d in g t h e lik e s o f A le x a n d e r

C u n n in g h a m , A n a n d a C o o m a r a s w a m y , A lb e r t F o u c h e r , J o h n M a r s h a ll,

a n d P a u l M u s . In s t e a d , t e x t s th a t p o s t d a t e t h e e a r ly B r a h m l in s c r ip t io n s b y

c e n t u r ie s h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d a s t h o u g h t h e y h a d b e e n t h e s o u r c e s f o r t h e

c a r v in g s th a t t h e in s c r ip t io n s la b e l: t h e m o s t p r o m in e n t t e x t s c it e d in th e

s c h o la r l y d is c o u r s e o n t h e g r e a t stupas a n d t h e ir c a r v in g s h a v e b e e n

Divyavadana a n d Lalitavistara ( c a . f i r s t c e n t u r y A .D . ) , Mahavastvavadana (c a .

s e c o n d c e n t u r y A . D . ) , Jatakam ala a n d ( c a . f o u r t h c e n t u r y A .D .), a n d

Jatakatthakatha a n d Dhammapadatthakatha ( a fte r th e fift h c e n t u r y A .D .) .

T h is a n a c h r o n is m b e t w e e n t e x t a n d e p ig r a p h o b s c u r e s t h e h is t o r ic a l

p o s it io n o f t h e v a r io u s b io g r a p h ie s th a t R e y n o l d s h a s c a lle d f o r s c h o la r s t o

r e c o n s t r u c t . F o r th e e a r ly p e r io d , w e a r e le ft w it h a c a t a lo g o f b io g r a p h ic a l

f r a g m e n t s c u t o f f f r o m t h e fr a m e w o r k ( s ) in w h i c h t h e y h a v e m e a n in g ( fo r

e v e n i f w e a c c e p t th a t t h e n a r r a t iv e d e ta ils b e lo n g t o s o m e t im e le s s o r a l tr a ­

d it io n ,9 w e s u r e ly c a n n o t lo o k t o t h e la t e r t e x t s f o r th e ideological f r a m e ­

w o r k s o f t h e e a r lie r p e r io d ) . In t e r m s o f t h e la t e r b io g r a p h ie s , t o o , t h e

p r o je c t is u n d e r m in e d : t h e in t e r p r e t a t io n s a n d id e o lo g ie s th a t t h e y e x h ib it

a r e t r e a t e d a s t h o u g h t h e y b e lo n g , n o t t o t h e t im e s a n d p la c e s in w h i c h t h e

a c t u a l t e x t s w e r e w r i t t e n , b u t t o t h e t im e le s s ly a n c ie n t o r a l t r a d it io n !

D e s p it e t h e s e e p is t e m o lo g ic a l d iffic u lt ie s , t o t h is d a y o n ly th e la t e r t e x t s

h a v e b e e n e x a m in e d f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f t h e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y a s

p o r t r a y e d in t h e e a r lie r c a r v in g s .

T h e r e a r e t w o m a in r e a s o n s t h a t t h is a n a c h r o n is m in t h e B u d d h o lo g ic a l

c o n s t r u c t h a s g o n e u n n o t ic e d , e x c e p t b y R e y n o l d s (in a n a n a ly s is o f th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f b io g r a p h ic a l t r a d it io n ) a n d S c h o p e n (in a n a n a ly s is o f th e

r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n lit e r a r y a n d e p ig r a p h ic r e m a in s ) . F ir s t , t h e b io g r a p h i­

c a l t e x t s t h a t d a t e t o t h e t im e o f t h e in s c r ip t io n s — Cariyapitaka,
Buddhavamsa, a n d Apadana — d o n o t t e ll t h e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y w it h a ll th e

s u m p t u o u s d e t a il th a t is f o u n d in t h e la t e r t e x t s a n d th a t s c h o la r s lik e t o s e e

in t h e a n c ie n t c a r v in g s a s w e l l . 10 T h e la t e r t e x t s h a v e b e e n p r i v il e g e d

b e c a u s e o n ly t h e y t e ll th e s t o r ie s w it h e n o u g h d e t a il to m a k e t h e id e n t if i­

c a t io n o f t h e c a r v in g s b e lie v a b le .

A s e c o n d m a jo r r e a s o n f o r th e a b s e n c e o f th e Apadana a n d r e la t e d t e x t s

in t h e v a s t s c h o la r s h ip o n e a r ly p o s t - A s o k a n In d ia n B u d d h is m h a s to d o w it h

c e r t a in p r e ju d ic e s a n d s c h o la r ly p r e s u p p o s it io n s th a t h a v e d o m in a t e d th e

h is t o r y o f P a li s t u d ie s . S in c e t h e t im e o f T . W . R h y s - D a v id s , f o u n d e r o f t h e

P a li T e x t S o c ie t y ( P T S ) , t h e r e h a s b e e n w id e s p r e a d d is d a in f o r th e t e x t s in

q u e s t io n . T h e ir in c lu s io n in th e c a n o n s e e m s t o m a r a n o t h e r w is e p u r e ly

r a t io n a l, s e c u la r h u m a n is t c o r p u s . “ T h e h is t o r ic a l B u d d h a ” is o b s c u r e d , th e

s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t r u n s , b y t h e s u b m is s io n t o “ p o p u la r ” n e e d s f o r f a ir y t a le s ,

m a g ic , g h o s t s , g o d s , a n d d e m o n s . T h e Apadana a n d r e la t e d t e x t s r e p r e s e n t
th e b e g in n in g o f t h e e n d o f t h e p r is t in e “ e a r ly B u d d h is m ” th a t s c h o la r s o f

T h e r a v a d a h a v e u n t il r e c e n t ly b e e n e x c lu s iv e ly in t e r e s t e d in r e c o n s t r u c t in g .

A s a r e s u lt , th e Buddhavamsa a n d Cariyapitaka— a lt h o u g h a m o n g th e e a r lie s t

P T S p u b lic a t io n s a n d a v a ila b le in tr a n s la tio n f o r y e a r s — s e ld o m a p p e a r in th e

e x t e n s iv e s e c o n d a r y w o r k o n th e c a n o n ic a l p e r io d to w h ic h , in th e e y e s o f

t h e t r a d it io n s th a t p r e s e r v e d th a t c a n o n , t h e y r ig h t fu lly b e lo n g . T h e Apadana
h a s n e v e r b e e n tr a n s la te d in t o a W e s t e r n la n g u a g e , a n d t h e P T S ( R o m a n

s c r ip t ) e d it io n o f t h e P a li is lo n g o u t o f p r in t a n d h o p e le s s ly c o n f u s e d .11

D a t in g th e s e t e x t s t o th e p o s t - A s o k a n p e r io d h a s h a d th e e ffe c t o f d r iv in g

P a li s p e c ia lis ts to ig n o r e t h e m a s la te c o r r u p t io n s , r a t h e r th a n d r iv in g t h e m

to s itu a te th e t e x t s in lig h t o f w h a t e ls e is k n o w n a b o u t t h e p o s t - A s o k a n

p e r io d . N o n s p e c ia lis t s f o r w h o m th e t e x t s m ig h t p r o v e r e le v a n t — s u c h a s

e p ig r a p h e r s a n d a r t h is t o r ia n s — a r e d e n ie d a c c e s s to t h e m a s a r e s u lt o f t h e ir

d e p e n d e n c e o n th e w o r k o f t e x t u a l s p e c ia lis ts .

I h o p e t o r e c o n c ile t h is a n a c h r o n is m b y a d d r e s s in g t h e c o t e m p o r a n e it y

o f t h e t e x t s (Apadana, Buddhavamsa, Cariyapitaka; h e n c e f o r t h “ t h e A B C s ” )

a n d t h e e p ig r a p h ic a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s ( o f t h e fir s t s t a g e s in th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e m a jo r B u d d h is t stupas d u r in g t h e e a r ly p o s t - A s o k a n ,

i .e ., S u n g a a n d e a r ly S a t a v a h a n a , p e r io d ) . T h i s e s s a y is , t o th is e n d , a n

e x t e n d e d d e m o n s t r a t io n o f t h e fa c t th a t R e y n o l d s a n d S c h o p e n b o t h w e r e

r ig h t in t h e ir s u p p o s it io n s a b o u t t h e r e le v a n c e o f t h e A B C s : t h e r e is a c o m ­

p le x a n d r e m a r k a b le c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o b o d ie s o f e v id e n c e ,

t e x t u a l a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l, w h i c h m y n a r r a t iv e w ill c la r ify in s o m e d e t a il.

B u t m y p r im a r y a im is t o r e c o n s t r u c t th e n a t u r e a n d c u lt u r a l c o n t e x t o f

B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y in a b o u t th e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B .C ., a n d t o d e m o n s t r a t e

t h a t e p ig r a p h y a n d t e x t u a l s t u d ie s t o g e t h e r p r o v id e a n e x c it in g b a s is f o r th a t

r e c o n s t r u c t io n .

P fcfa K i'n g th e Path

T h e stupas ( h u g e d o m e - s h a p e d m o n u m e n t s th a t e n s h r in e t h e c o r p o r e a l

r e lic s o f t h e B u d d h a a n d h is m o s t fa m o u s d is c ip le s ) a r e w e ll k n o w n , e v e n

o u t s id e p r o fe s s io n a l s c h o la r ly c ir c le s , a n d t h e y n e e d litt le in it ia l in t r o d u c ­

t io n f r o m m e . I s h a ll f o c u s u p o n t h e stupas o f M a d h y a P r a d e s h ( e s p e c ia lly

S a n c h i a n d B h a r h u t ) a n d A n d h r a P r a d e s h ( e s p e c ia lly A m a r a v a tT ) , w h i c h ,

p e r h a p s c o n s t r u c t e d o r ig in a lly b y E m p e r o r A s o k a h im s e lf, s u r v iv e a s th e

m o s t im p o r t a n t e v id e n c e o f e a r ly p o s t - A s o k a n s c u lp t u r a l a n d a r c h it e c t u r a l

e x c e lle n c e . D e s c r ip t io n s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e s e s ite s a b o u n d in e v e n th e

m o s t g e n e r a l s t u d ie s o f I n d ia n a r t. T h e te x t s , h o w e v e r , a s I h a v e a lr e a d y

s t a te d , r e m a in n e g le c t e d in t h e s c h o la r ly t r a d it io n . S o I s h a ll b e g in w it h a

f e w g e n e r a l w o r d s a b o u t th e A B C s a s a fo u n d a t io n f o r m y d is c u s s io n o f

t h e ir r e la t io n s h ip t o t h e e p ig r a p h ic a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e m a in s .
 T h e r e h a s b e e n a c o n s e n s u s a m o n g s c h o la r s , w h o h a v e s t u d ie d t h e tr a ­

d it io n a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e A B C s , t h e ir v o c a b u la r y , t h e ir g r a m m a t ic a l a n d

m e t r ic a l s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e ir p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n d m y t h o lo g ic a l c o n t e n t , th a t

th e s e t e x t s p o s t d a t e A s o k a . 12 I n d e e d , t h e Apadana m a k e s r e f e r e n c e t o th e

Kathavatthu ,13 w h ic h is h e ld b y T h e r a v a d in s to h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d o n ly

a t th e T h i r d G r e a t C o u n c i l, d u r in g t h e t im e o f A s o k a . Apadana i n c o r p o ­
r a te s v e r s e a ft e r v e r s e f r o m p r e - A s o k a n w o r k s , in c lu d in g Sutta-Nipata,14
Dhammapada I S a n d Thera-Thengatha,16 a n d e v e n q u o t e s l a r g e s e g m e n t s f r o m

o t h e r p o s t - A s o k a n i n c l u d i n g Buddhavamsa a n d
t e x t s , Cariyapitaka.
I n fa c t , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a d ir e c t lin e o f a p p r o p r ia t io n a n d e x p a n s io n

f r o m Cariyapitaka t o Buddhavamsa t o Apadana. Cariyapitaka is a jataka t e x t ,

o r b io g r a p h y o f th e B u d d h a th a t fo c u s e s a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly u p o n h is a c t io n s

d u r in g ( h e r e t h ir t y - f i v e ) p r e v i o u s liv e s . T h e c o l o p h o n 17 d e s c r ib e s

Cariyapitaka a s Buddhapadanifya] ( a “ G r e a t S t o r y ” o r “ le g e n d b io g r a p h y ” o f

th e B u d d h a ) . M a n y o f i t s padas a r e in c o r p o r a t e d in t o Buddhavamsa ; Apadana

t h e n q u o t e s t h e c o n c lu d in g v e r s e s a n d c o lo p h o n o f Cariyapitaka 1 8 w h i l e i t
a ls o q u o t e s f r o m Buddhavamsa e x t e n s i v e l y . 19

T h is lin e o f a p p r o p r ia t io n a n d e x p a n s io n is n o t s im p ly a m a t t e r o f p la ­

g ia r iz e d v e r s e s a n d b o r r o w e d n a m e s . A c e n t r a l id e o lo g ic a l t h e m e w a s b e in g

a p p r o p r ia t e d a n d r e w o r k e d in t h e p r o c e s s . I h a v e a lr e a d y r e m a r k e d th a t

Cariyapitaka is th e e a r lie s t k n o w n c o m p le t e b io g r a p h y o f th e B u d d h a o n a

c o s m ic s c a le , th a t is , th e fir s t th a t u n d e r s t a n d s t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n t life a s

th e r e s u lt o f a c t io n s p e r f o r m e d in a s e r ie s o f p r e v io u s liv e s . W h i c h e v e r v ie w

s c h o la r s t a k e o n t h e u lt im a t e ly u n a n s w e r a b le q u e s t io n o f w h e t h e r jatakas
p r e e x is t e d t h is p e r io d o r n o t , 20 Cariyapitaka is th e e a r lie s t d e fin it e e v id e n c e

w e h a v e th a t B u d d h is t s c o n c e iv e d o f th e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y in s u c h c o s m ic

t e r m s . T h e c o n c lu d in g v e r s e s o f Cariyapitaka, w h i c h r e a p p e a r in Apadana,
s ta te s u c c in c t ly t h e s in g le r e v e la t io n th a t t h e w h o l e t e x t m a k e s in extenso:
d u r in g t h e B u d d h a ’ s p r e v i o u s li v e s , h e c u lt iv a t e d s o m e o f t h e T e n

P e r fe c t io n s (dasaparatm)21 th a t f u lly d e v e lo p e d , c o n s t it u t e d in t h e p r e s e n t

life h is u lt im a t e lib e r a t io n .

T h is r e v e la t io n w a s th e a n s w e r t o a m a jo r q u e s t io n th a t e m e r g e d f o r

B u d d h is t s o n ly a ft e r th e A s 'o k a n im p e t u s t o u n iv e r s a lis m h a d c r e a t e d th e

n e w , c o s m o p o lit a n a t m o s p h e r e th a t c h a r a c t e r iz e d p o s t - A s o k a n I n d ia . I n

th e p r e - A s o k a n t r a d it io n , a s fa r a s w e c a n k n o w a b o u t it a t a ll o n th e b a s is

o f t h e t e x t s p r e s e r v e d in t h e r e s t o f t h e P a li c a n o n , th e p a r a d ig m a t ic B u d d h a

b io g r a p h y , a n d t h e p a r a lle l e a r ly s a in t s ’ b io g r a p h ie s (a s in Thera-Thengatha),
w e r e c o n c e iv e d in n o n c o s m ic , t h is - l i f e - o n l y t e r m s . 22 T h e p a r a d ig m a t ic

b io g r a p h y b e g in s w it h r e n u n c ia t io n o f th e w o r ld , c o n t in u e s w it h r e lig io u s

e x e r t io n , a n d c o n c lu d e s w it h th e a t t a in m e n t o f nirvana. W h ile s u c h a b io g ­

r a p h y is p a r a d ig m a t ic f o r r e n u n c ia t e s (a n d la y p e o p le w h o s e o w n r e lig io s it y

is p r e d ic a t e d o n s e r v in g t h e m ) , it le a v e s u n a d d r e s s e d t h e s o t e r io lo g ic a l
p o t e n t ia l o f m o s t h u m a n b e in g s , w h o w ill n o t r e n o u n c e t h e w o r ld in th is

life a n d a t ta in t h e g o a l, b u t w il l in s t e a d c o n t in u e t o t r a n s m ig r a t e in a t im e

c o n c e iv e d a c c o r d in g t o a d e v o lu t io n a r y c o s m o lo g y . S u r e ly i f t h e B u d d h a ’s

t e a c h in g w a s t r u e , t h e P a t h h e g u id e d h u m a n it y a lo n g is w id e e n o u g h t o

in c lu d e m o r e t h a n t h e h a n d fu l o f h u m a n s w h o a r e a lr e a d y n e a r its e n d ; it

m u s t b e w id e e n o u g h f o r u n iv e r s a l s o c ie t y to s t a n d u p o n . A n d b y a r e m a r k ­

a b le lo g ic — th a t i f t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n t life is p a r a d ig m a t ic f o r b e in g a t t h e

e n d o f t h e P a t h , t h e n h is p r e v io u s liv e s m u s t b e p a r a d ig m a t ic f o r b e in g a t

t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e P a t h — Cariyapitaka s ta r ts t o c h a r t o u t t h is w id e n e d ,

c o s m ic iz e d s o t e r io lo g y . It r e v e a ls th a t t h e B u d d h a , lo n g a g o w h e n h e w a s

s t ill ju s t a k in g o r a B r a h m in o r a t r a d e r ( o r e v e n a n a n im a l) , t u r n e d h is liv e s

in t o o p p o r t u n it ie s f o r c u lt iv a t in g , in in c r e a s in g ly p r o fo u n d w a y s , t h e T e n

P e r fe c t io n s th a t, w h e n f u lly c u lt iv a t e d , a r e e q u iv a le n t to th e e n d o f th e

P a t h . A n d t h e c o n c lu d in g v e r s e s d r iv e t h e p o in t h o m e : t h e B u d d h a ’s a d v ic e

(buddhanusasam) i s t h a t e v e r y o n e s ta r t d o in g t h e s a m e t h i n g . 23

Buddhavamsa i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e im p lic a t io n s o f t h is c e n t r a l r e v e la t io n . It

o p e n s w it h a v e r y f a m ilia r s c e n e : t h e B u d d h a is b e n e a t h t h e T r e e o f

E n lig h t e n m e n t a n d B r a h m a S a h a m p a t i is t h e r e , b e g g in g h im t o p r e a c h t h e

D h a r m a f o r t h e s a k e o f t h o s e w h o h a v e “ lit t le d u s t in t h e ir e y e s .” T h e

B u d d h a c o n s e n t s , b u t w is h in g t o s h o w ju s t h o w p o w e r f u l a buddha is ,

h e d o e s n o t , a s in t h e fa m ilia r e a r ly s t o r y , g e t u p , s e e k o u t h is t e a c h e r s , fin d

th a t t h e y a r e d e a d , t h e n p r o c e e d to S a m a t h in o r d e r t o T u r n t h e W h e e l o f

D h a r m a . 24 In s t e a d , t h e B u d d h a m a g ic a lly c r e a t e s a n e n o r m o u s g e m w a lk ­

w a y (ratanacamkama) t h a t s p a n s a ll o f s p a c e , a n d h e w a lk s u p a n d d o w n o n

it w it h o u t th e p a s s in g o f t im e . A m a g n ific e n t fe s t iv a l e n s u e s , in w h ic h a ll

th e b e in g s in t h e u n iv e r s e p r a is e th e B u d d h a w it h s o n g s , d a n c e s , p e r f u m e ,

m u s ic a l in s t r u m e n t s , f lo w e r s a n d , a b o v e a ll, d e lir io u s h a p p in e s s . T h o s e w it h

litt le d u s t in t h e ir e y e s , f o r w h o m t h e B u d d h a p r e a c h e d t h e D h a r m a , a r e

n o t m e r e ly r e n u n c ia t e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e P a t h . T h e B u d d h a p r e a c h e d h is

D h a r m a f o r e v e r y o n e in t h e u n iv e r s e .

S a r ip u t t a a r r iv e s a n d a s k s t h e B u d d h a to e x p la in w h a t t h e g e m w a lk w a y

s y m b o liz e s . T h e a n s w e r is t h a t t h is u n iv e r s a l s o t e r i o lo g y is t h e c o s m ic

B u d d h a b io g r a p h y its e lf: t h e B u d d h a p r o c e e d s t o e la b o r a t e a c o s m ic a u t o ­

b io g r a p h y a lo n g t h e lin e s o f Cariyapitaka, b u t g r e a t ly e x p a n d e d . H e r e v e a ls

th a t h e fir s t t o o k r e fu g e in B u d d h is m o n e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d kalpas (e o n s )

a g o ( Cariyapitaka c o n c e r n s o n ly t h e p r e s e n t kalpa),25 a n d th a t in th e p r o c e s s

o f h is t r a n s m ig r a t io n a c r o s s t h is u n fa t h o m a b le a m o u n t o f t im e h e p a r t ic i­

p a t e d in t w e n t y - f o u r p r e v io u s B u d d h is m s b e f o r e b e c o m in g B u d d h a a n d

s t a r t in g h is o w n , w h i c h is t h e t w e n t y - f ift h “ B u d d h a lin e a g e ” ( Buddhavamsa).

Buddhavamsa g iv e s t h e b io g r a p h y o f e a c h p r e v i o u s B u d d h a in w h o s e

B u d d h is m “ o u r ” ( amhakam) G o t a m a B u d d h a p e r f o r m e d a c ts th a t c u lt iv a t e d

t h e T e n P e r fe c t io n s a n d c u lm in a t e d in h is E n lig h t e n m e n t a t B o d h G a y a , th e
 setting in w h ich the Buddhavamsa is supposed to have been revealed. T h e
B udd h a’s ow n biography becom es the most recent o f a type. All Buddhas
live for a certain period, attain nirvana in certain ways, initiate certain num ­
bers o f people into various stages o f Path-life, are treated postm ortem in par­
ticular fashions, etc. T h e categories have becom e so stereotyped b y the time
Buddhavamsa gets around to G otam a’s recapitulation o f this paradigmatic
biographical structure that they are referred to in a shorthand w h ich is
extrem ely cryptic unless one has already read the biographies o f the previ­
ous tw en ty-fou r Buddhas.
Buddhavamsa, in the process o f d raw in g this map o f cosm ic tim e,
reveals w ith far greater sp ecificity w h at the Cariyapitaka revelatio n o f
B u d d h a’s cosm ic biography means for hum anity. It is not ju st that people
must cultivate the T en Perfections n o w , in small w ays, i f they hope to
achieve the fulfillm ent o f the T e n Perfections at som e future point in their
transmigrations. T h at cultivation must occu r w ithin a specifically Buddhist
context: the Buddha in the Buddhavamsa gives alms to Buddhists and w o r­
ships Buddhas. It is this specifically Buddhist action that patterns people for
cultivation o f the specifically Buddhist achievem ent, nirvana.
T h ere are tw o levels o f soteriological potential at w o rk in Buddhavamsa.
O n the one hand, w e are all still livin g in a Buddha era, a period in w h ich
a Buddha and his Buddhism are k n ow n and can be practiced, w orshiped,
and adm ired. Specifically, Buddhist acts perform ed in the present w ill bear
fruit in the tim e o f future Buddhas, ju st as G o tam a’s actions in the time o f
previous Buddhas culm inated in his present B uddhahood. In the penulti­
mate chapter, Buddhavamsa reveals that the next o f these Buddhas, M etteya
(M aitreya), has already been predicted b y G o tam a.26 O n the other hand, it
is not only G otam a Buddha and the present Buddhism that are populating
the so terio lo gical m arch across cosm ic tim e. A ll B u d d h as reveal a
Buddhavamsa and declare soteriology universal. People w h o entered the
Path but did not attain its end in the times o f previous Buddhas, too, m ay
achieve the summum bonum in the time o f M etteya. In fact, the tw o classes
overlap: m any people in the present, especially those w h o connect them ­
selves w ith the Buddha and his dispensation, must already have been prac­
ticing Buddhists during previous eons (that w ill be rem em bered only after
the end is achieved).
T h e Buddha o f Buddhavamsa is quite explicit about the fact that his
Buddhism , like all those previous ones, w ill eventually disappear. B u t, like
those previous Buddhism s, this one w ill disappear only after the Path has
been pointed out for “ countless crores o f oth er” beings w h o , transmigrat­
ing n o w , w ill attain the fruit o f their Buddhist practices in the future.27 A
universally accessible teleology intersects the devolutionary cosm ology at
those rare m om en ts in tim e— tw e n ty -fiv e o f them in on e hu nd red
thousand eons— w h en a Buddha has been born in the w orld; the universe
brims w ith soteriological potential as a result. T h e Buddhavamsa was co m ­
posed during such a rare m om ent in time.
T h e Apadana utterly presupposes Buddhavamsa, for its actual verses as
w ell as for its map o f cosm ic tim e, its Buddha biography, and its attempt at
describing the specifically Buddhist acts that lead to eventual enlighten­
m ent. H ere the expansion o f the central Cariyapitaka revelation is carried in
new directions. T h e “ Great S to ry ” tells not only the biographies o f the
Buddhas, nor only o f the Buddhas and Pacceka Buddhas. T h ose are tiny
fragments com pared to the entire corpus o f five hundred-odd biographies
o f m onks and about forty o f nuns. T h ese saints’ life histories, w h ich in co r­
porated and revised the verses o f Thera-Thengatha, allow ed the Apadana
author(s) limitless room for expansion o f the Buddhavamsa’s (meager) cata­
lo g o f which specifically B u dd h ist acts have which specifically B u dd h ist
results. Apadana provides such a catalogue, in extenso, w ith a com pleteness
un kn ow n in any other text o f the p eriod or earlier. T h e actual content o f
the biographies is fairly lim ited— most o f the m onks and nuns are k n o w n
only by their acts, i.e. “ R e v . O n e L am p ,” “ R e v . Stupa W o rsh ip er,” “ R e v .
B o w l Filler,” “ R e v . Flag R a is e r,” etc.— it is the acts themselves that are
elaborated, explored, explained, and valorized.
Apadana begins w ith the Buddhdpadana, nam ed from the coloph on o f
Cariyapitaka. H ere too w e find a B u dd h a w h o enters the Path unfath-
om ably m any eons ago, cultivates the T e n Perfections, then attains the goal
in the present and advises everyon e else to do the same thing. B u t this time
his original, root act, o f w h ich all the subsequent perfection is ultim ately
the fruit, is a simple im aginative endeavor: in an unfathom ably previous life
the Buddha thought about a universe populated w ith countless Buddhas
and saints all interacting w ith each oth er.28 T h e fruit o f this m ental action
(manasa patthanaphalam)29 is realized w h en the Buddha, under the T re e o f
Enlightenm ent at G aya, actually becom es part o f this w onderful universe
he had im agined so lon g ago. A n d this act is precisely what any thinking
person does w hen he or she hears the Buddhavamsa (or the rem ainder o f the
Apadana)-, im agining in o n e ’s o w n m ind the revelation o f previous Buddhas
and Buddhism s and their mutual interconnection is itself the ultim ately
salvific act. T h ose w h o are fam iliar w ith Buddhavamsa or w h o hear the
Apadana have already perform ed that act.
A dditionally, the Apadana listener— the texts are directed at a plural
“ y o u ” enjoined to listen30— learns in the process o f listening that this m en­
tal action is only the first am ong m any diverse kinds o f specifically Buddhist
and extrem ely efficacious acts that are possible so lon g as there exists a
Buddha or the m em ory o f him and his teachings, or his relics, or his m onks
and nuns. T h e texts assure listeners in no uncertain terms that all seeds o f
karma w ill bear the appropriate fruit in the fu tu re,31 an assurance p roved in
the biographies o f each m onk and nun w h o attained the goal in the dis­
pensation o f Gotam a as the fruit o f actions perform ed eons earlier. A n d in
all the apadanas, w e find that this extrem ely gradual Path is at least pleasant:
in the interm ediate eons, the perform ers o f pious acts revel in heavenly
palaces, rule the gods or are m arried to the rulers o f gods, and likew ise are
born as hum an W h e el-T u rn in g M onarchs, time and time again.
In Apadana the Buddha biography has becom e a fu ll-blow n revelation
o f universal soteriology. T h e Path that it pictures cuts across all o f tim e; the
acts that it catalogues occu r th rough out the Indian w o rld and are per­
form ed by people o f all castes, occupations, ages, sexes, social statuses; by
animals and gods and dem ons as w ell as humans. T h e Apadana demonstrates
biographically w hat the B u d d h a’s “ G em W a lk w a y ” demonstrates sym boli­
cally: B uddhism is not only for renunciates; the B u d d h a’ s life m ade it pos­
sible to direct e very conceivable w alk o f life tow ard attainm ent o f the
soteriological goal, nirvana.

Bu d d h a s o f Bracks
It is here that w e begin to see the overlap betw een the A B C s and the
fam ous stupas o f early post-A sokan India. T h e Apadana is replete w ith spe­
cific descriptions o f stupa construction and relic w o rsh ip ,32 always co n ­
ceive d w ith in this cosm ic so terio lo gical fra m e w o rk , w h ic h to m y
kn ow led ge are found now here else in the Pali canon, yet w h ich clearly par­
allel the actual practices at stupas in early post-A sokan India, as I shall
dem onstrate below . T h e inscriptions in turn are replete w ith indications
that the patrons o f these elaborate stupas m irrored the universality o f the
Apadana: kings and sudras, artisans and Brahm ins, householders and m il­
lionaires, men and w o m en , yo u n g and old, m onks and nuns contributed to
the creation o f these m agnificent w orks o f art. A n d the stupas themselves
are ornam ented w ith the central conception that underlies the A B C s : carv­
ings that illustrate a cosm ic Buddha biography.
B u t the case is not so simple as it m ay appear. W e cannot assume that
the texts objectively reflect actual practice any m ore than w e can assume
that actual practice was a transparent enactm ent o f the stories in the texts.
T h e texts are traces o f a particular w ay o f thinking about the Buddha b io g­
raphy; the inscriptions and carvings are traces o f particular hum an actions.
T h e id eolo gy and practice presuppose each other— w h y w rite a text about
stupas unless they exist, or build a stupa w ith ou t an idea o f w h y that is a
good thing to do?— and I have been trying to reconstruct the situation(s) in
w h ich they w ere, sim ultaneously, prod u ced/u sed /th ought about. In the
present section I w ant to develop a few themes about the process by w h ich
several post-A sokan stupas came to be constructed, w h ich have em erged in
m y study o f the early B rah m l epigraphs and w h ich have special im portance
in this attem pt o f m ine to reconstruct the context in w h ich these b io ­
graphical texts and those actual stupa practices coexisted.
T h e first im portant topic that needs to be reconsidered is that o f his­
torical agency. It is w ell k n ow n that the inscriptions record inform ation
about donors, w h ich has m ade possible analyses o f the people w h o built
and ornam ented the early post-A sokan stupas: Bareau has talked about their
sectarian orientation ,33 Schopen has talked about their religious status,34
Chakravarti has talked about their social status.35 B u t an analysis o f the indi­
vidual donors as individual donors on ly takes us so far. It cannot explain, for
exam ple, h o w all these donors o f such diverse backgrounds came together
to donate sculptures, pillars, o r carved friezes that happen to m atch each
other precisely, that even form links in a single stone railing. N o r can it
explain the process by w h ich the donors enabled themselves to m ake the
donations (even extrem ely rich people belong to families, polities, and eco ­
nom ic organizations that constrain the flo w o f w ealth). In both these
instances, it is useful to posit the existence o f what R . G . C o llin g w o o d calls
“ c o m p le x a g e n c y ,” an agen cy that in v o lve s groups o f p eo p le jo in in g
together for som e com m on g o a l.36
M a n y o f the inscriptions m ake this c o m p le x agen cy apparent: the
donors o f certain objects are not individuals but netw orks o f friends and
fam ilies,37 gu ild s,38 c o m m ittee s,39 villages40 and m ercantile to w n s,41 o f
w h ich single individuals w ere often the representatives but certainly not the
sole agents. M any o f the m onastic donors, too, w ere standing as represen­
tatives o f such social grou ps.42 A nd these are only the donors w h o recorded
the fact that they gathered together their friends, relatives, or w h o m e ver in
order to finance the donation (w hich is a very com m on trope in A padana
stories about stupa w orship);43 w e have no w ay o f k n o w in g h o w m any o f
the supposedly individual donors also participated in com plex agencies that
w ere not m entioned in the epigraphic record.
E ven this broader vision o f the com plex agency that erected and d eco­
rated the stupas at Sanchi, A m aravatl, or Bharhut is incom plete. For w e still
m ust im agine a larger co m p le x agen cy o rgan izin g these specific
d on o rs/co m p lex agents into a unitary w h ole: building the Sanchi railing or
p rod u cin g the B h arh u t m edallions m ust have in v o lve d com m ission in g
artists and financial overseers, organizing participant donors and allotting
their shares o f m oney (or w hatever), then keeping track o f that allotm ent in
order to have the inscriptions carved properly (again, in m atching scripts
that cannot have been w illy-n illy graffiti). In the Apadana, m any such m ajor
additions to Buddhist m onum ents are made in this w ay: a single individual
organizes a festival (niaha) in order to have the thing constructed or the puja
 perform ed to it.44 Each o f the various spectacular additions to the great stu­
pas was probably produced as the result o f such highly organized occasions
in w h ich the donors, for all their diversity (and differing personal m otiva­
tions), came together and financed the project; festivals that occurred at
least w h en the resources w ere first m obilized and w h en the specific project
was declared com plete. Illustrations o f various sorts o f royal festivals abound
in the extant carvings, although they all have been considered representa­
tions o f the same handful o f historical stories: all royal processions are
Ajattasattu’s relic m arch, all royal tree w orship is A sok a’s bodhi pujd, etc.
T h e truth m ay be far m ore straightforward than that: these are illustrations
o f the very festivals that have left as traces o f their occurrence precisely the
carvings, stupas, and texts in question.45
T his leads m e to the second m ajor point about the epigraphs and other
archaeological remains that I w ant to m ake. A lth ough the stupas in their
final form appear as a w ild hodge podge o f carvings, inscriptions, rails,
umbrellas, and pillars, it is im portant that w e think o f the finished product
as a series o f layers that resulted from very specific, organized additions to
w h atever already existed at a specific point in tim e.46 F o r exam ple, it is w ell
k n ow n that the Sanchi rail (around the M ahacaitya) was built later than the
stupa itself, and that the fam ous carved gateways w ere added later than the
rail. Architectural and art historical study, as w ell as palaeography, confirm
this point. So the finished stupa is the com posite creation o f successive
com plex agents w h o organized smaller units o f collective agency at differ­
ent points in time. M u ch w o rk remains to be done, distinguishing and col­
lating these “ la yers.” B u t the w o rk is vital, because in the process o f
distinguishing stages it is possible to be precise about dating and situating
particular conceptions of, am ong other things, the Buddha biography.
L et me suggest h o w this is the case, even though I am not yet entirely
satisfied w ith m y ow n thoughts on the subject (mostly because there is an
enorm ous am ount o f material that needs to be classified differently than it
is currently classified). I have already m entioned that the Apadana cata­
logues a w id e range o f ritual acts. It includes m any that are m entioned in
pre-A sokan sources such as the Mahaparinibbana Sutta: alm s-giving, listen­
in g to the Buddhavacana, thinking about the T riple G em , and constructing
stupas and w orshiping them w ith garlands, wreaths, paint, and anjati. B u t
Apadana adds to these a num ber o f specific acts that are otherw ise k n ow n
only in the inscriptions: presenting lamp [-stands];47 erecting stone pillars,48
balustrades,49, lion-thrones w ith footprint slabs,50 ornamental um brellas51
and dharma-cakras;sl p articipatin g in o r o rgan izin g the con stru ction o f
Buddhist rails;53 and m aking reliquaries out o f precious substances.54 T his
catalog w ill be datable w ith a great deal o f precision once the parallel devel­
o p m ent o f the inscriptional technical discourse o f pious acts has been
charted out. T h e palaeographic stages sh o w certain characteristics: the
M auryan inscriptions at Sanchi and A m aravatl k n o w on ly o f “ pillar gift” or
sim ply “ gift” ; subsequently n ew technical terms em erged: “ cross-bar gift,”
“ rail gift.” W ith the passing o f tim e m ore terms w ere added to this lan­
guage: “ lion-th ron e gift,” “ dharma-cakra gift,” “ lam p-stand gift,” “ coping
stone gift,” “ carved slab gift,” “ entrance pillar gift.”
M y point in provid ing this detail is not to suggest that I have w o rked
out the line o f developm ent o f this language; I have not. In fact, the “ lin e”
w ill also have to include considerations o f space, because certain terms in
this lithic discourse occu r first at different times in different places (e.g., a
technical language o f cave-gifts em erges first in the western cave tem ple
sites; m any stupa ornam entation terms are unique to Andhra). M y point is
sim ply that the Apadana is situated in the same discourse. It represents and
participates in the developm ent o f the stupa cult at a particular stage that can
be discerned on the basis o f “ hard” evidence. For exam ple, there are a
num ber o f specific donative gifts described in the Apadana that appear as
technical terms only in the inscriptions at Am aravatl, w hereas a num ber o f
the characteristic terms o f the later (Ikshvaku) inscriptions at that site do not
appear in Apadana: this gives us som e indication o f both the place (Andhra
Pradesh) and time (post-M aurya, pre-Ikshvaku) in w h ich the Apadana was
current.
Sim ilarly, it should be possible to locate the subtle developm ents o f the
cosm ic B uddh a biography from Cariyapitaka to Apadana w ithin a nuanced
understanding o f the art historical stages discem able in the hod ge-pod ge o f
carvings. For exam ple, at Bharhut m any o f the rail carvings, dated to about
the m iddle o f the second century B.C., contain identified scenes o f jatakas
that line up, in part, w ith Cariyapitaka, but w h ich seem to be, given their
inclusion w ith different sorts o f labelled scenes, incorporated w ithin a this-
life biography o f B u dd h a as w ell as an explicit chart o f previous B u d d h a­
time. Buddhavamsa, then, m ay be roughly coeval w ith the B harhut railing.
B u t there is still m uch to be done before any definite conclusions can be
reached, since art historians w ill have to reevaluate their identifications o f
certain scenes in order to assess the degree to w h ich they correspond to the
texts that actually belong to the periods in question. Sim ple questions, like
do w e see the Buddhavamsa version o f the B u d d h a’s cosm ic m iracle illus­
trated in any o f the carvings, have not even been asked. A gain, m y point is
a general one: the texts and the carvings participate in the same story-telling
tradition, the history o f w h ich w ill becom e clear on ly w h en they are exam ­
ined together.
T h ere is a third problem about the epigraphs that must be reckoned
w ith , and that overlaps w ith the tw o points I have ju st made. U n lik e the
later B ra h m l epigraphs that h ave been so m asterfully analyzed by
 S ch o p e n ,55 the early B rah m l donative inscriptions that I have been dis­
cussing do not indicate a specific recip ient. T h is goes d eep er than an
absence o f that sectarian specification w h ich began to characterize donative
inscriptions on ly in about the first century A .D ., under the Kushans and
their Sarvastivadin favorites. In the early B rah m l inscriptions w e do not
even have an indication o f w hat it m eant to give a gift, nor w h o was sup­
posed to accrue the m erit, nor h o w they w ere supposed to do so. T h e
inscriptions are bare: generally ju st “ the gift (danam) o f (donor/s).” 5<5 H o w
then do w e go about reconstructing the epistem ology according to w h ich
agents o f various com plexity considered it a good thing to jo in together in
order to perform stupa w orship and other pious Buddhist acts k n ow n from
the inscriptions o f the day? W hat Buddhist id eolo gy o f gift-givin g made
g ivin g B uddhist gifts rational? C o n sid ering the com plex m obilization o f
resources and people that was required in order to effect any specific stage
in the d evelopm ent o f the great stupas, it is reasonable to assume that there
was such a shared understanding o f the value o f B uddhist piety, a shared
understanding that united all these different agents (w hatever their ulterior
p ersonal m otivation s) to geth er in specific c o lle c tiv e p rojects: g iv in g
Buddhist gifts.
M y short answ er to the problem o f intent is that the Apadana and
related texts provid e the ideological com ponen t or “ insides” o f hum an
actions that left as their “ outsides” wreaths o f w ilting flow ers, remnants o f
oils and incense and food, and o f course the actual pillars, cross-bars, etc.,
that still survive today. A m o n g the m any ways in w h ich the language o f the
Apadana parallels the epigraphs, it uses “ danam” (gift) as a category unto
itself, w ith all its subvarieties described and catalogued according to m ethod
and result in a self-referential discourse. In his o r her apadana each m onk or
nun states, paralleling the inscriptional remains, “ I gave such-and-such gift
(danam) d u rin g the tim e o f su ch -an d -su ch B u d d h a; I e x p e rie n ce d no
unpleasant states in subsequent transmigration; in the present I achieved
arhantship: this is the fruit o f that gift ([type of] dattassa idatn phalam )." A
donative inscription that sim ply states “ the such-and-such danam o f so-and-
so” is not at all am biguous i f w e rem em ber that the A B C s w ere coeval w ith
the givin g and inscribing o f the gifts. T h e Apadana tells in full detail w hat a
danam means, and w h y and h o w it is done. T h e on ly questions left open in
its karm ically black-and-w h ite w o rld 57 concern the variety o f gift and the
id en tity o f d o n o r (w h ich is p recisely the in form ation recorded in the
inscriptions). T h e ve ry nature o f the Apadana rendered further elaboration
on stone redundant. Such elaboration o f purpose appeared in epigraphic
records on ly later, after the Apadana had been displaced by subsequent revi­
sions o f its “ G reat S to ry ,” starting w ith Divyavadana, that had different
epistem ological orientations.
 So it is to the A B C s that w e must loo k i f w e w ant to reconstruct the
“ insides” o f the actions in question. I have already attem pted to sketch out
the general fram ew ork o f m eaning in w h ich the A B C s set Buddhist action,
the id eolo gy o f gift-givin g reflected in and constituted by those Buddhist
texts (i.e., the A B C s) that w ere being com posed at the same time that the
stupas w e re b e in g constru cted and inscription s inscribed. P o sitin g this
fram ew ork o f m eaning im plies neither that the texts describe the actual
practices nor that the actual practices w ere m ere enactments o f the stories
in the texts. Instead, it im plies that both overlapped at an “ epistem ic” or
“ archaeological” level o f thought, to b o rro w M ich el Foucau lt’s useful ter­
m in o lo g y. T h e A B C s , u n lik e th eir inscription al counterparts, p ro vid e
insigh t into the p h ilo so p h ical sop h istication o f this th o u g h t,58 w h ich
attem pted to increase the value o f the B u d d h a’s legacy to hum anity in light
o f n ew questions that em erged after A so k a’s im perial unification o f the sub­
continent constituted, for the first tim e, a totality o f w h ich the various
Indian kingdom s and other social groupings becam e parts.59 T his universal­
ization o f the Path consisted o f a series o f biographical analyses o f the reli­
gious act, first w ith reference only to the B uddh a but finally w ith reference
to other people w h o represent an enorm ous cross section o f cosm ic time
and space, o f cosm ic society. Buddhas and arhats share a virtue that ordinary
people do not: they k n o w their previous lives. T his w ell-established canon­
ical detail had im m ense ram ifications for post-A sokan Buddhist practice,
after it had been realized that those previous lives encode a program for
action h ere-an d -n o w . It is w ithin this epistem ology that w e should im ag­
ine the acts that produced the stupas.
In the next section I w ant to elaborate upon a few o f the m any ways in
w h ich the Apadana narratives inform the nature o f the actions represented
b y the surviving ruins. I w ill focus on three topics: the relationship betw een
stupa and biography, the sym bolism o f the stupa, and the nature o f the com ­
plex agency that produced the great stupas o f early post-As'okan India.

Biognaphy a s E m p ir e
T h e connection betw een biography and stupa is m ore direct than I have yet
allow ed. As Paul M us has sh ow n us,60 the stupa is m ore than a representa­
tion o f the cosm ic B uddh a biography: it is the cosm ic B uddh a biography.
T h e stupa o f the B u d d h a is p recisely w h at the B u d d h a bio grap h y has
becom e in the time betw een the Parinirvana and today. T h e relic it contains
is the material bo d y (rupakaya) o f the B u d d h a-in -nirvana or som e Buddhist
saint-in-nirvana.61 T h e “ stories” it illustrates are the teachings o f B uddha,
his bo dy o f Dharm a (dharmakaya). A ccord in g to M us, at the Parinirvana
Buddha did not die in the w ay m od em W esterners think o f death; he was
 m erely transformed. H is legacy in the present, that is his on goin g biogra­
p hy w ith in samsara, is the com bination o f bodily and linguistic relics that
the stupa literally constitutes. T h e participants in the stupa cult thus partici­
pate in an unbroken continuation o f the pious activities that Buddhists did
before G otam a was transformed in Parinirvana: give food, garlands, flow ers,
scents, fences, stairways, w alkw ays, houses, umbrellas, seats, clothes, flags,
service, w orship, praise, and m em ory to the Buddha him self, con ceived as
a participant in the present.
T h e A B C s confirm M u s’ thesis entirely. T h e ir language is rich w ith
plays on the metaphors o f B uddhism as the “ inheritance” from the Buddha
by his “ ch ildren,” o f Buddha as the sacrificial altar and fires, and o f other
perspectives that M us labored to suggest. M ost im portant for our purposes,
the Apadana texts about stupa (and B o d h i tree) w orship echo unm istakably
M u s ’ v ie w that the w o rsh ip er regards the stupa as th ough it w ere the
B u d d h a62 or as the Buddha him self,63 w h o never died but was transformed
into a samsaric collection o f bones and books and an (unknowable) nirvanic
state (all the A B C biographies, like those M us actually studied, “ end” w ith
the B uddh a alive and establishing his “ estate” ).
R em ark ab ly, M us apparently came up w ith his analysis largely on the
basis o f intuition; it is notoriously difficult to develop (or even understand)
his w o rk because he seldom had actual textual passages to support his con ­
clusions. Fo llo w in g Foucher, M us discussed certain canonical suttas and
then the usual range o f later Pali and Buddhist Sanskrit texts, but he did not
discuss the A B C s. H e was, as a result, forced (unnecessarily) into intellec­
tual gymnastics in order to m ake the Buddhist texts reveal the id eology
(that he had discerned through his creative reading o f the Brahmanas and
Upanishads). For, it is only in the A B C s that this ideology is actually stated,
described, and constituted. T h at is because the A B C s w ere com posed in
the critical p erio d o f transition b e tw e e n the can on ical suttas and the
Buddhist Sanskrit texts, and so they alone spell out in detail the process by
w h ich an id eolo gy (o f the cosm ic B uddha/universal soteriology) that is
absent (though perhaps foreshadowed) in the earlier suttas came to be sim ­
ply presum ed (and rew orked) by the Buddhist Sanskrit authors. A t the same
time that the A B C authors w ere thus changing, em bellishing, and praising
the B u d d h a’s dharmakaya, the participants in the stupa cult w ere changing,
em bellishing, and praising his rupakaya. Th ese tw o groups overlapped; they
participated in a single episteme: the stupa is the union o f the texts and the
donative inscriptions, the union o f id eolo gy and practice.
Ju st as the stupa does not symbolize the Buddha and his biography but
actually is the Buddha and his biography, so too the stupa is not the sym bol
o f a universal society but the product and project o f a universal society.
Apadana is the story o f one enorm ous biographical w eb, in w hich Buddha
and the saints in his dispensation k n ew each other and the same previous
Buddhas, lived in the same ancient cities under the same ancient kings, and
attended the same festivals or funerals or dharma-talks. Som etim es this is
explicit: the B u d d h a’ s aunt reached nirvana w ith 500 nuns w h o w ere her
kinfolk and com panions, en masse, throughout her previous lives.64 R ah u la
transm igrated w ith his sister;65 m an y groups o f m onks transm igrated
together;66 the seven ancient daughters o f K ik I K in g o f Kasi ended up sis­
ters in the same con ven t;67 marriages (including that betw een B uddh a and
Yasodhara) are bonds for eternity.68 T h e trope o f the cotransm igration o f
social units (h om olo gou s to the co m p lex agents in the inscriptions) is
alw ays im plied, due to the basic epistem ological position that the b io ­
graphical w e b is still being spun by those w h o are part o f it but have not yet
escaped it. T h e Apadana describes a series o f Buddha eras in w h ich large
num bers o f people, participating in the th en -o n go in g Buddha biography
togeth er, m ove on to geth er th rough cosm ic tim e until th ey are born
together in the tim e o f G otam a Buddha and achieve together the goal o f his
dispensation. T h e b io grap h y o f the B uddh a h im self is indistinguishable
from the biographies o f all those w h o w ere involved in the com plex agen­
cies that provided the context for his (and their) actions throughout time.
As the biography is on going, so too is the series o f com plex agencies that
continues in this Buddha era to treasure a B u d d h a’s legacy by caring for his
earthly “ bo dies.” His biography is their biography; Apadana is part o f the
biography o f a cosm ic society still m o vin g on together tow ard nirvana: a
universal society w hose m em bers are the participants, past and present, in
the stupa cult.
T h ere are other ways, too, in w h ich the A B C s drive hom e this point
that the stupa cult is the on goin g cosm ic Buddha biography qua universal
soteriology. In the Apadana the participants in the stupa cult are superhu­
man in addition to hum an: devas, yakkhas, nagas, and other m ythical beings
are described as present at and active in the construction and festivals o f
w orship o f stupas. This does m ore than provide insight into the presence o f
these beings at the stupas, w h ich was constituted by the stupa sculptures and
carvings (usually understood as “ influences” on Buddhism o f the fertility
goddesses and anim istic spirits that haunt the tim elessly dream y Indian
m ind). It allows us, m ore im portantly, to understand that the universality
represented in the stupa cult is m ore than theoretical or sym bolic: the entire
universe really was centered around the stupa, around the Buddha. T h e
universally attended and extrem ely jo y o u s festival in w h ich the Buddha
reveals the Buddhavamsa (a com m on trope in the self-understanding o f later
M ahayana sutras) is, in the Apadana and the stupa cult, h om ologou s to the
actual, then present-day, w orld. T h e actual festivals that effected the vari­
ous stages in the developm ent o f the stupas (and even the id eolo gy o f co m ­
 petitive one-upm anship is spelled out in Apadana)69 constituted the contin­
uation o f a Buddha biography that was sim ultaneously the continuation o f
a universal society, nam ely the congregation o f all those donors (and the
supernatural beings) under one com plex agency that organizes and sponsors
the festival.
L ik ew ise, as I have already indicated in part, this extension o f the
B uddha biography across time (pre-Siddhartha lives and post-G otam a lives)
was com plem ented by an extension o f the Buddha biography across space.
Buddhavamsa treats the “ spreading out o f the relics” (dhdtuvittharikam)70 o f a
Buddha as one am ong its m any categories for telling Buddha biographies:
ju st as it asks o f each Buddha “ h o w lon g did he rem ain an ascetic?” or
“ w hat was the nam e o f his father?” so it asks, “ w e re his relics ‘spread
out?’ ” . It turns out that the answ er is “ n o ” for sixteen Buddhas, “ yes” for
the rem aining nine (including Gotam a). T h e ‘spreading o u t’ o f G o tam a’s
relics— i.e., the distribution over space o f his on going biography— is w ell
k n ow n in Buddh ological circles. Mahaparinibbana Sutta contains a fam ous
account o f the distribution o f relics after G o tam a’s funeral, w h ich consti­
tutes a geopolitical map o fM a g a d h a (northeastern India). Buddhavamsa not
only categorically defines this “ distribution” as part o f the on goin g Buddha
biography; it appropriates the actual verses out o f Mahaparinibbana Sutta and
incorporates them w ith in its o w n greatly expanded enum eration o f the
relics and their subsequent jo u rn e y s.71 In Buddhavamsa this is not ju st a map
o f M agadha; it is a geopolitical map o f an India conceived on a scale that
was possible only after the im perial unification o f the subcontinent (under
As'oka).72
A gain, this is not “ popular legen d” but extrem ely sophisticated thought
about the then-real w orld . For the “ cosm ic” and “ universal” society that I
have been describing is, as I have already suggested, constituted by the p eo ­
ple w h o actually participated in the stupa cult (whether in the second cen­
tury B.C. or one hundred thousand eons ago). T h e Buddha biography,
extended in both tim e and space by the A B C s and the diffusion o f stupas, is
the biography o f a then-real, com plex sociopolitical organization, nam ely
the p o st-A so k a n Indian im perial form ations o f the Sungas and the
Satavahanas. T h e inscriptions alone m ake it clear that the stupa cult devel­
oped w ith in the post-A sokan im perial process.73 A nd in light o f the fact
that the earliest “ hard” evidence for the existence o f any lithic record or the
construction o f any stupas is A sokan, that is im perial; in light o f the im prob­
ability that anyone other than an em peror w o u ld have had the p o w e r to
hold a festival and build a stupa on the scale that w e are talking about, and
at m ajor intersections o f m ajor land and w ater routes th rou gh o u t the
empire(s); in light o f the certainty that subsequent additions to these stupas
by the later Satavahanas and Ikshvakus w ere decidedly im perial acts, it does
not seem rem arkable that the inscriptions should bear the names o f em per­
ors. It is the w o rld -con q u erin g Buddhist m onarch, the cakkavattin, w h o is
the agent organizing the pious w o rk/festival that gathers together people
from all those places (the extension o f the Buddha biography in space) and
all those walks o f life (the extension o f the Buddha biography in time) in
order to constitute the continuing biography o f the B uddha, cosm ic soci­
ety, and the em pire: the stupas are the constitutions o f polities, the inscrip­
tions the signatures o f rep resen tative citizens, and the texts p olitical
philosophy.
As I have already m entioned, each Apadana actor experiences in his or
her cosm ic biography a period o f transition betw een the first perform ance
o f a Buddhist action— often a trivial gesture or fleeting recollection— and
the final attainm ent o f nirvana in the tim e o f a Buddha (Gotam a). T h is
period o f transition lasts for countless eons, but it is entirely pleasant: only
birth in heaven or on earth, and always in a state o f lu xu ry that vastly m ag­
nifies the original piety. T hese descriptions contain as a matter o f course
enum erations o f the times that each m on k o r nun was a W h e el-T u rn in g
M onarch or his h o m olo g the K in g o f G ods (or their analogs, those kings’
queens); the num ber o f times that they attained “ local kin gsh ip” w ithin a
larger em pire is, w h en stated at all, sloughed o ff as “ beyond recko n in g .” 74
T h e point is that the political and religious ideologies, w hich w e tend to
treat as distinct, are utterly entw ined and presuppose each other: the cakka­
vattin is cakkavattin because he was once a pious Buddhist; cakkavattins, in
order to dem onstrate that they are cakkavattins (and because it is the very
nature o f cakkavattins) are pious Buddhists to d ay.75 T h e citizens o f the
em pire, from “ local kings” on d ow n , participate in the on goin g biography
(that the cakkavattin constitutes: the em pire itself) because they are w here
they are today— hum an, after all— only having already participated in this
biography during previous lives, and because the texts tell them h o w par­
ticipation in it during the present life w ill assure future, greater blessings
and eventual nirvana.
E veryo n e benefits from the cakkavattin’s festival, w ith the exception o f
those w h o do not, at least w ith an approving glance, participate. From the
low liest villager to the headm an w h ose name goes on the pillar, from the
offerer o f a flo w er that he found on the h igh w ay7*5 to the w ealthy setthi or
vanija w h o singularly makes a contribution equal to w hat others can give
only i f they rally together, all participants are assured a part in the Buddha
biography, the cosm ic story o f their ow n salvation. All these people— even
the w o rkm en w h o clean the stupa and the grounds,77 the dyers,78 the plas­
terers,79 the m usicians,80 the o n loo kin g children,8' and the people there
w h o speak w ords that praise the Apadana 8 2 — can be certain that they w ill
one day be local kings and w orld em perors themselves, w ill one day possess
minds so enlightened that they w ill rem em ber the m oral acts o f previous
lives (including participation together in these very festivals) and w ill one
day sing apadanas o f their o w n beatitude in order to encourage others to
perform these same actions.

C o n clu sio n
T h e festivals for constructing, im p rovin g, and w o rsh ipin g a stupa (or a
B o d h i tree, or a place sacralized b y a B u d d h a’s presence,83 or the sangha)
w ere the historical situations in w h ich text, inscription, and carving came
together. Festivals w ere the actions constitutive o f the B u d d h a ’s th en-
present biography. Early post-A sokan Indian Buddhist em perors, equating
that biography w ith their em pire(s),84 constituted those empires b y orga­
nizing such festivals: m obilizing people and resources in com m on projects
that left as their effects the architecture and carvings, that claim ed as their
m ajor (already com plex) agents the donors, and that proceeded according
to the ideological fram ew ork o f the texts. I w ant to suggest that the texts
w ere actually recited or perform ed during the festivals. T h ere is plenty o f
reason to assume that they w ere com posed for perform ance;85 there is also
every reason to think that they w o u ld be “ festive additions” to such an
occasion. T h e A B C s are all w ritten in light and delightful Pali verse, full o f
alliteration and rhym e, suspense and drama, pathos and h u m o r.86
T h e purely entertainm ent value, h o w ever, is overshadow ed b y the rel­
evance that these texts had for the festival as its ideological basis: it is the
story that justifies the d o n o r’s participation in these particular form s o f
piety, that provides directions and specifications for that piety, that assures
him or her o f future bliss. It is the story that makes those present at the fes­
tival feel go od about their participation.
In the end, feeling good— about o n e’s actions, about the Buddha, about
the empire— is w hat the texts, inscriptions, and carvings are all about. T h e
texts and carvings produce aesthetic and religious pleasure at the same time
that they narrate certain ideas about the nature o f the w orld, the em pire, and
the B uddha; the happy willingness w ith w h ich the donors participate is
reflected in the act o f carving their names in stone, for all to see at the festi­
val. T h e Buddhavamsa account o f the prototypical biography festival, in
w h ich the text itself is proclaim ed amid throngs o f human and supernatural
beings, develops an almost untranslatable language o f mental pleasure—
laughing a huge laughter (hasati mahahasitam), horripilating w ith delight
(tutthahattha), pleased w ith mental pleasure (cittapasddena pasanna), having a
m ind o f delight (tutthamanasa), satisfied (santusita), o v e ijo y e d (pamodita),
thrilled (udaggacitta), good-m in ded (sumana)— repeated o ver and o ver again.
Th at is the state o f all the people w h o participate in the paradigmatic biog­
raphy festival, w h o listen to the Buddhavamsa. A n d they respond w ith song
and dance and reflection and devotion. T h e happiness that makes the festi­
val happen is excelled only by the happiness that it generates.
A n d it is p recisely this m ental act— b e in g happ y in a B u d d h ist
context— that in the Apadana defines the efficacy o f ritual. It was “ because
o f that deed w ell done with intention and resolve” (tena kammena sukatena
cetanapanidhlhi ca), o r sim ply “ because o f that mental pleasure” (tena citta-
pasadena) that m onk after m on k, nun after nun, and even the Buddha him ­
self experien ced lifetim es o f pleasant existence, universal rulership, and
material w ealth, until finally they realized the ultimate happiness, the true
perfection o f m ind, nirvana. T h e festival, w ith its m elodic chanting and
pretty pictures, its crow ds o f people in the presence o f big shots, the flo w ­
ers and dancing, the lamps and the incense, constituted that happiness and
was in turn constituted by it. T h at mental act was perform ed by the partic­
ipants in the festival, w h o sim ultaneously acted as citizens in the em pire and
as characters in the on going B uddh a biography.

N o te s
1. In The Biographical Process: Studies in the History and Psychology o f Religion,
ed. Frank E. Reynolds and Donald Capps, (Mouton: The Hague, 1976),
pp. 3 7 -6 1, esp. p. 5 7 .
2. Ibid., p. 42.
3. Ibid, p. 3 9 .
4. Gregory Schopen, “ T w o Problems in the History o f Indian Buddhism:
The Layman/Monk Distinction and the Doctrines o f the Transference o f
M erit,” in Georg Buddruss et al., trans., Studien Zur Indologie und Iranistik
10 (Reinbeck: Dr. Inge Wezler Verlag fur Orientalistische
Fachpublikationen, 1985), pp. 9—47.
5. Gregory Schopen, “ Mahayana in Indian Inscriptions,” Itido-lranian Journal
21 (1979), pp. 1—19; cf. “ The Inscription on the Kushan Image o f
Amitabha and the Character o f the Early Mahayana in India,” Journal o f the
International Association o f Buddhist Studies 10, no. 2 (1987), pp. 9 9 -13 7 .
6. Schopen occasionally treats the textual evidence as though it were largely
irrelevant (e.g., Schopen, “ T w o Problems in the History o f Indian
Buddhism,” pp. 9-23, esp. pp. 14, 2 2-23; cf- the treatment o f textually
based reconstructions o f the “ origin” o f the Mahayana in “ Mahayana and
Indian Inscriptions” ), although his work generally is directed at textualists,
that is at evaluating the nature o f texts on the basis o f the inscriptions.
Underrepresented in his work is the potential value texts have in
confirming the points he makes about the epigraphic record (but cf. in this
regard Schopen’s use o f vamsa texts for confirming epigraphic readings in
“ On the Buddha and His Bones: The Conception o f a Relic in the
 Inscriptions from Nagaijunikonda,” Journal of the American Oriental Society
108, no. 4 [October-December 1988], pp. 527-537). More important,
Schopen has done little work from the other side: that is, allowing textual
data to challenge and nuance the epigraphic conclusions just as the
epigraphic conclusions challenge the texts.
7. M y own perspective owes much o f its substance to the combined work o f
my colleagues and teachers, especially Ronald Inden, in the ongoing
Seminar on Text and Knowledge in South Asia at the University o f
Chicago. We have been developing and nuancing a “ constitutivist”
method, which in this context is a view that text and epigraph are
mutually constituting discourses in time, constitutive o f each other and
also o f the historical situation(s) in which they were produced. For
examples o f the new knowledge that such a reading o f text-and-epigraph
makes possible for all periods, see Inden’s “ Imperial Formation, Imperial
Purana,” forthcoming in Post-Orientalist Approaches to the Study of South
Asian Texts, ed. Inden, and my own contribution to that volume,
“ Buddhist History: The Sri Lankan Pali Varnsas” ; cf. Inden’s Imagining
India (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), especially chap. 6,
“ Reconstructions.” The “ constitutive” method builds on the work o f
modern critical thinkers including Michel Foucault, Antonio Gramsci, and
Edward Said, upon the basis o f the late R . G. Collingwood’s systematic
philosophy; for an introduction to Collingwood’s philosophy, see his An
Autobiography (Oxford: Clarendon, 1939) and An Essay on Philosophical
Method (Oxford: Clarendon, 1933).
8. Gregory Schopen, “ The Stupa Cult and the Extant Pali Vinaya,” Journal of
the Pali Text Society 13 (1989), p. 96; cf. “ T w o Problems in the History o f
Indian Buddhism,” p. 13.
9. Underlying this anachronistic scholarship is an assumption that the authors
o f the later texts merely repeated ancient oral traditions in which the
stories already preexisted, full blown. But the evidence for that assumption
is limited, in the early post-Asokan period anyway, to the conclusions o f
scholars about what is represented in the carvings at Bharhut and Saiichi!
This gets very slippery because most o f the carvings from this period do
not actually have labels at all, and reconstructing the stories they tell has
largely been a matter for guesswork.
10. The fact may be that the carvings gave shape to the later texts that seem to
correspond to them, rather than the other way around.
1 1 . Mary E. Lilley, ed., The Apadana of the Khuddaka Nikaya (London: Pali
Text Society, 1925, 1927), 2 vols. M y citations are to Lilley’s edition
throughout, but there are much better editions available in Sinhala (I find
the Hewawitarne Bequest edition reliable), Devanagari, and Thai scripts. I
cite Lilley’s edition because I assume that despite its difficulties, it is more
accessible to readers o f English than (superior) editions in Asian scripts.
12. Definitive work on the dating o f these texts remains to be done (my own
work herein on the epigraphic evidence is meant as a contribution to this
 project), but no scholar to my knowledge has suggested that they were
composed before the time o f As'oka; the question is how long after As'oka
they were composed. A. K. Warder argues on the basis o f meter that the
texts belong to the second and first centuries B.C. (Pali Metre [London: Pali
Text Society, 1967], pp. 303, 136; compare his statements in Indian
Buddhism [Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970], p. 298), and I believe that this
can be demonstrated on other grounds as well. In addition to my
arguments in this essay about the overlap o f these texts with the early
Brahml inscriptions that are dated to the same two centuries, the study o f
intertext further clarifies the point. Apadana quotes Cariyapitaka and
Buddhavamsa in addition to many earlier texts (as discussed below); this
gives some indication o f how late it is. But Apadana was known by the
authors o f early (Sarvastivadin) Buddhist Sanskrit works, including
Divyavadana (compare Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 6 v. 77
[Buddapadana] with E. B. Cowell and R . A. Neil, eds., The Divyavadana:
A Collection o f Early Buddhist Legends [Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1886], p. 469 [note the loss o f the syntactical integrity o f the Pali
when it is translated into Sanskrit]; ibid., p. 533 [ajhatani ca satyani kritatn
Buddhasya s'asanam] is apparently a [poor] translation o f the typical
concluding statement o f virtually every apadana [chadabhinna sacchikata
katam Buddhassa sasanam]; ibid., p. 195—196 [prahaya tnanushan kayan divyan
kayan upasate] is similarly a Sanskriticization o f a very familiar apadana
refrain) and Anavataptagatha (see K. R . Norman, Pali Literature
[Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1983], p. 92); this gives some indication
o f how early it is. For an extended review o f the evidence that the A BC s
postdate the Buddha by “ several centuries,” see Oliver Abeynayake, A
Textual and Historical Analysis o f the Khuddaka Nikaya (Colombo: Tisara,
1984), pp. 164—182, 2 14 —2 15. Heinz Bechert has tried to date the text
considerably later than most scholars (as late as the third century A.D., even
though he allows the possibility o f second or first century B.C.— see his
“ Buddha-Feld und Verdienstiibertragung: Mahayana-Ideen im Theravada-
Buddhismus Ceylons,” Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences Morales
et Politiques se. serie, vol. 62 [Brussels: Palais des Academies, 1976], p. 48),
but his argument is based on an understanding o f both “ Theravadin
orthodoxy” and “ Mahayana ideas” that is extremely problematic; see, for
an initial critique, Schopen, “ T w o Problems,” esp. pp. 46-47.
13. Lilley, vol. 1, H ie Apadana, p. 37 v. 6 (Punna-Mantaniputta Thera), and
vol. 2, p. 550 v. 90 (Khema Then).
14. Compare V. Fausboll, ed., The Sutta-Nipata (SN) (London: Pali Text
Society, n.d. [1885]), pt. 1, pp. 6—12 (Khaggavisanasuttam) with Lilley, 77ic
Apadana, vol. 1, pp. 8—13 w . 8—49 (Paccekabuddhapadana); the commentarial
tradition on SN also attributes these verses to Pacceka Buddhas.
15. See H. Bechert, “ Uber das Apadanabuch,” in E. Frauwallner, trans.,
Wiener Zeitschrift fu r die Kuttde Siid- und Ostasiens und Archiv fu r Indische
Philosophic, vol. 2 (Vienna: Verlag Briider Hollinek, 1958), pp. 7—9.
1 6. The connection o f these early saints’ verses to the Apadana is most
intimate: many o f the apadanas take up and incorporate the same monk’s
or nun’s verses in Thera-Thengatha, continuing the process, evident even in
the latter texts, o f adding biographical “ rubrics” to the core verses. See
Norman, Pali Literature, pp. 89—90, who goes as far as saying that Apadana
is “ almost an appendix to the Theragatha and Thengatha” (p. 89). It
might be better to think o f Apadana as “ almost a commentary” on those
texts. It, like another Khuddaka-nikaya text that is a “ commentary” on
Sutta-nipata (Niddesa), represents a crucial stage in the development o f
commentarial thought within Theravadin history. In terms o f Apadana, the
process is continued by Dhammapala, who comments on the Tlxera-
Therigatha by quoting the apadana o f each monk or nun after providing a
prose account o f it. It is thus the case that the biographical details in
C. Rhys-Davids’ famous translation o f the Thera-Thcrigatha (Psalms o f the
Sisters and Psalms o f the Brethren) owe their origin to the Apadana stage in
the commentarial process.
17. R e v. Richard Morris, ed., The Buddhavamsa and the Cariya-Pitaka
(London: Pali Text Society, 1882), p. 103 (Ittham sudam , . . abhasittha tt).
18. Compare ibid., p. 103 with Lilley The Apadana, vol. 1, pp. 5—6 w . 69—77
plus colophon.
19. Compare Morris, ibid., p. 3 v. 23 with Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 20
v. 79 (Sariputta Thera), vol. 2, p. 364 v. 38 (Udena Thera), and p. 422
v. 9 (Nanatthavika Thera); vol. 2, p. 429 w . 1—6 (Dhammaruci Thera)
presupposes Buddhavamsa, employing its typical prediction (rather than the
alternate form typical o f other apadanas) and making obvious reference to
the Buddhavamsa account o f Sumedha (compare Morris, The Buddhavamsa
and the Cariya-Pitaka, p. 10 w . 66fl); for examples o f other Buddhavamsa
verses quoted in Apadana see Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 2, p. 479 w . 2—6
(Mahakotthika Thera) = p. 481 w . 2-6; p. 484 w . 2-6; p. 486 w . 2-6
[etc.]. A listing o f Buddhavamsa padas that appear in Apadana would be
even more extensive than a similar list o f Cariyapitaka padas in
Buddhavamsa.
20. See Reynolds, “ The Many Lives o f Buddha,” pp. 42-43 for a discussion
o f various perspectives in the scholarly tradition.
2 1. They are giving (dana), moral discipline (slla), turning away from the
world (nekkhamma), wisdom (paiina), exertion (viriya), patience (khanti),
truthfulness (sacca), resolution (adhitthana), love (metta), and even­
mindedness (upekkha).
22. Even the one sutta that would seem to contradict this statement,
Mahapadana Sutta o f the Dxghanikaya, supports the contention I am
making. It is true that it details the lives o f previous buddhas and indicates
that the Buddha made good karma then, which at least hints at the full­
blown cosmic biography. And there is no doubt that the details o f this
sutta are a major basis for the Buddhavamsa (and consequently for the
Apadana) account, including the name, Apadana, that defines the genre to
 which all three A BC s self-consciously belong. But in Mahapadana the
problematic frame is not universal soteriology; the question o f the sutta is
about whether Buddhas remember their own previous lives or learn about
them from gods, not about the universality o f Buddha’s messages. Thus
Mahapadana Sutta lacks the essential revelation that each buddha laid the
foundation for all people, even those who did not achieve the goal there -
and-then, to achieve it sometime. The stark contrast between Mahapadana
Sutta and Buddhavamsa is best seen in a comparison o f their respective
tellings o f the “ Brahma begs Buddha to preach” mytheme. In the former
text this characterizes other buddhas’ lives too (showing a stage in the
development o f the Buddhavamsa) but otherwise stays close to the original
myth, in sharp distinction to Buddhavamsa itself, as described below.
23. Morris, The Buddhavamsa and the Cariya-Pitaka, pp. 10 2 -10 3 v v - 8 -14
(also quoted as the conclusion to Buddhapadana, Lilley, The Apadana,
vol. 1, pp. 5—6 vv. 69-75).
24. See T.W . Rhys-Davids and Hermann Oldenberg, trans., Vinaya Texts
(Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1881), part 1, pp. 84-88 (Sacred Books o f the
East, vol. 13); V. Trenckner, ed., The Majjhima-Nikaya (London: Pali Text
Society, 1888), vol. 1, pp. 167—169 (Ariyapariyesanasuttam [no. 26J).
25. Morris, The Buddhavamsa and the Cariya-Pitaka, p. 74: Afitakappe caritam
thapayitva bhavabhave/imamhi kappe caritam pavakkhissam sunohi me.
26. Ibid., p. 67 v. 19: aham etarahi sambuddho Metteyo capi hessati.
27. Ibid., p. 67 v. 20: Etesam dhammarajunam ahhesam nekakotinam/acikkhitvana
tam maggam nibbuta te sasavaka ti.
28. Specifically, the Buddha magically creates (nimminati) with his mind a
gem-studded palace and then imagines all the Buddhas and disciples o f
cosmic time together, in that palace. The palace itself bears a striking
similarity to the stupa, for in it the Buddha “ provides” to the previous
Buddhas precisely what people in this period provided to the Buddha (in
his present “ palace,” the stupa itself): wreaths, precious substances, incense,
lamp-stands, banners, lion-thrones, musical instruments, celestial songs,
rails with toranas, etc. The situation created in the Buddha’s mind is also
homologous with the cosmic festival o f the Buddhavamsa, and thus with
the ancient festivals recorded in Apadana as well as the then-modern
festivals o f the Sungas and Satavahanas in which, as I argue below, the
texts were performed and the stupas were built.
29. Lilley, 77ie Apadana, vol 1, p. 4 v. 50; cf. v. 48: manasa danam.
30. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 1 v. 1; cf. p. 7, p. 15, vol. 2, p. 512: Atha buddhapadanani
[etc.} sunatha.
31. E.g., ibid., vol. 1, p. 153 v. 4: anupadinna Buddhena sabbesam bljasampada
(“ the fulfillment/growth o f seeds [of karma] is assured by the Buddha for
everyone” ).
32. We can include at least Lilley’s numbers 3, 1 1 , 15, 22, 38, 48, 6 1, 7 1, 116 ,
119 , 14 1, 142, 143, 144, 145, 159, 193, 236, 239, 247, 253, 277, 291,
293 , 331. 333- 373 , 374, 394, 413 , 426, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 483,
 484, 495 and 538 (ibid.) o f the Therapadana in a list o f apadanas o f monks
whose root pious act was directly connected with the cult o f stupas/relics.
33. Andre Bareau, Les Sectes Bouddhiques du Petit Vehicule (Saigon: Ecole
fran^aise d’Extreme-Orient, 1955), p. 36 (et passim: see p. 36 n. 1); cf.
Etienne Lamotte, History o f Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka
Era, trans. Sara W ebb-Boin (Louvain-la-neuve: Universite Catholique de
Louvain, Institut Orientaliste, 1988), pp. 523-526.
34. Schopen, “ T w o Problems.”
35. Uma Chakravarti, The Social Dimensions o f Early Buddhism (Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1988).
36. Collingwood’s most extensive description o f “ complex agency,” situated
historically and defined philosophically, is his The N ew Leviathan or Man,
Society, Civilization and Barbarity (New York: Thomas Crowell, 19 71
[1942]). Collingwood begins with action motivated by the human
passions, “ personal motivations,” but demonstrates that human agency
always extends beyond the passions because people act simultaneously as
members o f social units from families right up to civilizations. All human
action thus has collective, societal dimensions characterized by rational
activity aimed at constructing, defining, maintaining, improving, and/or
regulating the social formations o f which individuals are constitutive. The
passions may still play a role in action, but collective action— “ complex
agency” — implies and necessitates overlapping “ collective motivations” in
the form o f an epistemology that is shared and thereby constituted as the
arena in which consensus is produced. Because epistemology is, for
Collingwood, created in time and space by the human thought that also
produced the texts (or inscriptions or monuments) that survive today as
evidence o f it, rather than some essence (e.g., collective consciousness,
cultural proclivity, sociopolitical “ context” ) that exists outside o f and is
merely expressed by actual texts, its recovery is a strictly historical problem
that requires an imaginative reconstruction, based upon a learned reading
o f the evidence itself, o f the relationships between human thoughts and
sociopolitical formations in any given historical period. “ Collective
motivations” (e.g., ideologies, soteriologies, Buddhologies) and collective
agencies (kingdoms, caste groups, religious sects) are recovered in the
single act o f interpreting the primary evidence that was constituted by and
constitutive o f both theory and practice. Inden has made brilliant use o f
Collingwood’s ideas about “ complex agency” in his Imagining India,
especially the idea o f “ caste as citizenship.” Compare here Lamotte
(History, p. 414), who recognizes (as have other scholars) the fact o f
complex agency (although not in those terms) but does not then explore
the ramifications o f such a view.
37. E.g., C. Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government
Museum, Bulletin o f the Madras Government Museum, N ew Series, General
Section, vol. 4 (Madras: Tansi Press, 1977), “ Inscriptions,” pp. 2 7 1—304 nos.
17, 42, 48, 52, 75, 97, and 120 (members o f immediate family); nos. 35,
 4 i,44 , I2 4» and I2<5 (friends, family, and relatives); cf. H. Ltiders, A List of
Brahml Inscriptions (Epigraphia Indica 10, pp. 1-17 9 ), nos. 12 14 , 1278.
38. E.g., Liiders, List, no. 118 0 (guild o f com dealers: damnikaseni).
39. The best example is the famous set o f inscriptions on the Bhattiprolu
stupa’s relic caskets: see G. Biihler, “ The Bhattiprolu Inscriptions” (£ 72,
pp. 323—329). Here, the richness o f “ complex agency” in the construction
o f stupas is apparent. A king called Kubera[ka] organized at least two
committees (gothi) and a mercantile town (negama), the members o f which
are listed at length on the actual caskets and which themselves already
represent complex agencies, into a single complex agency that effected the
enshrinement o f the three caskets together in a single stupa. Compare in
this regard Liiders, List, no. 234 (Sanchi; “ Buddhist Committee”
[bodhagothi] from Dharmavardhana: ibid., no. 351), no 273 (Sanchi, a gothi
from Vidisa). Cf. further no. 782 (Bharhut, a group o f dayakas from
Purika); no. 2 14 (Sanchi; upasikas from Navagrama) and others.
40. Liiders, List, no. 195 (Sanchi; the village o f Vejaja), no. 401 (Sanchi;
village o f Asvaravatl), no. 62$ (Sanchi; village o f Chumvamoragiri (?)); cf.
Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures, no. 22 (“ o f the Padipudia
community” ).
4 1. Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures, nos. 12 , 16 (?), 58 (dhanakatakasa
nigamasa; cf. Liiders, List, no. 12 6 1 (Amaravatl, bhadanigama, no. 705
(Bharhut, Karahakata tiigama).
42. E.g., ibid., no. 69 ( a nun, herself a pupil o f the monk who is overseeing
the repairs at Amaravatl, acting as the representative o f her daughters), no.
80 (nun acting for her siblings); Liiders, List, no. 163 (Sanchi, groups o f
nuns); at Bhattiprolu (Biihler, “ Bhattiprolu Inscriptions” p. 328 no. 5) it
would appear that Kuba’s technical title was “ Monk of/for the
Committee” (gothisamano).
43. A beautiful example o f complex agency in the Apadanic understanding o f
stupa construction is Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, pp. 70-74 (Upavana
Thera). Compare ibid., vol. 1, p. 33 v. 2 (Mahakassapa Thera; “ calling
together my relatives and friends [natimitte]” ); and vol. 2, p. 425
(Dhatupujaka Thera; “ calling together my relatives” ), p. 89 v. 2
(Ayagadayaka Thera; “ having addressed the people in charge o f repairs I
gave the capital” ).
44. E.g., Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 59 (Pilindavaccha Thera; organizes an
alms-giving to the sangha in conjunction with thiipapuja; ibid., p. 17 1
(Vedikaraka Thera; holds a rail-festival [v. 2: vedikaya ntaham katva]); ibid.,
p. 172 (Saparivariya Thera; participates in a group puja); ibid., p. 172)
(Ummapupphiya Thera; participates in a “ great stupa festival” [v. 1:
mahathudpamaho]); ibid., p. 249 (Dhammasannaka Thera; participates in a
“ great Bodhi tree festival” [mahabodhimaho]); vol. 2, p. 391 (Ekasamkhiya
Thera; participates in a mahabodhimaho; ibid., pp. 5 1 3 - 5 14 (Mekbaladayika
Then; gives a ‘girdle’ [at the festival] to finance a stupa then another
[at/for the festival] when it is finished).
45- Art historians have been very conscious o f the fact that the ancient carvings
that contain pictures o f stupas illustrate them as they appeared at the time of
the illustration, and thus encode a history o f the development o f the form
o f the stupa. It is thus remarkable that scenes portraying kings and queens
have always been identified with scenes from some sort o f collective
historical memory (the texts that are supposed to embody these tales are,
remember, considerably later than the actual carvings), rather than with the
actual practices o f the then-present monarchy; likewise festival scenes
illustrate archetypal stories rather than the stupa worship, bodhi puja, singing
and dancing and above all happy times that probably built the rails or
gateways on which the illustrations are actually displayed. Sometimes the
same historical scene is said to appear several times in a single set o f
carvings! Moreover, even if these are historical scenes, it is important to ask
why they should have been represented at all, hundreds o f years after their
purported occurrence. In the texts, different tellings o f the tales often
reflect the different historical circumstances in which they were composed,
because the authors o f those texts thought about their own pasts in light o f
a homology to the present. Thus even if it could be demonstrated that all
the illustrations are o f famous kings such as Asoka over and over, they may
simultaneously illustrate the less-famous kings who, being As'oka’s imperial
successors, coordinated the construction o f these edifices.
46. A splendid illustration o f the ideology behind ever-improving upon the
predecessor’s stupa construction, a characteristic example o f Indian
imperial one-upmanship, is Lilley, The Apadana, vol. i, pp. 70-74
(Upavana Thera). Subsequent emperors would appropriate (in various
ways) their predecessor’s monuments, religious practices, etc., just as they
appropriated their empires.
47. Compare ibid., vol. 1, p. 4 v. 40 (dtparukkha— et passim: “ R ev. Lamp
Giver” is a very popular name in the Apadana ) with Liiders, List, no. 929 U
(Samath: pradtpa); Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures, no. 118
(.divakhabho— a late inscription?)
48. The pillar-gift (tha[m]bhadanam) is easily the most common and certainly
one o f the oldest technical terms in this lithic discourse. Cf. Lilley, The
Apadana, vol. 1, p. 172 (Thambharopaka Thera; erects a pillar [thambha] at
the Buddha’s cetiya [here, as elsewhere in Apadana and extremely common
in the inscriptions, “ cetiya” is clearly synonymous with “ thupa” ]).
49. Cf. ibid., vol. 1, p. 2 13 (Alambanadayaka Thera; gives a balustrade
[alambana] for a Buddha[‘s cetiya(?)]), with Liiders, List, no. 921a (Sarnath).
50. E.g., Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 55 (SThasanadayaka Thera; gives a
lion-throne with ‘foot stool’ after the Buddha had reached nirvana [i.e., for
him as a relic, in a stupa (?)]); ibid., pp. 18 8 -18 9 (SThasanadayaka Thera
[2]; gave a slhasana after the Buddha had died). It is o f course very
common to see people worshiping an empty lion’s throne, and/or a
‘footstool’ containing footprints o f the Buddha, in the carvings o f early
post-Asokan Buddhist India. Such carvings (also carvings o f people
 worshiping Bodhi trees [ = Enlightenment], o f people worshiping
dharmacakra pillars [ = First Sermon], and o f people worshiping stupas
[ = Parinirvana]) are considered “ aniconic” representations o f the various
stages in the Buddha biography. But this view is not sufficiently nuanced
in the scholarly literature. All o f these objects are known to have been just
that— actual objects o f worship at the stupas where the illustrations were
displayed— on the basis o f archaeological, epigraphic, and textual (i.e.,
Apadana evidence. The carvings thus contain straightforward illustrations
o f the actual practices that constituted and were constitutive o f the stupa
cult. For epigraphic confirmation o f this point, see e.g., Liiders, List,
no. 1223 (Amaravati, sihathana; nos. 1 2 1 7 , 12 19 , 1225, 1286 (Amaravati,
footprint slab/foot stool). However, there is truth in the aniconic theory
to the extent that people did worship these objects as symbols or
representations o f the Buddha and/or the important events in his life. So
we need not go as far as Susan and John Huntington (The Art of Ancient
India [New York: Weatherhill, 1985]) in denying aniconism altogether.
M y own view, however, has an advantage over “ symbolist” studies o f
ancient Buddhist aniconism inso far as it puts aniconic thought at the level
o f actual practice rather than leaving it an abstraction redundantly
represented by the artists and the patrons o f the stupas. I am grateful to
Michael Rabe and Robert Brown for clarifying to me the complexity o f
the issues surrounding the aniconic theory.
5 1. Compare Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 170 (Adhicchattiya Thera; had an
umbrella with covering [chattahichattam] made for a Buddha’s stupa and
ibid., pp. 244-245 (Chattadayaka Thera; put a white umbrella on a stupa)
with Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures, no. 92 (cediyasa chata, “ an
umbrella for the cetiya” ). Actual remnants o f stone 5fw/M-umbrellas have
been discovered (e.g., M. M. Hamid, et al. Catalogue of the Museum of
Archaeology at Sanchi, Bhopal State [Archaeological Survey of India] [Varanasi:
Indological Book House, 1982 (1920)], nos. 72, 77, 78, 79, 80, etc.) and it
is o f course very common to see umbrellas (even umbrellas that are
themselves covered, as in Apadana) adorning the stupas that are illustrated
in the carvings. The presence o f umbrellas, given their significance in
Indian royal practice and ideology, provides a constant reminder that these
stupas were constructed within a political world.
52. Compare Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 90 (Dhammacakkika Thera;
placed a well-constructed dhammacakka in front o f a Buddha’s lion-throne)
with any number o f contemporary carvings that illustrate the worship o f
such objects at stupas and other Buddhist sites (and cf. note 50, above,
about the problems o f seeing these carvings as “ aniconic representations”
o f a Buddha from the past rather than as illustrations o f Buddhist practice
in the then-present). Cf. also Sivaramamurti, Amaravati Sculptures, no. 51
(dhamacakam); Liiders List, no. 866 (bodhicakra).
53. The importance o f rails (vedi, vedika, veika, vetika) around the stupas o f this
period hardly needs to be documented; the illustrations as well as the ruins
 abound in them, and the term is an old and common one in the lithic
discourse. The idea o f putting up rails is also common in Apadana (e.g.,
Lilley, The Apadana, vol. i, p. 17 1 [Vedikaraka Thera], and p. 172
[Saparivariya Thera]). The equally common lithic term for cross-bar gift
(sftci danatn), however, appears to retain only its original meaning
(“ needle-gift” ) in Apadana; that text uses the term “ leg” (jamgha) to refer
to the parts o f a rail. This may further indicate the specific situation in
which Apadana had meaning, although I would have expected, given the
antiquity o f suci as a lithic term for cross-bar, to find it so used in Apadana.
Perhaps we can detect here the interest o f the Apadana authors in clearly
distinguishing the various subvarieties o f danam: it does not allow for a
confusion o f “ cross-bar” and “ needle,” as does the lithic record.
54. See Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, pp. 70—74 (Upavana Thera). Such
reliquaries— gold inside o f silver inside o f precious stone, etc.— have
actually been discovered in the stupas o f Andhra Pradesh (see Alexander
Cunningham, [The Bhilsa Topes; or Buddhist Monument o f Central India
[London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1854] and A.H. Longhurst, The Buddhist
Antiquities on Nagarjunikottda Madras Presidency [Delhi: Manager o f
Publications, 1938] [Memoirs o f the Archaeological Survey o f India,
no. 54] on Nagaijunikonda excavations.)
55. E.g., Schopen, “ Mahayana in Indian Inscriptions” , cf. his “ Filial Piety and
the Monk in the Practice o f Indian Buddhism,” T ’oung Pao 70 (1984),
pp. 110 - 12 6 .
56. There is o f course the embarrassing possibility, given the structure o f the
epigraphic Prakrits (i.e., the indistinguishability o f the dative and genitive
cases, sometimes even the ablative), that we should translate all these
inscriptions “ the (danam) fo r (recipient o f the merit).” It is long-established
practice not to view the inscriptions this way, but it makes a degree o f
sense for certain ones among them.
57. In other work I have been exploring the legacy o f Apadana’s karmic
absolutism. M y article “ The Buddha’s Bad Karma: A Problem in the
History o f Theravada Buddhism” (Numen, June 1990) explores the long
debate in later Theravadin history over the Apadana position that even
Buddhas must suffer the effects o f previous bad kanna; “ A Voice from the
Silence: The Buddha’s Mother’s Story” (History of Religions Journal, May
1994) explores the “ feminist” response to the Apadanic certainty that in the
long process o f transmigration men remain male and women remain female.
58. On the basis o f purely epigraphic records, Schopen too has insisted that
the development o f the stupa cult in this period involved the finest minds
o f the day, scholar-monks who, we cannot doubt, were o f the same status
as (or actually were) the composers o f the Pali Abhidhamma and the
preservers o f the texts o f “ early Buddhism” (see “ T w o Problems,” esp.
pp. 24-26).
59. For standard historical accounts o f Asoka Maurya— o f which there are
many— see e.g., V. A. Smith, Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor o f India
 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1909); A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India
(New York: Grove Press, 1959 [1954]); B. M . Barua, Asoka and His
Inscriptions (Calcutta: N ew Age, 1946); B. G. Gokhale, Asoka Maurya
(New York: Twayne, 1966); and R . Thapar, Asoka and the Decline o f the
Mauryas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961). A handy translation o f
the epigraphic remains from Asoka’s reign is N. A. Nikam and Richard
M cKeon, eds. and trans., The Edicts o f Asoka (Chicago: University o f
Chicago Press, 1978 [1959]). On the importance o f As'oka in later
Buddhist thought, see Frank Reynolds, “ The Tw o Wheels o f Dhamma:
A Study o f Early Buddhism,” in The Two Wheels o f Dhamma: Essays on the
Theravada Tradition in India and Ceylon, ed. Bardwell Smith
(Chambersburg, Penn.: A A R , 1972), esp. pp. 23—30; cf. John Strong, The
Legend o f King Asoka (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983).
60. Paul Mus, Barabadur: Esquisse d ’utie histoire du Bouddhisme fondee sur la critique
archeologique des textes (Hanoi: Imp. d’Extreme Orient, 1935), preface.
6 1. Schopen has confirmed this point in a creative reading o f the
Nagaijunikonda inscriptions, which, grammatically at least, equate the
terms “ relic” and “ Buddha” (“ On the Buddha and His Bones” ). But
Schopen, who does not seem to be aware o f Mus’ theory, reads into this
fact a foreign dualistic incarnationalism: the Buddha is somehow' a “ living
presence” in the relic (p. 537). As Mus has demonstrated, the “ indigenous
Indian logic” at work in the stupa cult is more complex than this, and
decidedly nondualistic. The relic is the material face o f a Buddha whose
teachings on nirvana makes the (gnostic) description o f his “ livingness”
highly problematic (even though this sort o f positive “ gnosticism” does
eventually emerge in Sanskritic Buddhist thought). Instead, Mus says, it is
precisely the message, constantly driven home, that the Buddha’s graspable
(samsaric) biography is today only the biography o f bones (and texts =
dharmakaya), which “ projects” the devotee into the extradiscursive realm
o f the Buddha as he really is today, that is nirvana. Still, Schopen’s point is
an important one, and the Apadana confirms his reading, as do many other
texts that Schopen talks about in this context (add to his [single] Apadana
reference the texts cited below, n. 62 and n. 63).
62. Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 108 v. 2 (Dhajadayaka Thera; “ As though
face to face with the Buddha I worshipped the unexcelled Bodhi Tree”
[sammukha viya sambuddham avandim bodhim uttamam = p. 149 v. 3
[Ekasanlya Thera] = p. 290 v. 3 [Bodhivandaka Thera]); ibid., p. i n v. 2,
vol. 2, p. 388 v. 5, p. 439 v. 27 (worshiping stupas “ as though face to face
with the Buddha” ).
63. Schopen’s argument about the meaning o f “ relic” in the Nagaijunikonda
inscriptions is that the word for relic (“ dhatu” ) stands in grammatical
apposition to words for Buddha, hence relic = Buddha. B y this logic, all
except the last text among those cited in n. 62 shares the same
epistemology: the Buddha is the Bodhi tree or stupa that is being
worshiped (sambuddham . . . thupam). This connection is explicit in Lilley,

ip o
 The Apadana, vol. i, p. 224 (Dhatupujaka Thera; Taham dhatum gahetvana
. . . paricarim tittham tarn va naruttamam [which can be read: “ taking the
relic . . . I looked after it (which was) the Best o f Men (Buddha) remaining
(in the world)” or “ (which was) the firm/solid Best o f Men (Buddha)” ]).
We also find “ Supreme Stupa ” (Cetiyam Uttamam) as an epithet o f the
living Buddha at ibid., p. 255 v. 1.
64. Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 2, pp. 529—543 (Mahapajapati GotamI Then).
65. Ibid., pp. 5 5 1 - 5 5 7 (Uppalavanna Then).
66. E.g., ibid., p. 473 vv. 33—34 (Dabbamallaputta Thera).
67. E.g., ibid., p. 546 w . 3 1—34 (Khema Then) et passim.
68. E.g., ibid., pp. 584-592 (Yasodhara Then); pp. 578-584 (Bhadda-Kapilani
Then).
69. See for example ibid., vol. 1, pp. 70—74.
70. The term is used in a similar technical sense in Apadana, see ibid., vol. 1,
p. 172 v. 2 (Saparivariya Thera; a “ diffusion [vittharika, vittharita] o f stupas” ).
7 1. See Morris, The Buddhavamsa and the Cariya-Pitaka, pp. 68—69.
72. Its focus, however, remains northern, which confirms my own view that
Buddhavamsa belongs to the period o f the Bharhut railing, i.e., the Sungas,
whereas the Apadana belongs to the period o f special importance for
Andhra, i.e., the early Satavahanas.
73. On the Sungas at Bharhut, see Liiders, List, nos. 687 and 688; on the early
Satavahanas at Sanchi see ibid., no. 346. There are many more examples o f
explicit references to the emperor(s) who created the context(s) in which
the construction o f stupas took place. Such lithic references to emperors as
agents o f Buddhist change actually increase in number after the beginning
o f the Christian era, when the emperors themselves were increasingly
Saiva or Vaisnava in personal practice. But these inscriptions are well
known, and this is not the place to review them.
74. E.g., Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 2, p. 378 v. 7 (Mancadayaka Thera; “ there
was [as a result o f my karma] much local rule, incalculable by counting”
[padesarajjam vipulamgananato asamkhiyam ]). Compare ibid., vol. 1, no. 22
v. 43 -
75. This “ Cakkavattin King” ideology must not be treated as some
transcendent essence nor as part o f Asoka’s own explicit imperial ideology.
The sources that describe such an ideology, and that treat Asoka as having
such an ideology, are considerably later than the Asokan period. This
ideology was first being constituted (in the textual and political traditions)
only during the early post-Asokan period, i.e., the time o f the ABCs. The
sources in which it, and Asoka, loom so large, were produced in self-
conscious revisions/reworkings o f the A B C tradition, in Kashmir and Sri
Lanka. The ideology as a “ new” idea should thus be treated within the
early post-Asokan period; the ideology as a “ given” should not be dated
before these textual revisions in Kashmir and Sri Lanka.
76. An allusion to the lovely apadana o f Nagasamala Thera, Lilley, The
Apadana, vol. 1, p. 119 .
77- E.g., ibid., vol. i, p. 198 (Kandaphulliya Thera); pp. 2698. (Pabhamkara Thera).
78. E.g., ibid., p. 220 (Vannakaraka Thera).
79. Ibid., p. 237 (Potthadayaka Thera).
80. Ibid., p. 15 1 (Citakapujaka Thera).
81. It is a common trope in Apadana that children “ tagging on with father”
participate in some pious activity (to which father is going), which
becomes the guarantee o f their own salvation.
82. Lilley, The Apadana, vol. 1, p. 241 (Apadaniya Thera; “ I praised the Apadana
o f Well-Gone-Ones, the Great Sages, and I worshipped their feet with my
head, pleased by these hands [that had performed anjat{\. In the ninety-two
eons since I praised the Apadana I experienced no ill-state, that is the fruit o f
praising. I experienced the four analytical knowledges, the eight
deliverences, the six super-knowledges; the Buddha’s sasana is achieved!” ).
83. E.g., ibid., p. 183 (Desapujaka Thera).
84. It is o f course possible that the emperors who organized the stupa cult
conceived o f this Buddha biography only as part o f their empires, and that
their practices constituted other “ Great Stories” (like the epics) as other
“ parts” o f those empires, simultaneously. However, in the early Brahml
period, as far as I am aware, there is no direct inscriptional evidence to
confirm such a view; there is only proof that the emperors were, in
various ways, involved with Buddhist cultic activity. By the time o f the
later Satavahanas (first—second centuries A.D.; e.g., Gautamlputra Satakarni
et al. at Nasik and Amaravati) and especially under the imperial Ikshvakus
o f Andhra, (second-third centuries A.D.), on the other hand, it had
become standard practice for non-Buddhist emperors to command the
development o f Buddhist history by empowering queens/vassals/ministers
to act as the (organizing) agents o f change.
85. I have already mentioned that the texts are addressed to a plural “ you,” an
audience, that is enjoined to “ listen.” There are also internal reasons for
making his supposition: unmarked changes o f voice that would be
unintelligible without separate performers, indeed the very style in which
the texts are written (colloquialism, additions o f entertainment value, and
the like.) This is not the place for an extended discussion o f the performative
dimensions o f the ABCs, which I plan to address in a later work. For initial
reflections on performative context and its centrality to the historical
interpretation o f apadana texts, see my “ A Voice from the Silence.”
86. Given the dating, we see here the prototype for the Indian epics,
Ramayana and Mahabharata, which are written in Sanskrit verse exactly
paralleling the style o f the ABCs, which tell “ Great Stories” that bear
obvious similarity to those in the A BCs (cosmicized “ maps” o f both time
and space; India as a single web o f interconnection, frame, and karma; the
centrality o f kingship), and which, during the Gupta period, emerged as
the kind o f imperial discourse that the A BC s had been shortly after the
time o f Asoka. If I am right about the “ festive” context o f the ABCs, a
great deal o f light is also shed upon the performance history o f the epics.
 Pant 3
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Jataka, a s a r o y a l o c c a s io n f o r m a k in g m e r it in o r d e r to e n c o u n t e r t h e fu t u r e

B u d d h a , M a it r e y a . H is e x p lo r a t io n o f “ P a in t in g t h e ‘ G r e a t L i f e ’ ” u n iq u e ly

lin k s t h e p r o d u c t io n o f a p a r t ic u la r a r t g e n r e to r it u a l p e r fo r m a n c e s c e n ­

t e r e d o n a c o m m o n b io g r a p h i c a l t h e m e , n a m e ly t h e s t o r y o f K i n g

V e s s a n t a r a .

H u d a k d e s c r ib e s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t fr o m p r o s e to p o e t r y o f a c la s s ic a l

e x a m p le o f T h a i lit e r a t u r e . T h e n a r r a t iv e s t r u c t u r e o f t h is jataka s t o r y

u n d e r w e n t c h a n g e s b y m u lt ip le a u t h o r s a n d c o n fla t e s in its in t e n t io n a lit y

t h e b io g r a p h ie s o f t h e fu t u r e B u d d h a a n d o f t h e T h a i k in g N a r a i in t h e s e v ­

e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

J o h n s o n p r e s e n t s b o t h in d ig e n o u s T h a i a n d W e s t e r n p e r s p e c t iv e s o n

t h e b io g r a p h y o f K in g M o n g k u t in n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T h a ila n d . In d o in g

s o , h e e n g a g e s c r it ic a l p e r s p e c t iv e s o n t h e p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h t h is r o y a l

b io g r a p h y is n e g o t ia t e d a n d d r a w s a t t e n t io n t o t h e s im u lt a n e o u s m o d e m

a n d t r a d it io n a l a s p e c ts t h is k in g c o m b in e d in h is lif e h is t o r y .

Part
3
 C Painting t/ie u<5 're a i /3 ife ”
Forrest M cGill

T h e “ G r e a t L i f e ,” o r Vessantara Jataka, a n d t h e o t h e r s t o r ie s o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s

la s t te n liv e s h a v e f o r c e n t u r ie s b e e n a m o n g t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t t e x t s f o r

S o u t h e a s t A s ia n B u d d h is t s . T h e s t o r ie s p r o v id e n o t o n ly t h e a m u s e m e n t s o f

w e ll - t o ld t a le s , b u t a ls o m o r a l in s t r u c t io n , a s t h e ir p r o t a g o n is t s h a v e c o m e

t o b e s e e n a s e x e m p la r s o f B u d d h is m ’s T e n P e r fe c t io n s o f p a t ie n c e , w is ­

d o m , g iv in g , a n d s o o n .1

F o u r paintings n o w in the P h oen ix A rt M useum illustrate four o f the

k ey episodes o f the Vessantara Ja ta k a (plates 1 - 4 ) . A lm ost uniquely am ong
published paintings th ey bear donative inscriptions. T h ese inscriptions
name the persons w h o gave the paintings and their hom e village, identify
the chapters o f the text depicted, and suggest the d onors’ m otives. T h us w e
are in the unusual position o f having four sorts o f text— the jataka itself; the
paintings; the inscriptions; and, as w ill be seen, a Th ai scholar’s description
o f a relevant cerem ony— to help us begin to understand w hat the “ Great
L ife ” m eant to people in a nineteenth-century central T h ai village.
In t h e s t o r y , P r in c e V e s s a n t a r a is m o t iv a t e d b y b o u n d le s s g e n e r o s it y .

W h e n e ig h t b r a h m a n s f r o m a d r o u g h t - s t r ic k e n n e ig h b o r k in g d o m a s k h im

f o r h is o w n k in g d o m ’s r a in - b r in g in g w h it e e le p h a n t , h e g iv e s it. H is p e o ­

p le a n g r ily s e n d h im in t o e x ile . B e f o r e le a v in g , h o w e v e r , V e s s a n t a r a d is ­

p e n s e s e n o r m o u s r ic h e s in t h e “ g r e a t s e v e n - h u n d r e d f o ld d o n a t io n .” L a t e r ,

o n t h e w a y t o t h e fo r e s t r e t r e a t , V e s s a n t a r a , h is w if e M a d d i, a n d t h e ir t w o

c h ild r e n a r e a s k e d fir s t f o r t h e ir h o r s e s , t h e n f o r t h e ir c h a r io t , w h i c h o f

c o u r s e V e s s a n t a r a r e a d ily b e s t o w s . E v e n t u a lly h e g iv e s a w a y h is c h ild r e n to

th e b r a h m a n J u ja k a a n d is o n ly p r e v e n t e d f r o m g iv i n g a w a y h is w if e b y a
g e n t le t r ic k p la y e d b y th e g o d In d r a . M e a n w h il e , t h e r o y a l c h ild r e n a r e

r a n s o m e d f r o m J u ja k a b y t h e ir g r a n d fa t h e r , a n d J u ja k a , e n jo y in g a n e w life

o f w e a lt h a n d lu x u r y , d ie s f r o m o v e r in d u lg e n c e . G r a n d p a r e n t s a n d g r a n d ­

c h ild r e n a r e r e u n it e d w it h V e s s a n t a r a a n d M a d d i, a n d a ll r e t u r n t o t h e

c a p it a l, w h e r e V e s s a n t a r a r e s u m e s h is r o y a l d u t ie s .2

B e c a u s e th e Vessantara Jataka te lls o f th e B u d d h a ’s im m e d ia t e ly p r e v i ­

o u s life , t h e la s t a n d m o s t p e r f e c t e d o f 5 0 0 o r m o r e ,3 it m u s t b e p a r t ic u la r ly

w o r t h y o f r e s p e c t a n d a t t e n t io n . In fa c t , t h e jataka in f o r m s u s th a t it w a s fir s t

r e la t e d b y th e B u d d h a h im s e lf. S h o r t ly a ft e r t h e F ir s t S e r m o n th e B u d d h a

r e t u r n e d t o h is f a t h e r ’s c a p it a l; in h is fa t h e r ’s p r e s e n c e h e p e r f o r m e d a m ir ­

a c le t o a w e s o m e p r o u d r e la t iv e s , a n d t h e n h e t o ld t h e s t o r y o f h is la s t li f e .4

T h e B u d d h a ’s r e c o u n t in g t h e V e s s a n t a r a s t o r y t o h is fa t h e r a n d o t h e r r e la ­

t iv e s w a s e c h o e d in t r a d it io n a l T h a i c u s t o m . W h e n a y o u n g m a n e n t e r e d

t h e m o n a s t e r y a n d b e c a m e a n o v ic e , h is f a m ily w o u l d g a t h e r t o h e a r h im

r e c it e p a r t o f t h e V e s s a n t a r a s t o r y . In a n e v e n c lo s e r im it a t io n o f t h e

B u d d h a ’s life , t h is c u s t o m w a s f o ll o w e d in th e p a la c e t o o . In 1 8 1 7 , 1 8 6 6 ,

a n d 1 8 9 1 c e r e m o n ie s w e r e h e ld in w h i c h a r o y a l p r in c e in h is n o v it ia t e

r e c it e d p a r ts o f th e V e s s a n t a r a s t o r y b e f o r e h is r e la t iv e s a n d t h e k in g .5

E la b o r a t e c e r e m o n ie s f o r r e c it a t io n o f a fu ll t e x t o f t h e Vessantara
Jataka, c a lle d thet Mahachat, o r “ r e c it a t io n o f t h e ‘ G r e a t L i f e ,’ ” w e r e a n n u a l

e v e n t s in m a n y T h a i t o w n s . A n im p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r t h is w a s t h e w id e ­

s p r e a d p o p u la r b e li e f th a t lis t e n in g t o a c o m p le t e r e c it a t io n o f t h e Vessantara
Jataka w o u l d h e lp a s s u r e r e b ir t h in h u m a n f o r m in t h e fa r fu t u r e w h e n th e

b o d h is a t t v a M a it r e y a d e s c e n d s t o e a r t h f o r h is la s t life , d u r in g w h ic h h e w ill

a t t a in B u d d h a h o o d . M e e t i n g M a it r e y a w a s a c o m m o n g o a l a m o n g

T h e r a v a d a B u d d h is t s ; w h y th is w a s s o , w h a t r o le t h e Vessantara Jataka h a d ,

a n d h o w t h e P h o e n i x p a in t in g s s e r v e d in a c h ie v in g t h e g o a l w ill b e c o m e

c le a r la te r .

Thai V e R s io n s o f th e V e s s a n ta ra Ja ta k a
T h a ila n d ’s e a r lie s t
v e r s io n o f t h e Vessantara Jataka o f w h i c h s o m e p a r ts m a y

s u r v iv e is t h e Mahachat Kham Luang, o r “ R o y a l V e r s i o n o f t h e G r e a t L i f e ,”

s a id t o h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d in 1 4 8 2 b y K in g B c ^ r o m m a t r a ilo k k a n a t o f

A y u t t h a y a .6 M u c h o f t h is v e r s io n s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n lo s t a n d r e p la c e d d u r ­

in g s u b s e q u e n t c e n t u r ie s , a n d t h e p r e s e n t c o m p ila t io n d a te s o n ly f r o m

1 8 1 5 . 7 O t h e r v e r s io n s , in c lu d in g a n o t h e r Mahachat Kham Luang c o m p o s e d

b y K in g S o n g T h a m in 1 6 2 7 , h a v e c o n t in u e d to a p p e a r .8 W r it in g in 1 8 9 2 ,

G . E . G e r in i n o t e d th a t “ q u it e a n u m b e r o f d iffe r e n t v e r s io n s a r e n o w in

c ir c u la t io n , a n d n e w o n e s a r e b e in g p r e p a r e d f r o m t im e t o t i m e .” 9 T h e

n u m b e r o f c h a p t e r s , t h e ir n a m e s , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f P a li s t a n z a s t h e y

in c lu d e a r e , h o w e v e r , s t a n d a r d . 10
 The Phoenix Pointings
P h oen ix paintings— clearly a set— measure 1.0 6 meters by 0.883 meters, or
about h a lf again as lon g in both directions as an unfolded newspaper. T h e y
are painted in bright colors on cotton fabric and have suffered considerable
paint loss, perhaps from having been repeatedly rolled or folded. Each has
a border decorated, at the corners and m idpoints, w ith flow ers and tendrils.
A lo n g the bottom , a sort o f cartouche encloses an inscription.

The Inscriptions

T h e inscriptions are som etim es hard to m ake out because o f damage.

Fortunately, except for a few w ords, they are identical, and so the gaps in
one can be filled by reference to another. Som e spellings are nonstandard.

A.

B. Srraon im n u ti Id .
or ian
c Sn'tyn ^inuuntutfH wumitf

d . Sn'RlJX ^uniUtfwwJ-M dadrfei n* u n rfn m

fJnijffi

A. «^5l9TUJlSTWUlU7:^_l7ai«flln7£)

B........................................

D « lOTT^t5imitu3;Ha-nti4uptlfJ5£)ioTtiiuwiaty

A.
B,
C

D. utuTUtl000T0Tmflt
 Pious lay woman (A) R um o f Ban Laem sponsors the
(B) R p k (or Wpk)
(C) Puk
(D) Prang
Phuk
(A) Himavanta [chapter] in (A) 134 stanzas. May I meet
(B) Danakanda (B) 2.
(C) Maharaja (C) 69
(D) Chakhattiya (D) 36
(A) 0 Phra SI Ariya Mettrai (A) (Z)
(B) Lord (B) (hortative particle).
(C) Lord (C) (hortative particle).
(D) Lord (D) (hortative particle).
(D) May [this donation] be a cause o f reaching nirvana.

Notes on the Translations i i

— Sika presum bly derives from upasika, “ fem ale lay d evo tee.” In Thailand
upasika is attested at least as early as a fifteenth-century inscription from
Su kh oth ai.12

— B an Laem is a tow n on the G u lf o f Thailand about 1 50 kilom eters south­

west o f B an g ko k and fifteen kilom eters or so north o f Phetburi.

— 1jati is presum ably 2srah. T h e y are p ron o u n ced identically. 2srdh usually
m eans “ to m ak e ,” “ to b u ild ,” or “ to have som eth in g m ade or b u ilt.” It is
com m on ly found in don ative inscriptions and in other contexts describ­
in g donations. W h en w e notice that on e can 2srdh a B u dd h a im age, an
institution, or even a religious text w e begin to need translations like “ to
co m m issio n ,” “ to establish and p rovid e for the con tin u in g support o f,” or
“ to pay for the preparation and publication o f .” E x a ctly w h at m ay be
m eant on these paintings w h en w e are told that som eone 2sran a chapter
o f the Vessantara Jataka w ill be discussed later. It should be noted that one
can 2srah m erit, that is, build it up by p erfo rm in g go od d eed s.13

— T h e w o rd dan, translated as “ m eet,” usually means “ to be on tim e” or

“ to catch up w ith .”

— “ Phra ST A riya M ettrai” is a com m on T h ai term for M aitreya. It is usu­

ally shortened to “ Phra ST A n ” in speaking.

— T h e phrase translated as “ m ay [this donation] be a cause o f reaching

n i r v a n a w h ich occurs only in the inscription on painting D , is in oddly
spelled Pali: nibana paccayayo hotu. T h is Pali phrase turns up very frequently
in donative inscriptions from at least the mid sixteenth century o n w a rd .14
 The Depictions 1 5

P la te 1. ( P a in tin g A ). C h a p t e r 2, H im a v a n ta : V e s s a n t a r a G iv e s A w a y t h e
E le p h a n t. P r in c e V e s s a n t a r a , a s t r id e th e n e c k o f h is fa m o u s w h it e e le p h a n t ,

p o u r s w a t e r f r o m a b o t t le t o w a r d t h e u p r a is e d h a n d s o f t h e e ig h t b r a h m a n s .

B y d o in g s o , h e s o le m n iz e s g iv in g t h e e le p h a n t t o t h e m .

F o u r W e s t e r n s o ld ie r s w e a r in g t a ll h a ts a n d h o ld in g r ifle s w it h b a y o n e t s

s t a n d a t a t t e n t io n n e a r b y . T h r o u g h a g a t e w a y o n a lo n g w a ll, a g r o u p o f

m e n c a n b e s e e n . T h e y w a t c h n o t V e s s a n t a r a ’ s e d if y in g e x e r c is e o f c h a r it y

b u t a r is q u e v ig n e t t e o f a m a n g r a b b in g t h e a r m o f a f le e in g w o m a n .

P la te 2 . ( P a in tin g B ). C h a p t e r 3, D A n a k a n d a : T h e B r a h m a n s A s k F o r t h e
H orses. R i d i n g a n e la b o r a t e c h a r io t , V e s s a n t a r a a n d h is f a m ily g o o f f in t o

e x ile . V e s s a n t a r a lo o k s b a c k lo n g in g ly t o w a r d h is h o m e , a n d s e v e r a l o f h is

f o r m e r s u b je c t s , k n e e lin g o n th e g r o u n d , e x p r e s s in c o n v e n t io n a l g e s t u r e s

t h e ir s a d n e s s t o s e e h im g o . In f r o n t o f t h e c h a r io t f o u r b r a h m a n s p r e p a r e

t o a s k V e s s a n t a r a , w h o h a s n o t y e t n o t ic e d t h e m , f o r t h e h o r s e s .

A t fir s t g la n c e t h e s e t t in g , in fr o n t o f a lo n g , o b liq u e w a ll w it h a g u a r d ­

h o u s e a t t h e fa r t h e r e n d , s e e m s t o b e t h e s a m e a s th a t in t h e p r e v io u s p a in t ­

in g , b u t in fa c t t h e g a t e w a y a n d d is t a n t b u ild in g s a r e d iffe r e n t .

A t t h e g u a r d h o u s e a c o u p le c o n v e r s e . O n c e a g a in o b s e r v e r s w a t c h

t h e m , n o t t h e r e lig io u s d r a m a o f V e s s a n t a r a .

P la te 3 . ( P a i n t in g C ). C h a p t e r 11, M a h A r A ja : T h e O v e r i n d u l g e n t J u j a k a .
T h e b r a h m a n J u ja k a , h a v in g a s k e d V e s s a n t a r a f o r h is c h ild r e n a n d t h e n

r a n s o m e d t h e m to t h e ir g r a n d fa t h e r , b a s k s in n e w f o u n d lu x u r y . R e c li n i n g

in h is m a n s io n , h e c h u c k s a m a id e n u n d e r t h e c h in , w h ile s e r v in g w o m e n

p r o ff e r r e fr e s h m e n t s a n d fa n h im a n d C h in e s e m e n b r in g in a p ig ’s h e a d a n d

a c r o c k . In th e b a c k g r o u n d a m a n a t t e n d e d b y a n u m b r e lla - b e a r e r s e e m s to

a d m o n is h t w o m e n k n e e lin g b e f o r e h im . O f f t o t h e s id e , a m a n a n d w o m a n

e n g a g e in a m o r o u s p la y .

P la te 4 . ( P a i n t i n g D ) . C h a p t e r 12, C h a k h a t t i y a : V e s s a n t a r a a n d H i s F a m i l y
A r e R e u n ite d . In th e u p p e r p a r t o f th e p a in t in g , V e s s a n ta r a ’s c h ild r e n a n d h is

p a r e n ts c o m e in a s t a t e ly p r o c e s s io n t o w a r d h is c o tt a g e . B e lo w , V e s s a n ta r a a n d

h is fa th e r g r e e t e a c h o t h e r w it h te a rs o f jo y , as d o V e s s a n t a r a ’s w if e a n d h e r

c h ild r e n a n d m o t h e r - in - la w . T h e t w o e x ile s w e a r th e tig e r s k in g a r m e n ts o f

h e r m it s , b u t a c o u r t ie r c a r r ie s in th e c r o w n V e s s a n ta r a w ill s o o n r e c la im .

T h e H isto ry o f R e p R e s e n t a t io n s
o f th e V e s s a n ta ra Ja ta k a in Thailand
R e p r e s e n t a t io n s o f t h e Vessantara Jataka a r e f o u n d a m o n g s e v e r a l o f t h e e a r ­

lie s t B u d d h is t a r t t r a d it io n s o f I n d i a . 16 I n T h a ila n d t h e y a p p e a r c a r v e d in

lo w r e li e f o n s e m a s t o n e s f r o m t h e n o r t h e a s t th a t h a v e b e e n a s s ig n e d t o th e
 ninth to eleventh centuries.17 T h e fam ous partial set o f jataka representa­
tions at W at ST C h u m in Sukhothai, usually dated to the fourteenth cen­
tury, does not include the Vessantara. W h eth er it was included am ong the
jatakas painted in the crypt o f W at R atchaburana in A yutthaya (14 2 4 C .E .)
is not certain . K in g B Q rom m atrailokkanat o f A yu tth aya, w h o m w e
encountered earlier com posing a version o f the Vessantara Jataka, ordered
the casting o f sculptures o f the B od h isattva in all 500 jatakas in 14 5 8 .
A m o n g the few dozen fragments o f these figures that have survived, h o w ­
ever, n one is id en tifiable as V essan tara.18 Sri Lankan am bassadors to
A yutthaya in 17 5 0 m entioned seeing murals o f the Vessantara Jataka in a
building at W at Chaiw atthanaram (founded in 16 3 0 —1 6 3 1 ) , but the build­
ing has lon g since disappeared.19
From the seventeenth century on w ard, painted representations o f the
Vessantara Jataka survive in increasing num bers in murals and manuscripts.
U nfortunately, m any o f these, particularly the earlier ones, cannot be dated
w ith any precision. T h e developm ent o f T h ai painting has received little
systematic study, and so, for instance, a famous A yutthaya m anuscript o f the
Trai Phum , in w h ich scenes o f the Vessantara Jataka are depicted, has been
variously attributed to the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth cen ­
tu ries.20 A n o th er Trai Phum m anuscript d ep ictin g Vessantara scenes is
inscribed w ith a date equivalent to 17 7 6 .21
T h e problem s o f dating murals are com plex. W e m ay occasionally
k n o w w h en a building was built, but w e cannot be sure that its present
murals w ere painted at the time o f construction. Also, m any murals, and
not ju st the oldest, have been damaged or erased by neglect. M an y others
have been subjected to extensive overpainting, so that w hat w e see today
m ay be a m elange o f 17 9 0 w ith 18 90 . Furtherm ore, com parison w ith dated
painted manuscripts or dated gilt lacquer cabinets is com plicated b y the fact
that w e do not k n ow h o w closely stylistic developm ents in various painted
m edia follow ed each other.
A list o f seventeenth - to n in eteenth-century representations o f the
Vessantara Jataka in murals and other formats is included in the appendix.

W heRe and W hen th e P h o e n ix Pointings

cuerze M a d e
N o on e w o u ld argue w ith a n in eteen th -cen tu ry date for the P h o e n ix
paintings. C o m p arin g them w ith various Vessantara representations listed
in the appendix and w ith other central T h ai painting shows that they are
not unusual in their com position, style, m otifs, or w ays o f presenting the
narrative; on the contrary, all o f their characteristics can be related to those
o f better k n ow n nineteenth-century paintings.
 B u t h o w m uch m ore precise can w e be? A t the beginning o f the cen­
tury, T h ai painters had highly sophisticated and internally consistent tradi­
tional means o f depicting their artistic vision. As the decades passed they
w e re con fro n ted m ore and m ore w ith the v e ry d ifferent tradition o f
Ch inese and especially W estern pictorial representation.22 In the second
h a lf o f the century they and their audience, like artists and audiences e very­
w h ere, also had their vision increasingly affected by photography.
U sing foreign motifs and features o f foreign painting styles was o f course
not new . T h e paintings in the crypt o f W at Ratchaburana in Ayutthaya, dat­
ing from about 14 2 4 , include Chinese persons depicted in a rather Chinese
style. From the seventeenth century onward, m uch surviving evidence shows
a taste for the exotic and foreign, and representations o f Persians, Indians,
Chinese, and assorted Europeans are com m on .23 Thus the m ere presence o f
a foreign m o tif or personage tells us nothing about a painting’s date. Certain
motifs m ay, how ever, be helpful. For instance, oval w in dow s (seen in build­
ings in paintings B and D) have been associated w ith the popularity o f
Chinese-style architecture in the second quarter o f the nineteenth century.24
O ther architectural features such as the European-looking gateways o f paint­
ings C and D , w ith their inscriptions in an approxim ation o f the R o m a n
alphabet, m ight suggest a date toward the middle o f the century, as W estern
influences w ere increasingly felt.25 W estem -style buildings had been con­
structed in central Thailand at least as early as the second h alf o f the seven­
teenth century, how ever, so w e must be cautious.
T h e W estern m ilitary uniform s in all four paintings m ay also provide
clues, though it w ill take a specialist to evaluate them. Suffice it to say that
the hip-length tunics o f the guards in painting C m ay indicate a date in or
after the m id -i8 $ o s , w h en lon ger tunics tended to replace shorter on es.26
B ecau se T h a i artists had fo r cen turies taken such d eligh t in w ild
anachronism s, w e should not be surprised to notice that in painting D the
procession o f Vessantara’s parents and children to his forest retreat includes
a soldier apparently w earing a topi and carrying a U n io n Ja c k . T h ere had
been significant British diplom atic m issions to B an g k o k in 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 2 2 ,
18 2 5 —18 2 6 , and 18 5 0 . It is tem pting, though, to see this flag bearer and the
other W estern soldiers as a reflection— h o w e ve r distant— o f the extrem ely
im portant British mission o f 18 $ $, w h en Sir Jo h n B o w rin g arrived “ w ith
both im pressive pom p and the threat o f force behind h im .” 27
In the course o f the nineteenth century, T h ai painters increasingly
experim ented w ith W estern perspective, though m astering the intricacies
o f the o n e -p o in t linear p ersp ective system to o k decades. E ig h te e n th -
century T h ai painters had often not troubled m uch w ith illusions o f depth,
and w h en they did, they generally used an unsystematic (but visually pleas­
ing) isom etric perspective. In the P h o en ix paintings, h ow ever, the artist
a t t e m p t s t o s h o w t h e t h ic k n e s s o f w a lls a n d o ft e n d a r k e n s th e s id e s o f r e c ­

t a n g u la r s o lid s ( lik e g a t e w a y s ) t o e m p h a s iz e t h e ir t h r e e - d im e n s io n a lit y . In

th e r o o f o f o n e g a t e w a y , th a t in p a in t in g A , t h e r e is e v e n a t r y a t c o n v e r g ­

in g p e r s p e c t iv e . A ll o f t h is is w h a t w e u s u a lly e x p e c t o f p a in t in g in th e m id ­

c e n t u r y . L a t e r o n t h e e x p e r im e n t s in p e r s p e c t iv e b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly

e x a g g e r a t e d u n t il, in s o m e w o r k s f r o m t h e 1 8 6 0 s f o r w a r d , b u ild in g s in

p a in t in g s d iv e , t h r u s t , a n d t ilt .

V a r io u s a r tis t s a d o p t e d c h a n g e s a t v a r io u s r a t e s , o b v i o u s l y . I n t h e

Vessantara Jataka a n d o t h e r m u r a ls o f 1 8 8 6 a t W a t P h a w a n n a p h ir a t t a r a m in

T h o n b u r i , f o r in s t a n c e , t h e r e is n o a t t e m p t to d e p ic t b u ild in g s in c o n v e r g ­

in g p e r s p e c t i v e . 28 W e s t e r n p e o p le d o n o t m a k e m u c h o f a n a p p e a r a n c e , b u t

W e s t e r n c lo t h i n g a n d a r c h it e c t u r e — w it h w in d o w b lin d s a n d s m o k in g

c h im n e y s — d o . W h a t s e e m s n e w e s t is t h e r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f la n d s c a p e . T h e

b a c k g r o u n d s o p e n in t o a ir y v is t a s o f r e c e d in g h ills a n d flu f fy c lo u d s . T h e r e

a r e e v e n e ffo r t s t o u s e a e r ia l p e r s p e c t iv e a n d t o m a in t a in a c o n t in u o u s

g r o u n d p la n e f r o m n e a r f o r e g r o u n d t o h o r iz o n .

T h e P h o e n i x p a in t in g s a r e c o n s id e r a b ly e a r lie r th a n t h e s e , s u r e ly . T h u s

i f s o m e o f t h e m ilit a r y u n ifo r m s in t h e P h o e n i x p a in t in g s w e r e p e r h a p s n o t

in u s e u n t il t h e m i d - i 8 5 0 s , a n d e x p e r im e n t a t io n w it h W e s t e r n p e r s p e c t iv e

a n d o t h e r p ic t o r ia l c o n v e n t io n s w a s g r o w i n g m o r e e n t h u s ia s t ic s o o n a fte r ,

t h e n it m ig h t s e e m r e a s o n a b le t o d a te t h e P h o e n i x p a in t in g s t o th e y e a r s

a r o u n d i 8 6 0 .

T h e u n c e r t a in t ie s a r e m a n y , h o w e v e r . It b e a r s e m p h a s iz in g th a t m u c h

o f w h a t h a s b e e n w r it t e n a b o u t th e h is t o r y o f T h a i p a in t in g is o f q u e s t io n ­

a b le r e lia b ilit y . Is s u e s s u c h a s w h e n v a r io u s f o r e ig n c o s t u m e s a p p e a r o r

w h e n a n d h o w T h a i p a in t e r s b e g a n t o g a in fa m ilia r it y w it h a n d m a k e u s e

o f W e s t e r n p e r s p e c t iv e h a v e n o t b e e n c a r e f u lly a n a ly z e d . P r o b le m s o f

r e p a in t in g , o v e r p a in t in g , a n d c o p y in g h a v e n o t b e e n w o r k e d o u t . W e h a v e

lit t le id e a h o w fa r a p a r t c o n s e r v a t iv e p a in t e r s a n d th e a v a n t g a r d e w e r e a t

a n y m o m e n t , a n d w e c a n n o t c o n fid e n t ly te ll a n e x p e r im e n t a l p a in t in g o f

1 8 3 0 f r o m a n o ld - f a s h io n e d o n e o f 1 8 8 0 . T h e r e is a ls o t h e r e la t e d q u e s t io n

o f t h e p a c e o f c h a n g e o u t s id e B a n g k o k . 29 H o w a n d w h e n d id o t h e r r e g io n s

r e s p o n d t o d e v e lo p m e n t s in p a in t in g in t h e c a p ita l?

T h e d o n o r s n a m e d in t h e P h o e n i x p a in t in g s w e r e f r o m B a n L a e m n e a r

P h e t b u r i. W e r e t h e p a in t in g s m a d e in B a n L a e m ? O r in P h e t b u r i its e lf,

w h i c h h a d f o r c e n t u r ie s b e e n a n im p o r t a n t a r t is t ic c e n t e r ? O r in B a n g k o k ?

T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to t h in k th a t p a in t in g s s u c h a s t h e s e c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n

p a in t e d in B a n g k o k a n d s o ld w it h b la n k s f o r d o n a t iv e in s c r ip t io n s t o b e

fille d in l a t e r . 30 D o t h e P h o e n i x p a in t in g s s h o w a n y r e g io n a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s ?

T h e y d o n o t s e e m t o . B u t w o u l d w e k n o w a r e g io n a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic i f w e

s a w o n e ? L e t u s b e s a t is fie d t o la b e l t h e p a in t in g s “ C e n t r a l T h a ila n d , s e c o n d

h a lf o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .”
 The CeRem ony o f Reciting th e V e ss a n ta ra
Ja ta k a (Thef M a h d c h d t)

“ W e a n d o u r r e la t iv e s , b e in g fille d w it h z e a l, p r e s e n t e d b r ic k s (to b u ild ) a

p e d e s ta l f o r a s t a tu e o f th e B u d d h a . . . . A f t e r t h is , a d e d ic a t io n c e r e m o n y

w a s h e ld . . . t h e n t h e r e w a s a c e r e m o n y in s id e o u r h o u s e , a n d a c e r e m o n y

fo r o u r c h ild r e n t o o . T h e n w e lis t e n e d t o th e M a h a c h a t .” 31 T h e s e s t a te ­

m e n t s f r o m a n e a r ly f if t e e n t h - c e n t u r y in s c r ip t io n f r o m S u k h o t h a i s u g g e s t

th e lo n g h is t o r y o f c e r e m o n ie s in c lu d in g a r e c it a t io n o f th e Vessantara Jataka.
P e r fo r m a n c e s o f s u c h c e r e m o n ie s in m o r e r e c e n t t im e s h a v e b e e n

m e n t io n e d e a r lie r , a n d n o w it is t im e t o c o n s id e r t h e m in m o r e d e t a il. A

w o n d e r f u l d e s c r ip t io n w a s w r it t e n a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y a g o b y t h e g r e a t

s c h o la r o f t r a d it io n a l T h a i c u lt u r e , P h y a A n u m a n R a ja d h o n , a n d q u o t in g it

a t c o n s id e r a b le le n g t h w ill b e u s e fu l:

Every year after the traditional three month term o f religious Lent
and retreat o f Buddhist monks expires . . . many wats or monasteries have
their own “ Thet Maha Chat” festival. “ Thet” means to preach . . . but in
this instance to recite or give a recitative sermon o f the Maha Chat. . . .
The recitation may be performed during the . . . mid-year Autumnal
Festival in early October, or on other special occasions such as the raising
o f funds for the monastery. . . . In the former days the recitation o f the
Maha Chat might be performed at a private residence in special
case[s]. . . . Nowadays the performance, as far as I know, is confined to
the preaching hall within the precincts o f a wat. The recitation begins
early in the morning and continues sometimes to late midnight. It is the
traditional belief o f the people that whosoever hears the Maha Chat, or
the Great Life in its complete story, will gain great merit. . . .
There are thirteen monks each o f whom is trained for a particular kan
[chapter], . . . Each kan must have a sponsor-owner either individually or
collectively in number. It is the duty o f the owner o f a kan to provide a gift
for the presiding monk with money and things fit for merit offering. . . .
They include monks’ robes and essential requisites for monks, eatables and
sweetmeats and a large quantity o f fruits. . . . Any person, apart from the
owner, may join in the merit-making by contributing money or anything
else to the common offering for whichever kan he prefers. . . .
Although the hearing o f such sacred words recited may give rise to
mystical feelings, the people do not understand them and their emotions
are not satisfied. The people want something more. . . . [T]he reciter has
to display his wit and additions o f his own are thrown into the recitation
which sometimes border on drollery and vulgarity. The orthodox people
frown. . . .

203
 N ow suppose you accept the invitation to be one o f the owners o f
the thirteen kans. . . . There will be bustle and merriment in the house on
the eve o f the recitation . . . the cooking o f food and the preparing o f
sweetmeats both for merit-making and for feeding the people. For such
an occasion, neighbors will come to help you. . . .
On the actual day . . . all the offerings are carried in a procession with
music and other performances. . . . There will be crowds o f people along
the route to witness the procession. . . . If there are many wealthy own­
ers o f different kans . . . it will be a great day. For there will be competi­
tion among themselves as to whose offerings and procession are the best
and most costly. . . .
The entrance into the wat on the day o f the Maha Chat recitation is
made as a sort o f gate decorated with branches o f trees. . . . Sometimes the
path [to the preaching hall] is made in a sort o f maze or labyrinth . . .
called “ Khao W ongkot,” the name o f the mountain where Prince
[Vessantara] had his hermitage. . . . There hang in some preaching halls
thirteen paintings depicting the life o f Prince [Vessantara] as narrated in
the thirteen kans. . . .
Arriving at the wat the procession passes . . . into the path leading to
the preaching hall. If the path is made into a maze there will certainly be
fun when [you] get into a blind passage and become confused. Y ou may
even have to pay a fee to the guide. . . . When the procession arrives at
the preaching hall, and if the preceding kan . . . is still in progress . . . you
will have to wait outside until the preceding kan comes to an end. Then
you carry all your offerings to their proper place in the preaching hall. . . .
There is bustle and ado . . . when the offerings o f the preceding kan . . .
are taken out and the offerings o f the next kan are carried in. . . . [T]here
are small coloured flags equal to the number o f a thousand [stanzas]. The
number o f these thousand [stanzas] is distributed unevenly among the
thirteen kans. Suppose your kan has, say 80 . . . stanzas then you have 80
flags sticking in rows on both sides o f the place where the offerings are
placed. Besides the small flags there are also small beeswax candles equal
in number to that o f the small flags. There are flowers for offering too. . . .
Apart from the usual offering there must also be offered a boiled pig’s
head complete with its four legs and tail, and a “ Bai Sri Pak Cham ,” a sort
o f ritual-boiled rice in a big earthen bowl. Nobody can give me a rea­
sonable explanation o f this offering, except that it is merely a tradition and
a custom. . . .
N ow when the . . . recitation is to begin, candles and incense sticks
. . . will be lit, and an act o f worship is made to . . . the Buddha, his Law
and his Body o f the Clergy. . . . After such rite has been performed, the
recitation may begin. . . .
 If the reciting monk is well-known for his wit and humor, the place
is packed to the utmost. . . . The young men will ask for encores and
more money contributions will willingly be made. . . . In former days
such recitations with additions o f drollery and humor in some cases over­
stepped the limits o f modesty.32

T h e P h o e n ix P a in t in g s in C o n te x t
N o w it is possible to see the P h oen ix paintings and their inscriptions in
context and to understand them better. N o doubt they w ere made, along
w ith nine other paintings, to be donated for a T h e t M ahachat cerem ony
and to record the sponsoring— w hat Phya A num an calls the ow n in g— o f
the recitation o f particular chapters. T h u s “ Layw om an R u m o f Ban Laem
2sran the H im avanta chapter in 13 4 stanzas” means not only that she also
2sran the painting o f an episode from the H im avanta chapter, but that she
also 2srari the recitation o f the chapter by p rovid ing the food offerings,
m onks’ robes, m usic, little flags, candles, flowers, and so on. Because the
num ber o f flags and candles must m atch the num ber o f stanzas in the chap­
ter, the num ber is specified in the inscription.
Sets o f paintings on cloth o f Vessantara scenes for use during recitation
ceremonies seem to have been com m on.33 Eight paintings from one set and
several single paintings that probably came from such sets have been published,
and a number m ore m entioned.34 M ost o f the published examples appear to
have been cut down, and only one now has a border and inscription.35
T h e P h o en ix paintings’ vignettes o f flirtatious couples, nosy neighbors,
foreign soldiers, gossiping servants, a grand parade, and so on really need no
explanation. T h ai paintings are full o f such lively distractions. W e are o f
course rem inded o f the Vessantara Ja ta k a recitations though. G erin i in 18 9 2
reported that:

At no very distant time all the resources o f declamation and, eventu­

ally, o f mimicry were occasionally taken advantage o f by unscrupulous
members o f the clergy to make the exhibition more attractive to the audi­
tory; and all sorts o f tricks calculated to excite laughter in the multitude
were resorted to. The blaring o f trumpets, the ringing o f bells, the
whistling o f birds in the recesses o f the Himavanta forest, the noises o f a
storm and the pealing o f thunder were imitated almost to perfection and
were given after each Pali distich with a flourishing o f many whimsical
adjuncts, to relieve the monotony o f the entertainment.36

G e rin i then tells o f K in g M o n g k u t (r. 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 6 8 ) , a serio u s-m in d ed

Buddhist reform er, ob jecting to such buffoonery: “ he denounced the abuse
in a p roclam atio n full o f tren chant rem arks; and since that tim e the
 exposition o f the M aha Chat . . . has becom e m ore d ign ified .” 37 (The n ew
dignity did not last long, it w o u ld seem from Phya A n u m an ’s description.)
In any event, one w onders i f the P h o e n ix paintings and others like them
w ere not displayed during the recitation, and w h eth er the recitation m ay
not have referred to their hum orous and colorful anecdotal details as w ell
as to their main scenes.38
N o w let us take up the p ig ’s head. A boiled one, together w ith an
earthen b o w l o f special rice— these, Phya A num an says, must be included
am o n g the offerings at a Vessantara Ja ta k a recitation cerem o n y. In the
P h o en ix painting C , it w ill be rem em bered, a p ig ’s head and a crock o f
som ething that could be rice are being presented b y tw o C hinese m en to
the luxuriating Ju jak a. T h e jo k e seems to be that the offerings the donors
intend for the m onks go, in the paintings, not to the w o rth y Vessantara,
w h o in his austere celibate exile is like a m onk, but to the coarse and ridicu­
lous Ju ja k a .39
W e scorn Ju jak a, but w hat other feeling do w e have tow ard him? W hen
w e set out to present our offerings at the tem ple and hear the Vessantara
story, w e must pass through a maze representing the slopes o f M ou n t Vam ka
(Phya A n u m an ’s “ K h ao W o n g k o t” ) w here Vessantara and his w ife w ent
into exile and lived as hermits. W e m ay get lost and have to ask for guidance
just as they did. W e like to feel identified w ith Vessantara, naturally, and in
m aking our donations w e try to emulate him . B u t som eone else got lost on
those slopes and had to ask for directions: Jujaka. In fact his searching for the
w ay to Vessantara’s retreat extends through three chapters o f the jataka. C an
w e avoid feeling identified w ith him too? H e, o f course, was m otivated by
greed, w hile w e intend our m otives to be pure. H e sought to take, w e to
give. Besides, Ju jak a got fabulously rich, spent his m oney foolishly, and died
o f dissipation. I f w e w ere rich, w e ’d be m ore careful.

T h e Do« o h s’ M o t i u e s

Basic questions raised at the beginning n o w return: W hat w ere the m otives
o f the pious layw om en o f B an Laem ? W h y w ere they donating these paint­
ings and sponsoring chapters in the cerem ony o f reciting the Vessantara
Ja ta k a ?
T h e ir w ish, all o f them tell us, is to m eet M aitreya: that is, to be reborn
in hum an form w h en he descends to earth for his last life, during w h ich he
w ill attain B udd h ahood and preach the doctrine. T w o o f them add a co m ­
m on form ula that means, m ore or less, “ M ay [this donation] be a cause o f
reaching nirvana.”
T h e w ish to m eet M aitreya is shared by m ost Theravada Buddhists, and
has been for centuries.40 In an inscription o f 1 3 5 7 , the king o f Sukhothai,
a d d r e s s in g “ a ll g o o d p e o p l e ,” s p e a k s o f s o m e o n e in g e n e r a l w h o “ m a k e s

t h e w is h th a t h e w ill b e r e b o r n in h e a v e n , (t h a t h e w ill s t a y t h e r e ) u n t il S r i

A r iy a m a it r i c o m e s d o w n (to e a r t h ) t o b e c o m e a B u d d h a , a n d th a t h e w ill

b e r e b o r n o n t h is e a r t h a t th e s a m e t i m e .” 41

In e v e r y s u c c e e d in g c e n t u r y , T h a i in s c r ip t io n s c a n b e f o u n d e x p r e s s in g

a d o n o r ’s w is h t o m e e t M a it r e y a . T h a t th e w is h is s t ill a liv e t o d a y is e v i ­

d e n c e d b y le a d e r s o f u p r is in g s in t h e c o u n t r y s id e c la im in g t o b e M a it r e y a —

a n d d r a w in g f o ll o w e r s . 42

N o w , h o w d o e s o n e e a r n t h e o p p o r t u n it y o f m e e t in g M a it r e y a ? T h e r e

a r e s e v e r a l r e la t e d a n s w e r s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Anagatavamsa, th e B u d d h a ,

s p e c if y in g w h o w ill m e e t M a it r e y a , s a y s “ T h o s e w h o fe e l p le a s u r e a t m e r ­

i t o r io u s d e e d s s h a ll s e e h im . T h o s e w h o f u r t h e r t h e r e li g io n o f T h e

B u d d h a , . . . m a k e o ffe r in g s o f c lo t h , c a n o p ie s , g a r la n d s , in c e n s e , o r la m p s

. . . s h a ll s e e h im . T h o s e w h o lis t e n to t h e V e s s a n t a r a B ir t h - S t o r y s h a ll s e e

h im , lik e w is e t h o s e w h o g iv e to t h e c o n g r e g a t io n o ffe r in g s o f f o o d , e t c . ” 43

In o n e v e r s io n o f t h e P h r a M a la i le g e n d , a n e d if y in g s t o r y p o p u la r a n d

w id e ly k n o w n a m o n g S o u t h e a s t A s ia n B u d d h is t s , M a it r e y a te lls u s h im s e lf

t h a t “ t h o s e w h o w is h e d t o m e e t h im s h o u ld lis t e n to t h e r e c it a t io n o f th e

e n t ir e Vessantara Jataka in o n e d a y a n d o n e n ig h t ; t h e y s h o u ld a ls o b r in g

o ffe r in g s o f o n e t h o u s a n d [th e t o t a l n u m b e r o f P a li s ta n z a s in th e V e s s a n t a r a

te x t ] e a c h t o t h e t e m p l e . ” 44

H o w w o u l d lis t e n in g t o t h e Vessantara Jataka h e lp in e a r n in g t h e

c h a n c e t o m e e t M a it r e y a ? F o r S o u t h e a s t A s ia n T h e r a v a d a B u d d h is t la y f o lk ,

t o p r o g r e s s r e q u ir e s a c c u m u la t in g m e r i t .45 T h e p r im a r y m e a n s o f a c c u m u ­

la t in g m e r it a r e g iv in g a n d m o r a lit y , a n d , f o r a v a r ie t y o f r e a s o n s , “ g iv i n g is

p s y c h o lo g ic a lly m o r e s a t is fy in g t h a n m o r a l i t y . ” 46 T h e s t o r y o f V e s s a n t a r a is

t h e s t o r y o f t h e P e r fe c t io n o f G i v i n g . A f t e r lis t e n in g t o it, w e k n o w w h a t

w e m u s t d o : e m u la t e V e s s a n t a r a a n d g i v e . 47 ( V e s s a n t a r a ’s r e w a r d , o f c o u r s e ,

w a s a c h ie v in g B u d d h a h o o d a n d nirvana in h is v e r y n e x t life ; w e a r e s o v a s t ly

le s s p e r f e c t t h a n h e — n o t b e in g r e a d y y e t t o g iv e a w a y o u r lo v e d o n e s , f o r

in s t a n c e — th a t w e d o n o t e x p e c t those r e w a r d s s o o n .)

W e m a y a ls o b e e m u la t in g M a it r e y a . H e a n d V e s s a n t a r a a r e p a r a lle l in

s o m e w a y s , a ft e r a ll. B o t h o c c u p y a n e x t - t o - la s t p o s it io n . A ls o , M a it r e y a

h a s e x e r c is e d t h e P e r f e c t io n o f G i v i n g . I n t h e P h r a M a la i t e x t m e n t io n e d

e a r lie r , b o t h t h e g o d I n d r a a n d M a it r e y a h i m s e lf t e ll o f M a it r e y a ’s c h a r i­

t ie s , I n d r a m e n t i o n i n g in p a r t ic u la r M a it r e y a ’s a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f t h e

F i v e G r e a t D o n a t io n s , w h i c h in c lu d e g iv i n g a w a y w e a lt h , c h ild r e n , a n d

w i f e . 48

T h e la y w o m e n o f B a n L a e m e x p r e s s e d t h e ir w is h t o m e e t M a it r e y a ,

a n d h a v e d o n e w h a t is r e q u ir e d . T h e y h a v e lis t e n e d (o r , a t t h e m o m e n t o f

t h e in s c r ip t io n s , a r e a b o u t to lis te n ) t o t h e Vessantara Jataka, a n d h a v e t r ie d

to a b s o r b its le s s o n s . T h e y h a v e a lr e a d y p r a c t ic e d g iv in g , b y d o n a t in g th e
p a in t in g s a n d s p o n s o r in g t h e ir p a r ts o f th e r e c it a t io n a n d a t t e n d a n t c e r e ­

m o n ie s a n d c e le b r a t io n s . T h e y h a v e a c q u ir e d s u b s ta n tia l m e r it .

W h y, though, do they w ant to m eet M aitreya? Because in his regim e

the w o rld w ill becom e a utopia: poverty, infirm ity, cruelty w ill disappear.49
Also, m eeting M aitreya helps tow ard the even lon ger-term goal o f attain­
ing nirvana, the goal cited by layw om en Prang and Phuk. M aitreya w ill
achieve Enlightenm ent and becom e a Buddha, and then w ill preach. For
them to hear the D octrine preached not by a m onk, no m atter h o w holy,
but by a being w hose w isdom and p o w e r are incalculably greater— and to
have the chance to practice the D octrin e under his tutelage— w ill surely
hasten their progress tow ard nirvana.50
B u t do w e really believe that nirvana was the goal o f the layw om en o f
B an Laem ? It is none too clear w h at nirvana is: som e say extin ctio n .
A ttaining it is at best very far off. Is it so desirable?
“ T h e pursuit o f self-persistence in pleasant future rebirths is a central
m o tif in Burm ese thought and m otivation ,” M elford Spiro writes. “ T h e
Burm ese, o f course, are not the only Theravada Buddhists for w h o m a plea­
surable rebirth is preferable to nirvana. A ll our evidence indicates that this
p referen ce obtains th ro u gh o u t the Theravada w o r ld .” 51 C e rta in ly in
Thailand it seems clear that the usual goal o f m erit accum ulation through
givin g is not so m uch nirvana as “ a happy and virturous state o f m ind” in
this life, and felicity and com fort in the fu tu re.52
W hat then o f the fact that tw o o f the layw om en state in the donative
inscription their aim o f reaching nirvana? Spiro continues, “ E ve ry Burm an,
then, has learned to use the rh eto rical m od e o f nibban ic [nirvanic]
B uddhism , and m any Burm ese have sufficiently internalized its goal [the
attainm ent o f nirvana] to feel guilty about the non-nibbanic m otivation for
their Buddhist practice. N onetheless, their nibbanic aspirations are expres­
sions m ore o f traditional rhetoric than o f a personal w ish .” 53 O n the other
hand, no m atter h o w conventional the rhetoric, the pious w o m e n ’s hope
for nirvana m ay have been heartfelt.
So, as they m ade their w ay through the maze tow ard the tem ple hall,
did the layw om en o f B an Laem think o f them selves as Vessantara going
into exile but con tinuing his Perfection o f G iv in g and aim ing always for
nirvana? O r as Ju jak a , w ith troubles at hom e, in need o f cash, seeking
Vessantara to ask for a gift, w h ich he then turned into the pleasures and lu x ­
uries that surround him in painting C ?
I f they had had the inclination to say m ore about their wishes and
m otives, and had had the services o f a court poet, I suspect the layw om en
o f Ban Laem w o u ld have left a message as m ixed as this one from the queen
m other o f Sukhothai in 139 9 : “ B y the p o w e r o f m y m erit [from dona­
tions], m ay I be reborn as a m ale in the future, m ay I listen to the excellent
D h a m m a o f t h e B u d d h a . . . . M a y n o o t h e r b e m y e q u a l in a n y e x is t e n c e ,

in a lm s g iv in g f o r in s t a n c e , o r in b e a u t y , r e n o w n , lo n g e v it y o r r ic h e s ! M a y

n o o n e d e p r iv e m e o f t h e s e t h in g s w h i c h I w is h t o g iv e a w a y , a n d m a y m y

p o s s e s s io n s b e u s e fu l t o t h e p o o r . H a v i n g p lu n g e d in t o t h e c o o l o c e a n o f

a lm s g iv in g , w h i c h is d e e p a n d lim it le s s , m a y I a t ta in p e r f e c t E n lig h t e n m e n t

lik e t h e lo r d o f a s c e t i c s ! ” 54

N o te s
1.G. E. Gerini, The Thet Maha Chat Ceremony (1892; reprint, Bangkok:
Sathirakoses-Nagapradipa Foundation, 1976), p. 18. As will be seen, a good
deal o f what follows comes from or was suggested by Gerini’s book. For
background on the last ten jatakas in Thailand, see Elizabeth Wray, Clare
Rosenfield, and Dorothy Bailey, Ten Lives o f the Buddha: Siamese Temple
Paintings and Jataka Tales (New York and Tokyo: Weatherhill, 1972).
2. For a translation o f the ancient Pali version o f the Vessantara Jataka, see
E. B. Cowell and W. H. D. Rouse, The Jataka, or Stories o f the Buddha’s
Former Births (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1907), vol. 6,
pp. 246—305. A chapter-by-chapter summary o f one Thai version can be
found in Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, pp. 2 8 -3 1.
3. Different Theravada traditions record 500, 547, or 550 jatakas; see
Reynolds’ article in this volume. Also Betty Gosling, “ Once More,
Inscription II: An Art Historian’s View "Journ al o f the Siam Society 69
(198 1), p. 18.
4. Cowell and Rouse, The Jataka, vol. 6, pp. 246—247; Edward J. Thomas,
The Life o f Buddha as Legend and History (London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1949), p. 99.
5. Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, pp. 34-36.
6. Chronicles o f Ayutthaya, Luang Prasoet version, s.a. 844.
7. Prince Damrong’s introduction to the first printing o f the Malta Chat
Kham Luang (1917), reprinted in Maha Chat Kham Luang (Bangkok:
Khlang Witthaya, 1973), p. 4.
8. Chronicles o f Ayutthaya, Royal Autograph version, s.a. 989.
9. Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, p. 25.
10. A chart o f the names o f the chapters, their meaning, and the number o f
verses in each is provided by Gerini (ibid., p. 27).
1 1 . I am indebted to Sirikanya Schaeffer o f the Library o f Congress and
Thomas Hudak o f Arizona State University for help with the translations.
12. A. B. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara, “ Epigraphic and Historical Studies
No. 22: An Inscription from Vat Hin Tan, Sukhodaya/’ ycnmirt/ o f the Siam
Society 67, no. 1 (January 1979); pp. 68—73. F ° r a nineteenth-century
occurrence, see Michael Wright, “ Towards a History o f Siamese Gilt-
Lacquer Painting,” Journal of the Siam Society 67, 110. 1 (January7 1979);
p. 29, and Tu lai thqng/Thai Lacquer and Gilt Bookcases, pt. 2, vol. 3
(Bangkok: National Library, 1988), p. 322.
13- George Bradley McFarland, Thai-English Dictionary (Palo Alto: Stanford
University Press, 1944), p. 1 1 5 , s.v. kuson.
14. For instance, Hans Penth, Kham fhanfk thi than phra phuttharup nai nakhgn
Chiang M ai (Bangkok: Office o f the Prime Minister, 1976), nos. 20
(15 35-1536 C .E .), 50 (18 41 C .E .), 1 1 4 (1877 C .E .), 142 (1891 C .E .), and
166 (1900 C .E .); Prachum sila tharyk, phak thl 4 (Bangkok: Office o f the
Prime Minister, 1970), pp. 65—67; A. B. Griswold, “ Five Chieng Sen
Bronzes o f the Eighteenth Century,” Arts Asiatiques 7, pp. 104, 106;
Tu lai thgng, pp. 322 and 363.
15. For a helpful brief account o f which Vessantara Jataka episodes are
frequently depicted in Thai painting and how, see Elizabeth Lyons, Tlie
Thotsachat in Thai Painting (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1969),
pp. 20—26.
16. Piriya Krairiksh, “ Semas with Scenes from the Mahanipata-jatakas in the
National Museum at Khon Kaen,” Sinlapa lae borannakhadi nai prathet
Thai/Art and Archeology in Thailand (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department,
1974), pp. 56 n. 70 and 57 n. 72.
17. Ibid., p. 57.
18. For more on Bcjrommatrailokkanat’s jataka set and those at Wat SI Chum
and Wat Ratchaburana, see my “Jatakas, Universal Monarchs, and the
Year 2000” (Artibus Asiae 53, nos. 3/4 [1993]), pp. 312 -3 4 8 passim and
nn. 22, 24, and 25.
19. P. E. Pieris, “ An Account o f King Kirti Sri’s Embassy to Siam in 1672
Saka (1750 A .0 .)," Journal o f the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch 18/54
(1903), p. 27; Forrest McGill, “ The Art and Architecture o f the Reign o f
King Prasatthqng o f Ayutthaya (1629—1656),” Ph.D. diss., University o f
Michigan, 1977, pp. 12 7 -12 8 , 145.
20. Vessantara Jataka scenes from this manuscript are illustrated in Jean
Boisselier, Thai Painting (Tokyo: Kodansha, 1976), fig. 125; and
Chomphunut Phongprayun, comp., dhittrakam faphatiang nai prathet Thai
(Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1969), figs. 16 and 17.
2 1. Klaus Wenk, Thaildndische Miniatunnalereien (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner,
1965), p i. 19.
22. For an overview o f the history o f Bangkok-period painting and the
interest in Chinese and Western pictorial traditions, see Boisselier, Thai
Painting, pp. 94—124. Note, however, that a typo on p. 105 has moved
John Crawford’s diplomatic mission from 1822 to 1882.
23. For many delectable examples o f Thai artists’ representations o f
Westerners, see N o Na Pak Nam, Farang nai sinlapa Thai (Bangkok:
Muang Boran, 1986).
24. Michael Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Une Vie du Buddha dan les peintures de la sala de
Wat Ruak Bangbamru a Thonburi (Tha'ilande) (Paris: Centre d’Etudes des
Monuments du Monde Indien, 1984), p. 38.
25. A portion o f another Westem-style gateway with a similar inscription can
be seen in a detail o f a mural at Wat Suthat, Bangkok (C?hittrakam
 fiphanang krung Rattanakdsin /Rattanankosin Painting [Bangkok: Fine Arts
Department], fig. 37). This mural is said to date from the second quarter
o f the nineteenth century.
26. Encyclopedia Britannica 1962, s.v. “ uniforms.” The development o f British
military uniforms in the nineteenth century is very complex, as a look at
such works as Philip J. Haythomthwaite’s World Uniforms and Battles,
1815—1850 (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1977) or Robert Wilkinson-
Latham’s Uniforms and Weapons o f the Crimean War (New York: Hippocrene
Books, 1977) shows. Uniforms differed according to rank, time o f year,
degree o f formality, service, regiment, and so on. I doubt that the depictions
o f uniforms in these paintings are detailed enough to allow very precise
conclusions. Also, a mid-nineteenth-century mural o f the Vessantara Jataka at
Wat Pradu Song Tham, Ayutthaya, shows Western soldiers guarding a gate,
but they wear what appear to be late eighteenth-century uniforms and carry
lances with ax heads. They remind us to consider carefully what the Thai
artists had seen in real life, what they had seen in books, and what they
invented (No Na Pak Nam and Sangaroon Kanokpongchai, Wat Pradu Song
Tham [Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1985], p. 67).
27. David Wyatt, Thailand: A Short History (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1984), p. 183.
28. Preecha Kanchanakom et al., dhittrakam fiphanang Thonbun/Dhonburi
Mural Painting (Bangkok: Society for the Conservation o f National Art
Treasures and Environment, Electrical Generating Authority o f Thailand,
1980), pp. 3 1- 6 1 .
29. Boisselier, Thai Painting, pp. n 4 - 1 1 5 .
30. One Thai Vessantara Jataka painting with a blank cartouche is known. This
painting, in the Bekker Collection in Washington, D .C ., resembles the
Phoenix paintings in format, although its style is provincial or naive, and
when and where it was made is unclear. The painting depicts Vessantara
giving away the chariot horses. There are two cartouches in the border,
one above the painting and one below. The upper cartouche is inscribed
“ Danakanda chapter in 209 stanzas” as we would expect. The lower
cartouche is blank— presumably awaiting a donative inscription. The
larger question, o f course, is whether donors paid an artist to paint a set o f
Vessantara Jataka scenes (and so might have influenced exactly what was
painted, or how), or bought ready-made paintings.
The Bekker Collection includes a number o f very interesting Vessantara
Jataka paintings. I thank Dr. Sarah Bekker for her kindness in allowing me
to study and photograph them, and for discussing them with me.
While the Ban Laem near Phetburi is the only town o f that name
large enough to be found on most maps, two other towns with the same
name are listed in the 1966 N I S Gazetteer: Thailand (Prepared in the
Office o f Geography, Department o f the Interior; Coordinated by the
Central Intelligence Agency). One o f these is said to be in Trang province
in the far south. It is not easy to imagine the Phoenix paintings having
 been produced there, but it is not impossible that the laywomen lived
there and bought paintings produced elsewhere. The other Ban Laem is in
Chainat province in central Thailand, and it might be a more likely alter­
native to the Ban Laem near Phetburi. In addition, the gazetteer lists a
number o f other towns called Ban Laem plus another word or two, for
instance Ban Laem Hin. M y thanks to Ketanda Jaturongkachoke for sug­
gesting the probability o f there being several towns named Ban Laem.
31. Griswold and Prasert, “ Inscription from Vat Hin Tan,” p. 72. Note that
the date o f the inscription is not absolutely certain. I have taken the liberty
o f changing Griswold and Prasert’s transliteration “ Mahajati” to
“ Mahachat.”
32. Phya Anuman Rajadhon, Thet Malta Chat (in English) (Bangkok: Fine
Arts Department, 1969). See also Gerini, Thet Malta Chat Ceremony, p. 25.
The 1976 edition o f Gerini includes modem photos o f a ceremony in
progress.
33. Boisselier, Thai Painting, p. 36; Elizabeth Lyons, The Thotsachat in Thai
Painting (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1969), p. 20. For descriptions
o f ceremonies for the recitation o f the Vessantara Jataka in northern and
northeastern Thailand, and the use o f painted cloth banners with
Vessantara scenes in the northeast, see Bonnie Brereton, “ Some
Comments on a Northern Thai Phra Malai Text Dated c.s. 878 (a .I).
15 16 ) ” forthcoming in the Journal o f the Siam Society. I sincerely thank
Ms. Brereton for sending me a copy o f her very valuable paper. S. J.
Tambiah also describes a ceremony o f reciting the Vessantara Jataka in
northeastern Thailand in “ The Ideology o f Merit and the Social
Correlates o f Buddhism in a Thai Village,” in Dialectic in Practical
Religion, ed. E. R . Leach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1968), pp. 77- 83 -
34. The eight are in William Warren and Brian Blake, 77te House on the
Khlong: The Bangkok House and Asian Art Collection o f James Thompson
(New Y ork and Tokyo: Walker/Weatherhill, 1968), figs. 5 1—58. T w o o f
these same paintings are in Boisselier, Thai Painting, figs. 28 and 153. For
the single paintings, see appendix items q and r below; also Henry
Ginsburg, Thai Manuscript Painting (Honolulu: University o f Hawai‘i Press,
1989), fig. 26; and Lyons, Thotsachat, p. 22.
35. Boisselier, Thai Painting, fig. 12. The brief inscription is too damaged to
read clearly, but appears to say “ Chakhattiya 36,” that is, the name o f the
chapter and the number o f its stanzas. In fact this painting depicts the same
reunion scene from the Chakhattiya chapter as the Phoenix painting D.
Their compositions are quite different, however. Note that in the painting
in Boisselier’s book, all the women are on the left and all the men 011 the
right. Between them, and overlapped by the similar-but-opposite-facing
figures o f Vessantara and his wife Maddi, grow two trees, light and dark,
with their trunks entwined. What is more, not just Vessantara and Maddi,
but all the male and female characters are almost mirror images o f each
 other. Thus the painting would seem to be about the great similarities and
subtle differences between men’s and women’s worlds, and about the
series o f male-female reunions at the end o f the Vessantara story. W e are
shown female relatives greeting female relatives, and male greeting male,
but the entwined trees indicate what will happen next. Not only will
father-in-law and daughter-in-law and son and mother be reunited, but so
in a sense will husband and wife. Though living together, they had chosen
to sleep apart for the duration o f their now-ended exile. Visual symbolism
o f this complexity has very seldom been observed in Thai painting.
36. Gerini, Thet Malta Chat Ceremony, p. 25.
37. Ibid. Gerini includes part o f King Mongkut’s proclamation in an
appendix.
38. On the fascinating history o f Buddhist picture recitation, see Victor H.
Mair, Painting and Performance: Chinese Picture Recitation and Its Indian
Genesis (Honolulu: University o f Hawai'i Press, 1988). Note too that Phya
Anuman, Thet Maha Chat, p. 15, mentions theatrical enactments o f the
Vessantara story. See also Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, pp. 36, 53.
Such enactments were common in Burma. See Shway Yoe, The Burtnan:
His Life and Notions (1882; reprint, N ew York: W. W. Norton, 1963),
p. 294.
39. Phya Anuman notes that such a boiled pig’s head and earthen bowl o f
special rice are sometimes offered to “ the guardian spirit o f the place”
(Thet Maha Chat, p. 18).
40. E. Sarkisyanz, Buddhist Backgrounds o f the Bimnese Revolution (The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1965), p. 48; S. J. Tambiah, Buddhism and the Spirit
Cults in North-east Thailand (London: Cambridge University Press, 1970),
pp. 46-47-
41. A. B. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara, “ The Epigraphy o f
Mahadharmaraja I o f Sukhodaya,” Journal o f the Siam Society 6 1, no. 1
(1973), pp. 10 2 -10 3 .
42. Charles F. Keyes, “ Millennialism, Theravada Buddhism, and Thai
Society,” Journal o f Asian Studies 36, no. 2 (February 1977), pp. 289 and
290 n. 29.
43. The Anagatavamsa, quoted in Henry Clark Warren, Buddhism in
Translations (1896; reprint, N ew York: Atheneum, 1963), p. 486. On the
Anagatavamsa, see Padmanabh S. Jaini, “ Stages in the Bodhisattva Career
o f the Tathagata Maitreya,” in Maitreya, The Future Buddha, ed. Alan
Sponberg and Helen Hardacre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1988), pp. 54, 59.
44. Brereton, “ Phra Malai T ext.” As Brereton notes, “ though the variant
forms o f the Phra Malai Sutta have different emphases, the essential
teachings . . . are the same” ; on versions o f the text, see ibid., n. 5. See
also Gerini, 77let Maha Chat Ceremony, p. 2 1; Eugene Denis, “ L ’Origine
cingalaise du P ’rah Malay” in Felicitation Volumes o f Southeast-Asian Studies
Presented to His Highness Prince Dhaninivat Kromatnuti Bidyalabh Bridltyakorn
 (Bangkok: Siam Society, 1965), vol. 2; pp. 329-338; and John P.
Ferguson and Christina B. Johannsen, “ Modern Buddhist Murals in
Northern Thailand: A Study o f Religious Symbols and Meaning,”
American Ethnologist 3, no. 4 (November 1976); pp. 652, 658—659.
45. On the role o f Maitreya in encouraging merit-making, see Joseph M.
Kitagawa, “ The Many Faces o f Maitreya: A Historian o f Religions’
Reflections,” in Maitreya, ed. Sponberg and Hardacre, p. 15.
46. Melford E. Spiro, Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese
Vicissitudes (New York: Harper and R o w , 1970), pp 93, 104. Spiro’s
chapter 4, “ Kammatic Buddhism: II, The Central Concept o f M erit,” is
highly recommended. See also Tambiah, “ Ideology o f M erit,” pp. 42, 51,
70.
47. T w o Thai kings, Mahachakkraphat (1539—1569) and Prasat Thpng
(16 29 -16 56), imitated a specific charitable act o f Vessantara’s, the “ great
sevenhundredfold donation” (Cowell and Rouse, Jataka, pp. 256, 261;
Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, p. 3 3n. 8; M cGill, “ Prasatthpng,”
pp. 55, 62).
Note that whereas Vessantara theoretically exemplifies selfless giving,
in fact he gives in order to get. Asking his son to cooperate in being given
away, he says “ my beloved son, my perfect state fulfil/ . . . and follow out
my will. Be thou my ship to ferry me safe o’er existence’ sea/Beyond the
worlds o f birth and gods I’ll cross and I’ll be free.” Then, as he completes
the gift he declares “ Dearer than my son a hundredfold, a thousandfold, a
hundred thousandfold is omniscience!” Vessantara seeks a reward worth
much more than he pays for it (Cowell and Rouse, The Jataka, vol. 6;
pp. 282—283; see also Tambiah, “ Ideology o f M erit,” p. 117 ).
48. Brereton, “ Phra Malai T ext” ; Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, p. 33 nn.
8, 12. On what is known, in Theravada sources, about Maitreya’s earlier
career, see Jaini, “ Bodhisattva Career,” Vessantara’s major donations are
solemnized by his pouring water from a flask onto the hands o f the
recipients. Such water pouring was understood as the confirmation o f a gift
in ancient India and in traditional Thailand (Cowell and Rouse, The Jataka,
vol. 6; pp. 283, 293; Gerini, Thet Maha Chat Ceremony, p. 33m 12). Scenes
o f Vessanatara pouring water are so common in Bangkok-period painting
that the flask (represented with or without a spout) almost becomes an
attribute o f Vessantara. A flask (again with or without a spout) is a
common attribute held by Maitreya in painting and sculpture in Southeast
Asia and elsewhere, and one wonders if it marked him, like Vessantara, as a
paragon o f giving. The handful o f Bangkok-period representations o f
Maitreya I know o f do not, however, show him holding a flask.
49. Cakkavatti-Sihanada Suttana in Dialogues of the Buddha, trans. T . W. and
C . A. F. Rhys-Davids (London: Humphrey Milford, 19 2 1), pp. 72-74;
Maitreya-vyakarana in Buddhist Scriptures, trans. Edward Conze (Baltimore:
Penguin, 1959), 238-242; Sarkisyanz, Buddhist Backgrounds, p. 48. On the
Maitreya-vyakarana, see Jaini, “ Bodhisattva Career,” pp. 54-55.
50. Kitagawa notes “ a cluster o f existential questions and problems for those
who sensed the misfortune o f living during the time between two
Buddhas. . . . [T]he anticipation o f the coming o f the future Buddha
Maitreya gave them grounds for optimism and hope” (in “ Many Faces o f
Maitreya,” pp. 15 —16. For another way that the arrival o f Maitreya may
lead to nirvana, see Spiro, Buddhism and Society, p. 169. A note on the
Maitreya cult as “ an extremely important aspect o f lay devotional
Buddhism” in Tibet and the Tibetans’ hope o f meriting rebirth in
Maitreya’s regime is found in Susan L. Huntington and John C.
Huntington, Leaves from the Bodhi Tree: The Art ofPala India (8th—12th
Centuries) and Its International Legacy (Seattle and London: Dayton Art
Institute in association with the University o f Washington Press, 1990),
PP- 390- 391-
51. Spiro, Buddhism and Society, pp. 73, 77.
52. Tambiah, “ Ideology o f Merit,” p. 49.
53. Spiro, Buddhism and Society, p. 78.
54. A. B. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara, “ The Asokarama Inscription o f
1399 A.D ."Jo u rn a l o f the Siam Society 57, no. 1 (January 1969), pp. 55-56.

A p p e n d ix : S o m e S e v e n te e n th - to N in eteen th -
C e n tu R<y R e p re se n ta tio n s o f S c e n e s
fRom th e V e s s a n ta ra Ja ta k a
a. Illustrated Trai Phum manuscript (possibly seventeenth century).
Boisselier, Thai Painting, fig. 125; Chomphunut, (5 hittrakam faphanang nai
prathet Thai, figs. 16 and 17.
b. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Prasat, Nonthaburi (possibly
seventeenth century). C?hittrakam faphanang sakun chang Nonthaburi/Murals
o f Nondburi School (Bangkok: Faculty o f Painting and Sculpture, Silpakorn
University, 1963), fig. 20; N o Na Pak Nam, Mural Paintings o f the Middle
and Late Ayudhya Periods: Nonthaburi School at Wat Chomphuweg and Wat
Prasat (Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1987). It is not clear which illustrations in
the latter book, if any, show the Vessantara Jataka.
c. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Chcjng N on Si, near Bangkok
(possibly late seventeenth century). Wat Chong Nonsi (Bangkok: Muang
Boran, 1982), pp. 78—80. Boisselier accepts the late seventeenth-century
date in Thai Painting, p. 237—238m 24.
d. Stucco relief o f scenes from the last ten jatakas flanking a standing Buddha
at Wat Lai near Lopburi (seventeenth—eighteenth centuries). Wray,
Rosenfield, and Bailey, Ten Lives, fig. 5 (the Vessantara Jataka is second
from the left in the middle band: Vessantara can be seen pouring water
over Jujaka’s hands to confirm the gift o f the children). On the date o f the
Wat Lai stuccoes, see McGill, “ Prasatthqng,” pp. 2 2 8 -2 3 1.
e. Murals in the “ Residence o f Somdet Phra Phutthakhosachan,” Wat
Phutthaisawan, Ayutthaya (possibly late seventeenth or early eighteenth
 century). Santi Leksukhum and Kamol Chayawatana, dhittrakam fiphanang
samai Ayutthaya/Mural Paintings o f the Ayudhya Period (Bangkok:
Thammasat University, 1981), fig. 93.
f. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Mai Thapphanimit, Thonburi (possibly
mid-eighteenth century). N o Na Pak Nam and Sangaroon Kanokpongchai,
Wat Maithepnimit (Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1983), pp. 22—34.
g. Illustrated manuscripts in European and American public collections.
Listed in appendix o f Henry Ginsberg, Thai Manuscript Painting (Honolulu:
University o f Hawai‘i Press, 1989). One Vessantara Jataka scene from a
manuscript probably dating to the mid-eighteenth century is reproduced
as pi. 23.
h. Illustrated Trai Phum manuscript with a date equivalent to 1776. Wenk,
Miniaturmalereien, pi. 19.
i. Gilt lacquer bookcase (K.Th.285), with a date equivalent to 17 9 1. Tu Lai
Thqng, pt. 2. no. 3: 3 7 1- 3 .
j. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Ratchasitharam, Thonburi (first half
o f the nineteenth century). M. L. Surasawasdi Sooksawasdi, Wat
Ratchasittharam (Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1982), pp. 22, 49—62; Boisselier,
Thai Painting, fig. 124; Wray, Rosenfield, and Bailey, Ten Lives, pis.
2 7-32 .
k. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Suwannaram, Thonburi (second
quarter o f the nineteenth century). Wat Suwannaram (Bangkok; Muang
Boran, 1982), pp. 16, 62—81; Boisselier, Thai Painting, figs. 73, 126.
1. Paintings at Wat Yan Ang Thpng (Wat Chulalok) near Ayutthaya
(probably second quarter o f the nineteenth century). Mahachat Kham Luang
(Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya, 1973), p. 6 and at beginnings o f chapters.
What material these are painted on is not clear.
m. Murals in the assembly hall o f Wat Pradu Song Tham, Ayutthaya (dates
uncertain; varying styles and degrees o f restoration; Vessantara Jataka scenes
mainly mid-nineteenth century). N o Na Pak Nam and Sangaroon
Kanokpongchai, Wat Pradu Song Tham (Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1985),
pp. 67-70, 73.
n. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Yai Intharam, Chonburi (mostly
nineteenth century). Silpchai Chinprasert, Wat Yai Intharam (Bangkok:
Muang Boran, 1982), pp. 63—68.
o. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Matchimawat, Songkhla (mid­
nineteenth century), dhittrakam krutig Rattanakdsin / Rattanakosin Painting
(Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1982), figs. 79—81.
p. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Nai R ong, Thonburi (mid­
nineteenth century). Preecha Kanchanakom et al., dhittrakamfiphanang
'Thonburi/Dhonburi Mural Painting (Bangkok: Society for the Conservation
o f National Art Treasures and Environment, Electricity Generating
Authority o f Thailand, 1980), pp. 28-30.
q. Paintings on cloth in the collections o f the National Museums Division,
Fine Arts Department (eighteenth—nineteenth century). Listed in Phra bat
 lac samut phap Thai (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1984), pp. 78-80
and second plate.
r. Paintings on cloth in the J. H. W. Thompson collection, Bangkok (late
eighteenth—nineteenth century). William Warren and Brian Blake, 77ie
House on the Khlong: The Bangkok Home and Ancient Art Collection o f James
Thompson (New York and Tokyo: Walker/Weatherhill, 1968), figs.
46—48, 5 1—58. Several o f these paintings are also reproduced in Boisselier,
Thai Painting, figs. 12, 28, 118 and 123.
s. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Thpng Nopphakun, Bangkok area
(third quarter o f the nineteenth century). hittrakam kmng
Rattanakosin/Rattanakosin Painting (Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1982),
fig. 68.
t. Murals in the ordination hall o f Wat Phawannaphirattaram, Thonburi
(1886). Preecha, Dhonburi Mural Painting, pp. 59—61.
 O^rom CProse /o CPoelry:
CJfie lo ite ra ry T^euefopm eni
o f Sam uttafote
Thomas John Hudak

W h ile the Indie stories o f the B u d d h a’ s form er lives (jataka) are som e o f
the m ost im portant literary form s to have com e ou t o f India, the Panyatsa-
jataka, a group o f tales that do not appear in the original Pali canon, are an
even m ore influential set o f B uddh ist birth-tales in Southeast Asia. Literary
tradition holds that these fifty tales w ere com posed in Pali in C h ien gm ai
by m onks som etim e b etw een 14 5 7 and 16 5 7 , although a m ore recent
study places th eir co m p o sitio n as early as 12 6 5 in H a rip h u n c h a y .1
R e g a rd less o f th eir date o f co m p o sitio n , these tales h ave been m ajo r
sources o f inspiration in B u rm a, C am bod ia, Laos, and T hailand, w h ere
they frequently appear as folktales or as subjects o f serm ons in the vern ac­
ular language. In addition, these stories have been m ajor sources for the
classical literature in the area, particularly in Thailand. O n e source, for
exam ple, lists sixty-th ree versions o f tw en ty-o n e o f these fifty tales in T h ai
classical p o e try .2 As poetic versions, the tales have frequently been altered
w ith a variety o f different transform ations that in volve additions, deletions,
and perm utations.
T h is essay exam ines those changes that have occurred in the T h ai ve r­
sion o f the tale Samuttakote (Pali: Samuddaghosajataka). T h e poetic version
o f the tale, k n ow n as Samuttakote kham chan, was originally begun by the
im portant courtier M aharatchakhru under K in g N arai (16 5 6 —1688). W h en
the p oem was left unfinished, probably because o f M aharatchakhru’s death,
N arai h im self continued the com position. A gain the p oem was left in co m ­
plete, and it w as not until the nin eteen th cen tu ry that the S u prem e
Patriarch, Prince Param anuchit ( 17 9 0 - 18 5 3 ) , a fam ed Indie classicist and
poet, continued the story and com pleted it.

S t R u c tc iR e : S a m u tta k o te as a Ja t a k a TaLe
T h e traditional Indie jataka tales consist o f seven parts that form a distinc­
tive structural fram e: (1) a nu m ber that corresponds to the nu m ber o f
verses found in the story; (2) a title; (3) a quotation, im m ediately after the
title, that p robably serves as a means o f identification; (4) an introduction
that puts the story in the con text o f the B u d d h a ’s life— w h ere he was and
the circum stances that p roduced the story; (5) the jataka proper, w h ich
tells o f an incident in the B u d d h a ’s p revious life; (6) Pali verses that repre­
sent the canonical jataka; and (7) an identification section that lists the
characters and their identities in the con text o f the B u d d h a ’s life .3 T h e
Panyatsa-jataka tales, in general, follow the same form at, although the nu m ­
ber refers to the order o f the tale in a particular collection. In the poetic
version o f Samuttakote, h o w e ve r, this structural frame has b een signifi­
cantly m odified. W h ile the title rem ains, the num ber, the quotation, the
in tro d u ctio n , and the Pali verses h ave all b een elim in ated . T h e p o et
M aharatchakhru m ade these first significant deletions. In place o f those
deleted item s, he substituted a fram e that described a variety o f entertain­
m ents held in h on o r o f K in g N arai, entertainm ents w h ich m ost critics
in terp ret as an actual sh ad o w p u p p et p erfo rm a n ce alth ou gh th e y are
described v iv id ly en ou g h to be actual sev en te en th -ce n tu ry en tertain ­
ments. T h ese entertainm ents include w restlin g matches, sw ord fights, boat
races, anim al fights, and a shadow puppet sh ow for w h ich Samuttakote was
supposedly w ritten. W h eth er o r not the final identification section that
follow s the jataka w o u ld also have been deleted rem ains open to c o n je c­
ture. H o w e v e r, in com pletin g the p oem , Prince Param anuchit did add an
identification section, w h ich reinforced the fact that the story was indeed
a jataka tale.

C o n te n t: S a m u tta k o te a s a TaLe
In brief, the jataka version o f the tale has the fo llo w in g plot. A fter Prince
Sam uttako te had m arried Princess P h in th u m ad i, he ob tain ed a m agic
sw ord from a heavenly deity k n ow n as a pitthayathorn. T h en he and his
bride flew across the Himalayas. A t Lake Chaddanta, the prince revealed his
previous existence as the elephant kin g Chaddanta. L ik ew ise, his bride
rem em bered w h en she was born as an elephant nam ed Subhadda and w h en
she m arried him in that life. From Lake Chaddanta, the royal couple con ­
tinued their jo u rn e y to Suvannabhum i. A fter a tim e, they descended on an
island w h ere they fell asleep. A t that point, a w ick ed pitthayathorn stole the
m agic sw ord and stranded them. U p o n aw aken ing and realizing their situ­
ation, the royal couple attem pted to sw im across the ocean w ith a plank but
w ere separated w h en the plank broke.
W h en the princess safely reached another island, she sold her ring to
obtain m on ey to build a palace. W ithin that palace, she directed an artisan
to create a mural depicting her life w ith Sam uttakote. A t the same tim e, the
spirit M anim ekh ala, the guardian o f the seas, was sent b y Indra to save
the prince and to transport him to the island. W h en the prince arrived at
the palace, he recognized the story painted by his princess and the tw o w ere
reunited.
In the poetic version, three m ajor additions to the plot significantly
expand the story. First, the prince embarks upon an elephant hunt that
allows the poet to describe in detail the elaborate classification o f elephants
that was probably adhered to during the A yutthaya period ( 1 3 5 1 - 1 7 6 7 ) .
Included in this section is a detailed description o f the hunt and capture
itself. T h e elephant hunt sets the stage for the second m ajor addition to the
plot, the lo v e affair, and eventual m arriage, betw een Sam uttakote and
Phinthum adi. In the jataka version, from the beginn ing the prince has one
w ife, Phinthum adi, w ith w h o m he shares all the adventures. A t the b egin­
ning o f the poetic version, h o w ever, Sam uttakote has a different w ife,
Surasuda, w h o wishes to accom pany him on the hunt but is left at the
palace. It is on the hunt that Sam uttakote is m agically taken to m eet
Phinthum adi in the m iddle o f the night and then m agically returned to his
camp. T h is m eeting provides the basis for the third m ajor addition. A fter
Sam uttakote’s return to the hunt, both the prince and princess begin an
exten d ed search to find on e anoth er. T h e y m eet at the contest for
Phinthum adi’s hand in marriage. T h ere the suitors must attempt to bend an
iron b o w , w ith the successful applicant w in n in g Phinthum adi in marriage.
W h en Sam uttakote successfully bends the b o w , he is then challenged to a
battle w ith the other suitors w h o m he quickly and com pletely vanquishes,
after w h ich the tw o are m arried. From this point, Surasuda disappears from
the story, and the first part o f the poem , com posed by M aharatchakhru,
ends. T h e second and third parts, com posed by N arai and Param anuchit
respectively, m ake no significant additions to the plot and continue to fol­
lo w the story as in the jataka. O th er changes are insignificant: m inor char­
acters are nam ed and names are m odified to reflect the constraints o f the
Thai language in poetic com position.
 P o e try : S a m u tta k o te as a Poem
T h e m ost obvious change from the prose to the poetic version is the ren­
dering o f the story into poetic stanzas. T h e poetic version is w ritten in kham
chan, a style o f poetry popular during the A yutthaya period and consisting
o f tw o types o f meters: kaap meters originally borrow ed from Cam bodian
and chan meters borrow ed from Pali and Sanskrit. D epend in g upon the
content o f the section o f the tale, a specific type o f verse was em ployed:
kaap chabang for narration; kaap yaanii for descriptions o f nature or beautiful
items; kaap surangkhanang for describing em otions such as excitem ent or
anger; intharawichian chan for elaborate descriptions o f nature or beautiful
items; todok chan for light entertainm ent and am using situations; wasantadilok
chan for describing the actions o f royal personages; tnalinii chan for describ­
in g the ancient arm y; satthunlawikkiilit chan fo r short stanzas describing
deities, praising royalty, or paying obeisance to the Buddha; and sattharaa
chan for use in the same m anner as satthunlawikkiilit chan. T h e addition o f lit­
erary d evices, w h ic h h ave com e to ch aracterize classical T h a i p oetry ,
accom panied the transformation o f the prose version into the poetic one.
Descriptive passages are the first o f these added devices.4 O ften thought to
be simply a means for a poet to demonstrate his poetic versatility, these long
detailed passages help to set a scene or elaborate a setting. T h e descriptions are
so detailed that they frequendy present an accurate representation o f art and
architecture or o f the physical surroundings o f an area at the time o f the
p oem ’s composition. Descriptive passages generally consist o f stanzas orga­
nized into topics and comments. A single four-lined stanza m ay consist o f a
topic in the first line follow ed by the com m ent in the rem aining three; or two
topics and tw o comments; or four comments. In some cases, the topic begins
in one stanza and the com m ent extends into the follow ing stanza. T h e con­
tent o f the passage usually has an overall spatial or chronological arrangement.
T h ree descriptive passages stand out in the poetic version: the descrip­
tion o f the cities o f R o m y a b u ri and Ph rom buri; the description o f the
ascetic’s dw elling; and the lengthy description o f the H im aw an heavens.
W h ile these are specific exam ples, the passages represent general types o f
descriptive passages that occu r throughout classical T h ai poetry. T h e fol­
lo w in g stanzas provide the beginning description o f the cities:

Toward the southern barrier

Lies a splendid city,
So people say,
Filled with strong, skilled soldiers.

There, a festival
O f great jo y and amusement
In splendid Romyabnri
Whose fam e spreads through the land.

Seven levels o f oceans,

Eternal shining circles,
With crystal spray splashing,
Scattering all around,

Like the seven rivers,

Places as pure as benign hearts.
Chrysanthemums mix
With golden lotus blossoms.

Seven levels o f unrivaled walls,

Lines o f jeweled mountains,
Precipices winding round,
Girding the space within.

Towering arched gates

Decorated in glowing gold,
Elegant doors beneath,
Studded with flawless gems.

Grounds o f jeweled coral,

Wondrous and pure:
G azing up it seems
The sun has split the city.5

T h e description o f the m o n k ’s kudi is even m ore elaborate:

They gazed at the kudi,

That wonderous hermitage
Studded with innumerable gems
A ll close to one another.

The extended portico was lower

A n d the upper room, a place fo r pleasantries.
The verandah was arranged
In the customary way.

Golden poles glittered with jewels

In circular arrays,
Like Brahma's golden palace,
Equal to Brahma’s world.

Various carved designs

Created a close-knitted cover.
Precious stones blinked brilliantly
Along with the pure gold.

Embellishments o f gems
Intertwined in vine-like designs
Equal to Visanakam’s work,
Skilled and detailed workmanship.

Carved kinnorns sparkled,

Their arms embracing kinnarees,
Their form as lovely as
The heavenly kinnarees.

Delicately polished purlins

Shone with decorations,
Glorious gems that shimmered
A s though they were stars.

The superior, lofty beams linked,

Precious jewels spread light,
A n d blazing gold shifted back and forth
On delicately carved mouldings.

The golden floor with pieces o f cat’s eye

Closely inlaid appeared smooth.
Crystal streams o f gems shimmered
With the royal lotuses.

Groups o f small sconces,

Naga shaped, lined the walls,
Golden walls that glinted
With glittering jewels.

Leonine designs
Covered the splendid windows,
Pearls and gems
Radiantly beautiful.

The forward pillars were carved as lotuses,

Lotus blooms inverted,
Lotuses blooming everywhere,
Flowers blooming everywhere.

Suriya’s rays shined through,

Beautiful shining rays
 That glimmered and gleamed in the air,
Tongues o f fire pleasing the eye.
Serrated eaves in cat’s eye
Caught the eye glinting.
Unobstructed views o f jewels,
Sheets o f cat’s eye and gold.
Jew eled beams and joists
With carefully constructed surfaces;
Beams and purlins in gold
Lay linked close together.
Like flowers ready to bud,
Budding flower designs,
Buds o f phuttan,
In numerous carved designs.
Jewels studded the inner walls;
R uby lotuses shimmered
A n d when Suriya shone,
Fiery flames flared up.
A spire lofty and soaring
With glittering rays,
A fitiial magically made
Sat in the heavens.
Ordered tips at the top
Next to one another
Like mirrors decorating
The celestial palace in the sky.
Ramparts and walls
Encircled the shining kudi
With pure golden projections
Built to catch the eye.

O th er descriptive passages are those that delineate the actions o f the

king or som e other royal personage: royal baths, dressing rituals, departures
and arrivals o f the king, to nam e a few . W h ile presenting an accurate p ic­
ture o f the royal routine, such passages also elaborate and embellish the
august nature o f the king and his position. T h e follow in g passage describes
the k in g ’s departure:

The king mounted his decorated chariot,

Elegant as Indra,
King o f the thirty-three divas.
 The stringed orchestra strummed,
The victory bell clanged.
The conch cried, the drums drummed.
The charioteer urged the horses,
The swift horses,
Speeding like magic steeds.
Sounds o f chariots and elephants:
Horses neighed whirling about;
Soldiers cheered out;
Sounds o f eight weapons, twisted together,
Sending out smoke
Blown in airborne circles;
Sounds o f heavenly blessings
Vibrating in the air;
Sounds o f cheers spreading;
Sounds o f Sindhu horses, swaying carts;
Sounds o f elephants trumpeting,
Echoing over the land.

O f all the actions associated w ith the king, his erotic adventures have
becom e the most famous. In T h ai, these passages have a separate catego­
rization, bot atsacan (m iraculous passages). In m any instances, the descrip­
tions are quite exp licit. In oth er cases, the acts o f lo v e are described
m etaphorically w ith images o f b loom in g flow ers or thunder and lightning,
as in the fo llo w in g exam ple:

H is regal face next to her fragrant face.

His royal stomach next to her curved stomach.
His breast next to her comely fruit.
On top, he squeezes the splendid flower.
His heart overflows with jo y,
Her hands grasp his
A n d lead, offering no resistance.

C onversations betw een royal characters are also distinctive w ith each
in terch an ge b e g in n in g w ith a stylized form o f address that alternates
throughout the conversation:

“ O my beloved, where will we go?

In which direction? Tm lost and confused.
 I see trees standing all around,
A forest surrounding and I don’t know the way. ”

“ O my husband, i f we go
Into the forest, I ’ m unsure.
Lofty mountains and hills surround
A n d obstruct. H o w ’ll we go on?”

“ O my beloved who’s tortured,

It’s necessary that we go;
This isn’t our place to remain;
It’s not fitting. ”

“ O my husband, we must walk

Along the hills and forests,
A n d in the forests undergo hardships
A n d troubles as we walk. ”

“ O my beloved, last night was hard,

Difficult to walk about;
O ur hearts must persevere;
D o n ’t be discouraged, disheartened, dismayed.”

C a t a lo g u e s r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r p o e t ic d e v ic e th a t s ig n ific a n t ly e x p a n d s a

p o e m . In c o n t e n t , t h e s e s ta n z a s c o n t a in lis ts o f b ir d s , fis h , f lo w e r s , a n d tr e e s

th a t o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s is a d m ir in g a n d w h i c h s u g g e s t p a r t ic u la r e m o t io n s

a n d fe e lin g s . T h u s , a s P r in c e S a m u t t a k o t e a d m ir e s t h e b ir d s a n d t h e ir m a t e s ,

h e is r e m in d e d o f h is w if e a n d t h e jo y s o f m a r r ia g e . It is in t h e s e c a t a lo g u e s

th a t t h e p o e t ’s v e r s a t ilit y in p la y in g w it h s o u n d is d is p la y e d . In Samuttakote
kham chan, t h e c a t a lo g u e s in c lu d e it e m s a r r a n g e d t o g e t h e r s o le ly b y s e m a n ­

tic fie ld s u c h a s a ll f lo w e r s w it h n o p a r t ic u la r o r d e r ; it e m s a r r a n g e d t o g e t h e r

b y s o m e s o u n d a n d s e m a n t ic fie ld — f lo w e r s w it h in it ia l [p ], f o r e x a m p le ;

a n d it e m s a r r a n g e d b y p u n . W it h a n a r r a n g e m e n t b y p u n s , t h e n a m e o f th e

it e m h a s a s e c o n d a r y m e a n in g th a t c o m m e n t s o n t h e v i e w e r ’s fe e lin g s . In

th e f o ll o w in g s t a n z a , t h e w o r d s turn a n d sook a r e t r e e n a m e s a s w e ll a s w o r d s

f o r “ th e s o u n d o f b e a t in g ” a n d “ s o r r o w ” r e s p e c t iv e ly :

The turn tree reminds me o f sounds o f hands striking

The chest about to break;
The sook reminds me o f endless sorrow,
Impossible to escape from.

T h e c a t a lo g u e o f b e a u t y r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r v a r ia t io n o f lis t in g . In th is

c a s e , t h e m ic r o s c o p ic lis t in g o f t h e a t t r ib u t e s o f t h e s p e a k e r ’s lo v e r g e n e r ­

a te s a d e t a ile d p ic t u r e th a t in t e n s ifie s h is m e la n c h o ly , lo n g in g , a n d lo v e :
 I remember her face, an unsullied, spotless moon.
I remember her night-dark hair.
I remember her black sapphire eyes, blooming lotuses, purple-dark.
H er ears, golden lotus petals.
I remember that flow er’s lovely skin, delicate as blue climber blossoms.
On each side gracefully arched eyebrows like curved fingers: she with the
eight signs o f love.
I remember the fragrance o f her cheeks, the perfumed essence o f blossoms in
fu ll bloom.
Those beautiful cheeks, none to compare with that beauty.
I remember her nose, an incomparable curve,
I remember its fu ll and splendid tapering.
I remember her beautiful lips, herfaithful heart.
H er sweeping smile, gone, no longer here to praise.
She was like the goddess o f love, a joyfu l beauty,
Equal to the sun and moon, rising and setting.
The fragrant perfumes, my heart enraptured, O jeweled flower,
N o woman as faithful as you will ever come— my heart bears this burden.
I remember her angelic voice, the melodious sounds o f the cooing bird— now
distant from me.
H er throat, the throat o f the deer; her chin, the chin o f the lion.
H er beautiful moon-shaped breasts, like those o f the goddess o f love.
H er swaying arms, elegantly curved elephant trunks.
I remember her shape, a beautiful woman, delicate and smooth.
I remember her legs, her lotus-like feet, like those o f the lovely nymphs, all
spotless and pure.

S u m m a r ie s r e p r e s e n t a fin a l g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f t h e p o e t ic v e r s io n .

P e r io d ic a lly t h r o u g h o u t t h e p o e m , a s u m m a r y o r r e c a p it u la t io n is e n t e r e d .

T h u s , w h e n P r in c e S a m u t t a k o t e r e c o g n iz e s th e p a in t e d fr ie z e r e p r e s e n t in g

h is life , th e w h o l e t a le is o n c e a g a in t o ld . W h ile n o t p r e s e n t in a ll c la s s ic a l

p o e m s , s u c h s u m m a r ie s a r e f a ir ly c o m m o n in t h e p o e t ic v e r s i o n o f

Samuttakote kham chan.

A e s t h e t ic s : S a m u tta k o te a s an
A e s t h e t ic R e f le c t io n
A s n o t e d e a r lie r , th e p o e m Samuttakote is t r a d it io n a lly d iv id e d in t o t h r e e

p a r ts , w it h e a c h p a r t a t t r ib u t e d t o a d if f e r e n t p o e t . A n d w h ile t h e a u t h o r ­

s h ip o f t h e s e t h r e e s e c t io n s h a s b e e n q u e s t io n e d in r e c e n t y e a r s , t h is t r i­

p a r t it e a r r a n g e m e n t is u s e fu l f o r a d is c u s s io n o f th e a e s t h e t ic s o f t h e p o e m .

T h e fir s t p a r t o f t h e p o e m , a t t r ib u t e d t o M a h a r a t c h a k h r u , b e g in s w it h th e
t r a d it io n a l s a lu t a t io n to t h e B u d d h a , c o n t in u e s t h r o u g h t h e d e s c r ip t io n o f

t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e n t e r t a in m e n t s , t h e e le p h a n t h u n t , S a m u t t a k o t e ’s

m e e t in g w it h P h in t h u m a d i, t h e ir s e p a r a t io n , t h e b a t t le o f t h e s u it o r s , a n d

f in a lly t h e m a r r ia g e b e t w e e n S a m u t t a k o t e a n d P h in t h u m a d i. I n m a n y

r e s p e c t s , t h is is p r o b a b ly t h e m o s t fa m o u s p a r t o f t h e p o e m . I g n o r in g t h e

a r c a n e le x ic a l it e m s , t h is s e c t io n is a c t u a lly a r a t h e r s t r a ig h t fo r w a r d n a r r a ­

t iv e . T h e s y n t a c t ic p a t t e r n s a r e r e la t iv e ly e a s y , c a u s in g f e w p r o b le m s in

in t e r p r e t a t io n . E x t e r n a l r h y m e p a t t e r n s a r e r ig o r o u s ly f o ll o w e d , a n d i n t e r ­

n a l r h y m e s e q u e n c e s a d d a p le a s in g r h y t h m , b u t t h e y d o n o t d o m in a t e to

th e p o in t t h a t th e n a r r a t iv e is o b s c u r e d . In th e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e p o e m ,

m o s t o f t h is c h a n g e s .

T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f th e p o e m , a t t r ib u t e d to K in g N a r a i, c a n b e d iv id e d

in t o t w o m a in p a r ts , t h e d e s c r ip t io n o f t h e h e r m it ’ s k u d i a n d t h e b a t t le

b e t w e e n t h e pitthayathoms. W it h th e d e s c r ip t io n o f t h e k u d i, t h e le x ic o n

a n d s y n t a x b e c o m e n o t ic e a b ly m o r e d iffic u lt . E v e n a s s u m in g th a t th e le x i ­

c o n w o u l d b e fa m ilia r to a s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a u d ie n c e , t h e p a r a t a x is a n d

th e v a r ia t io n s in t h e s y n t a c t ic p a t t e r n s m a k e in t e r p r e t a t io n m u c h m o r e d if ­

f ic u lt . E m p h a s is is n o w u p o n d e s c r ip t io n r a t h e r t h a n o n n a r r a t iv e .

C o n c o m m it a n t w it h th is n e w e m p h a s is is a n in c r e a s e in in t e r n a l r h y m e p a t ­

t e r n s , s e e m in g ly a n e w e m p h a s is u p o n s o u n d o v e r c o n t e n t . T h e b a t t le o f

t h e pitthayathoms r e fle c t s a r e t u r n t o th e n a r r a t iv e , b u t e v e n p a r ts o f th is

s e q u e n c e s e e m t o b e m u c h m o r e c o n c e r n e d w it h s o u n d .

T h e t h ir d p a r t o f t h e p o e m o u t lin e s S a m u t t a k h o t e a n d P h in t h u m a d i’s

t r a v e ls in t h e h e a v e n s , t h e ir s e p a r a t io n , a n d t h e ir e v e n t u a l r e u n it in g . T h e

a u t h o r o f t h e t h ir d p a r t , P r in c e P a r a m a n u c h it , w a s a n o t e d I n d ie c la s s ic is t

a n d s c h o la r , a n d t h is is r e f le c t e d in t h e p o e m . U n l ik e t h e fir s t a n d s e c o n d

p a r t , t h e t h ir d is a n e m p h a s is o n b o t h s o u n d a n d c o n t e n t . W it h c o n t e n t ,

t h e p r in c e r e t u r n s to t h e jataka ta le a n d c lo s e ly f o ll o w s it t o its c o n c lu s io n .

T h i s n a r r a t iv e , h o w e v e r , is p r e s e n t e d in a h ig h ly c o m p l e x a n d e r u d it e

s t y le . I n d ie r e f e r e n c e s a n d le x ic a l it e m s a b o u n d . F r e q u e n t s y n t a c t ic v a r ia ­

t io n s a n d p a r a t a c t ic s t r u c t u r e s m a k e in t e r p r e t a t io n d if f ic u lt . A t t h e s a m e

t im e , t h e r e is a n in c r e a s e d e m p h a s is u p o n in t e r n a l r h y m e p a t t e r n s a n d

p u n n i n g . T h i s t h ir d p a r t b r in g s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a e s t h e t ic s o f

s o u n d a n d c o n t e n t t o a c o n c lu s io n , w it h t h e a e s t h e t ic s o f t h e lit e r a r y

w o r k f o ll o w in g a p a t t e r n f r o m a n e m p h a s is u p o n n a r r a t iv e w it h e m b e ll­

is h m e n t s t o a n e m p h a s is u p o n e m b e llis h m e n t s a n d f in a lly t o a c o m b in a ­

t io n o f t h e t w o .

S a m u tta k o te a s a P R O c e s s o f Assirm Latior*

A s p a r t o f t h e o p e n in g s t a n z a s t o Samuttakote kham chan M a h a r a t c h a k r u

r e la te s h o w K in g N a r a i o r d e r e d th e c o m p o s it io n o f th e p o e m :
 This king recalled the fam e
O f the Glorious Master
A s King Samuttakote, the incomparable.

When having ruled the heavens,

H e placed himself
Midst mortals on this earth,

Showed his skill with bow and arrow

Battling kings
On battlefields, yearning

To win a princess named

Phinthumadi,
Long thought pure and elegant.

The king ordered a composition,

Wondrous rhyme and craft,
A song praising the Master:

“ Carve a shadow puppet o f beauty,

Replete and complete, ”
The royal order read,

“Let skilled artists

Perform this work,
Their duty to entertain. ”

B y o r d e r in g s u c h a c o m p o s it io n , N a r a i n o t o n ly h a d a n e w lit e r a r y w o r k

c r e a t e d , b u t a ls o p r o v id e d t h e o p p o r t u n it y f o r m a k in g a m a jo r r e li g io -

p o lit ic a l s t a t e m e n t . A s n o t e d e a r lie r , t h e fir s t p a r t o f t h e p o e m d e p a r ts fr o m

t h e t r a d it io n a l jataka w it h a n e la b o r a t e p e r s o n a liz a t io n o f S a m u t t a k o t e .

M a h a r a t c h a k h r u h a s e m p h a s iz e d S a m u t t a k o t e ’s s k ills a s a h u n t e r , a s a lo v e r ,

a n d a s a w a r r io r . A t t h e s a m e t im e , t h e k in g s h ip , its p a g e a n t r y , a n d its

a u g u s t n a t u r e h a v e a ll b e e n h i g h li g h t e d . W it h t h e s e c h a n g e s ,

M a h a r a t c h a k h r u h a s e f f e c t i v e ly m a d e S a m u t t a k o t e , n o t t h e B u d d h i s t

m o r a l, t h e f o c u s o f t h e t a le . A lt h o u g h t h e s t o r y c a n b e r e a d m e r e ly a s a n

e x c it in g a d v e n t u r e s t o r y , it s e e m s lik e ly th a t M a h a r a t c h a k h r u w a s m o r e

in t e n t u p o n a s s im ila t in g t h e k in g , N a r a i, w it h S a m u t t a k o t e , t h e f u t u r e

B u d d h a . B e c a u s e N a r a i w a s a g r e a t e le p h a n t h u n t e r a n d a v a lia n t w a r r io r

a n d b e c a u s e h is c o u r t a n d r e ig n w e r e n o t e d f o r t h e ir c o s m o p o lit a n n a t u r e

a n d r o y a l p a g e a n t r y , c r it ic s v ie w t h e d e p ic t io n o f S a m u t t a k o t e ’s c o u r t a s a

r e f le c t io n o f N a r a i ’s. S u c h a s s im ila t io n s a p p e a r t o b e c o m m o n in c la s s ic a l

T h a i lit e r a t u r e . F o r e x a m p le , t h e c la im h a s b e e n m a d e th a t K in g L u T h a i

c o m p o s e d t h e Trai Phum n o t o n ly t o m a k e th e p r in c ip le s a n d p r e c e p t s o f
B u d d h is m m o r e a c c e s s ib le t o t h e la it y , b u t a ls o t o p r e s e n t a p ic t u r e o f t h e

id e a l B u d d h is t m o n a r c h , t h e r o le h e h im s e lf w o u l d f ill.6 A s im ila r a r g u m e n t

h a s b e e n m a d e f o r K in g B o r a m a t r a ilo k k a n a t , w h o in 1 4 8 2 o r d e r e d t h e

t r a n s la t io n f r o m P a li t o T h a i o f t h e Vessantara Jataka , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e

Mahachat kham luang in T h a i. In t h is c a s e , t h e k in g b e c a m e id e n t if ie d w it h

P r in c e V e s s a n t a r a , s u g g e s t in g th a t h e t o o h a d t h e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h e

W h e e l- T u r n in g M o n a r c h o r e v e n p e r h a p s t h e e n lig h t e n e d B u d d h a .7 In

lik e m a n n e r , a t le a s t f o r t h e fir s t p a r t o f t h e p o e t ic a l v e r s io n o f Samuttakote,

t h e im p li c a t i o n s e e m s c le a r t h a t N a r a i t o o m a y b e a W h e e l - T u r n i n g

M o n a r c h a n d th a t h is r e ig n w ill a t ta in g r e a t h e ig h t s o f r e lig io u s a n d p o lit i­

c a l p o w e r . W it h t h e d e a t h o f M a h a r a t c h a k h r u , N a r a i t o o k u p t h e c o m p o ­

s it io n o f t h e p o e m , a lt h o u g h t h e e m p h a s is n o w s h ift e d t o d e s c r ip t io n s o f

h e a v e n ly d e it ie s a n d r e a lm s r a t h e r th a n to fe a t s o f t h e k in g . T h e e m p h a s is

a ls o s h ift e d t o th e p lo t o f t h e jataka. N a r a i c o m p o s e d o n ly a s h o r t s e c t io n

b e f o r e le a v in g it u n fin is h e d u n t il it w a s c o m p le t e d b y P r in c e P a r a m a n u c h it

in t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e fin a l s e c t io n a ls o e m p h a s iz e d t h e p lo t o f th e

jataka, m o r e in t e n t u p o n c la r if y in g B u d d h is t p r e c e p t s th a n w it h a s s im ila t in g

N a r a i w it h S a m u t t a k o t e .

C o n clu sio n
T h e t r a n s fo r m a t io n o f t h e p r o s e t a le o f P r in c e S a m u t t a k o t e h a s r e s u lt e d in

a n e la b o r a t e a n d e le g a n t p o e m . O r ig in a lly b e g u n in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n ­

t u r y , t h e p o e m p r o v id e s e v id e n c e f o r t h e m e t a p h o r s a n d p o e t ic a l d e v ic e s

t h a t d o m in a t e d e a r ly c la s s ic a l T h a i p o e t r y . In t h e la s t s e c t io n o f th e p o e m ,

c o m p o s e d o v e r 1 5 0 y e a r s la t e r , t h e s e d e v ic e s c o n t in u e t o d o m in a t e , h a v in g

b e c o m e m o r e d e t a ile d a n d e la b o r a t e . M o r e th a n ju s t a ta le in v e r s e , th e

t r a n s fo r m a t io n h a s a ls o c r e a t e d a n e w t y p e o f jataka. N o w it is a jataka o f

t w o in d iv id u a ls , t h e k in g a n d t h e B u d d h a , r a t h e r t h a n ju s t o n e . A lt h o u g h

th e p o e m is r e a d t o d a y p r im a r ily a s a lit e r a r y m a s t e r p ie c e , it s e e m s c le a r th a t

th e o r ig in a l in t e n t , a t le a s t f o r th e p o r t io n c o m p o s e d b y M a h a r a t c h a k h r u ,

w a s t o p r e s e n t a r e lig io - p o lit ic a l s t a t e m e n t a b o u t th e p o t e n t ia l o f t h e k in g ,

h is r u le , a n d h is c o u r t .

N o te s
1. Niyada Sarikphut, “ Panyatsachadok: prawat lae khwamsamkhan thii mii to
wannakam rooykrong thay” [The fifty jatakas: history and importance in
Thai literary composition!, in Aksomsatniphon 2: ruam botkhwam thang
phasaa lae wannakhadii thay [Arts theses 2: collected articles on language and
literature], ed. Trisin Bunkhacorn, Chonda Riangraklikhit, and Pornthip
Phukphasuk (Bangkok: Faculty o f Arts, Chulalongkom University, 1982),
pp. 264-298.
2 . Ibid.
3. John Garrett Jones, Tales and Teachings of the Buddha: The Jataka Stories in
Relation to the Pali Canon (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1979).
4. Thomas John Hudak, “ Organizational Principles in Thai phannanaa
Passages,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 5 1, part 1
(1988), pp. 95-H 7-
5. All examples are taken from the third printing o f the 1979 edition o f
Samuttakote kham chan, published by the National Library, Bangkok.
Translations are my own. A translation o f the complete poem is found in
The Tale o f Prince Samuttakote: A Buddhist Epic from Thailand, translated,
annotated, and introduced by Thomas John Hudak, Monographs in
International Studies, Southeast Asia Series, no. 90 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio
University Press, 1993).
6. S. J. Tambiah, “ The Buddhist Cosmos: Paradise Lost, Gained and
Transcended,” History of Religions 24 (1984), pp. 7 3 -8 1.
7. Sombat Chantornvong, “ Religionist Literature in Thai Political
Perspective: The Case o f the Maha Chat Kamluang,” in Essays on
Literature and Society in Southeast Asia, ed. Tham Seong Chee (Singapore:
Singapore University Press, 1981), pp. 18 7—205.
 “ ^R ationality ” in the C /Sioyrapfiy
o f a 03u cfcf/iist JC in y : JfiCony£ut1
D Ciny o f Sia m (r . 1851 1S6S) —

Paul Christopher Johnson

A c lo s e e x a m in a t io n o f t h e b io g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f K in g M o n g k u t o f

S ia m o v e r t h e la s t c e n t u r y p r o v id e s o n e w a y o f b e g in n in g t o fill in th e g a p

b e t w e e n in d ig e n o u s a n d W e s t e r n id e a s o f s a c r e d b io g r a p h y . M o n g k u t p r o ­

v id e s a u n iq u e f ig u r e in t h is r e g a r d b e c a u s e h e h im s e lf b a la n c e d p r e c a r i­

o u s ly b e t w e e n S ia m e s e e x p e c t a t io n s o f k in g s h ip a n d W e s t e r n id e a ls o f th e

s c ie n t ific , d ip lo m a t ic , a n d c o m m e r c ia l le a d e r . M o n g k u t w a s e x t r a o r d in a r y

in t h a t h e w a s a b le t o fu s e a t le a s t t w o n o t io n s o f t h e p o lit ic a l “ id e a l m a n ” :

t h e W e s t e r n id e a l o f “ p r o g r e s s ” w it h t h e T h e r a v a d a B u d d h is t v a lu e s o f lin ­

e a g e a n d m e r it . A s a r e s u lt , b o t h W e s t e r n b io g r a p h e r s a n d S ia m e s e s u b je c t s

r e m e m b e r M o n g k u t a s a k in g o f t h e dhamma (dhammaraja), o n e w h o liv e d

in a d h e r e n c e t o c o m p a s s io n a t e t r u t h . T h e q u e s t io n r a is e d h e r e c o n c e r n s th e

c u lt u r a l f o u n d a t io n s o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y .” T h i s e s s a y a r g u e s , a g a in s t a

lo n g W e s t e r n b io g r a p h ic a l t r a d it io n , th a t t h e “ r a t io n a lit y ” (in t h e s e n s e o f a

w o r l d v i e w o r s t r a t e g y ) o f M o n g k u t ’s k in g s h ip c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d s im ­

p ly a c c o r d in g t o W e s t e r n n o t io n s o f “ r a t io n a lit y ” (in t h e s e n s e o f a s t r a t e g y

o r w o r l d v i e w w h o s e p r im a r y v a lu e s a r e lo g ic , s c ie n c e , c o n s is t e n c y , a n d

c o h e r e n c e ) . T h i s b io g r a p h ic a l t r a d it io n p o r t r a y s M o n g k u t a s t h e s u r e m a n

o f le tte r s g u id in g th e w a y f r o m d a r k , O ld S ia m t o N e w S ia m b y t h e lig h t

o f th e t o r c h o f k n o w l e d g e . T y p i c a l o f t h is g e n r e , f o r e x a m p le , a r e th e
 w o r d s o f M a lc o lm S m it h , a p h y s ic ia n o f M o n g k u t ’s c o u r t : “ B u t M o n g k u t

w a s th e r e a l m a k e r o f m o d e r n S ia m , th e p io n e e r w h o b la z e d t h e tr a il, th e

o n e w h o b r o k e a w a y f r o m t h e o ld t r a d it io n s a n d s e t u p n e w s t a n d a r d s o f

liv in g in t h e ir p la c e .” 1 A g a in s t t h e s im p lic it y o f t h is k in d o f p o r t r a it , I a r g u e

th a t th e “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f M o n g k u t w a s a u n iq u e a n d c o m p le x n e g o t ia t io n

a m o n g m a n y c o m p e t in g id e o lo g ie s , o f w h ic h t h e W e s t ’s w a s o n ly o n e .

I f t h e p a r t ic u la r “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f M o n g k u t is t h e p r im a r y in t e r e s t o f t h is

e s s a y , it a ls o q u e s t io n s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a n i n d iv id u a l’s life is t r a n s ­

f o r m e d in t o a b io g r a p h ic a l im a g e o f r e lig io u s a n d c u lt u r a l s ig n if ic a n c e .

U s u a lly t h is s o r t o f p r o je c t h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n a s a p a r t o f a W e s t e r n h is ­

t o r ic a l- c r it ic a l r e c o n s t r u c t io n o f o t h e r c u lt u r e s ’ s a c r e d b io g r a p h ie s . T h e

ta s k h e r e is b o t h a lik e a n d d if f e r e n t f r o m s u c h e ffo r t s . It is a lik e in th a t it

e n d e a v o r s t o u n c o v e r m e c h a n is m s o f t r a n s fo r m a t io n o f a n in d iv id u a l life

in t o a c u lt u r a l s y m b o l. B u t it is d iffe r e n t in th a t its s u b je c t is n o t s a c r e d

b io g r a p h ie s b u t r a t h e r W e s t e r n , m o d e m b io g r a p h ie s p u b lis h e d b e t w e e n

M o n g k u t ’s d e a t h a n d t h e p r e s e n t . T h e b io g r a p h ic a l t r a n s fo r m a t io n a t w o r k

h e r e is in t h e s e r v ic e o f w h a t is t a k e n a s “ o b je c t iv e ” h is t o r y , r a t h e r th a n in

t h e s e r v ic e o f a s a c r e d t r a d it io n c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y m y t h - h is t o r y . T h is “ o b je c ­

t i v e ” f o r m o f b io g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n , h o w e v e r , v e e r s fr e q u e n t ly in t o

its own s o r t o f m y t h - h is t o r y , a p o s it iv is t h a g io g r a p h y o f p r o g r e s s , s c ie n c e ,

a n d “ r a t io n a lit y .”

T h a t th e W e s t e r n id e a liz a t io n o f “ r a t io n a lit y ” a s th e c u lm in a t io n o f th e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f r e lig io n s n e e d s t o b e s u s p e c t e d is b y n o w , o f c o u r s e , o ld

n e w s . B e g in n in g w it h t h e w o r k o f L u c ie n L e v y - B r u h l 2 a n d B r o n i s l a w

M a li n o w s k i ,5 s c h o la r s o f r e lig io n h a v e s lo w ly b u t s u r e ly d is m a n t le d e v o l u ­

t io n a r y s c h e m e s o f th e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n m a g ic , r e lig io n , a n d s c ie n c e . S o m e

s c h o la r s , s u c h a s S . J . T a m b ia h ,4 h a v e q u e s t io n e d th e v e r y id e a th a t “ r a t io ­

n a lit y ” c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s f r e e - s t a n d in g a n d d is t in c t f r o m r e lig io n a n d

m a g ic . B u t t h e s e t h e o r e t ic a l s h ifts h a v e b e e n p la y e d o u t o n t h e s t a g e o f

“ p r i m i t i v e c u l t u r e s ” a n d in g e n e r a l t e r m s o f s o c ie t ie s o r m o v e m e n t s .

Individual fig u r e s , s u c h a s M o n g k u t ( R a m a I V ) , k in g o f S ia m (r. 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 6 8 ) ,

h a v e b e e n le ft in t h e ir n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o s it iv is t c o s t u m e s .

M o n g k u t ’s “ c o s t u m e ” is in th e fa s h io n o f a h e r o o f r e a s o n . A s s a id ,

m o s t o f t h e W e s t e r n lit e r a t u r e o n M o n g k u t p o r t r a y s h im a s le a d in g t h e r e v ­

o lu t io n in S ia m f r o m “ e m p t y r it u a l” to “ p u r e r e lig io n ” a n d a s c ie n t ific

w o r l d v i e w . C o r e to t h is r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f M o n g k u t is a n a s s u m p t io n th a t

h is “ r a t io n a lit y ” r e fle c t s a g e n e r a l e v o lu t io n f r o m a “ s u p e r s t it io u s ” t o a

m o d e r n , s c ie n t if ic w o r l d v i e w . B u t “ r a t i o n a l it y ,” t h e m e a n s o f m a k in g

c o m p r e h e n s ib le a n d m e a n in g f u lly w h o l e o n e ’s e x p e r ie n c e o f r e a lit y , is n o t

a s s im p le a s th a t. T h e c o n v e n t io n a l u s a g e o f “ r a t io n a lit y ,” a s s c ie n t if ic

e x p la n a t io n , m u s t b e t r e a t e d w it h s u s p ic io n . In th is r e g a r d I f o ll o w t h e c u e

o f T a m b ia h , w h o , f o r e x a m p le , a c c o u n t e d f o r th e c o e x is t e n c e o f s u c h
d iv e r g e n t p h e n o m e n a a s a m u le t c u lt s , t r a d it io n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f m e r it a n d

karma, a n d W e s t e r n s c ie n c e b y s e e in g t h e m a s d iffe r e n t b u t lin k e d le v e ls o f

m e a n in g : t h o s e o f “ c a u s a t io n ” a n d t h o s e o f “ p a r t ic ip a t io n .” 5 T h is e ffo r t

d e lib e r a t e ly c o m b a t s th e t e m p t a t io n o f e x p la in in g s u c h m u lt ip le p h e n o m ­

e n a v ia th e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n “ p o p u la r ” o r “ f o lk ” r e lig io n a n d “ h i g h ”

r e lig io n o r a s a c h r o n o lo g ic a l e v o lu t io n f r o m t h e s e n t im e n t o f t r a d it io n a l

r e lig io n t o w a r d s c ie n c e a n d m o d e r n it y . T h is e s s a y ta k e s t h e p o s it io n th a t a

s im ila r s u s p ic io n m u s t b e a p p lie d t o t h e W e s t ’s b io g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n

o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y .”

In a s fa r a s t h is e s s a y e x p lic it ly a d d r e s s e s t h e p a r t ic u la r w o r l d v i e w o r

s t r a t e g y o f M o n g k u t , it a ls o im p lic it ly a d d r e s s e s t h e s t r a t e g y o f t h e a c a d e m y

in g e n e r a l a n d o f t h e v o c a t io n s o f s c h o la r a n d b io g r a p h e r : t h e e ffo r t to

e x p la in p h e n o m e n a a s c o m p le t e ly , c o n s is t e n t ly , a n d c o h e r e n t ly a s p o s s ib le .

T o w h a t e x t e n t a r e t h e s e e x p la n a t io n s , s o m e t im e s in th e f o r m o f b io g r a ­

p h ie s , s h a r e d b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d c u lt u r e s ? H o w a r e t h e y n e g o t ia t e d

b e t w e e n c u lt u r e s ? T h r o u g h lo o k in g a t M o n g k u t a s h e h a s b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d

in W e s t e r n lit e r a t u r e o v e r t h e la s t c e n t u r y a n d t r y in g to b e t t e r e x p la in h is

life a n d “ r a t io n a lit y ,” t h e “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f t h e b io g r a p h ic a l p r o c e s s it s e lf is

a ls o e x a m in e d .

T h e f o r m a t f o r t h e a r g u m e n t is a s f o llo w s : ( i ) s e t t in g u p th e p r o b le m :

a s k e t c h o f M o n g k u t ’s life a n d a p a r a d ig m a t ic t a le ; (2 ) t h e W e s t ’s r e p r e s e n ­

t a t io n o f M o n g k u t ; ( 3 ) a d if f e r e n t p e r s p e c t iv e : t h e a c t s o f t h e k in g ; a n d

(4 ) r e t h in k in g th e “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f M o n g k u t .

P r io r t o t a k in g u p t h e is s u e o f “ r a t io n a lit y ,” h o w e v e r , it m u s t b e n o t e d

th a t th e b io g r a p h ic a l r e n d e r in g o f M o n g k u t a s a h e r o o f r e a s o n h a s n o t

b e e n h is o n ly r e p r e s e n t a t io n in th e W e s t . R a t h e r , h e h a s a ls o b e e n d e p ic t e d

in W e s t e r n p o p u la r m e d ia f r o m h is t im e u n t il t h e p r e s e n t a s a “ n o b le s a v ­

a g e ” : c h a r m in g b u t u n c iv iliz e d , g e n e r o u s y e t t y r a n n ic a l, s p ir it u a l y e t h o p e ­

le s s ly im m o r a l. T h e r o o t s o f t h is p o p u la r c a r ic a t u r e a r e t o b e f o u n d in th e

a u t o b io g r a p h ic a l r e m in is c e n c e s o f A n n a L e o n o w e n s ,6 w h o f o r f iv e y e a r s

w a s t h e E n g lis h g o v e r n e s s in M o n g k u t ’s c o u r t . H e r w r it in g s , w h i le n o t

c o m p l e t e ly u n t e n a b le , b e a r t h e s e n s a t io n a liz e d s t a m p o f m a n y la t e

n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g lis h t r a v e lo g u e s .7 T h e s e w e r e la t e r c o m p ile d in a

s in g le v o lu m e b y M a r g a r e t L a n d o n ,8 w h ic h e v e n t u a lly b e c a m e th e b a s is f o r

th e B r o a d w a y m u s ic a l The K ing and I , s t a r r in g Y u l B r y n n e r a s M o n g k u t .

C e n t r a l t o t h is m a n ife s t a t io n w e r e h is c h ild lik e , c a p r ic io u s c h a r m a n d h is

im p r e s s iv e , u s u a lly h a lf - c o v e r e d p h y s iq u e . A . B . G r is w o ld , o n e o f

M o n g k u t ’s b io g r a p h e r s , a p t ly s u m m a r iz e d t h is im a g e a s “ R o u s s e a u ’s n o b le

s a v a g e in t e r p r e t e d b y G ilb e r t a n d S u l li v a n .” 9 I n a c e r t a in s e n s e t h is p o p u ­

la r iz e d v e r s io n o f M o n g k u t h a r d ly s e e m s t o o h a r m fu l. A f t e r a ll, it n e v e r

c la im s t o b e a n y m o r e t h a n “ f e e l - g o o d ” e n t e r t a in m e n t . S t ill, it is o ft e n ju s t

s u c h s t y liz a t io n s , a b s u r d o r n o t , th a t m o s t s h a p e p o p u la r c u lt u r e , b e c a u s e o f
t h e ir u n lim it e d a c c e s s t o t h e p u b lic a n d t h e s h e e r r e p e t it iv e v o lu m e o f t h e ir

p r e s e n t a t i o n . 10

T h e o p p o s it e r e p r e s e n t a t io n , n a m e ly th a t o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ,”

w h ile r e s t r ic t e d t o p r im a r ily s c h o la r ly d is c o u r s e , is m o r e s u b t le a n d p e r h a p s

m o r e in s id io u s in th a t it does m a k e a n h is t o r ic a l c la im . W e n o w tu r n to th e

t o p ic o f “ r a t io n a lit y ( ie s ) ” — o f M o n g k u t a n d o f t h e W e s t .

M ongku t’s L ife

A S k e tc h o f
and o Pana&igm atic TaLe
B o r n in 1 8 0 6 , M o n g k u t e n jo y e d t h e c h ild h o o d a n d e d u c a t io n o f a n h e ir to

th e t h r o n e . A t t w e n t y y e a r s o f a g e , h e e n t e r e d t h e m o n k h o o d f o r t h e c u s ­

t o m a r y s h o r t p e r io d o f t r a in in g p r io r t o r e s u m in g h is a d u lt life . J u s t t h e n ,

h o w e v e r , R a m a I I d ie d s u d d e n ly . F o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s , a m o n g t h e m

M o n g k u t ’s y o u t h , t h e in s t a b ilit y o f t h e c o u n t r y , a n d p r o b a b ly a g o o d d e a l

o f p o lit ic a l m a n e u v e r in g a s w e ll, M o n g k u t w a s p a s s e d o v e r f o r t h e t h r o n e

in f a v o r o f h is o ld e r a n d m o r e e x p e r ie n c e d h a lf - b r o t h e r , N a n g K la o .

M o n g k u t d e c id e d t o s t a y in t h e sangha, w h e r e h e r e m a in e d f o r t h e n e x t

t w e n t y - s ix y e a r s . D u r i n g t h is t im e h e m a s t e r e d P a li a n d s t u d ie d m e d it a t io n

t e c h n iq u e s . B e c o m in g d is s a t is fie d w it h t h e la c k o f c o n s is t e n c y b e t w e e n th e

P a li t e x t s a n d t h e V in a y a ’s p r a c t ic e , M o n g k u t e m b a r k e d o n a s e a r c h to

e s ta b lis h t h e p u r e s t t e x t s a n d p r a c t ic e . H e d id t h is b y e s t a b lis h in g a n e w v e r ­

s io n o f th e c a n o n t h r o u g h S in h a le s e a n d M o n t e x t s . H is r e fo r m s c u lm in a t e d

in t h e f o u n d in g o f a n e w , p o w e r f u l s e c t, la t e r c a lle d t h e T h a m m a y u t ik a .

M o n g k u t d id n o t h e s it a t e t o in v it e d is c o r d in t o t h e sangha w h e n h e fe lt a

t e x t u a l is s u e o r a n is s u e o f p u r it y w a s in v o lv e d : h is h a b it o f w e a r in g h is r o b e

in t h e M o n s t y le ( o v e r b o t h s h o u ld e r s ) a n d h is q u e s t io n in g o f t h e v a lid it y

o f o t h e r m o n k s ’ o r d in a t io n s s t a n d a s t w o e x a m p le s o f h is z e a l.

I n 1 8 5 1 , f o ll o w in g t h e d e a t h o f R a m a I I I , M o n g k u t m o u n t e d t h e

t h r o n e . T h e r e h e d is t in g u is h e d h im s e lf o v e r t h e n e x t e ig h t e e n y e a r s a s a

s h r e w d p o lit ic a l t a c t ic ia n , h e r o ic a lly s t e e r in g a c o u r s e b e t w e e n v o r a c io u s

F r e n c h a n d B r it is h a p p e t it e s , o r a s h e w r o t e , b e t w e e n t h e c r o c o d ile a n d th e

w h a l e .11 M o n g k u t a ls o c u lt iv a t e d a n in t e r e s t in s c ie n c e , e s p e c ia lly a s t r o n ­

o m y , a n d w a s c o n c e r n e d t o r e c o n c ile r e lig io n a n d s c ie n c e . P a r t ly a s a r e s u lt

o f h is in t e r e s t in s c ie n c e , h e d is m is s e d t h e t r a d it io n a l c o s m o lo g y o f th e

Traiphum12 a s fa ls e s u p e r s t it io n . H e le a r n e d m a n y la n g u a g e s , a m o n g t h e m

E n g lis h a n d L a t in , a n d h e w a s a c t iv e in c r e a t in g n e w le g is la t io n a n d in it ia t ­

in g a w h o l e a r r a y o f c iv ic c o n s t r u c t io n p r o je c t s . I n O c t o b e r 1 8 6 8 , h e d ie d

u n d e r c ir c u m s t a n c e s th a t w il l b e r e c o u n t e d b e lo w .

T a m b ia h s u m m a r iz e d th e c o n c r e t e a c h ie v e m e n t s o f M o n g k u t ’s r e fo r m s

in r e lig io n a s f o llo w s : h e r a is e d t h e le v e l o f r e lig io u s e d u c a t io n a n d P a li s t u d ­

ie s t h r o u g h h is p o s it io n a s a d m in is t r a t o r o f e c c le s ia s t ic a l e x a m in a t io n s ; h e
f o u n d e d a p r e s s f o r p r in t in g P a li w o r k s a n d f o s t e r in g t h e ir s p r e a d , u s e , a n d

in f lu e n c e ; h e e s t a b lis h e d a n e w , p u r e P a li c a n o n b y p r o c u r in g a n d s t u d y ­

i n g S in h a le s e a n d M o n c o lle c t io n s o f t h e Tripitaka, t h u s r e v it a liz in g t e x t u a l

c r it ic is m a n d th e p r o d u c t io n o f c o m m e n t a r ie s ; h e in s t it u t e d a “ p u r it a n ic a l

in t e lle c t u a lis m ” r e s u lt in g in a h o u s e c le a n in g o f “ im p u r it ie s ,” in c lu d in g th e

r e je c t io n o f t h e e n t ir e Traiphum c o s m o lo g y a s w e ll a s a ll “ m y t h o lo g i c a l”

a n d “ s u p e r s t i t i o u s ” t e x t s ; a n d h e le d a p u s h t o w a r d r a t io n a lis m a n d

W e s t e r n s c ie n c e , a n d r e c o g n iz e d a n e e d to r e c o n c ile t h e dhamma w it h t h is

s c i e n c e . 13

T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t M o n g k u t w a s fa s c in a t e d w it h w h a t w a s t o h im

th e n e w e x p la n a t iv e p o w e r o f W e s t e r n s c ie n c e . T h e c u lt iv a t io n o f t h is

in t e r e s t , c o u p le d w it h fa c t o r s o f S ia m ’s n e w in t e r n a t io n a l e x p o s u r e a n d

M o n g k u t ’s s c r ip t u r a lis t r e f o r m in g z e a l, le d to s w e e p in g c h a n g e s u n d e r h is

le a d e r s h ip . S t ill, it is d iffic u lt t o m a in t a in th a t M o n g k u t e x e r c is e d a c o n s is ­

te n t W e s t e r n “ r a t io n a lit y ” w h e n h is life is e x a m in e d m o r e c lo s e ly . T h e

a c c o u n t s o f th e e n d o f M o n g k u t ’s life , w h i c h w a s f o c u s e d o n t h e o b s e r v a ­

tio n o f a fu ll s o la r e c lip s e , illu s t r a t e t h e p r o b le m s w it h s u c h a r e n d e r in g .

W h e n t o ld in its r ic h d e t a ils , t h e s t o r y o f t h e e v e n t s s u r r o u n d in g t h e e c lip s e

p r o v id e s a u s e fu l r e s o u r c e fo r u n d e r s t a n d in g M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” a n d

a t t e m p t in g t o id e n t if y its v a r io u s c o m p o n e n t s .

Mongkut and the Eclipse 1 4

T h e k in g h a d p e r s o n a lly c a lc u la t e d t h e c o m in g o f a t o t a l e c lip s e o f th e

s u n o n A u g u s t 1 8 , 1 8 6 8 . H e c o n s id e r e d th a t H u a W a n , a n is o la t e d b e a c h

o n t h e G u l f c lo s e to t h e M a la y a n b o r d e r , w o u l d b e o p t im a l f o r v ie w i n g .

H is c a lc u la t io n s w e r e b a s e d o n o ld a s t r o lo g ic a l t e x t s o f t h e S ia m e s e a n d

M o n , a s w e ll a s m a n y o ld A m e r ic a n a n d E n g lis h t e x t s . A c o n t in g e n t o f

F r e n c h s c ie n tis ts v a lid a t e d th e k in g ’ s fig u r e s b y r e q u e s t in g p e r m is s io n to

o b s e r v e t h e e c lip s e in S ia m a s w e ll.

T h e k in g is s u e d s e v e r a l p r o c la m a t io n s , fir s t to a n n o u n c e t h e e v e n t ,

t h e n t o c r it ic iz e t h e a s t r o lo g e r s w h o d is p u t e d h is p r e d ic t io n s , a n d fin a lly to

c a lm th e p e o p le w h o f e a r e d th e e c lip s e f o r e t o ld d is a s te r . T h e r o y a l flo t illa

o f s h ip s s a ile d s e v e r a l d a y s b e f o r e t h e e v e n t to t h e lo n e ly b e a c h . G r a n d

e n t e r t a in m e n t e n s u e d , in c lu d in g v a r io u s d a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d p la y s ,

d ip lo m a t ic e x c h a n g e s , a n d g if t - g iv in g s . G r is w o ld m e n t io n s th a t m e a ls w e r e

p r e p a r e d b y a F r e n c h c h e f, s e r v e d b y a n Ita lia n m a it r e d ’h o t e l, a n d a c c o m ­

p a n ie d b y c h a m p a g n e o n i c e . 15 T h e c o u r t h a d n e v e r b e e n s o o p e n ; th e

w o m e n a n d c h ild r e n o f t h e c o u r t m in g le d f r e e ly a m o n g th e c lo s e t o 1 ,0 0 0

p e o p le , 5 0 e le p h a n t s , 5 0 t e le s c o p e s , a n d v a r io u s c a t t le a n d h o r s e s a s s e m b le d

o n t h e r e m o t e s p o t . R e li g io u s s e r v ic e s , C h r is t ia n a n d B u d d h is t , w e r e a ls o

c o n d u c t e d .

236 -V *
 W h e n t h e d a y a r r iv e d , a w e t m o n s o o n w a s b lo w in g a n d c lo u d s c o v ­

e r e d t h e s k y . E v e r y o n e w a s w o r r ie d . T h e p r im e m in is t e r c o v e r t ly a s k e d a ll

t h o s e a c c u s t o m e d to p r a y e r t o p e t it io n t h e c le a r in g o f t h e s k ie s , f e a r in g th e

k in g ’s m o o d s h o u ld f o u l w e a t h e r p r e v a il. A t 1 0 : 1 6 A .M . t h e c lo u d s c le a r e d

p a r t ia lly a n d t h e e c lip s e b e g a n . A fa n fa r e o f m u s ic w a s s o u n d e d a n d t h e k in g

p e r f o r m e d a b a t h o f p u r i f i c a t i o n . 16 B y 1 1 : 2 0 t h e s k y h a d c o m p l e t e ly

c le a r e d , ju s t in t im e f o r th e s u n ’s c o m p le t e e c lip s e a t 1 1 : 3 6 . T h e p e o p le o f

t h e n e a r b y v illa g e b e a t t h e ir d r u m s a n d s e t o f f f ir e c r a c k e r s t o s c a r e a w a y th e

d e m o n P r a R a h o o , w h o t h e y b e lie v e d h a d s w a llo w e d t h e s u n . M o n g k u t

w r y ly jo k e d to h is g u e s ts th a t t h e p e o p le w e r e m e r e ly c e le b r a t in g th e k in g ’s

c o r r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n . 17 L a t e r , t h e k in g w a s to d is c o v e r t h a t t h e a c c u r a c y o f h is

p r e d ic t io n s s u r p a s s e d t h e F r e n c h b y t w o s e c o n d s . B r a d le y r a t h e r f lo r id ly

c a p t u r e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e e v e n t in h is jo u r n a l: “ O h , t h a t w a s a s c e n e

w e ll w o r t h a jo u r n e y o f h u n d r e d s o f m ile s t o o b s e r v e , t h e g r a d u a l w it h ­

d r a w a l o f t h e s u n ’s lig h t b e in g w h o l ly u n lik e e v e r y o t h e r g r a d u a l d im in u ­

t io n , le a v in g t h e d a r k n e s s t o c o m e u p o n u s w it h o u t t h e le a s t t w ilig h t a n d

th e k in g o f d a y r e d u c e d t o t h e s m a lle s t s e g m e n t o f a c ir c le a n d t h e n in

a n o t h e r in s t a n t e n t ir e ly s h u t in a d e a t h g r a s p , a s it w e r e , w a s a s c e n e u t t e r ly

s u b lim e . T h e r e w a s s o m e t h in g fe a r fu l in t h e a s p e c t o f t h in g s a s t h o u g h

s o m e t h in g d r e a d fu l w a s g o in g to t a k e p l a c e . ” 18

In fa c t s o m e t h in g d r e a d fu l was g o in g t o t a k e p la c e . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e

p a la c e , th e k in g fe ll ill w it h a f e v e r , c o n t r a c t e d a t t h e o b s e r v a t io n p o in t . It

w a s p r o b a b ly m a la r ia , a lt h o u g h a c h o le r a e p id e m ic a ls o r a g e d a t th a t t im e .

T h e k in g in it ia lly t r ie d a ll m a n n e r o f h e r b a l r e m e d ie s a n d m e d ic in e s t o e a s e

th e p a in . T w o W e s t e r n d o c t o r s fir s t v is it e d o n A u g u s t 3 0 , b u t w e r e r e fu s e d

a d m is s io n b y t h e k in g . T h e s a m e r e s p o n s e w a s r e p e a t e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 .

F in a lly , o n t h e n in e t e e n t h , o n e o f t h e d o c t o r s , C a m p b e ll, w a s a llo w e d to

s e e t h e k in g , b u t h is t r e a t m e n t w a s ig n o r e d . C a m p b e ll m a in t a in e d th a t h a d

q u in in e b e e n p r o p e r l y a d m in is t e r e d , t h e K i n g w o u l d h a v e s u r v i v e d . 19

D u r i n g t h e la s t w e e k t h e k in g r e fu s e d a n y t r e a t m e n t w h a t s o e v e r f r o m

W e s t e r n d o c t o r s . B r a d le y e n t e r e d in h is jo u r n a l th a t it a p p e a r e d th a t th e

k in g w a s “ h is o w n p h y s ic ia n in t h e m a in ,” a n d o n S e p t e m b e r 3 0 th a t

M o n g k u t r e fu s e d t o s e e a d o c t o r a t a ll. O n O c t o b e r 1 , t h e d a y o f th e fu ll

m o o n , t h e k in g d ie d in t h e p o s it io n o f t h e R e c li n i n g B u d d h a . H e s a id s im ­

p ly th a t t h is w a s t h e w a y t o d ie . L i k e G o t a m a , h e d ie d o n h is b ir t h d a y

( a c c o r d in g t o t h e o ld c a le n d a r ) a ft e r h a v in g le ft a la s t t e s t a m e n t t o t h e

sangha: “ I lift u p m y h a n d s in v e n e r a t io n o f t h e Illu s t r io u s O n e , W h o h a s

a t t a in e d t h e P e r fe c t W is d o m , e v e n t h o u g h H e h a s lo n g r e a c h e d N ir v a n a . I

lift u p m y h e a r t in w o r s h ip o f t h e L a w . I b o w b e f o r e t h e T r u e D is c ip le s o f

th e L o r d B u d d h a . I h a v e r e a c h e d m y r e fu g e in th e T r ip l e G e m s . ” 20

In t h is s t o r y , t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n s s u r r o u n d in g t h e t h e m e o f M o n g k u t ’s

“ r a t io n a lit y ” a r e n o t d if f ic u lt t o lo c a t e . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e is a b u n d a n t
s u p p o r t f o r th e r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f M o n g k u t ’ s s c ie n t ific s k e p t ic is m . H is a b il­

it y t o c a lc u la t e t h e e v e n t a n d h is in t e r e s t in d o in g s o w e r e c o n s id e r e d

u n iq u e a n d t r u ly a s t o n is h in g b y W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s . H is e v id e n t d e s ir e t o

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e v a lid it y o f a s c ie n t ific c o s m o lo g y t o h is p e o p le b y p r e d ic t ­

in g a n a tu r a l p h e n o m e n o n , in t h e p r o c e s s d is c r e d it in g t h e a s t r o lo g e r s a n d

th e m y t h o f R a h o o s w a l lo w i n g t h e s u n , w e r e f u r t h e r t e s t im o n y t o h is

W e s t e r n - “ r a t io n a l” a t t it u d e t o w a r d n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . M o r e o v e r , th e

a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e e v e n t , e s p e c ia lly a s p e r t a in s t o t h e f r e e d o m o f th e C o u r t

w o m e n , w a s d e e m e d n o le s s t h a n “ r e v o lu t io n a r y ” b y M o f f a t .21 T h e k in g ’s

d e m e a n o r t h r o u g h o u t t h is in t e r n a t io n a l s c ie n t ific e v e n t w a s s e e n a s t o le r a n t

a n d g r a c io u s .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e e v e n t s o f th e s t o r y in d ic a t e a s p e c ts o f M o n g k u t

th a t d o n o t s q u a r e w it h t h e im a g e o f a W e s t e r n , s c ie n t ific “ r a t io n a lit y .”

F ir s t , a lt h o u g h M o n g k u t w a s in a b a t t le o f w o r d s w it h t h e c o u r t a s t r o lo g e r s

o v e r t h e p r e d ic t io n a n d m e a n in g o f t h e e c lip s e , t h e fa c t r e m a in s th a t h e

r e lie d o n c o u r t a s t r o lo g e r s , a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e , b y s o m e r e p o r t s , in c o n s t a n t

d e m a n d b y th e k i n g . 22 T h e c o u r t p h y s ic ia n , M a lc o lm S m it h , s t a te d th a t th e

K in g f r e q u e n t ly r e q u e s t e d t h e s e r v ic e s o f “ p r o g n o s t ic a t o r s ” a n d “ m a g i­

c i a n s . ” 23 The Dynastic Chronicles r e p o r t m a n y in s t a n c e s o f th e k in g ’s u s e o f

a s t r o lo g e r s . F o r e x a m p le , t h e k in g a t o n e p o in t d e c id e d t o b u r y a n e w

z o d ia c o f th e c it y in B a n g k o k a t t h e m o s t a u s p ic io u s m o m e n t c a lc u la t e d b y

t h e a s t r o l o g e r s . 24 S u c h a n a c t io n w a s n o t in it ia t e d b y C o u r t B r a h m a n s , o r

n e c e s s a r ily r e q u ir e d b y M o n g k u t s o le ly fo r t h e f u lf illm e n t o f h is d u t ie s . A t

s u c h t im e s M o n g k u t ’s a c t s d is p la y a n a s t r o lo g ic a l in t e r e s t in c o n s is t e n t w it h

th e p u r e ly “ r a t io n a l” a n d s c ie n t ific s t a n c e f o r w h ic h h e is r e m e m b e r e d in

W e s t e r n b io g r a p h ic a l lit e r a t u r e . F u r t h e r m o r e , p o p u la r a n d “ s u p e r s t it io u s ”

T h a i r e lig io u s p r a c t ic e s a r e r e c o r d e d in M o n g k u t ’s life t h a t s e e m t o c o n t r a ­

d ic t h is z e a lo u s a d v o c a c y f o r t h e “ p u r e ” a n d “ r a t i o n a l” n a t u r e o f

B u d d h is m . T h r e e e x a m p le s m a y s u b s t a n t ia t e t h is p o in t .

F ir s t , C o n s t a n c e W ils o n c it e s a n in s t a n c e w h e n M o n g k u t c o n d u c t e d

s e r v ic e s in v it in g t h e g o o d s p ir its ( thewada) t o d r iv e o u t e v il s p ir its a n d to

e n t e r t w o b u ild in g s n e w l y c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e p a la c e c o m p o u n d . 25

N e x t , w h e n o n e o f t h e k in g ’ s w iv e s ’ s la v e s r a n a w a y a n d w a s la t e r

f o u n d , s h e r e c e iv e d a s e v e r e w h i p p i n g d u r in g w h i c h s h e d ie d . T h is a t t it u d e

t o w a r d s la v e s w a s ( a n d s t ill is in m a n y p la c e s ) n o t u n c o m m o n ; it is

M o n g k u t ’ s r e s p o n s e t o h e r d e a t h th a t is o f in t e r e s t h e r e . In r e s p o n s e , th e

k in g o r d e r e d p r o p it ia t o r y p la y s g iv e n a t a ll p a la c e g a t e s t o e n s u r e t h e p r o ­

t e c t io n o f th e s p ir it o f th e G r a n d P a l a c e . 26 T o b e s u r e , t h e k in g ’s a c t io n m a y

h a v e b e e n m e r e ly t o q u ie t t h e fe a r s o f t h e p a la c e g u a r d s .

B u t a t h ir d e x a m p le le n d s in s ig h t t o t h e k in g ’ s a m b iv a le n c e a b o u t

p u r e ly s c ie n t ific e x p la n a t io n : A t t h e Phrapathomceedii p a g o d a , a b a ll o f lig h t

w a s s o m e t im e s s e e n g lo w i n g o v e r t h e stupa, “ a s i f a p i e c e o f w h it e c lo t h
 w e r e d r a p e d o v e r i t .” T h e k in g w e n t t o w it n e s s t h is s t r a n g e o c c u r r e n c e :

“ T h e K in g w a s o f c o u r s e im m e n s e ly d e lig h t e d . H e s a id th a t it w a s [a s] i f h e

h a d b e e n t r ic k e d b y a g h o s t , a n d h e d id n o t k n o w w h a t t o s a y . H e s a id it

w a s p r o b a b ly a c e r t a in e le m e n t in t h e b r ic k s a s it c a m e in t o c o n t a c t w it h

r a in w a t e r th a t g a v e o u t th e lig h t . T h e r e a s o n th a t t h e K in g s a id s o w a s

b e c a u s e h e d id n o t w a n t t h o s e w h o w e r e n o t B u d d h is t s t o d e fa m e h is ju d g ­

m e n t . H o w e v e r , a ll t h e a m o u n t o f g o ld h e h a d o n h is r o y a l p e r s o n h e

p o u r e d o u t a s a c o n t r ib u t io n t o t h e r e lig io u s c a u s e .” 27 T h e k in g t o o k a

d e lig h t in t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l e v e n a s h is s e n s e o f s c ie n c e a n d lo g ic d is a llo w e d

its v a lid it y . T h is b r i e f a n e c d o t e r e c o r d e d in The Dynastic Chronicles is s ig n if­

ic a n t f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s a s w e ll, h o w e v e r . It in d ic a t e s th a t t h e k in g ’s r e s p o n s e

t o t h is e x t r a o r d in a r y a p p e a r a n c e w a s n e g o t ia t e d a m o n g a t le a s t t h r e e c o n ­

s id e r a t io n s : t h e o p i n i o n o f n o n - B u d d h is t o b s e r v e r s , t h e o p i n i o n o f

B u d d h is t o b s e r v e r s , a n d o f c o u r s e h is o w n e x p e r ie n c e o f th e e v e n t . T h is

p o in t s to o n e e x p la n a t io n f o r M o n g k u t ’s c o m p le x a n d a p p a r e n t ly in c o n s is ­

t e n t “ r a t io n a lit y ,” n a m e ly th a t it c a n b e a c c o u n t e d f o r b y th e m ix e d p o lit ­

ic a l d e m a n d s o f T h a i k in g s h ip . A t t h is p o in t , h o w e v e r , I o n ly w a n t to

e m p h a s iz e t h e a m b ig u it y a n d t e n s io n r e f le c t e d in th e t r ia n g le o f M o n g k u t ’s

e m o t io n a l r e s p o n s e ( d e lig h t a t t h e e x t r a o r d in a r y ) , h is e x p la n a t io n (n a t u r a l

c a u s e s ) , a n d h is b e h a v io r (a la r g e c o n t r ib u t io n r e g a r d le s s o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l

o r n a t u r a l b a s is o f t h e a p p a r it io n ) .

R e t u r n i n g t o th e s t o r y o f th e e c lip s e , th e k in g t o o k a b a t h o f p u r ific a ­

t io n p r e c is e ly w h e n t h e e c lip s e b e g a n . 28 T h i s s e e m s a s ig n if ic a n t p a u s e

c o m in g a s it d o e s in t h e t h ic k o f t h e e x c it e m e n t o f t h e c le a r in g s k y a n d

d im m in g lig h t . It is s ig n ific a n t b e c a u s e it c o n fo r m s n e it h e r t o a “ p u r e ”

B u d d h is m s t r ip p e d o f a ll “ m e a n in g le s s ” r it u a l n o r t o t h e s c ie n t ific p r o c e e d ­

in g s o f th e o c c a s io n . T h a t is , i f M o n g k u t ’s only c o n c e r n s w e r e w it h th e

p u r it y o f B u d d h is m a n d w it h c o n fo r m in g t o E u r o p e a n s c ie n t ific p r o c e ­

d u r e s , h e w o u l d n o t h a v e p a u s e d t o b a t h e . It d o e s , h o w e v e r , m a k e s e n s e a s

a political a c t o f im p r e s s in g t h e le g it im a c y o f h is k in g s h ip o n t h o s e p r e s e n t

t h r o u g h p e r f o r m in g t h is a n c ie n t a n d fa m ilia r r it u a l. T h e m u s ic a l fa n fa r e

s o u n d e d t o a c c o m p a n y t h e b a t h le n d s c r e d e n c e t o t h is a r g u m e n t ; c le a r ly it

w a s n o t s o le ly f o r t h e b e n e f it o f t h e k in g ’s d e v o t io n a l e x p e r ie n c e . P o lit ic a l

e x p e d ie n c y a n d th e t r a d it io n a l e x p e c t a t io n s o f S ia m e s e k in g s h ip w e r e b o t h

in flu e n t ia l in t h e “ r a t io n a lit y ” r e v e a le d in t h e k in g ’s r it u a l b a t h .

T h u s fa r th e p la c e o f a s t r o lo g y in M o n g k u t ’s c o u r t a n d th e p u r ific a t io n

r it e h e p e r f o r m e d a t t h e a u s p ic io u s m o m e n t h a v e b e e n n o t e d . A t h ir d fe a ­

t u r e o f t h e s t o r y th a t is a n o b s t a c le t o a n y c o n s is t e n t a p p lic a t io n o f t h e t y p ­

in g o f M o n g k u t a s r a t io n a lis t in a W e s t e r n s e n s e is t h e w a y M o n g k u t

e m u la t e d th e B u d d h a a s h e a p p r o a c h e d d e a t h . A s s t a te d , h e d ie d lik e th e

B u d d h a : o n h is b ir t h d a y , in a R e c li n i n g B u d d h a p o s it io n , a n d h a v in g im i­

t a t e d G o t a m a ’ s w o r d s in h is f a r e w e ll a d d r e s s t o t h e sangha. A ls o , a s
M o n g k u t a p p r o a c h e d d e a t h a c c o r d in g t o t h is “ s c r ip t ,” h e r e fu s e d t r e a t m e n t

b y W e s t e r n d o c t o r s C a m p b e ll a n d B r a d le y , a n d ig n o r e d t h e ir a d v ic e w h e n

it w a s fin a lly g iv e n . O n e w o n d e r s a t t h is ju n c t u r e a b o u t h is tr u s t in W e s t e r n

s c ie n c e . It a p p e a r s th a t it h a d b e e n s u p e r c e d e d b y a “ r a t io n a lit y ” d iffe r e n t

f r o m s c ie n c e : o n e d is t in c d y h is o w n .

A c lo s e a n a ly s is o f K in g M o n g k u t ’s d e a t h c a lls a t t e n t io n t o p r o b le m s

a n d p a r a d o x e s o f h is p a r t ic u la r “ r a t io n a lit y .” T h a t t h e r e a r e s u c h p r o b le m s

m a k e s c le a r th a t n o W e s t e r n c a r ic a t u r e o f M o n g k u t a s a p in n a c le o f r e a s o n

is s u ffic ie n t to e x p la in h is w o r d s a n d a c t s . I n d e e d , t h e r e d u c t io n o f h is life

t o a s in g le d e t e r m in in g a s p e c t , “ r a t io n a lit y ,” is a n a p t e x a m p le o f w h a t

M a r s h a ll S a h lin s c a lls t h e c r e a t io n o f a n e v e n t : “ T h e e v e n t is a relation

b e t w e e n a h a p p e n in g a n d a s t r u c t u r e ( o r s t r u c t u r e s ) : a n e n c o m p a s s m e n t o f

th e p h e n o m e n o n - i n - i t s e lf a s a m e a n in g f u l v a lu e , f r o m w h i c h f o llo w s its

s p e c ific h is t o r ic a l e f f i c a c y . ” 29 T h e “ h a p p e n in g ” in t h is c a s e w a s th e v ie w i n g

o f a s o la r e c lip s e in S ia m . T h e “ e v e n t ” is w h a t w a s p e r c e iv e d , r e c o r d e d , a n d

c o n v e y e d t o o t h e r s a b o u t “ w h a t h a p p e n e d ” t h e r e o n t h e b e a c h . T h e

“ e v e n t ” m ig h t b e th a t M o n g k u t p r e d ic t e d t h e o n s e t a n d d u r a t io n o f a s o la r

e c lip s e w it h t w o s e c o n d s ’ g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y th a n t h e e n t ir e F r e n c h c o n t in ­

g e n t . O r it m ig h t b e th a t t h e k in g p e r f o r m e d a s a c r e d b a th o f p u r ific a t io n

ju s t a t th e m o m e n t th a t P r a R a h o o s w a llo w e d t h e s u n . It c o u ld e v e n b e

s im p ly th a t t h e fo o lis h k in g o n h is v a in q u e s t le d e v e r y o n e in t o a m a la r ia

p a t c h , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h i c h w a s h is d e a t h . T h e “ e v e n t ” r e c o r d e d a s

h is t o r y d e p e n d s o n th e s t r u c t u r e o f in t e r p r e t a t io n . F o r W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s ,

th e v ie w i n g o f t h e e c lip s e w a s p a r t o f t h e la r g e r “ e v e n t ” o f th e s c ie n t ific ,

m o d e r n r e v o lu t io n s w e e p in g S ia m u n d e r M o n g k u t ’s le a d e r s h ip .

S a h lin s h a s o f f e r e d a h e lp fu l m e a n s o f a d d r e s s in g th e “ in - b e t w e e n n e s s ”

o f r e p r e s e n t a t io n : b e t w e e n th e p h e n o m e n o n - in - it s e lf a n d w h a t is c a lle d h is ­

t o r y . T h e n e x t s e c t io n e x p lo r e s th e W e s t e r n h e r m e n e u t ic p r o c e s s th a t tr a n s ­

f o r m e d t h e life o f M o n g k u t in t o a s ig n ific a n t e v e n t in th e h is t o r y o f th e

W e s t ’s in t e r a c t io n w it h A s ia . M u c h o f w h a t h a s b e e n w r it t e n h a s th e a p p e a r ­

a n c e o f m e r e c a r ic a t u r e . L ik e th e w r it in g s o f L e o n o w e n s , t h o u g h , a ll c a r ic a ­

tu r e s c o n t a in h a lf- t r u t h s a n d p a r tia l e x p la n a t io n s , b o t h a b o u t th e w r it e r s a n d

th e o b je c t o f t h e ir s t u d y . It is im p o r t a n t t o r e v ie w th e W e s t e r n lit e r a t u r e o n

M o n g k u t , t h e r e fo r e , b o t h to fill o u t th e p o r t r a it o f M o n g k u t a n d , m o s t c r u ­

c ia lly , t o r e v e a l t h e s t r a t e g y in t h e W e s t ’ s u n d e r s t a n d in g o f M o n g k u t ’s

“ r a t io n a lit y .”

T h e W e s t ’s R e p H e s e n t a t fo n
T h e fir s t is s u e i n v o lv e d in th e W e s t ’s r e p r e s e n t a t io n is , W h y M o n g k u t ?

W h y h a s h e b e c o m e a n e v e n t m o r e im p o r t a n t t o t h e W e s t th a n e a r lie r

C h a k k r i k in g s o r C h u la lo n g k o r n w h o s u c c e e d e d h im ? T h is is im p o r t a n t
b e c a u s e t h e c o n s t r u c t o f “ r a t io n a lit y ” im p lie s a lt e r n a t iv e m o d e s o f e x p e r i­

e n c e th a t a r e c o n s id e r e d ir r a t io n a l. T h e r e f o r e , t h e c h o ic e t o r e p r e s e n t — to

c r e a t e a n e v e n t — a lr e a d y im p lie s a v a lu in g o f t h e o b je c t : to r e p r e s e n t is to

d e fin e o n e s e lf, e it h e r in a llia n c e w it h o r in o p p o s it io n t o t h e p e r s o n o r t im e

u n d e r s c r u t in y . In t h e c a s e o f M o n g k u t , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l g o o d e x p la n a t io n s

f o r h is p o p u la r it y a s a n o b je c t o f h is t o r y , e a c h m o r e o r le s s r e la t e d t o th e

is s u e o f t h e W e s t ’s s e lf - d e f in it io n a s “ r a t io n a l.”

O n e r e a s o n f o r t h e t r a n s fo r m a t io n o f M o n g k u t fr o m in d iv id u a l in t o

e v e n t in t h e W e s t is t h a t t h e p e r io d o f h is r e ig n c o i n c i d e d w it h t h e

E u r o p e a n “ d i s c o v e r y ” o f B u d d h i s m . 30 S in c e M o n g k u t w a s a r g u a b ly

T h e r a v a d a ’s p r e e m in e n t e m is s a r y t o t h e W e s t d u r in g th is t im e , it is n o t s u r ­

p r is in g th a t t h e W e s t s h o u ld h a v e b e e n a s fa s c in a t e d w it h M o n g k u t a s it w a s

w it h B u d d h is m . F u r t h e r , a s P h illip A lm o n d h a s s h o w n , B u d d h is m w a s

a s s im ila t e d in W e s t e r n im a g in a t io n a t t h is t im e ( 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 0 0 ) p r im a r ily in

t w o w a y s : a s N o b le O t h e r , th u s a r e a d y a n d w o r t h y ta r g e t fo r c o lo n ia l a n d

m is s io n e x p a n s io n is t e x p e r im e n t s , a n d s e c o n d , a s a p o s it iv is t a lly b y v ir t u e

o f its “ e le v a t e d , p u r e , a n d h u m a n iz in g c h a r a c t e r .” 31 I n t e r e s t in g ly , t h e

“ s e a r c h f o r o r ig in s ” c r a z e o f t h e p e r io d (t h e t im e o f M a x M u lle r ) s u it e d

b o t h v is io n s . In t h e fir s t s e n s e , B u d d h is m w a s s e e n a s o r ig in a lly h a v in g b e e n

a c i v i li z e d , e t h ic a l r e li g io n , n o w l o n g s in c e d e g r a d e d a n d in n e e d o f

e n lig h t e n m e n t f r o m t h e W e s t . I n t h e s e c o n d s e n s e , c o n v e r s e ly , B u d d h is m

w a s s e e n a s t h e m o s t e v o lv e d , m o s t e le v a t e d r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f m e n t a l a n d

s p ir it u a l e n lig h t e n m e n t . 32 M o n g k u t w a s a s s o c ia t e d w it h t h is n e w ly d is c o v ­

e r e d B u d d h is m b e c a u s e o f th e h is t o r ic a l t im in g o f h is r u le , a n d b e c a u s e o f

h is a g g r e s s iv e p u r s u it o f r e lig io u s a s w e ll a s c o m m e r c ia l a n d s c ie n t ific d ia ­

lo g u e w it h t h e W e s t . T h is e x t e r n a l, m a c r o - e n v ir o n m e n t o f t h e W e s t ’ s r e la ­

t io n s h ip t o S ia m a n d t o B u d d h is m a llo w e d r o o m fo r M o n g k u t t o b e c o m e

a n e v e n t e it h e r a s a lly o r a d v e r s a r y t o t h e W e s t ’ s s e lf - d e f in e d “ r a t io n a lit y .”

T h a t h e b e c a m e a n a lly (“ T h e ‘r a t io n a lit y ’ o f K in g M o n g k u t is lik e o u r s ” )

is d u e t o h is c o m b in a t io n o f e x t r a o r d in a r y a b ilit ie s , w h ic h e n a b le d h im to

r e s p o n d t o h is h is t o r ic a l s it u a t io n w it h c r e a t iv it y a n d a u t h o r it y . T h is w e

m ig h t c a ll a n in t e r n a l r e a s o n f o r th e c h o ic e to r e p r e s e n t M o n g k u t . B o t h

e x t e r n a l a n d in t e r n a l r e a s o n s c o m b in e d to t r a n s fo r m t h e “ h a p p e n in g ” o f

M o n g k u t ’ s k in g s h ip i n t o a h is t o r ic a l, i d e o lo g i c a l e v e n t . T h i s e v e n t o f

M o n g k u t ’s r e ig n c a m e t o b e r e g a r d e d in th e W e s t a s th e k e y s h ift in T h a i

h is t o r y f r o m O l d S ia m t o N e w S ia m . T h e m a k in g o f t h is e v e n t w il l

b e c o m e c le a r e r t h r o u g h a s u r v e y o f th e W e s t e r n lit e r a t u r e o n M o n g k u t .

M is s io n a r ie s w h o w e r e a c t iv e in S ia m d u r in g th e r e ig n o f M o n g k u t p r o ­

v id e d m u c h o f th e fir s t h a n d in fo r m a t io n fo r th e b io g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s

o f M o n g k u t . M o n g k u t ’s c lo s e s t m is s io n a r y a s s o c ia t e s w e r e B r a d le y , P a lle g o ix ,

a n d C a s w e ll. T h e k in g m a d e a s t a r t lin g im p r e s s io n o n a ll th r e e . H is o p e n a n d

c u r io u s s ta n c e t o w a r d C h r is t ia n it y a n d h is in te r e s t in r e lig io u s d ia lo g u e w e r e a
s h a r p c o n tr a s t to th e r e c e n t m is c u e s a t th e e n d o f R a m a I l l ’s r e ig n . In 18 4 9 ,

u n d e r R a m a I I I , e ig h t C a t h o lic p r ie s ts w e r e b a n is h e d fo r r e fu s in g to c o m p ly

w it h th e k in g ’s d e c r e e to tu r n o v e r liv e s t o c k to th e C r o w n . T h is d e c r e e w a s

in t e n d e d to c r e a t e m e r it , b y s a v in g th e liv e s o f th e a n im a ls , f o r th e c o m b a t in g

o f a c h o le r a e p id e m ic . T h e f o llo w in g y e a r , f o u r P r o t e s t a n t t e a c h e r s w e r e

a r r e s t e d f o r p r in t in g b o o k s d is c r e d it in g B u d d h is m , o r p o s s ib ly f o r t e a c h in g

P a h , a s a c r e d la n g u a g e , to fo r e ig n e r s . V e lla s u g g e s ts th a t b o t h in c id e n t s c a m e

as s e c o n d a r y r e s u lt s o f R a m a I l l ’s fa ilin g h e a lth a n d a p e r v a s iv e a n t ifo r e ig n s e n ­

t im e n t . 33 In a n y c a s e , M o n g k u t ’s k in g s h ip w a s in d e e d a s u r p r is in g a n d w e l­

c o m e c h a n g e t o th e m is s io n a r ie s . I f t h e y w e r e s u r p r is e d a t th e to le r a n t p o s it io n

h e a s s u m e d , h o w e v e r , t h e y w e r e e v e n m o r e s u r p r is e d b y h is r e lig io u s b e lie fs ;

o r r a t h e r w h a t t h e y p e r c e iv e d a s h is la c k o f r e lig io s it y . A s B r a d le y r e c o u n t e d

in h is jo u r n a l o n J u l y 1 , 1 8 5 4 : “ H e ( M o n g k u t ) h a d o c c a s io n t o s p e a k h is m in d

a b o u t M o r m o n is m , g iv in g u s to u n d e r s ta n d th a t h e h a d n o c o n fid e n c e in it.

In d e e d h e s e e m e d t o d e s ir e to in tim a te th a t h e h a d n o c o n fid e n c e in a n y s y s ­

t e m o f r e lig io n , n o t e v e n B u d d h is m . ” 34 T h is e n t r y g r a n ts a v ie w o f M o n g k u t

th e s k e p tic , a r o le h e s e e m e d t o p a r tic u la r ly e n jo y p la y in g t o w a r d h is m is s io n ­

a r y fr ie n d s . O n S e p t e m b e r 6 , 1 8 5 6 , B r a d le y r e m a r k e d o n th e g e n d e m a n - lik e

c o n d u c t t o w a r d th e F r e n c h c o n s u l, M . A u b a r e t , w h o w a s a t th e t im e c o m ­

p e llin g h im t o a b a n d o n h is tr e a ty w it h th e C a m b o d ia n k in g a n d s o r e c o g n iz e

F r e n c h s o v e r e ig n t y o v e r C a m b o d ia : “ T h e p a t ie n c e a n d fo r b e a r a n c e o f h is

M a je s t y s e e m e d t o b o r d e r o n p u s illa n im it y a n d th e c o n d u c t o f th e t w o

F r e n c h m e n o n m a d n e s s . ” 35

J e a n - B a p t i s t e P a ll e g o i x , a C a t h o l ic m is s io n a r y f r o m 1 8 3 8 a n d

M o n g k u t ’s L a t in t u t o r a n d fir s t in t im a t e E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t , w a s p a r t ic u la r ly

im p r e s s e d w it h t h e i n d u s t r io u s “ e u r o p e a n iz i n g ” o f M o n g k u t ’ s e a r ly

r e i g n . 36 “ E u r o p e a n iz in g ” in f lu e n c e i n v o lv e d n e w c o n s t r u c t io n o f m o d e r n

r o a d s a n d c a n a ls , p a t r o n a g e o f t h e a r ts , in d u s t r y a n d b u s in e s s , a n d t h e fu r ­

t h e r a n c e o f lib e r t y a n d t o le r a n c e . M o n g k u t w a s a d m ir e d f o r h is p a r t ic ip a ­

t io n in a n d f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h is “ E u r o p e a n n e s s .”

J e s s e C a s w e ll, m o r e s o th a n o t h e r s , w a s r e g a r d e d b y M o n g k u t a s a

t r u s t e d fr ie n d . C a s w e ll t a u g h t h im E n g lis h , b u t m o r e s ig n ific a n t ly t h e t w o

e n g a g e d in fr e q u e n t le n g t h y d is c u s s io n s a b o u t r e lig io n . C a s w e ll r e c o r d e d

th a t t h e k in g n e v e r s t o p p e d a s k in g q u e s t io n s u n t il C a s w e ll p r ie d h im s e lf

a w a y . I n h is jo u r n a l e n t r y o f ja n u a r y 2 , 1 8 4 6 , C a s w e ll r e v e a le d th e f o ll o w ­

in g in s ig h t in t o M o n k u t ’s T h a m m a y u t c ir c le :

I am getting a clearer insight into the character o f the peculiar views

o f the new party in the priesthood. There is a strong tendency among
them to the rankest atheism, but at the same time, there seems to be
something that is praiseworthy lying at the foundation o f this party. Chau
Fa (Mongkut) and his priests have several times o f late inquired whether
 there are any enlightened scientific men in America who do not believe
in the existence o f a God, o f angels or devils, or o f a future state o f
rewards and punishments. When I reply that there are some such, they
say, “ There are such here,” yet in such a way as that none could accuse
them o f indulging such a belief.37

C a s w e ll, a n d t h e o t h e r m is s io n a r ie s a s w e ll, s e e m e d t o g e t t h e im p r e s s io n

th a t M o n g k u t , w h ile in t e r e s t e d in r e lig io u s m a t t e r s , d id n o t s u b s c r ib e to th e

p e r s p e c t iv e s o f C h r is t ia n m is s io n a r ie s . T h e ir in t e r p r e t iv e s t r u c t u r e , a lo n g

w it h M o n g k u t ’s b a it in g c o m m e n t s d u r in g d is c u s s io n s , f o r m e d t h e ir u n d e r ­

s t a n d in g o f M o n g k u t , r e c o r d e d in t h e ir jo u r n a ls , a s ir r e lig io u s a n d a t h e is t ic .

I t w a s t h is t h e m e a n d o t h e r s r e la t e d t o it th a t la t e r b io g r a p h e r s , la r g e ly f o l­

lo w i n g m is s io n a r ie s ’ s o u r c e s , e a g e r ly r e fo r m u la t e d .

A . B . G r is w o ld , f o r in s t a n c e , o f f e r e d t h is s t u n n in g ly m o d e r n d e s c r ip ­

t io n o f M o n k u t ’s r e lig io u s p r a c t ic e : “ I n d u e c o u r s e h e le a r n e d t h e a n s w e r

to h is q u e s t io n s : th e B u d d h a t a u g h t m e d it a t io n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c la r if y in g

t h e m in d , g a in in g a d e e p e r in s ig h t in t o r e a lit y , a n d a c h ie v in g c o m p le t e

d e t a c h m e n t . T o u s e a t e r m th a t is m o r e fa m ilia r t o u s , it w a s a k in d o f s e lf-

im p o s e d p s y c h o a n a ly s is ; b u t it w a s a g r e a t d e a l m o r e b e s id e s — a m e a n s o f

r a p id ly a r r iv in g a t c o n c lu s io n s a n d t h e n t e s t in g t h e m , g o in g b a c k s t e p b y

s t e p t o m a k e s u r e th a t th e lo g ic a l s e q u e n c e w a s c o m p le t e a n d c o h e r e n t . ” 38

G r is w o ld s a w M o n g k u t ’s p r o je c t a s s t r ip p in g a w a y e r r o r s s o a s t o le a v e t h e

d o c t r in e in its p u r e b e a u t y , p u r g e d o f a ll tr a c e s o f B r a h m a n is m . In th is

p r o c e s s , M o n g k u t is e n lig h t e n e d b y th e s u r e g u id e o f m a n ’s r e a s o n . H e w a s

a b le t o v a lu e C h r is t ia n e t h ic s , a lt h o u g h n o t C h r is t ia n b e lie f , b e c a u s e it

“ a p p e a le d b o t h t o h is r e a s o n a n d to h is in n a t e g o o d n e s s . ” 39

S im ila r ly , R o b e r t L in g a t f o c u s e d o n M o n g k u t ’s r e je c t io n o f a ll fo r m s

o f p o p u la r r e l i g i o n .40 L i n g a t s p e c if ie d M o n g k u t ’s c o n d e m n a t io n o f p o p u la r

r e lig io u s fe s t iv a ls a n d “ e m p t y ” c e r e m o n ie s a s u s e le s s a n d e v e n d a n g e r o u s .

In a v o id in g s u c h f r iv o lit ie s , h e s a w M o n g k u t a s d ir e c t in g B u d d h is m t o w a r d

t h e b e a u t y a n d e f f ic ie n c y o f s h e e r e t h ic s : “ L a m e m e c a r a c t e r e r a t io n a lis t e ,

p r a g m a t is t e d e la r e f o r m e p r o je t e e e t o p e r e e p a r le p r in c e M o n g k u t d e v a it

a u s s i fa ir e p e n c h e r d e p lu s e n p lu s le b o u d d h is m e v e r s la m o r a le p u r e .” 41

Y o n e o I s h ii’s v e r s io n , w h ic h d is c u s s e d th e r e je c t io n o f th e Traiphum c o s ­

m o lo g ic a l h ie r a r c h y , c la im e d th a t th is r e je c t io n u n d e r m in e d th e t h e o r e t ic a l

b a s e f o r m e r it - m a k in g a n d r e b ir t h in p o p u la r B u d d h is m . Is h ii s u g g e s t e d th a t

M o n g k u t in s titu t e d s u c h r e fo r m s in o r d e r to d e fe n d B u d d h is m f r o m p r e s ­

s u r e s o f W e s t e r n c iv iliz a t io n . T h u s th is s t r ip p in g o f “ h e t e r o d o x a c c r e t io n s ”

a n d “ f o lk b e lie fs ” b e c a m e fo r h im a c u ltu r a l e x p r e s s io n o f a n e w p r o t o n a ­

tio n a lis m in a u g u r a t e d t o b e t t e r a c c o m m o d a t e th e W e s t .42 H e r e M o n g k u t

w a s s e e n a s s t a te s m a n , s tra te g is t, a n d t h o r o u g h ly m o d e m b y a t t e m p t in g to

fo r g e a B u d d h is m in a c c o r d w it h W e s t e r n id e a s o f n a t io n h o o d .
 In s t ill a n o t h e r e x a m p le , W illia m B r a d le y d e s c r ib e d M o n g k u t a s a n

in t e lle c t u a l h e r o o f t h e t r u e a n t im a g ic a l “ r a t io n a lis m ” o f p u r e B u d d h is t

t e a c h i n g . 43 F o r h im M o n g k u t w a s p r im a r ily a n a p o lo g is t , a m e r c e n a r y o f

t r u t h g u n n in g d o w n in t e lle c t u a l t h r e a ts fo r t h e p r o t e c t io n o f t h e p u r e d o c ­

tr in e .

F in a lly , C r a i g R e y n o l d s r e a d M o n g k u t ’s r e fo r m s in a m u c h m o r e c a r e ­

fu l a n d n u a n c e d w a y . N e v e r t h e le s s , h e c o n s id e r e d M o n g k u t ’s a t ta c k s o n

m y t h o lo g y , e s p e c ia lly in th e Traiphum, a s a c le a r d e m a r c a t io n o f a p o s it iv is -

tic m o v e m e n t t h a t h a s c o n t in u e d t h r o u g h t o t h e p r e s e n t . W h a t is m o r e , h e

a lle g e d th a t t h e d is m is s a l o f t h e Traiphum a s e x c e s s iv e ly s u p e r s t it io u s s h a t­

t e r e d t h e t r a d it io n a l T h e r a v a d a h ie r a r c h y o f e x i s t e n c e . 44 T a m b ia h s p e c if i­

c a lly d is p u t e d t h is c la im a s o v e r s im p l i f i e d , 45 a n d L u c ie n H a n k s s h o w e d h o w

t h e t r a d it io n a l h ie r a r c h y is s t ill o p e r a t io n a l, m e r e ly c o n c e a le d in r e la t io n s o f

p o w e r a n d m e r it - m a k i n g . 46 T h e fa c t th a t R e y n o l d s s a w t h e d e m o lit io n o f

t h e Traiphum a s t h e s ta r t o f a u n ilin e a r p o s it iv is m is s t r ik in g , a n d in d ic a t iv e

o f t h e v e r y b ia s illu s t r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t th e e x a m p le s c it e d h e r e . It is s t r ik in g

f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s : fir s t , it is o la t e s a s in g le t e x t u a l in t e r p r e t a t io n a n d ta k e s it

a s n o r m a t iv e f o r a n e n t ir e c u lt u r e a n d f o r t h e e n t ir e h is t o r y o f N e w S ia m ;

s e c o n d , it a g a in c a s ts M o n g k u t in t h e r o le o f p io n e e r o f r a t io n a lit y , th e

m o n o lit h ic q u a lit y o f w h i c h is d is p u t e d h e r e ; t h ir d , R e y n o l d s im p lie s th a t

a s c ie n t ific w o r l d v i e w b e g a n t o d is p la c e t h e t r a d it io n a l, r e lig io u s o n e w it h

th e c o u r t ’ s r e je c t io n o f t h e Traiphum c o s m o lo g y . S u c h a t h e o r y t o o n e a t ly

e x p la in s a c u lt u r a l s h ift w it h o u t a c c o u n t in g f o r th e v a r ia n c e w it h in th a t c u l­

t u r e , a c r o s s , f o r e x a m p le , c la s s lin e s . M o r e o v e r , it a s s u m e s a c h a n g e o f

w o r l d v i e w (a r e lig io u s a n d c o g n it iv e s h ift) o n th e b a s is o f w h a t m a y h a v e

b e e n la r g e ly a n a c t o f d ip lo m a t ic s a v v y . E . P . T h o m p s o n , w r it in g a b o u t th e

“ d e c lin e ” o f m a g ic in e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u r y E u r o p e , e lo q u e n t ly d e s c r ib e s th e

p r o fo u n d p r o b le m s w it h t h is u n if ie d id e a o f a c u lt u r e a n d a c a u s e :

One may suggest, very tentatively, that the presupposition o f a uni­

linear, progressive process o f “ decline” (of magic) may be unhelpful. The
Fascism o f this century reminds us that progressive enlightenment does
not always move in one way. And while no analogy is intended from this,
it may set us on our guard against the impression that eighteenth century
intellectual development was necessarily unilinear (did magic “ decline”
or did it change its form?) or that changes in reputable literate belief nec­
essarily communicated themselves to the poor and the illiterate by a
process o f seeping-down.47

T h o m p s o n w a r n s a g a in s t t h e d a n g e r s o f a s s u m in g a u n ilin e a r d e v e lo p m e n t

o f “ r a t io n a lit y ,” a n d th a t, m o r e o ft e n th a n n o t , th e o ld c o s m o lo g y p e r s is ts

in a n e w f o r m , e s p e c ia lly a t th e le v e l o f p o p u la r p r a c t ic e .
 In s u m , it a p p e a rs th a t th e s e b io g r a p h ic a l a c c o u n ts c r e a t e d a n e v e n t o u t o f

M o n g k u t ’s d is m is s a l o f th e Traiphum a s m e r e s u p e r s titio n a n d e m p t y r it u a l. B y

s e e in g th is e v e n t a s th e o r ig in o f th e N e w S ia m , th e s e e ffo r ts d id n o t fo c u s o n

th e w a y s in w h ic h , e v e n in th e p e r s o n o f M o n g k u t h im s e lf, “ O l d ” a n d “ N e w ”

c o n t in u e d t o c o m in g le a s c la im s to a u t h o r it y in v o k e d fo r d iv e r s e p u r p o s e s .

T h e p ic t u r e o f M o n g k u t d is t ille d f r o m t h e s e d e s c r ip t io n s is o f a r u le r

w h o w a s le a d in g a m o v e m e n t f r o m p o p u la r , s u p e r s t it io u s r e lig io n to t r u e ,

p u r e r e lig io n . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f p o p u la r r e lig io n h e r e w a s a s s u m e d t o b e

m a g ic a l, r it u a lis t ic , a n d c e r e m o n ia l, w h e r e a s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f p u r e r e lig io n

w a s t a k e n a s m o r a l, r a t io n a l, lo g ic a l, a n d m e r e ly o n e s t e p s h y o f a s c ie n t ific

w o r l d v i e w . L a s t, t h is m o v e m e n t w a s s e e n a s f o r t h e g o o d o f t h e s ta te .

T h a t t h e s e s e c o n d a r y d e s c r ip t io n s o f M o n g k u t a r e s o c o n s is t e n t is n o t

t o o s u r p r is in g s in c e m o s t o f t h e b io g r a p h e r s ’ s o u r c e s a n d p r e s u p p o s it io n s

a r e s im ila r . M o r e o v e r , t h e y p r o b a b ly c h o s e t o r e p r e s e n t M o n g k u t , t o m a k e

h im a n e v e n t in W e s t e r n h is t o r y , f o r s im ila r r e a s o n s . S o m e o f t h e lik e lie r

o n e s w e r e e n u m e r a t e d a b o v e . T h e s e a u t h o r s d o d iffe r in t h e d e g r e e o f

in v e s t m e n t t h e y s e e m t o h a v e in r e c o g n iz in g in M o n g k u t a fa m ilia r “ r a t io ­

n a lit y .” W h e n G r is w o ld , f o r e x a m p le , r e n d e r s M o n g k u t ’ s m e d it a t io n a s

“ s e lf - im p o s e d p s y c h o a n a ly s is ” a n d “ lo g ic a l s e q u e n c in g ,” t h is s e e m s a m o r e

r id ic u lo u s s t r e t c h th a n s o m e o f t h e o t h e r s u n d e r t a k e . T h e c a r ic a t u r e is n o t

o n ly G r is w o ld ’s, h o w e v e r ; t a k e n in t h e ir t o t a lit y , a ll o f t h e a c c o u n t s s e le c ­

t i v e ly im p r e s s c e r t a in fe a t u r e s a n d b e g in t o r e a d lik e a d e s c r ip t io n o f

V o lt a ir e : M o n g k u t a s t h e g e n t le m a n , t h e s c ie n t ific d a b b le r , t h e c o s m o p o li­

t a n , t h e d e m o c r a t , th e lib e r a l, th e m is c h ie v o u s c o n fo u n d e r o f p r ie s ts .

A ll c a r ic a t u r e s a r e lit t e r e d w it h h a lf- t r u t h s . T h e s e c o n d a r y b io g r a p h ie s

b r in g im p o r t a n t a s p e c ts o f M o n g k u t to lig h t , b u t t h e y r e p r e s e n t o n ly s e le c t e d

a s p e c t s a n d a p r e s c r ib e d n o t io n o f “ r a t io n a lit y .” T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f

“ r a t io n a lit y ” lim its a fu ll u n d e r s t a n d in g o f M o n g k u t ’s r e lig io u s e x p r e s s io n .

M o r e im p o r t a n t ly , th e p r e d ic t a b le s t e r e o t y p in g o f M o n g k u t a s “ r a t io n a l”

lik e th e W e s t p e r p e t u a t e s a p o s it iv is t v ie w o f T h a i r e lig io u s d e v e lo p m e n t

f r o m s u p e r s t it io n to s c ie n c e , f o r w h ic h M o n g k u t p la y s th e m a s c o t .

A n o th er* Vfecu: T h e A c t s o f th e K in g
T h r o u g h o u t t h is e s s a y , a llu s io n s h a v e b e e n m a d e to t h e d iffic u lt ie s w it h th e

a s c r ip t io n o f a s im p lis t ic , W e s t e r n - o r ie n t e d “ r a t io n a lit y ” t o M o n g k u t ’s life .

In t h e s t o r y o f th e e c lip s e , f o r e x a m p le , th e p r o b le m o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io ­

n a lit y ” w a s s e t u p b y c o n t r a s t in g h is r e f o r m in g a n d s c ie n t ific z e a l w it h h is

in t e r e s t in a s t r o lo g y , h is c o n t in u a t io n o f c e r t a in B r a h m a n ic a n d / o r p o p u la r

r it u a l p r a c t ic e s in h is p e r s o n a l h a b its , a n d t h e f o r m o f h is d e a t h . In t h is s e c ­

t io n , e x c e r p t s o f th e k in g ’s o w n le tte r s a n d o ffic ia l r e in s t it u t io n s o f p u b lic

r it u a ls a r e e n lis t e d t o fu r t h e r e x p lo r e t h e t w is t s o f h is p a r t ic u la r “ r a t io n a lit y .”
 S e v e r a l le tte r s a d d r e s s t h e k in g ’s v ie w o f r e lig io n a n d h o w it w a s t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s c o n s is t e n t w it h a s c ie n t ific , m a t e r ia lis t w o r l d v i e w . T o a M r .

a n d M r s . E d d y o f N e w Y o r k , M o n g k u t w r o t e , “ A ll o w m e t o s a y t r u ly

w it h o u t a n y n e a r c a s e o f f a ls e h o o d o r a n ig m a a s t h e t r u t h is m o s t im p o r t a n t

s u b je c t o f a ll r e lig io n in t h e w o r l d .” L a t e r in t h e s a m e le t t e r h e a d d e d :

But I cannot receive you such advice (to convert) as my faith is but
that morality and virtues o f action and mind which were subjects o f all
religions o f whole world is to be proper course for obtain eternal happi­
ness. . . .
Here are many gentlemen who formerly believed in the cosmogony
and cosmography according to Brahmanical works which the old ancient
Buddhist authors o f books have adopted to their system without hesita­
tion. . . . N ow the skillful gentlemen and wise men o f our country gen­
erally believed all foresaid (European) sciences.48

In t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s , M o n g k u t m a k e s c le a r h is fe e lin g s th a t a ll r e lig io n s a r e

tr u e in s o fa r a s t h e ir m o r a lit y a n d v ir t u e s o f a c t io n a n d m in d a r e t r u e . H e

a ls o s ta te s h is v ie w , a p p a r e n t ly o n e c o m m o n a m o n g t h e e d u c a t e d e lit e o f

S ia m a t th a t t im e , th a t h is u n d e r s t a n d in g o f th e w o r l d is in f o r m e d b y th e

s c ie n t if ic , E u r o p e a n p r in c ip le s o f p h y s ic a l m a t t e r o v e r a n d a g a in s t th e

a n c ie n t B r a h m a n ic c o s m o lo g y . Y e t t h is s t a n c e is in fa c t n o t a t a ll c le a r in

M o n g k u t ’ s r e ig n . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e B r a h m a n ic a lly fo r m u la t e d c o s m o l­

o g y is , a s w ill b e illu s t r a t e d , s o m e t im e s q u it e p r o m in e n t in h is k in g s h ip .

T h e n t o o , in t w o le t t e r s M o n g k u t w r o t e t o P o p e P iu s I X , h e g a v e in d ic a ­

t io n th a t h is ( M o n g k u t ’s) id e a o f r e lig io n w a s n o t b a s e d o n ly in m o r a lit y

a n d v ir t u e s o f a c t io n a n d m in d .

In t h e t w o le t t e r s , M o n g k u t o p e n s w it h a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e

“ S u p e r a g e n c y o f t h e U n i v e r s e ” : “ F r o m R a m a I V , k in g b y t h e b le s s in g o f

th e S u p e r a g e n c y o f t h e U n i v e r s e . ” 49 W h e t h e r th is w a s a m e r e ly d ip lo m a t ic

a c c o m m o d a t io n to t h e p o p e o r a n a c t u a l m e t a p h y s ic o f M o n g k u t ’s t h o u g h t

is n o t c le a r a n d w ill b e t a k e n u p a g a in in t h e d is c u s s io n o n m e r it a n d karma
b e lo w . F o r n o w it is e n o u g h t o n o t e th a t in M o n g k u t ’s d is a v o w a l o f g o d s

a n d s im u lt a n e o u s a ffir m a t io n o f t h e “ S u p e r a g e n c y o f t h e U n i v e r s e ,” h e is

s e t t in g u p a “ r a t io n a lit y ” th a t w o r k s b y a n a lo g y t o la w s o f m a t t e r a n d y e t is

d e c is iv e ly n o n m a t e r ia l.

M o n g k u t ’s in s is t e n c e o n m e r it a n d karma as fu n d a m e n t a l p r o p e r t ie s o f

th e w o r ld , a n a lo g o u s to p h y s ic a l p r o p e r t ie s b u t a t t h e s a m e t im e d is t in c t

f r o m t h e m , d is t a n c e d h is “ r a t io n a lit y ” fr o m th a t o f W e s t e r n s c ie n c e . H e

c o n s id e r e d it a c o n s is t e n t p o s it io n th a t, s in c e t h e r e a r e la w s t o g o v e r n th e

p h y s ic a l u n iv e r s e , t h e r e m u s t a ls o b e la w s t o g o v e r n m o r a lit y a n d to a c c o u n t

fo r d if f e r e n c e a m o n g b e in g s . I f th e d iffe r e n c e s b e t w e e n p e r s o n s a r e m e r e ly
r a n d o m , a ft e r a ll, h o w c a n th is b e s c ie n t ific , s in c e s c ie n c e m e a n t th e o p p o ­

s ite o f r a n d o m n e s s ? S c ie n c e , t o h im , a b o v e a ll m e a n t th a t w h ic h is s y s t e m ­

a t ic o r a v a ila b le to e x p la n a t io n . T h e la w s o f th e m o r a l s y s t e m a r e a c c o u n t e d

f o r in th e c o n c e p t s o f m e r it - m a k in g , karma, a n d th e c a u s a l n e x u s o f d e p e n ­

d e n t o r ig in a t io n . M o n g k u t s a w t h e s e a s in o n e s e n s e a k in t o p h y s ic a l la w s ,

b u t in a n o t h e r s e n s e a s c o m p le t e ly b e y o n d t h e k e n o f r a t io n a l t h o u g h t . “ T h e

S u p e r a g e n c y o f t h e W o r l d ,” as c it e d f r o m h is le t t e r to P iu s I X , c a n th u s b e

in t e r p r e t e d a s h is e ffo r t t o n a m e th is n o n m a t e r ia l b u t u t t e r ly s y s t e m a t ic

m e t a p h y s ic a l p r in c ip le . Karma a n d m e r it w e r e t h u s s e e n b y t h o s e in

M o n g k u t ’s c ir c le a s fu n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s o f e x is t e n c e a n d “ r a t io n a lit y ”

it s e lf. T h e r e f o r e , a lt h o u g h n e w W e s t e r n s c ie n c e d is m a n t le d , f o r M o n g k u t ’ s

c o t e r ie a t le a s t, t h e a n c ie n t c o s m o lo g y , th is s c ie n c e w a s n o t c o n s id e r e d a s

r e le v a n t to t h e B u d d h is t e t h ic a l s y s t e m o r to karma.50 A g a in , t h is r e fle c t s a

d is t in c t “ r a t io n a lit y ” v is - a - v is W e s t e r n “ r a t io n a lit y ,” th e in e q u a lit y o f w h i c h

is p r o b le m a t ic f o r th e r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f M o n g k u t a s “ r a t io n a l e n lig h t e n e r .”

I f t h e le tte r s o f t h e k in g b e g in t o a n s w e r s o m e o f t h e q u e s t io n s a b o u t

M o n g k u t ’s p a r t ic u la r “ r a t io n a lit y ,” h is c r e a t io n a n d r e in s t it u t io n o f c e r t a in

p u b lic r it u a ls s u g g e s ts o t h e r p o t e n t ia l s o lu t io n s t o t h e p u z z le . A lr e a d y m e n ­

t io n e d a b o v e is t h e in s t a n c e o f M o n g k u t ’s r it u a l b a t h in g a t t h e p r e c is e

m o m e n t o f th e o n s e t o f th e e c lip s e , a n d th a t t h is s e e m s s u r p r is in g g iv e n h is

z e a lo u s p u r s u it o f a p u r e B u d d h is m p u r g e d o f a ll s u p e r s t it io u s B r a h m a n ic

m y t h s a n d r it u a ls . S o m e s c h o la r s h a v e p r o p o s e d th a t B r a h m a n ic r it u a ls a n d

th e c o s m o lo g y o f th e Traiphum d id n o t d is a p p e a r u n d e r M o n g k u t a t a ll, b u t

r a t h e r w e r e m o d ifie d a n d t r a n s f o r m e d .51 I n d e e d , it a p p e a r s th a t M o n g k u t

r e in s t it u t e d a n c ie n t r it u a ls a s w e ll a s in a u g u r a t e d n e w o n e s . F o r in s t a n c e ,

M o n g k u t r e c o n s t it u t e d t h e fe s t iv a l o f S iv a ’s N i g h t ( Sivaratri) , w h i c h h a d n o t

b e e n p e r f o r m e d s in c e th e fa ll o f A y u d h y a in 1 7 6 7 . 52 A m o r e w e ll k n o w n

e x a m p le o f a B r a h m a n ic r e s u r r e c t io n is th a t o f M o n g k u t p e r s o n a lly p la y in g

S iv a o n M o u n t K a ila s a d u r in g h is s o n C h u la lo n g k o m ’ s t o n s u r e c e r e m o n y ,

a r o le n o t p e r f o r m e d b y a k in g s in c e t h e S u k h o t h a i p e r io d ( t h ir t e e n t h -

fift e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ) . 53 In s te a d , t h e k in g h a d a lw a y s a p p o in t e d a p r in c e to a c t

a s s u b s t it u t e . T h a t M o n g k u t s h o u ld h a v e c h o s e n t o p la y S iv a f o r

C h u la lo n g k o r n ’s t o n s u r in g is a r e m a r k a b le r e in s t it u t io n o f a n a n c ie n t

S ia m e s e t r a d it io n s t e e p e d in B r a h m a n ic m y t h o lo g y : th e r e c e p t io n b y S iv a o f

G a n e s h a , n o w a n n o in t e d w it h n e w , r o y a l s ta tu s . It is e s p e c ia lly s u r p r is in g

s in c e , a s H . G . W a le s s e e s it , th e t o n s u r e c e r e m o n y h a d f o r c e n t u r ie s b e e n

a r iv a l in it ia t io n t o th e B u d d h is t n o v ic e o r d in a t io n (samanera). In th is c a s e ,

t h e n , it w o u l d s e e m th a t M o n g k u t a c t iv e ly s u p p o r t e d a B r a h m a n ic r it u a l

t r a d it io n e v e n to t h e p o s s ib le d e t r im e n t t o th e B u d d h is t n o v ic e o r d in a t io n .

T h e lo g ic a l a r g u m e n t f o r s u c h c h a n g e s w o u l d s e e m t o b e r e la t e d t o th e

k in g s h ip a n d M o n g k u t ’s d e s ir e t o e s ta b lis h c le a r p o lit ic a l a u t h o r it y . B u t

M o n g k u t d id n o t n e e d t o c o n s o lid a t e h is a u t h o r it y in S ia m w it h s u c h a
r it u a l v a lid a t io n , n o r d id C h u la lo n g k o r n ( R a m a V ) . B o t h e n jo y e d u n r i­

v a le d p o p u la r it y a n d a u t h o r it y . F o r w h o s e b e n e f it , t h e n , d id M o n g k u t

m a k e s u c h a b o ld c h a n g e f r o m c o u r t t r a d it io n o f th e p r io r s e v e r a l c e n t u r ie s ?

F o r t h e W e s t , p e r h a p s . A s m u c h a s M o n g k u t w a s c u r io u s a b o u t W e s t e r n

s c ie n c e a n d t e c h n o lo g y , h e w a s e q u a lly c o n c e r n e d t o m a in t a in a n d d e fe n d

S ia m e s e t r a d it io n , “ p u r e ” B u d d h is m b e in g o n ly a p a r t o f t h is a m a lg a m ,

a g a in s t W e s t e r n e n c r o a c h m e n t , b o t h c u lt u r a l a n d t e r r it o r ia l. A t le a s t s o m e

o f M o n g k u t ’ s r e in s t it u t io n s o f B r a h m a n i c r it e s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

r e a s s e r t io n s o f S ia m e s e t r a d it io n in r e s p o n s e to m o d e r n iz a t io n . T h e p o lit i­

c a l e x p e d ie n c y o f e s t a b lis h in g a n d le g it im a t in g a u t h o r it y o v e r a n d a g a in s t

t h e W e s t , “ th e c r o c o d ile a n d th e w h a l e , ” 54 fit s a n o t h e r p ie c e o f t h e p u z z le

o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” in t o p la c e .

R e t h in k in g t h e “R a t i o n a li t y ” o f M o n g k u t
T h is e s s a y b e g a n w it h t h e s u g g e s t io n th a t t h e o r ie s o f r e lig io n s o m e t im e s fa il

to a c c o u n t f o r r e lig io u s in d iv id u a ls . It e n d s w it h t w o m o d e ls th a t a r e b o t h

b r o a d e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s t h e r a n g e o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” a n d h a v e

n o n e e d t o e s s e n t ia liz e M o n g k u t , s in c e t h e y p r e s u m e r e lig io n t o b e t r a n s ­

fo r m a t io n a l r a t h e r t h a n e v o lu t io n a r y , a n d m u lt id im e n s io n a l r a t h e r th a n

u n ilin e a l. F in a lly , I a t t e m p t t o m o v e b e y o n d t h e s e t w o m o d e ls t o n e w

g r o u n d in t h e b io g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f M o n g k u t .

In World Conqueror and World Renouncer, T a m b ia h a r t ic u la t e d a s im ila r ­

it y a t t h e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l le v e l b e t w e e n s c r ip t u r a lis m (a “ r a t io n a l” r e li­

g io u s p r a c t ic e ) a n d o t h e r s o r t s o f r it u a lis t ic a c t i v i t y . 55 T a m b ia h n o t e d th a t

s c r ip t u r a lis m , th e s e a r c h f o r p r is t in e , p u r e , a n d o r ig in a l t e x t s a n d p r a c t ic e s ,

c a n it s e lf t a k e th e fo r m o f r it u a lis t ic a c t iv it y . B u t s in c e t h e r e is n o a c t u a l

c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r g e o g r a p h ic a l p o in t o f o r ig in , a n d s o n o w h e r e t o “ a r r iv e ”

in s u c h a q u e s t , t h e n s c r ip t u r a lis m , a p a r t o f M o n g k u t ’ s “ r a t io n a lit y ,” c a n b e

v ie w e d a s a r it u a l b e h a v io r p e r f o r m e d f o r t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a s u b je c t iv e

s t a te . In th e T h e r a v a d a c o n t e x t , t h e s u b je c t iv e s ta te w o u l d b e a n e x p e r ie n c e

o f p u r it y a n d m e r it . T h i s p e r s p e c t iv e s e e m s t o i m p ly t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

n a t u r e o f r it u a l: r it u a l c o u ld b e a n y n u m b e r o f b e h a v io r s p e r f o r m e d to

a c h ie v e a s u b je c t iv e s ta te o f p u r it y a n d m e r it . A s s u c h , r it u a l n e v e r d ie s b u t

m e r e ly c h a n g e s f o r m . O n e m ig h t t a k e a s a n e x a m p le th e S w i n g i n g F e s t iv a l

in T h a ila n d : A c c o r d in g t o W a le s , t h is w a s o r ig in a lly “ m a g i c ,” a r it u a l to

c o e r c e S u r y a , t h e H in d u s u n - g o d , in t o f u lf illin g th e f u n c t io n o f b r in g in g

fo r t h t h e c r o p s t h r o u g h t h e p r in c ip le o f im it a t io n . L a t e r th e r it u a l c a m e to

b e s e e n a s a m u s e m e n t f o r S iv a w h o , d u r in g h is t e n - d a y v is it , w a s e n t e r ­

t a in e d b y w a t c h in g t h e s w in g in g . U n d e r M o n g k u t , t h e S w i n g i n g F e s t iv a l

w a s g iv e n n e w f o r m w h e n t w o a c c r e t io n s w e r e a d d e d : T h e k in g p a r t ic i­

p a t e d b y c o m i n g t o w a t c h , a n d f o o d o f f e r in g s w e r e p la c e d b e f o r e th e
E m e r a ld B u d d h a . In t h e s e t r a n s fo r m a t io n s , n o s im p le , u n ilin e a r d e v e lo p ­

m e n t t o w a r d “ r a t io n a lit y ” c a n b e d is c e r n e d . N o r c o u ld o n e c la im th a t th e

fir s t m a n ife s t a t io n w a s “ s u p e r s t it io u s ” a n d th e la s t, u n d e r M o n g k u t , w a s

“ r a t io n a l.” R a t h e r , e a c h t r a n s fo r m a t io n h a d m u lt ip le le v e ls o f m e a n in g . In

r e g a r d t o M o n g k u t , t h e n , h is “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f s c r ip t u r a lis m o u g h t n o t b e

c o n s id e r e d a n t it h e t ic a l t o B r a h m a n ic r it u a l, a s t r o lo g ic a l b e lie fs , o r “ p o p u ­

la r ” T h a i r e lig io u s p r a c t ic e s . A ll o f t h e s e a c ts w e r e b e h a v io r s m a n ip u la t e d

f o r t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a d e s ir e d s u b je c t iv e e x p e r ie n c e . T h e v e r y id e a o f

“ r a t io n a lit y ” a s d is t in c t f r o m r it u a l o r “ m a g ic ” is t o b e s u s p e c t e d h e r e .

T h is a r g u m e n t r e s o lv e s t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n s in M o n g k u t ’ s “ r a t io n a lit y ”

b y d e c o n s t r u c t in g “ r a t io n a lit y ” a s a c o m p a r a t iv e c a t e g o r y w h a t s o e v e r .

B u t w h i le t h e p o in t is w e ll t a k e n th a t “ r a t io n a lit y ” m a y in c lu d e v a r y ­

in g d o m a in s o f m e a n in g , th e t e r m c a n n o t b e d is m is s e d a s m e r e ly a n a c a d e ­

m ic , a r t ific ia l, o r a r b it r a r y d e s ig n a t io n . T h e c o n c e p t o f “ r a t io n a lit y ” w a s a

s ig n ific a n t o n e , n o t o n ly in t h e r h e t o r ic o f t h e W e s t e r n m is s io n a r ie s to

S ia m , b u t w a s a ls o u s e d b y M o n g k u t in d ia lo g u e s a b o u t r e l i g i o n . 56

“ R a t i o n a li t y ” d e n o t e d t o m a n y T h a is , a s it d id to t h e ir W e s t e r n c o n t e m ­

p o r a r ie s , a s e t o f v a lu e s r e la t in g t o lo g ic , c o n s is t e n c y , a n d c o h e r e n c e . T h u s

t h e p r o b le m o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” c a n n o t b e d is s o lv e d m e r e ly b y

d e c o n s t r u c t in g t h e t e r m .

C h r is t in e G r a y o ffe r e d a n a lte r n a tiv e s t r a te g y fo r d e a lin g w it h th e a p p a r ­

e n t p a r a d o x e s in M o n g k u t ’s life in h e r id e a o f a “ s u p e r io r r a t i o n a l i t y . ” 57 G r a y ’ s

“ T h e P o lit ic s o f th e M id d le W a y ” s h o w s h o w M o n g k u t ’s life f o llo w e d th e

s a m e d ia le c tic a l s t r u c tu r e a s G o t a m a ’s, a s e rie s o f o p p o s it io n s f o llo w in g a p a r ­

a d ig m o f ( i) le a r n in g : “ th e t r a n s m is s io n o f k n o w le d g e a n d / o r s k ills ” ; (2 ) m a s ­

t e r y : “ th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s e s k ills (a n d w it h th is d e v e lo p m e n t , th e c r e a t io n

o f h ie r a r c h ic a l r e la tio n s a m o n g c h a r a c te r s ) ” ; a n d (3 ) r e n u n c ia t io n : “ a r e n u n c i­

a t io n o f a g iv e n s e t o f e x c h a n g e r e la t io n s ” ( w h ic h ) “ t h e n s ig n a ls th e b e g in n in g

o f a n e w d e v e lo p m e n t a l c y c l e . ” 58 P o w e r is g a in e d , G r a y c la im s , in th e r e n u n ­

c ia t io n y e t c o n c o m it a n t s y n t h e s is o f th e k n o w le d g e m a s t e r e d . F r o m th e

h ig h e r p o s it io n , th e v ir t u o s o is th e n fr e e to u s e a t w ill a n y o f th e t r a n s c e n d e d

s ta g e s . S o , fo r e x a m p le , M o n g k u t s t u d ie d fir s t V in a y a a n d th e n s u tta te x ts , a n d

t h e n r e s o lv e d t h e ir “ o p p o s it io n ” in t o a h ig h e r s y n t h e s is b y b e c o m in g b o t h a n

e m in e n t t e x t u a l s c h o la r a n d a r e fo r m e r o f th e V in a y a . U lt im a t e ly , G r a y c la im s ,

M o n g k u t t r ie d to r e s o lv e th e c a t e g o r ie s s u p e r s titio n a n d s c ie n c e in to a s u p e ­

r io r “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f h is o w n : “ T h r o u g h a s e rie s o f a r g u m e n t s h e o p p o s e d E a s t

to W e s t , s u p e r s titio u s to s c ie n t ific , e x p lo it a t iv e to n o n - e x p lo it a t iv e , im p lic id y

p o in t in g o u t h o w th e T h a m m a y u t in c o r p o r a t e d th e b e s t q u a lit ie s o f e a c h , a n d

t r a n s c e n d e d b o t h o n th e g r o u n d s o f a s u p e r io r r a t i o n a l i t y . ” 59 F r o m th e p o s i­

t io n o f th e v ir t u o s o ’s s u p e r io r “ r a t io n a lit y ,” o n e b a s e d o n th e m id d le w a y

b e t w e e n S ia m e s e t r a d it io n , th e P a h c a n o n , a n d W e s t e r n s c ie n c e , M o n g k u t

w a s fr e e to u s e id e a s fr o m e a c h w it h o u t c o n t r a d ic t io n .
 H o w e v e r , G r a y c o n s id e r e d “ r a t io n a lit y ” o n ly in t h e c o n t e x t o f

M o n g k u t ’s d ia lo g u e s w it h Je s s e C a s w e ll, th e A m e r ic a n m is s io n a r y . B y a r g u ­

in g th a t M o n g k u t c o o p t e d th e id e a o f “ r a t io n a lit y ” in t o th e “ s u p e r io r r a t io ­

n a li t y ” o f t h e T h a m m a y u t s e c t , b a s e d o n its “ u n s u p e r s t it io u s ” a n d

“ n o n - e x p lo it a t iv e ” c h a r a c t e r , s h e r e ifie d a m o n o lit h ic n o t io n o f “ r a t io n a lit y ”

t h a t is p r e s u m e d to c o m e fr o m th e W e s t . A t tim e s G r a y e v e n v e e r e d t o w a r d

t h e k in d o f h a g io g r a p h ie s o f s c ie n c e d is p u t e d h e r e . B y d e s c r ib in g M o n g k u t

a s th e “ v ir t u o s o ” w h o s e “ s u p e r io r r a t io n a lit y ” is b a s e d o n t h e v ir t u e s o f

b e in g n o n s u p e r s t it io u s a n d n o n o p p r e s s iv e (p e r h a p s th e t w o p r in c ip a l b a n n e r s

o f t h e W e s t e r n E n lig h t e n m e n t ) , s h e fa ile d t o e m p h a s iz e t h e u n iq u e , c r e a t iv e ,

a n d d is t in c t ly T h a i n a t u r e o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” o u t lin e d h e r e .

I w o u ld lik e t o p r o p o s e th a t “ r a t io n a lit y ” is n e it h e r a m e r e c o n s t r u c t

th a t c a n b e u t t e r ly d is m a n d e d n o r a s in g le , r e ifie d e n t it y th a t c a n b e c o o p t e d

a c r o s s c u lt u r e s . R a t h e r , “ r a t io n a lit y ” is b o t h a c o n c e p t a n d a c o n s t r u c t a n d

t h e r e f o r e b a la n c e s p r e c a r io u s ly b e t w e e n s h a r e d a n d n e g o t ia t e d q u a lit ie s .

“ R a t i o n a li t y ” m u s t b e s h a r e d t o b e m e a n in g f u l a t a ll. F u r t h e r m o r e , it m u s t

h a v e a s h a r e d c h a r a c t e r th a t is c o m m e n s u r a t e a c r o s s c u lt u r e s . S u c h a d e fin ­

it io n o f “ r a t io n a l” m a y h a v e t h r e e s h a r e d a s p e c t s : ( i ) lo g i c : “ r a t io n a l”

t h o u g h t tr ie s to m a k e s e n s e o f t h in g s ; (2 ) c o n s is t e n c y : “ r a t io n a l” t h o u g h t

tr ie s t o m a k e s e n s e o f t h in g s in s u c h a w a y a s t o b e r e p lic a b le ; it m a k e s

t h in g s m e a n in g f u l o v e r t im e ; a n d (3 ) c o h e r e n c e : “ r a t io n a l” t h o u g h t m a k e s

t h in g s m e a n in g f u l, o v e r t im e , a s t h e y r e la te t o e a c h o t h e r . It is th is s h a r e d

q u a lit y th a t a llo w s u s t o a s k a b o u t t h e p a r t ic u la r s h a p e o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io ­

n a lit y ,” b e c a u s e it p r e s u p p o s e s h is w o r d s a n d a c t io n s m a k e s e n s e t o h im a n d

t o h is c o n t e x t , a n d th a t t h e r e is a t le a s t lim it e d a c c e s s t o t h is s e n s e f o r u s b y

v ir t u e o f a s h a r e d c o n c e p t u a l a b ilit y .

O n th e o t h e r h a n d , “ r a t io n a lit y ” h a s a n e g o t ia t e d a s p e c t th a t is b a s e d

o n th e p a r t ic u la r e x ig e n c ie s o f o n e ’s e x p e r ie n c e in t h e w o r ld . T a m b ia h

c it e s J o n E ls t e r o n t h is p o in t : “ W h y s h o u ld in d iv id u a l w a n t s a t is fa c t io n b e

t h e c r it e r io n o f ju s t ic e a n d s o c ia l c h o ic e w h e n in d iv id u a l w a n t s t h e m s e lv e s

m a y b e s h a p e d b y a p r o c e s s th a t p r e e m p t s t h e c h o ic e ? ” E ls t e r , r e fle c t s

T a m b ia h , is a s k in g “ w h y h e s h o u ld t a k e a c c o u n t o f in d iv id u a l p r e fe r e n c e s

a s t h e b u ild in g b lo c k o f r a t io n a lit y , i f a c t o r s in fa c t t e n d t o a d ju s t , a d a p t , a n d

o v e r t im e , c h a n g e t h e ir a s p ir a t io n s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s a c c o r d in g t o t h e p o s s i­

b ilit ie s a n d c ir c u m s t a n c e s th a t t h e y f a c e . ” 60 H e n c e T a m b ia h p a r a p h r a s e s

E ls t e r . “ R a t i o n a li z a t i o n ” is a n a d a p t iv e m e c h a n is m th a t s h a p e s th e p e r c e p ­

t io n o f a s it u a t io n r a t h e r t h a n its e v a lu a t io n .61 T h is d e s c r ib e s w e ll w h a t I a m

c a llin g th e n e g o t ia t e d a s p e c t o f “ r a t io n a lit y ,” w h ic h a d a p ts to s it u a t io n a l

n e e d s a n d m a y b e in t e n s io n w it h t h e s h a r e d m e a n in g .

T h e “ r a t io n a lit y ” o f M o n g k u t r e fle c t s s u c h a t e n s io n b e t w e e n s h a r e d

a n d n e g o t ia t e d m e a n in g s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , a s G r a y m a d e p la in , h e a p p e a le d

to a s h a r e d m e a n in g a n d a s s im ila t e d t h e W e s t e r n m e a n in g in t o w h a t h e
t h o u g h t o f a s t h e “ s u p e r io r r a t io n a lit y ” o f t h e T h a m m a y u t s e c t. T h is a s p e c t

h a s b e e n a m p ly r e p r e s e n t e d a n d in d e e d , I h a v e c la im e d , m a d e in t o a n e v e n t

b y W e s t e r n o b s e r v e r s a n d s e c o n d a r y b io g r a p h e r s . T h e n e g o t ia t e d a s p e c t o f

h is “ r a t io n a lit y ,” h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t s u b m it a s t a m e ly t o la te n in e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y W e s t e r n e v o lu t io n a r y p a r a d ig m s o f r e lig io u s a n d s c ie n t ific d e v e lo p ­

m e n t . T h a t M o n g k u t r e in s t it u t e d a n d c e le b r a t e d , w it h g r e a t p o m p , r it u a ls

th a t h e a t o t h e r t im e s d is d a in e d a s “ e m p t y ” a n d “ s u p e r s t it io u s ” s e e m s c o n ­

fu s in g . T h a t h e m in g le d b e li e f in karma, r e in c a r n a t io n , a n d a “ S u p e r a g e n c y

o f th e U n i v e r s e ” w it h a m a t e r ia lis t v ie w o f t h e p h y s ic a l u n iv e r s e a p p e a r s

c o n t r a d ic t o r y . T h a t h e m o d e le d h is d e a t h o n a h ie r a r c h y o f v a lu e s in w h i c h

c o n t in u e d p h y s ic a l s u r v iv a l is n o t th e u lt im a t e v a lu e s e e m s a c o n t r a s t to h is

p a s s io n f o r t h e d is c o v e r y a n d e lim in a t io n o f p h y s ic a l c a u s e s o f illn e s s ,

a lt h o u g h it m a k e s p e r f e c t s e n s e in te r m s o f B u d d h is t “ r a t io n a l” t h o u g h t . In

fa c t, a ll o f t h e s e e x a m p le s a r e p a r a d o x ic a l o n ly w h e n lo g ic , c o n s is t e n c y , a n d

c o h e r e n c e a r e s e e n a s t h e p r iv a t e d o m a in o f th e W e s t e r n , s c ie n t ific w o r l d ­

v ie w . M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” w a s n e g o t ia t e d b e t w e e n v a r io u s in te r e s ts , o f

w h i c h W e s t e r n s c ie n c e w a s o n ly o n e . It a ls o in c lu d e d h is k i n g s h i p ,62 h i s fe a r

o f c o lo n ia l e n c r o a c h m e n t , a n d h is s o jo u r n a n d r e f u g e in th e T r ip le G e m s : a s

n o v ic e , t h e n a s m o n k a n d a b b o t , a n d fin a lly a s k in g o f t h e dhamma.

B io g r a p h e r s a ls o b o t h s h a r e a n d n e g o t ia t e “ r a t io n a lit y .” In s ig n ific a n t

w a y s t h e e x p lo r a t io n o f M o n g k u t ’s “ r a t io n a lit y ” h a s b e e n r e v e a lin g o f th e

b io g r a p h ic a l p r o c e s s in g e n e r a l. B io g r a p h e r s s h a r e a s e a r c h f o r e x p la n a t io n s

th a t p r o v e c o g e n t o v e r t im e a n d th a t c o h e r e w it h w h a t t h e y k n o w o r

a s s u m e to b e t r u e in t h e ir o w n a n d in n e ig h b o r in g d is c ip lin e s . Y e t a lo n g ­

s id e t h is s h a r e d m e a n in g , t h e r e lie s a ls o t h e “ r a t io n a lit y ” th a t is n e g o t ia t e d

a n d c r e a t e d a c c o r d in g t o th e p a r t ic u la r it y o f e a c h h is t o r ic a l p e r io d . T h e

“ r a t io n a lit y ” o f M o n g k u t d e p ic t e d a c r o s s t h e b io g r a p h ie s o f t h e la s t c e n ­

t u r y , e v id e n t ly c o n s id e r e d s u ffic ie n t in t h e ir t im e , n o w s e e m p a in f u lly in a d ­

e q u a t e a n d o u t d a t e d , t h e ir b ia s e s t r a n s p a r e n t . J u s t a s M o n g k u t ’ s

“ r a t io n a lit y ” o n ly m a k e s s e n s e w h e n s e e n a s n e g o t ia t e d a m o n g th e v a r y in g

a n d s o m e t im e s c o m p e t in g in t e r e s t s o f h is t im e a n d p la c e , s o t h e “ r a t io n a l­

i t y ” o f b io g r a p h y c a n o n ly b e d e c ip h e r e d w h e n f ir m ly lo c a t e d in t h e t im e ,

p la c e , a n d in t e r e s t s o f its p r o d u c t io n : t h e m e a n s b y w h ic h it tu r n s “ h a p ­

p e n in g ” in t o “ e v e n t ” a n d t h e e n d s f o r w h i c h it d o e s s o .

N o te s
1. Malcolm Smith, A Physician at the Court o f Siam (London: Country Life
Ltd., 1947), p. 34.
2. Lucien Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think (French edition, 1920), trans.
Lilian Clare (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), as well as other
works that followed.
 3. Bronislaw Malinowski, Coral Gardens and Their Magic, 2 vols. (New York:
American Book Co., 1935); and more explicitly in Magic, Science, and
Religion and Other Essays (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1948).
4. Stanley J. Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
5. Ibid., pp. 10 5 - 110 .
6. Anna Leonowens, Siamese Harem Life (1873; London: A. Barker, 1952).
7. For instance, many scholars have objected to her contention that Mongkut
had prisoners buried alive at the palace gates in order that their restless
spirits would defend the palace against evil spirits. The practice had long
before fallen into disuse at the Siamese Court.
8. Margaret Landon, Anna and the King of Siam (New York: John Day Co.,
1944)-
9. A. B. Griswold, King Mongkut o f Siam (New York: The Asia Society,
1961), p. 56.
10. Roland Barthes calls this mechanism the creation o f “ myth,” which is seen
to be the collective representation o f mass media; see Roland Barthes,
Image, Music, Text (New York: The Noonday Press, 1977), p. 165.
11. “ Since we are now being constantly abused by the French because we do
not allow ourselves to be placed under their domination like Cambodians,
it is for us to decide what we are going to do; whether to swim upriver to
make friends with the crocodile or to swim out to sea and hang on to the
whale” (from a letter printed in King Mongkut, The King of Siam Speaks,
letters compiled by Seni Pramoj and Kukrit Pramoj (Bangkok: Central
Library, Chulalongkorn University, 1958), pp. 19 1- 19 2 .
12. Frank E. Reynolds and Mani B. Reynolds, trans., Three Worlds According to
King Ruang: A Thai Buddhist Cosmology (Berkeley: Center for South and
Southeast Asian Studies, University o f California, 1982).
13. Stanley J. Tambiah, World Conqueror and World Renouncer (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 2 1 1 - 2 1 4 .
14. I have taken this story from consistent accounts in the following sources
(where there is divergence among them, specific citations are given):
George Bladen Bacon, Siam: The Land of the White Elephant As It Was and
Is (1873; N ew York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1893), PP- 11 8 - 1 2 0 ; R ev.
Dan Beach Bradley, Abstract of the Journal o f Reverend Dan Beach Bradley,
M. D., ed. R ev. George Haws Feltus (Cleveland: Pilgrim Church, 1936),
entry o f August 18, 1868; Griswold, King Mongkut of Siam, pp. 50-53;
Abbot Low Moffat, Mongkut, the King of Siam (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1961), pp. 169—18 1; Smith, Physician at the Court o f Siam, pp. 45-50;
Cawphrajna Thiphakorawong, The Dynastic Chronicles: Bangkok Era, The
F:ourth Reign, B. 11. 2394—2 4 11, trans. Chadin Flood (Tokyo: The Centre
for East Asian Cultural Studies, Tokyo Press, 1965), pp. 532-558.
Griswold, Moffat, and Bacon cite as a common source an “ eyewitness”
account written by an officer in Governor Ord’s entourage at the eclipse.
According to Griswold, it was recorded for publication in Hic Bangkok
 Calendar (1870). I have not been able to locate the original printing o f this
account. See also Henry Alabaster, The Wheel of the Law: Buddhism (18 7 1;
Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1972).
15. Griswold, King Mongkut o f Siam, p. 51.
16. Thiphakorawong, The Dynastic Chronicles, p. 538.
17. Alabaster, The Wheel of the Law, p. 10.
18. Bradley, Journal, entry o f August 18, 1868. See also Smith, Physician at the
Court of Siam, p. 36.
19. Smith, Physician at the Court of Siam, p. 49.
20. Mongkut, Hie King of Siam Speaks, p. 245.
2 1. Moffat, Mongkut, the King of Siam, p. 17 1 .
22. This is particularly conspicuous in the writings o f Smith and Leonowens.
As stated, Leonowens’ work needs to be handled cautiously.
23. Smith, Physician at the Court of Siam, p. 36.
24. T h i p h a k o r a w o n g , The Dynastic Chronicles, p. 95.

25. Constance Wilson, “ State and Society in the Reign o f Mongkut,

18 5 1-18 6 8 : Thailand on the Eve o f Modernization” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell
University, 1970), p. 421.
26. T h ip h a k o r a w o n g , The Dynastic Chronicles, p p . 3 7 4 — 3 7 5 .

27. Ibid., pp. 5 15 - 5 16 .

28. Ibid., p. 538.
29. Marshall Sahlins, Islands of History (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press,
1985), p. xiv, emphasis in the original.
30. See Phillip Almond, The British Discovery of Buddhism (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1988).
31. Ibid., see esp. p. 94 on Buddhism and Comtism. Quoted words are Max
Muller’s, said not without irony, according to Almond (p. 3).
32. There are many examples o f Buddhism’s influence on philosophical
developments during the nineteenth century. To cite only two, Almond
has given attention to Buddhism’s role in Comtism (ibid., p. 94), and Guy
Richard Welbon has tried to chart Buddhism’s role in the thought o f
Schopenhauer, Wagner, and Nietzsche ( The Buddhist Nirvana and Its Western
Interpreters [Chicago: University o f Chicago Press, 1968], pp. 154-194).
33. Walter F. Vella, Siam under Rama III (Locust Valley, N. Y .: J. J. Augustin,
1957), P- 36.
34. Bradley, Journal, entry o f Ju ly 1, 1854.
35. Ibid., entry o f September 6, 1856. Note the English-French animosity in
the tone.
36. “ Des son avenement au trone, Sa Majeste s’est occupee de faire exercer
ses troupes a l’europeenne, de creuser des canaux, faires des routes . . .
favoriser les artes, l’industrie et le commerce; elle a etabli une imprimerie
royale; elle accorde la liberte de l’enseignement religieux aux diverses
nations qui composent la population du royaume” (Jean-Baptiste
Pallegoix, Description du Royaume Tai ou Siam [Paris: La Mission de Siam,
1854], p. 10 1).
37- William L. Bradley, “ Prince Mongkut andjesse Caswell,” Journal o f the
Siam Society 54 (1966), p. 39.
38. Griswold, King Mongkut o f Siam, p. 14.
39. Ibid., p. 25. In contrast to Mongkut’s goodness and reason, Griswold saw
the rest o f Siam as full o f pearl-divers, fierce bandits, sea-gypsies, primitives
like shy animals, remote matriarchal communities with grim-faced women
and harems o f men, and pygmies that the Malays hunt for sport (p. 31).
40. “ Les divertissements populaires, les mascarades, les mimique bouffones
qui accompagnaient la ceremonie de l’ordination ou le sermon de la
Mahajati sont condamnes comme inutiles, sinon dangereuses” (Robert
Lingat, “ La Vie Religieuse du R o i Mongkut "Jo urn al o f the Siam Society
20 [1926], p. 128).
41. Ibid., p. 138.
42. Yoneo Ishii, Satigha, State and Society: Thai Buddhism in History, trans. Peter
Hawkes (Honolulu: University o fH aw ai‘i Press, 1986), pp. 149, 159.
43. Bradley, “ Prince Mongkut andjesse Caswell,” p. 31.
44. Craig J. Reynolds, “ The Buddhist Monkhood in 19th Century Thailand”
(Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1973), p. 136.
45. Stanley J. Tambiah, “ The Buddhist Cosmos: Paradise Lost, Gained and
Transcended,” History o f Religions 24 (1984), p. 80.
46. L. M. Hanks, “ Merit and Power in the Thai Social Order,” American
Anthropologist 64 (1962), pp. 12 4 7 -12 6 0 .
47. E. P. Thompson, “ Anthropology and the Discipline o f Historical
Context,” Midland History 1 (1972), p. 34.
48. Mongkut, The King of Siam Speaks, letter o f July 14, 1848.
49. Ibid., letters from 1852 and 1864.
50. Tambiah, “ The Buddhist Cosmos,” pp. 73—84.
51. For instance, see John W. Butt, “ Thai Kingship and Religious Reform
( 1 8th—19th C .),” in Religion and Legitimation o f Power in Thailand, Laos and
Burma, ed. Bardwell Smith (Chambersburg: Anima Books, 1978),
pp. 34- 52 -
52. H. G. Quaritch Wales, Siamese State Ceremonies: Their History and Function
(London: Bernard Quaritch, Ltd., 19 3 1), p. 296.
53. Ibid., p. 135. This was a purification rite in which water is dripped over a
Siva linga and into a yoni (symbolic ofU m a, Siva’s cosmic energy) and
then into pots. In the morning the Brahmans shared a meal, bathed in the
river, and then anointed their heads with the water collected from the
linga in order to wash away sins.
54. See note 1 1 .
55. Tambiah, World Conqueror and World Renouncer, p. 2 1 1 .
56. Christine Gray, “ The Politics o f the Middle Way: A Study o f King
M ongkut’s Monastic Career ( 18 2 4 - 18 5 1) ” (Master’s thesis, University o f
Chicago, 1977), p. 74- 77 -
57. Ibid., p. 77.
58. Ibid., p. 31.
59- Ibid., p. 77.
60. Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope o f Rationality, pp. 1 1 9 —120,
quoting Jon Elster, Sour Grapes: Studies in the Subversion o f Rationality
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
61. Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, p. 120.
62. Obviously the kingship is in itself an immensely complex topic in Thai
history. Mongkut’s self-understanding as king in relation to traditional
Thai kingship is a massive theme at which this essay only hints.
 Pant 4

ZJfie J fio g r a p fiic a f S^enre

in /oocafO fu cfcffiist
G u fh an cf CPraciice

T h e e s s a y s in t h is s e c t io n e x p lo r e , f r o m a n a n t h r o p o lo g ic a l p e r s p e c t iv e , th e

a r t ic u la t io n o f s a c r e d b io g r a p h y in T h a i a n d B u r m e s e c u lt u r a l p r a c t ic e .

S c h o b e r p r e s e n t s m y t h i c , t e x t u a l, a n d r it u a l p e r s p e c t iv e s o n

M a h a m u n i, a n im a g e b e lie v e d t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d a s t h e B u d d h a ’s L i v in g

T w i n a n d r e p r e s e n t a t iv e in h is a b s e n c e . T h e e s s a y e x p lo r e s t h e w a y s in

w h i c h r it u a l s e r v ic e to t h is im a g e is u s e d t o c r e a t e t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n c e

a n d s h o w s h o w t h e im a g e is u s e d in t h e n e g o t ia t io n o f r o y a l a n d in d iv id u a l

p a t r o n a g e , s o c ia l s ta tu s w it h in c o m m u n it ie s , a n d n a t io n a lis t ic id e n t ific a t io n

w it h in b o t h t r a d it io n a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y c o s m o lo g ie s .

T a y lo r ’s e s s a y fo c u s e s o n t h e s im u lt a n e o u s t e x t u a liz a t io n a n d c o n t e x t u -

a liz a t io n in a n a s c e t ic t r a d it io n th a t b e g a n in n o r t h e a s t e r n T h a ila n d . H e

d e s c r ib e s t h e p r o c e s s b y w h ic h a lo c a l, o r a l h a g io g r a p h y a t th e T h a i p e r ip h ­

e r y is t r a n s fo r m e d t o c r e a t e a c u lt o f r e lic s p a t r o n iz e d b y T h a i e lit e s a t th e

c e n t e r o f t h e n a t io n .

H o u t m a n e x a m in e s t h e b io g r a p h y o f a m o d e m B u r m e s e la y m e d it a ­

t io n t e a c h e r f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t iv e o f in d ig e n o u s lit e r a r y c o n v e n t io n s in

o r d e r t o le g it im a t e its p la c e w it h in t h e h a g io g r a p h ic t r a d it io n s . H is d is c u s ­

s io n o f t h e b io g r a p h y o f t h is p a r t ic u la r la y m e d it a t io n t e a c h e r f u r t h e r

e n g a g e s c r it ic a l p e r s p e c t iv e s o n t h e c a t e g o r ie s b y w h ic h B u d d h is t s a c r e d

b io g r a p h y is c o n s t r u c t e d .
 Un th e ^Presence o fth e CRucfcfha:
C R ituafU eneration o f the
fj3u rm ese J<lta h d m u n i tm a je
Juliane Schober

In h is d is c u s s io n s o f c o s m o g o n y a n d t h e r e g e n e r a t io n o f t im e , M i r c e a

E l i a d e 1 h a s c a lle d a t t e n t io n t o t h e p e r v a s iv e t e n d e n c y a c r o s s r e lig io u s t r a ­

d it io n s t o d e fin e t h e p r e s e n t in t e r m s o f a p r is t in e p a s t. E l i a d e ’ s o b s e r v a ­

t io n h a s b e e n b o r n e o u t in s t u d ie s o f T h e r a v a d a B u d d h i s m , m a n y o f

w h i c h h a v e f o c u s e d , in s o m e m e a s u r e , o n t h e t e n d e n c y in th is t r a d it io n t o

in t e r p r e t t h e p r e s e n t in t e r m s o f id e a l c o n s t r u c t s o f a “ p r is t in e ” p a s t. F o r

e x a m p l e , m u c h a t t e n t i o n — a m o n g s c h o la r s a n d w it h in t h e t r a d it io n

i t s e l f — h a s b e e n p a id t o t h e c o n t i n u a l p u r i f i c a t io n o f t h e t e a c h in g s

(dhamma) a n d m o n k h o o d (sangha), t w o o f t h e T h r e e R e f u g e s o r tiratana in

t h e B u d d h is t c o n fe s s io n o f fa it h , in o r d e r t o r e c r e a t e t h e m in t h e ir p r is t in e

fo r m s .

C o n t e x t u a liz in g t h e p r e s e n t in t h e t e r m s o f a n id e a liz e d p a s t is a s t r a t­

e g y a ls o e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e s a c r e d b io g r a p h ie s o f r e lig io u s fo u n d e r s a n d

s a in t s w h o s e liv e s b e c o m e m o d e ls f o r r e lig io u s p r a c t ic e .2 T h is e s s a y e x a m ­

in e s t h e r it u a l v e n e r a t io n o f t h e fir s t R e f u g e , t h e B u d d h a , a s a n a lt e r n a t iv e

r e lig io u s s t r a t e g y f o r c o n s t r u c t in g o r r e c r e a t in g a p r is t in e p a s t a n d f ie ld o f

m e r it f o r t h e B u d d h is t c o m m u n it y . In p a r t ic u la r , it a n a ly z e s t h e im a g e o f

M a h a m u n i in B u r m a a s a n ic o n a n d r it u a l e x p r e s s io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s c o n ­

t in u in g b io g r a p h y . T h e p o p u la r v e n e r a t io n o f t h is im a g e illu m in a t e s th e

w a y s in w h i c h s a c r e d i c o n s 3 a r e u s e d t o c r e a t e a p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a in
r it u a ls a n d m y t h s , lin k in g h is s a c r e d b io g r a p h y to th e lo c a l c o n t e x t s o f c o n ­

t e m p o r a r y B u r m e s e B u d d h is t s .

T h e M a h a m u n i im a g e h a s b e e n a m o n g t h e m o s t v e n e r a t e d im a g e s in

B u r m a f o r c e n t u r ie s a n d , a c c o r d in g t o m y t h , w a s c a s t d u r in g t h e B u d d h a ’ s

la s t life . It w a s e n liv e n e d — o r c o n s e c r a t e d — b y t h e B u d d h a h im s e lf in o r d e r

to c r e a t e a “ liv in g t w in ” w h o w o u l d c o u n s e l k in g s a n d , in h is a b s e n c e ,

p r e a c h s e r m o n s t o t h e c o m m u n it y . In B u r m e s e B u d d h is t r it u a l a n d b e lie f ,

th e M a h a m u n i im a g e fu n c t io n s , in T a m b i a h ’s t e r m s ,4 a s a n in d e x ic a l s y m ­

b o l th a t e n c o m p a s s e s m u lt ip le r e lig io u s m o d e s , in c lu d in g r it u a ls o f v e n e r a ­

t io n , m y t h s o f c r e a t io n a n d lin e a g e , a n d n a r r a t iv e a n a lo g ie s t o m ir a c u lo u s

e p is o d e s d u r in g t h e B u d d h a ’ s la s t lif e r e c o u n t e d in T h e r a v a d a t e x t s .

S y m b o lic a n d e v o c a t iv e r e fe r e n c e s a m o n g t h e s e r e lig io u s m o d e s in v o k e

m u lt ip le in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f t h e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y . T h e im a g e e x t e n d s th e

life o f t h e B u d d h a t o t h e lo c a l c o s m o lo g ie s o f B u r m e s e B u d d h is t s w h o p a r ­

t ic ip a t e in t h e r it u a l c o n s t r u c t io n o f h is c o n t in u in g b io g r a p h y . T h e m e r it

th e c o m m u n it y g a in s f o r its r it u a l o b s e r v a n c e s m a n ife s t s it s e lf in d iv e r s e

lo c a l c o n t e x t s .

T h e m y t h o f M a h a m u n i le g it im iz e s b o t h th e c r e a t io n a n d v e n e r a t io n

o f th e im a g e a n d p e r p e t u a t e s s a c r e d b io g r a p h ie s o f b o t h t h e B u d d h a a n d th e

im a g e in lo c a l c o n t e x t s . It s n a r r a t iv e p la c e s e v e n t s p u r p o r t e d t o h a v e

o c c u r r e d d u r in g t h e B u d d h a ’s life in t o lo c a l g e o g r a p h ic c o n t e x t s a n d in c o r ­

p o r a t e s m ir a c u lo u s o c c u r r e n c e s in th e b io g r a p h y o f th e B u d d h a t h a t a r e

s im ila r ly r e c o u n t e d in t h e Dhammapada C o m m e n t a r y , a T h e r a v a d a t e x t

k n o w n t h r o u g h o u t B u r m a a n d S o u t h e a s t A s ia . T h e r ic h a n d c o m p l e x

m y t h o lo g y a s s o c ia t e d w it h t h is im a g e in c lu d e s e p is o d e s th a t p a r a lle l o t h e r

s t o r ie s a b o u t th e B u d d h a a n d e v o k e s p e c ific t e x t u a l p a s s a g e s , s u c h a s th e

T w i n M i r a c l e ,5 t o a u t h e n t ic a t e its c o n t e n t . In t h e Dhammapada a c c o u n t ,

t h e s e e p is o d e s a r e u s e d t o u n iv e r s a liz e t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n c e t h r o u g h o u t

t h e c o s m o s . T h e r it u a ls a n d m y t h s o f M a h a m u n i th u s a c c o m p lis h t w o a im s

s im u lt a n e o u s ly : t h e y p la c e lo c a l c o n t e x t s a n d a c t o r s w it h in a u n iv e r s a l

B u d d h i s t c o s m o l o g y , a n d t h e y lo c a t e a c o n t i n u in g b io g r a p h y o f t h e

B u d d h a in t h e B u d d h is t p o lit ie s o f A r a k a n a n d U p p e r B u r m a . T h e r a v a d a

p o lit ie s c h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly e x t e n d e d t h e b io g r a p h ic a l m o d e o f r e c r e a t in g th e

B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n c e a n d a s s o c ia t e d it w it h t h e p o w e r o f k in g s a n d o t h e r

p a t r o n s o f t h is im a g e . T h e v e n e r a t i o n o f t h is B u d d h a im a g e is t h u s

in f o r m e d b y lo c a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f r e lig io u s p a t r o n a g e in s o c io p o l i t ic a l

d o m a in s .

A t v a r io u s p o in t s in its le g e n d a r y p a s t in A r a k a n , t h e im a g e w a s s a id to

h a v e b e e n a n o b je c t o f c o m p e t it io n a m o n g r o y a l p a t r o n s in S o u t h e a s t A s ia .

T h e B u r m e s e k in g A n a w r a t h a (r. 1 0 4 4 — 1 0 7 7 ) is s a id to h a v e fa ile d in h is

a t t e m p t to m o v e t h e im a g e t o h is c a p it a l, P a g a n . C e n t u r ie s la t e r , K in g

B o d a w p a y a ’s (r. 1 7 8 2 — 1 8 1 9 ) m ilit a r y e n v o y , h o w e v e r , s u c c e e d e d in c a p ­
 t u r in g it a s a p r iz e d t r o p h y o f w a r a n d t r a n s p o r t e d it t o U p p e r B u r m a ,

w h e r e h e e n s h r in e d it t h e r e in a r e li g io u s c o m p l e x n o w c a lle d t h e

M a h a m u n i P a g o d a a n d lo c a t e d o n t h e o u t s k ir t s o f h is c a p it a l, A m a r a p u r a .

T o d a y th e p a g o d a p r e c in c t fo r m s a p a r t o f t h e c it y o f M a n d a la y , th e s u b s e ­

q u e n t c a p it a l o f th e la t e r K o n b a u n d y n a s t y u n d e r M i n d o n (r. 1 8 5 3 — 1 8 7 8 )

a n d h is s o n , T h i b a w (r. 1 8 7 8 — 1 8 8 5 ) . T h e t r a n s r e g io n a l a n d c r o s s - e t h n ic

v e n e r a t io n o f t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e c o n t in u e d a f t e r t h e d e m is e o f t h e

B u r m e s e r o y a l c o u r t a n d t h e B r it is h a n n e x a t io n o f U p p e r B u r m a in 1 8 8 5 .

T h e im a g e a n d its c u lt r e t a in e d t h e ir a t t r a c t io n f o r M a n d a la y a n s a n d o t h e r

p ilg r im s , in s p it e o f th e a b s e n c e o f B u d d h is t k in g s h ip .

T h e M a h a m u n i im a g e a n d its p o p u la r v e n e r a t io n , h is t o r y , a n d le g e n d s

e x e m p lif y s im ila r p r o c e s s e s a n d b io g r a p h ie s o f B u d d h is t ic o n s . P a r a lle l c u lts

o f im a g e v e n e r a t io n e x is t in T h a ila n d , S r i L a n k a , a n d e ls e w h e r e in t h e

T h e r a v a d a w o r l d .6 C o m p a r a b le e x a m p le s a r e f o u n d in t h e E m e r a ld a n d

Sinhala B u d d h a im a g e s in T h a ila n d , w h i c h a r e b e lie v e d t o h a v e b e e n c a s t

w it h t h e a id o f d iv in e in s p ir a t io n in t h e lik e n e s s o f t h e B u d d h a a n d t o b e

in fu s e d w it h h is r e lic s .7 G e n e r a lly , s u c h im a g e s a r e t h o u g h t t o b e lin k e d t o

th e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y in th a t t h e y a r e c a s t in h is lik e n e s s a n d , a s in th e

c a s e o f t h e M a h a m u n i, “ e n liv e n e d ” o r c o n s e c r a t e d b y h im s o t h a t t h e y m a y

a c t a s h is r ig h t fu l r e p r e s e n t a t iv e in h is a b s e n c e . S u c h s a c r e d ic o n s a ls o

e n g e n d e r t h e ir o w n c o n t in u in g b io g r a p h ie s a s s o c ia t e d w it h m ir a c u lo u s

p o w e r s a n d e v e n t s in lo c a l c o n t e x t s a n d s p e c ific h is t o r ic a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s .

T h e ir p o p u la r v e n e r a t io n a n d b io g r a p h ic a l s t o r ie s b u ild o n t h e b io g r a p h y o f

t h e B u d d h a a n d e x t e n d it t o lo c a l c o n t e x t s , m y t h s , a n d s o c ie t ie s . A s a n a lo ­

g o u s lo c a l o r e v e n n a t io n a l c u lt s , t h e y s h a r e s a lie n t c h a r a c t e r is t ic s t h a t

a u t h e n t ic a t e a c t o r s a n d t h e ir m o t iv a t io n s , d e v e lo p r it u a ls o f v e n e r a t io n , a n d

c o n s t r u c t lo c a l h is t o r ie s a n d b io g r a p h ie s .

A c o m m o n d e n o m in a t o r o f t h e s e c u lt s o f v e n e r a t io n a n d b io g r a p h y lie s

in t h e ir c r e a t io n o f t h e “ lik e n e s s ” o r r e s e m b la n c e t o t h e li v in g B u d d h a .

F r a n k R e y n o l d s a n d C h a r le s H a llis e y n o t e t h a t p o p u la r “ p r a c t ic e o ft e n

a s c r ib e s a li v in g p r e s e n c e t o t h e s t a tu e , w h e t h e r b y p la c in g a r e lic w it h in it

o r b y a r it u a l o f c o n s e c r a t io n t h a t in fu s e s it w it h ‘li f e .’ ” 8

In a d d it io n t o f u n c t io n in g a s a n e x t e n s io n o f th e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y ,

s u c h im a g e s o ft e n b e c o m e p o p u la r p ilg r im a g e s ite s a n d , p a r t ic u la r ly in th e

c a s e o f im a g e s th a t a r e r e a d ily p o r t a b le , t r a v e l t h e m s e lv e s in p e r ip a t e t ic

fa s h io n a s t h e y c o m e u n d e r t h e p a t r o n a g e o f c o m p e t in g k in g s a n d p o lit ie s .9

C o n c e r n i n g e a r ly , a u t o n o m o u s b io g r a p h ie s o f t h e B u d d h a , R e y n o l d s a n d

H a llis e y r e m a r k t h a t t h e y o ft e n “ in c o r p o r a t e s t o r ie s th a t h a d d e v e lo p e d a t

t h e p ilg r im a g e s ite s a s s o c ia t e d w it h t h e B u d d h a ’s b ir t h a n d g r e a t r e n u n c ia ­

t io n , h is E n lig h t e n m e n t , a n d fir s t s e r m o n . ” 10 T h e c o n c e p t io n o f im a g e s in

t h e lik e n e s s o f th e B u d d h a a s a lo c u s o f p o w e r th u s is in t e g r a lly lin k e d to

t h e ir f u n c t io n a s p ilg r im a g e s ite s in v a r io u s s o c io h is t o r ic c o n t e x t s . T h e
m y t h s a s s o c ia t e d w it h t h e m c h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly in c o r p o r a t e a n d e x t e n d t o

th e s e lo c a l c o n t e x t s b io g r a p h ic a l e p is o d e s in t h e liv e s o f t h e B u d d h a in

o r d e r t o a u t h e n t ic a t e t h e ir p o p u la r it y a s o b je c t s o f w o r s h ip a n d v e n e r a t io n .

T h e M a h a m u n i im a g e a n d its c u lt t y p if y t h is p a t t e r n o f p ilg r im a g e to th e

t h e a t e r s o f t h e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y a n d t h e s ite r e m a in s t o d a y a p o p u la r p il­

g r im a g e d e s t in a t io n in B u r m a . T h e c o m p l e x c o n t in u e s t o a t t r a c t la r g e

n u m b e r s o f e t h n ic a lly d iv e r s e , lo c a l, a n d t r a n s r e g io n a l p ilg r im s w h o s e e k to

in fu s e t h e ir liv e s w it h t h e s a c r e d p o w e r o f th e im a g e , th u s in c o r p o r a t in g th e

o n g o in g b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a 11 in t o t h e ir e x is t e n c e . C o m p e t i n g m o d ­

e m id e o lo g ie s n o t w it h s t a n d in g , m a n y B u d d h is t s in B u r m a c o n t in u e to

r e v e r e t h e im a g e a n d th u s r e t a in c e r t a in a s p e c ts o f a p r e m o d e r n B u r m e s e

c o s m o lo g y w it h in a u n iv e r s a l B u d d h is t f r a m e w o r k .

A t le a s t t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s c o m b in e t o f o r m s u c h s u p r a r e g io n a l c u lt s

o f v e n e r a t io n . F ir s t , t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a is c o n s t it u t e d b y c o n ­

j o i n i n g b o t h h is p h y s ic a l f o r m ( rupakaya) a n d t h e e f f ic a c y o f t h e dham-
makdya, t h e s p ir it u a l b o d y o f t h e B u d d h a a n d h is t e a c h in g s in r it u a ls t h a t

c e n t e r o n c o n s e c r a t e d im a g e s . T h i s m a y i n v o l v e t h e p o w e r o f s a c r e d

w o r d s r e c it e d b e f o r e t h e im a g e , a ffir m a t io n s a n d a c t io n s p e r f o r m e d in its

p r e s e n c e , a n d t h e c o n s e c r a t io n r it u a l i t s e l f . 12 A s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t c o n ­

c e r n s m y t h s o f t h e i m a g e ’ s o r ig in a t io n a n d p r o v e n a n c e a n d b u ild s o n

s a lie n t e p is o d e s in t h e n a r r a t iv e s o f t h e t e x t u a l t r a d it io n . S u c h le g e n d s

i n t e r t w in e b io g r a p h ic a l t h e m e s r e c o u n t e d in t h e t e x t s o f t h e t r a d it io n

w it h lo c a l c o n t e x t s in o r d e r t o le g it im iz e t h e m o t iv a t io n s o f s p e c if ic a c t o r s

a n d th e k a r m ic c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e ir d e e d s . A t h ir d c o m m o n a lit y c o n ­

c e r n s t h e p a t r o n a g e a n im a g e e n jo y s . T h e r e is a p r e v a le n t a t t e n t io n in

m y t h s a n d o t h e r t e x t s t o t h e s o c ia l a n d r e lig io u s h ie r a r c h y o f p a t r o n s w h o

a p p r o p r ia t e o r s p o n s o r t h e B u d d h a in h is p h y s ic a l f o r m (rupakaya). T h e ir

d e e d s — e it h e r t o o b t a in t h e im a g e in t h e fir s t in s t a n c e o r t o p r o v i d e f o r its

s u b s e q u e n t v e n e r a t i o n — r e n d e r s t h e r it u a l o b s e r v a n c e s a c o n t i n u in g

s o u r c e o f m e r it f o r o t h e r s . T h e s e c u lt s o f v e n e r a t io n a r e r it u a l m e a n s f o r

i n v o k i n g t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n c e s o t h a t r e lig io u s a c t s m a y b e p e r f o r m e d

b e f o r e h im a s a d e m o n s t r a t io n o f s e r v ic e t o h im a n d a s a n a c t o f in c a lc u ­

la b le m e r it . T h e b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a t h u s is in t e r t w in e d w it h t h e

b io g r a p h y o f t h e im a g e a n d e x t e n d s in t o t h e s o c ia l a n d h is t o r ic a l c o n t e x t s

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y , lo c a l a c t o r s w h o p e r f o r m r it u a l a c t s o f m e r it in t h e

B u d d h a ’ s p r e s e n c e in o r d e r t o p a r t ic ip a t e in a n o n g o in g c o s m o g o n ic

r e g e n e r a t io n o f h is b io g r a p h y .

RftciaL V e n e R a t io n o f M a b a m a n i at Dauun 13
T h e G r e a t L o r d (hpaya: g y i:)1* o r M a h a m u n i, a s t h e im a g e , its p a g o d a , a n d

s u r r o u n d in g a r e a a r e c o llo q u ia lly c a lle d , is c e n t r a l t o c o n t e m p o r a r y r e li­

 g io u s life in M a n d a la y . T h e c o m p le x , w h o s e o r ig in a l c o lo n n a d e s a n d c e n ­

tr a l s h r in e fe ll v ic t im t o fir e in 1 8 7 9 a n d a g a in in i 8 8 4 ,is is s u r r o u n d e d b y

a la r g e g r a s s y a r e a a n d a n u m b e r o f m o n a s t e r ie s , t h e m o s t s ig n ific a n t a m o n g

t h e m b e i n g t h e M a h a m u n i m o n a s t e r y , a T h u d h a m m a 16 t e a c h i n g

m o n a s t e r y h o u s in g n e a r ly f o u r h u n d r e d m o n k s . S h o p s lo c a t e d in t h e

n e ig h b o r h o o d a n d in s id e th e c o lo n n a d e s le a d in g u p t o t h e m a in s h r in e s p e ­

c ia liz e in s e llin g r e lig io u s it e m s s u c h a s im a g e s , r o s a r ie s , c a n d le s , f lo w e r ,

in c e n s e , a s w e ll a s s a n d a ls , r o b e s , a n d r e lig io u s te x t s . A n u m b e r o f te a s h o p s

a n d r e s t a u r a n t s s u r r o u n d t h e c o m p le x a n d c a t e r t o t h e p ilg r im s v is it in g t h e

p a g o d a in t h e e a r ly m o r n in g s .

I n s id e t h is p a v ilio n , t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e is h o u s e d in a n a r r o w c h a m ­

b e r 17 th a t b a r e ly a c c o m m o d a t e s its la r g e a n d d is p r o p o r t io n a t e d im e n s io n s .

T h e im a g e is m a d e o f b ra s s a n d p la c e d o n a b lo c k m o r e th a n s ix fe e t h ig h .

It m e a s u r e s 1 2 ft. 7 in . in h e ig h t , 9 ft. 6 in . a r o u n d t h e w a is t , a n d a b o u t 6

ft. f r o m s h o u ld e r t o s h o u l d e r . 18 Its n a m e , M a h a m u n i, is o n e o f th e e p it h e t s

o f t h e B u d d h a 19 a n d th e im a g e d e p ic t s h im a t t h e p o in t o f e n lig h t e n m e n t in

a bhumisparsha mudrd,zo a r it u a l g e s t u r e o f t h e r ig h t h a n d t o u c h in g th e e a r t h

t o w it n e s s h is p a s t d e e d s . It is a c r o w n e d im a g e , s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e , a n d c la d

in r o y a l s t y le w it h B r a h m a n ic c o r d s a n d r e g a lia c r o s s in g its c h e s t .21 T h e le g s

o f t h e im a g e a r e c r o s s e d a n d its f e e t t u r n e d in w a r d . Its le ft h a n d a p p e a r s d is ­

p r o p o r t io n a t e ly la r g e a n d d is t o r t e d . It re s ts in th e la p w it h th e p a lm f a c in g

u p . Its r ig h t h a n d is s m a lle r , w e ll f o r m e d , a n d a p p e a r s in c o n g r u o u s w it h th e

r e s t o f t h e im a g e ’s b a s e a n d t o r s o . O v e r th e c e n t u r ie s , t h ic k la y e r s o f g o ld

l e a f h a v e b e e n a f f ix e d t o it a n d c o v e r its b a s e , t o r s o , a r m s , a n d s h o u ld e r s .

T h e r ig h t h a n d , h e a d , c r o w n , a n d o t h e r ic o n o g r a p h ic a t t r ib u t e s o f r o y a lt y

a r e fr e e o f g o ld le a f a n d th u s g iv e th e im p r e s s io n o f h a v in g b e e n a d d e d o r

r e p la c e d in th e la t e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 22 A s a r e s u lt , t h e im a g e la c k s a e s ­

t h e t ic c o h e r e n c e a s its a p p e a r a n c e is p lu m p a n d its p r o p o r t io n s a r e d is t o r t e d .

E a c h m o r n in g a t t h e b r e a k o f d a w n ( B u r m e s e ayone; P . aruna), t h e fa c e

o f t h e M a h a m u n i i m a g e is w a s h e d in a n e la b o r a t e r it u a l s e q u e n c e . 23

P a r t ic u la r ly o n s a b b a t h a n d fu ll m o o n d a y s , t h e F a c e W a s h in g a t tr a c ts a

la r g e c r o w d o f p e o p le w h o a s s e m b le a r o u n d t w o o ’c lo c k in t h e m o r n in g ,

w a i t i n g f o r t h e p a g o d a g a te s t o b e u n lo c k e d . S o m e v e n d o r s o p e n t h e ir

s h o p s e a r ly a n d f lo w e r s e lle r s w a lk t h r o u g h t h e c r o w d p e d d lin g ja s m in e

s t r in g s t o t h o s e w a it in g . A lm o s t e v e r y o n e h a s b r o u g h t c o n t a in e r s fille d w it h

c o o k e d r ic e , c u r r ie s , c a k e s , s w e e t s , w a t e r , f lo w e r s , o r c a n d le s a n d s o m e

e v e n c a r r y t r a d it io n a l o f f e r in g b a s k e t s .24 W h e n t h e g a te s o p e n a b o u t a n

h o u r la t e r , t h e c r o w d p r o c e e d s t o t h e m a in p a v ilio n th a t h o u s e s t h e im a g e .

A t t h is p a g o d a , o n ly m e n a r e a llo w e d t o a p p r o a c h t h e im a g e a n d e n t e r its

f e n c e d - o f f a n t e c h a m b e r . S o m e m e n s it b y t h e m s e lv e s n e a r t h e f r o n t o f th e

a s s e m b le d c o n g r e g a t io n , a lt h o u g h m a n y h e a d s o f h o u s e h o ld s c o m e in t h e

c o m p a n y o f t h e ir e n t ir e f a m ily a n d s e a t t h e m s e lv e s t o w a r d t h e m id d le o r
r e a r o f th e p a v ilio n . H o w e v e r , w o m e n a r e a m o n g th e m o s t f e r v e n t d e v o ­

te e s o f th is c u l t . 25 T h e y p a r t ic ip a t e in th is r it u a l s e a t e d in t h e b a c k r o w s o f

t h e p a v ilio n . M a n y m id d le - a g e d a n d e ld e r ly w o m e n c o m e t o o b s e r v e th e

F a c e W a s h in g a n d m a k e o ffe r in g s b y t h e m s e lv e s o r in th e c o m p a n y o f t h e ir

c h ild r e n . S e a t e d in t h e s q u a r e o p e n in g b e f o r e t h e c r o w n e d im a g e , t h e y

b o w to t h e B u d d h a t h r e e t im e s a n d r e c it e th e T r ip l e G e m P r a y e r 26 a n d th e

p r e c e p t s , w h ile o t h e r s a m b le a b o u t c h a t t in g a n d w a it in g f o r t h e r it u a l v e n ­

e r a t io n t o c o m m e n c e .

A t f o u r o ’c lo c k , th e p a g o d a d r u m s a r e s t r u c k t h r e e t im e s to m a r k th e

o ffic ia l b e g in n in g o f t h e r it u a l a t d a w n . A s e n io r m o n k f r o m t h e a d ja c e n t

M a h a m u n i m o n a s t e r y e n te r s t h e c h a m b e r h o u s in g t h e im a g e . B e h in d h im

f o llo w t w o o r t h r e e la y m e n in w h it e c lo t h e s , w h ic h s ig n ify d e d ic a t io n a n d

s e r v ic e t o r e lig io n . T h e ir a t tir e in c lu d e s a f o r m a l h a t th a t w a s o n c e th e p r e ­

r o g a t iv e o f m e n o f h ig h s ta tu s . T h e m e n p r e p a r e p a r a p h e r n a lia fo r c le a n s in g

t h e i m a g e ’s fa c e , w h ic h in c lu d e s e x p e n s iv e lu x u r y it e m s : a la r g e p ile o f n e w

t o w e ls , s o a p , a g ia n t t o o t h b r u s h , k e r c h ie fs , a n d fa n s . S t a n d in g a t th e b a s e o f

t h e im a g e , t h e y h a n d t o t h e o f f ic ia t in g m o n k v a r io u s p a r a p h e r n a lia h e

r e q u ir e s in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e r it u a l a n d fa n th e im a g e t h r o u g h o u t th e c le a n s ­

in g . O n ly t h e m o n k m a y s c a le t h e la p o f t h e im a g e s o th a t h e c a n r e a c h its

h u g e , s q u a r e fa c e . W h ile p r e p a r a t io n s c o n t in u e , a n o t h e r la y a s s is ta n t in th e

o u t e r s q u a r e o f th e f e n c e d - o f f a n t e c h a m b e r le a d s th e c o n g r e g a t io n in p r a y e r

a n d in t h e r e c it a t io n o f th e Metta Sutta.27
T h e h o u r - lo n g c le a n s in g o f M a h a m u n i’s fa c e b e g in s a s t h e m o n k c a r e ­

f u lly a n d w it h d e v o t io n p e r fo r m s h is d a ily s e r v ic e t o th e im a g e . H e w ip e s

th e fa c e w it h a t o w e l, g iv in g s p e c ia l a t t e n t io n t o t h e e y e s . 28 T h e n h e a p p lie s

a w h it e , s o a p - lik e o in t m e n t t o th e f a c e , r u b s it w it h a fr e s h t o w e l, w ip e s it

o f f w it h y e t a n o t h e r t o w e l, a n d t h e n r e p e a t s th e e n t ir e p r o c e s s . N e x t , h is la y

a t te n d a n ts h a n d h im a v e r y la r g e t o o t h b r u s h , w h ic h h e m o v e s b a c k a n d

fo r t h a c r o s s t h e lip s o f th e im a g e , m im ic k in g a m o t io n o f b r u s h in g its t e e t h .

A g a in , t h e fa c e is w ip e d w it h a s e e m in g ly e n d le s s s u p p ly o f fr e s h t o w e ls . A

p a s te o f g r o u n d s a n d a lw o o d is t h e n a p p lie d to t h e fa c e a n d w ip e d o f f a g a in .

N e x t , t h e m o n k s c e n ts th e im a g e p r o fu s e ly w it h s p r a y b o t t le s o f p e r fu m e .

O n s a b b a t h d a y s , th e m o n k a ls o d r a p e s a n o r a n g e s t o le o v e r th e s h o u ld e r o f

th e im a g e to s ig n ify o b s e r v a n c e o f th e p r e c e p t s . F in a lly , h e fa n s th e im a g e

w it h a s m a ll p a lm - le a f fa n t y p ic a lly u s e d b y m o n k s , w h ile h is h e lp e r s b e lo w

h im u s e la r g e r fa n s b e a r in g t h e in s ig n ia o f h ig h c iv il s ta tu s . D u r in g t h e r it u a l,

th o s e w h o h a v e b r o u g h t f o o d a n d o t h e r o ffe r in g s p la c e t h e m n e a t ly o n a t r a y

th a t t h e y h o ld a b o v e t h e ir h e a d s w h ile r e c it in g p r a y e r s . T h e fo o d , c a n d le s ,

flo w e r s , a n d w a t e r a r e th u s o f f e r e d t o th e im a g e . W h e n t h e m o n k h a s c o m ­

p le t e d th e d e v o t io n a l w a s h in g , t h e c o n g r e g a t io n c a lls o n th e E a r t h G o d d e s s

to w it n e s s th e m e r it t h e y m a d e b y a t t e n d in g th is r it u a l s e r v ic e a n d m a k in g

o ffe r in g s . T h e a u d ie n c e v o w s to s h a r e t h is m e r it w it h a ll s e n t ie n t b e in g s .
T h e y b o w a n d r e c it e t h r e e t im e s th e w e ll - k n o w n fo r m u la ic in c a n t a t io n :

“ M a y w e s h a r e e q u a lly in th e m e r it m a d e h e r e .” T h e r e a f t e r , t h e c o n g r e g a ­

t io n d is p e r s e s . S o m e o f t h e m e n r u s h t o e n t e r th e a n t e c h a m b e r , r e q u e s t in g

th e la y a t te n d a n ts t o a ffix g o ld le a f to th e im a g e o n t h e ir b e h a lf. S o m e o b t a in

in r e t u r n o n e o f t h e t o w e ls u s e d in th e F a c e W a s h in g . S t ill o t h e r s d e p o s it

m o n e y in t o o n e o f t h e m a n y c o lle c t io n b o x e s p la c e d in th e o u t e r s q u a r e . 29

T h e c o n t e n t o f e a c h b o x is d e d ic a t e d t o a d e s ig n a t e d p u r p o s e in th e m a in ­

t e n a n c e o f t h e im a g e a n d its p a g o d a g r o u n d s . A s th e r it u a l c o n c lu d e s , th e

s o u n d s o f e a r ly m o r n in g b u s t le fill t h e a r e a a r o u n d hpaya: gyi: a s s h o p s o p e n ,

c a r s a n d b u s e s fill t h e s t r e e ts , a n d n e ig h b o r h o o d r e s id e n t s b e g in a n o t h e r d a y .

W h e n a s k e d w h y t h e y a t t e n d t h is r it u a l w h e n p e r h a p s a n o f f e r in g t o a n

h o u s e h o ld im a g e o r t o o n e in t h e ir lo c a l n e ig h b o r h o o d p r a y e r h a ll m ig h t

b r in g s im ila r m e r it , B u r m e s e r e f e r to t h e M a h a m u n i m y t h to e x p la in th e

e x t r a o r d in a r y p o w e r s a t t r ib u t e d t o t h is im a g e . O t h e r s e x p la in its s ig n if i­

c a n c e in r e f e r e n c e t o a f a m ily t r a d it io n o f m a k in g o ffe r in g s to t h is p a r t ic u ­

la r im a g e o r t h e fa c t th a t it w a s v e n e r a t e d b y B u r m e s e k in g s . P a r t ic u la r ly o n

t h e fu ll m o o n d a y s th a t p u n c t u a t e t h e a n n u a l r it u a l c a le n d a r a n d e n t a il s y m ­

b o lic r e fe r e n t s t o e v e n t s in t h e la s t life o f t h e B u d d h a , B u r m e s e m a y s e e k in

t h is w a y a n “ a u d ie n c e ” in t h e p r e s e n c e o f th is im a g e . O t h e r s m a y s im p ly

s e e k o u t t h is im a g e o n fe s t iv a l d a y s b e c a u s e , t o t h e m , its v e n e r a t io n c o n fe r s

s o c ia l p r e s t ig e a n d s ta tu s .

M a h a m u n i’s P ast
M u c h o f w h a t is k n o w n o f t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e e x e m p lif ie s T h e r a v a d a

c o n c e p t io n s a b o u t s a c r e d ic o n s a n d k in g s h ip , b u t o ffe r s o n ly s p a r s e h is t o r i­

c a l fa c ts . T h e im a g e w a s o r ig in a lly e n s h r in e d in A r a k a n , a r e g io n in L o w e r

B u r m a t h a t is n o w p r e d o m in a n t l y M u s l im . A c c o r d i n g t o A r a k a n e s e

s o u r c e s , 30 t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e w a s c r e a t e d a s t h e p a lla d iu m o f a n

A r a k a n e s e k in g , C a n d r a s u r iy a , w h o is s a id t o h a v e li v e d a t t h e t im e o f

G o t a m a B u d d h a .31 F o r c h h a m m e r 32 n o t e s t h e la c k o f h is t o r ic a l s o u r c e s

a b o u t th e im a g e a n d its s h r in e u n t il th e la t e e ig h t h c e n t u r y C .E ., w h e n

i n s c r ip t io n s a t t h e s it e in d ic a t e t h a t t h e s h r in e w a s r e b u ilt t w ic e . T h e

in s c r ip t io n s a t t h e s h r in e in A r a k a n a ls o c r e d it k in g s f r o m P r o m e , P a g a n ,

P e g u , t h e S h a n h ills , a n d o t h e r r e g io n s w it h its p e r io d ic r e s t o r a t io n o f th e

n a t u r a l o r in flic t e d d e c a y th a t t h e c o m p le x h a d s u ffe r e d a t v a r io u s p o in t s in

its h is t o r y . O t h e r s a r e s a id to h a v e w a g e d w a r a g a in s t th e A r a k a n e s e w it h

t h e a im o f g a in in g p o s s e s s io n o f t h is im a g e a n d t r a n s p o r t in g it to t h e ir o w n

h o m e la n d s . W h a t e v e r t h e m o t iv e s f o r t h e jo u r n e y s u n d e r t a k e n b y m a n y

r o y a l p a t r o n s , F o r c h h a m m e r 33 c la im s th a t th e o r ig in a l M a h a m u n i S h r in e in

A r a k a n h a d b e e n a w e ll - k n o w n p ilg r im a g e s ite f o r c e n t u r ie s , h o u s in g w h a t

h e b e lie v e d t o b e t h e o ld e s t c a s t im a g e in t h e r e g io n .
 In 1 7 8 4 t h e B u r m e s e k in g B o d a w p a y a c o n q u e r e d A r a k a n a s t h e fir s t

s t a g e in t h e e x p a n s io n o f a n e m p ir e h e c r e a t e d in t h e c o u r s e o f h is r e ig n .

H e o r d e r e d th e M a h a m u n i im a g e to b e t a k e n f r o m its o r ig in a l s h r in e a n d

m o v e d t o a n e w o n e h e h a d b u ilt f o r t h is p u r p o s e a f e w m ile s n o r t h o f h is

c a p it a l A m a r a p u r a in U p p e r B u r m a . 34 B u r m e s e s o u r c e s d e s c r ib e h is fe a t a s

a g lo r io u s a c c o m p lis h m e n t , w h ile t h e A r a k a n e s e la m e n t it a s s h a m e fu l a n d

d e m e a n in g .

The acquisition o f the Mahamuni Image was looked upon as a wonder­

ful triumph which would bring to the dynasty and to the country unfail­
ing good luck.35

Until the removal o f the Candasara image the Mahamuni pagoda was the
most sacred shrine in Indo-China; the entire religious history o f
Buddhistic Arakan centers around this “ younger Brother” o f Gotama; the
loss o f this relic sank deeper into the hearts o f the people than the loss o f
their liberty and the extinction o f their royal house.3*5

T h e c o n flic t o v e r th e im a g e s t ill in fo r m s p o p u la r p e r c e p t io n s a m o n g

d iffe r e n t e t h n ic g r o u p s in B u r m a . It is n o t s u r p r is in g th a t t h e r e s h o u ld b e

r iv a lin g s t o r i e s 37 a b o u t its t r a n s p o r t f r o m A r a k a n t o u p p e r B u r m a . S o m e

v e r s io n s c la im th a t t h e B u r m e s e a r m y fa ile d t o t r a n s p o r t t h e c o lo s s a l im a g e

a n d th a t t h e o r ig in a l s a n k in t h e r iv e r , w h ile a r e p lic a w a s e n s h r in e d in

U p p e r B u r m a . O t h e r s c la im th a t t h e im a g e w a s t o o la r g e t o b e t r a n s p o r t e d

in o n e p ie c e a n d th a t it h a d to b e d is m e m b e r e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t ly r e s t o r e d ,

t h u s im p ly in g its s a c r ile g io u s t r e a t m e n t a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e B u r m e s e . S till

o t h e r s o u r c e s 38 g iv e d e t a ile d e x p la n a t io n s o f th e d iffic u lt r o u t e th a t e n a b le d

its s u c c e s s fu l t r a n s p o r t.

I n t e n t o n a c q u ir in g o t h e r s a c r e d o b je c t s d u r in g h is s u b s e q u e n t b a ttle s

a n d e n g a g e d in fin a n c ia lly e x h a u s t iv e c o n s t r u c t io n o f r e lig io u s m o n u m e n t s

e ls e w h e r e , B o d a w p a y a d id n o t tr e a t th e M a h a m u n i im a g e a s t h e c h i e f p a lla ­

d iu m o f h is r e ig n . N e v e r t h e le s s , t h e im a g e r e c e iv e d t h e r o y a l v e n e r a t io n d u e

t o its s ig n ific a n c e a n d fa m e . S y m e s , o n e o f t h e f e w c o n t e m p o r a r y v o ic e s ,

r e p o r t s th a t B o d a w p a y a a r r a n g e d f o r h im a n d h is c o m p a n y a s ig h t s e e in g tr ip

to th e M a h a m u n i s h r i n e ; 39 “ O n e h u n d r e d a n d t w e n t y - f iv e A r a k a n e s e p r is ­

o n e r s a n d t h e ir fa m ilie s w e r e d e d ic a t e d a s s l a v e s 40 t o s e r v e t h e s h r in e , w h ile

e v e r y d a y o ffe r in g s f r o m t h e p a la c e w e r e b o r n e t h e r e in s t a t e .” O t h e r s o u r c e s

a ls o r e p o r t th a t t h e im a g e r e g u la r ly r e c e iv e d o ffe r in g s f r o m t h e p a la c e p r e ­

s e n t e d a c c o r d in g to r o y a l e t iq u e t t e . H a r v e y 4 1 r e p o r t s th a t “ B o d a w p a y a a n d

t h e c o u r t w e n t o u t t o m e e t (th e M a h a m u n i im a g e u p o n its a r r iv a l) ” a n d

g o e s o n to s a y th a t “ ( n ) o w h e r e , e v e n a t th e S h w e d a g o n o r S h w e s e t t a w , is

t h e d e v o t io n a l a t m o s p h e r e m o r e i n t e n s e .” 42 S h w a y Y o e 43 s im ila r ly w r it e s :
 The shrine in which it stands is one o f the most splendid in the coun­
try. The image itself is covered by a great, seven-roofed pya-that44 with
goodly pillars, the ceiling gorgeous with mosaics. Long colonnades, sup­
ported on 252 massive pillars, all richly gilt and carved, with frescoed
roofs and sides, lead up to it, and daily from the royal palace used to come
sumptuous offerings in stately procession, marshalled by one o f the min­
isters and shaded by the white umbrella, the emblem o f sovereignty and
the prerogative o f the Arbiter o f Existence. . . . In a long gallery, there is
an enormous number o f inscriptions, gathered from all parts o f the coun­
try, many on gilt slabs o f marble, a still greater number on sandstone. All
day long circles o f constantly renewed worshippers chant aloud the
praises o f the Buddha, and the air is heavy with the effluvia o f candles and
the odours from thousands o f smoldering incense-sticks. Within the
precincts o f the pagoda is a large tank, tenanted by sacred turtles, who
wax huge on the rice and cakes thrown them by the multitudes o f pil­
grims.

P o p u la r v e n e r a t io n o f t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e c o n t in u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e

r e m a in d e r o f t h e K o n b a u n g d y n a s t y a n d t h e B r it is h c o lo n ia l e r a to t h e p r e ­

s e n t . T h e c o n t in u in g p o p u la r it y o f a f f ix in g g o ld le a f t o t h e im a g e is in d i­

c a t e d b y T h a n T u n 45 w h o r e p o r t s th a t n e a r ly t w o h u n d r e d p o u n d s o f g o ld

w e r e r e m o v e d f r o m it in 1 8 8 4 , w h e n it w a s r e s t o r e d f r o m fir e d a m a g e 1 0 0

y e a r s a ft e r its tr a n s p o r t t o U p p e r B u r m a . T h e s e d e s c r ip t io n s o f p o p u la r v e n ­

e r a t io n a n d o f s t a te ly a n d r o y a l o ffe r in g s in d ic a t e h is t o r ic a l c o n t in u it y o f t h e

M a h a m u n i c u lt . T h e p o p u la r b e li e f in th e e x t r a o r d in a r y e f f ic a c y o f th is

im a g e r e s ts o n t h e m y t h o f h o w t h e im a g e c a m e t o b e c r e a t e d a n d o f its

c o n s e c r a t io n b y t h e B u d d h a h im s e lf.

Th e M y th of t h e M a h a m u n i Im a g e

T h e m y t h 46 c la im s t h a t t h e c a s t in g a n d c o n s e c r a t io n o f t h e M a h a m u n i

im a g e o c c u r r e d a s a r e s u lt o f t h e d e s ir e o f t h e A r a k a n e s e k in g C a n d r a s u r iy a

t o p a y h o m a g e t o t h e B u d d h a . P e r c e iv i n g b y h is d iv in e p o w e r s t h e k in g ’s

w is h t o m a k e o f f e r in g s to h im , t h e B u d d h a r e s o lv e d to v is it t h e k in g s o a s

n o t t o e x p o s e h im a n d h is r e t in u e t o d a n g e r o u s t r a v e l. A c c o m p a n ie d b y

A n a n d a a n d 5 0 0 s a in ts (arhat), t h e B u d d h a f le w t h r o u g h t h e a ir a n d a lig h t e d

o n t h e S e la g ir i H ill in A r a k a n . T h e r e h e r e c o u n t e d t o A n a n d a a n d t h e s a in ts

h is v is it s t o n e a r b y m o u n t a in s d u r in g p r e v io u s liv e s a n d u t t e r e d p r o p h e c ie s

a b o u t f u t u r e r e lig io u s m o n u m e n t s a t t h e s e s ite s t h a t w o u l d c o n t a in h is

r e lic s . T o w it n e s s h is w o r d s , M o u n t M e r u t r e m b le d a n d t h e o c e a n s b o ile d .

K in g C a n d r a s u r iy a w a s a la r m e d b y t h e s e s ig n s a n d a s k e d h is a s t r o lo g e r s

a b o u t t h e c a u s e o f th is u n u s u a l o c c u p a n c y . H e w a s t o ld a b o u t t h e B u d d h a ’s
a r r iv a l a n d p r o c e e d e d in g r a n d s t a te a n d w it h h is e n t ir e r e t in u e t o t h e p la c e

w h e r e t h e B u d d h a h a d a lig h t e d t o p a y h o m a g e t o h im . H e a p p r o a c h e d th e

B u d d h a , o f f e r in g f lo w e r s , p e r f u m e s , g a r la n d s , a n d p a r c h e d r ic e . T h e

B u d d h a in s t r u c t e d h im in t h e p r e c e p t s a n d t e n r u le s o f r o y a l c o n d u c t .

C a n d r a s u r iy a b e c a m e e n r a p t u r e d w it h j o y a n d in v it e d t h e B u d d h a t o v is it

h is c a p it a l. D u r i n g t h e s e v e n d a y s o f h is s t a y , t h e B u d d h a c o n v e r t e d th e

k in g a n d h is s u b je c t s . W h e n h e p r e p a r e d f o r h is d e p a r t u r e , t h e k in g

la m e n t e d th a t h e a n d h is c o u r t w o u l d n o lo n g e r b e a b le t o p a y h o m a g e to

th e B u d d h a a n d a s k e d f o r a n im a g e in h is lik e n e s s . R e f le c t in g o n t h e g r e a t ­

n e s s o f th e k in g d o m a n d th e k in g ’s n e e d t o g a in in s p ir a t io n , th e B u d d h a

c o n s e n t e d t o t h e k in g ’s r e q u e s t . C a n d r a s u r iy a c o lle c t e d g e m s , g o ld , a n d

o t h e r t r e a s u r e s f o r th e c a s t in g , w h ile t h e B u d d h a s o jo u r n e d w it h m u s ic ,

s o n g , a n d d a n c e f o r a n o t h e r s e v e n d a y s in a p le a s a n t p a v ilio n th a t S a k k a a n d

h is a s s is t a n t V is s a k a m m a 47 m a g i c a l ly c r e a t e d f o r h im . S a k k a a n d

V is s a k a m m a c a s t h is im a g e a n d c r e a t e d a n e x a c t r e p lic a o f h is p h y s ic a l

a p p e a r a n c e . T h e n , t h e B u d d h a b r e a t h e d u p o n t h e im a g e t o im p a r t lif e in it

a n d “ th e im a g e w a s t r a n s fo r m e d in t o a lif e - lik e o n e , s o lif e - lik e in d e e d th a t

t o t h e e y e s o f m e n , n a ts , S a k r a , a n d B r a h m a , t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o b e t w o

P r a s .” 4® K in g C a n d r a s u r iy a a n d h is s u b je c t s m a d e o ffe r in g s t o t h e B u d d h a ,

a n d o v e r jo y e d , t h e k in g e m b r a c e d h is fe e t a n d b e c a m e a g a in lo s t in r a p t u r e .

T h e k in g t h e n p la c e d th e im a g e o n a b e je w e lle d t h r o n e u n d e r a n t u r r e t ,

b u ilt m o n a s t e r ie s s u r r o u n d in g it, a n d e n t r u s t e d t h e m o n k s w it h its c a r e .

W h e n t h e B u d d h a g a z e d u p o n t h e im a g e , it r o s e a s i f p o s s e s s e d o f life ,

g r e e t in g h is e ld e r b r o t h e r . T h e B u d d h a e x t e n d e d h is r ig h t a r m , w a v e d h is

h a n d , a n d s a i d : 49

Younger brother, do not stand up. I shall enter Nirvana in my eightieth

year; but you, endowed with the supernatural power o f a Buddha, shall
exist for 5,000 years, which I have prescribed to be the limit o f my reli­
gion; you shall be the means o f working out the salvation o f men and
nats.” After delivering this prophecy the Blessed One continued: “ In one
o f my former existences I was a king on the island o f Cheduba. I broke
the thigh-bone o f the gardener and sliced off a piece o f flesh from the back
o f a young prince; you (addressing the image) are my representative on
earth and you shall suffer the results (Kammavipaka) o f these two deeds.

T h e B u d d h a t h e n p r e a c h e d a s e r m o n a n d n a m e d t h e im a g e

C a n d a s a r a . 50 T h e k in g o f f e r e d t h e r e m a in in g g e m s t o t h e m o n k s , w h o

r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e m a n d t h u s b u r ie d t h e g e m s b e n e a t h t h e i m a g e ’ s

t h r o n e . T h e B u d d h a u t t e r e d a n o t h e r p r o p h e c y a b o u t t h e fu t u r e p r o s p e r it y

o f t h e A r a k a n e s e k in g d o m a n d t h e g e n e r o s it y o f its in h a b it a n t s t o w a r d

m o n k s . H e t h e n a lig h t e d t o r e jo in A n a n d a , to w h o m h e r e c o u n t e d th e
s t o r y o f h is m a n y f o r m e r liv e s a s a k in g in t h is r e g io n a n d p r e d ic t e d a g a in

t h e p r e s e n c e o f h is r e lic e n s h r in e d in t h is a r e a in th e f u t u r e . M e a n w h ile ,

C a n d r a s u r iy a p a id h o m a g e t o t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e , C a n d a s a r a , w h o a c t e d

a s t h e B u d d h a ’s r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o n e a r t h a n d a s a n a d v is e r t o t h e k in g . T h e

A r a k a n e s e t e x t g o e s o n to e n u m e r a t e n in e m ir a c le s th a t th e im a g e c a u s e d

to t a k e p la c e 51 w h i le e n s h r in e d in its o r ig in a l t e m p le . A c c o r d i n g ly , t h e

h o ly w a t e r u s e d in its a b s o lu t io n s w o u l d n e v e r o v e r f lo w f r o m its r e c e p t a ­

c le , a n d t h e w a t e r in th e t a n k w h e r e t h e h e a d o f t h e im a g e w a s w a s h e d w a s

o f t h e s a m e p u r e q u a lit y a ll y e a r . Its s i x - c o l o r e d r a y s s h o n e b r ig h t ly in t h e

e v e n in g a n d w h e n t h e fa it h fu l w o r s h ip e d it , b u t fa d e d in th e p r e s e n c e o f

h e r e t ic s . T h e s h r in e ’s p r e c in c t w a s s o s p a c io u s th a t it c o u ld a lw a y s a c c o m ­

m o d a t e m o r e w o r s h ip e r s , a n d t h e s t o n e q u a r t e r g u a r d ia n s k e p t a w a y t h o s e

w h o a p p r o a c h e d t h e im a g e w it h e v il in t e n t io n o f p lu n d e r . T h e f o lia g e o f

s u r r o u n d in g t r e e s a lw a y s t u r n e d t o w a r d t h e im a g e , a n d b ir d s d id n o t f ly

a b o v e it.

B u r m e s e o ft e n e x p la in th a t t h e im a g e u s e d t o s p e a k , a c t a s a n a d v is o r to

k in g s , a n d p r e a c h s e r m o n s , b u t it fe ll s ile n t w it h t h e p r o g r e s s iv e d e c lin e o f

th e B u d d h is t d is p e n s a t io n a n d th e d e file m e n t in t h e w o r ld . B o t h B u r m e s e

a n d A r a k a n e s e in t e r p r e t t h e t u r b u le n t h is t o r y o f t h e im a g e a n d t h e d e c a y

a n d in ju r ie s it s u s t a in e d a s r e f le c t in g t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e d ic t io n th a t t h e im a g e

w o u l d s u ffe r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h is d e m e r it o r io u s d e e d s in f o r m e r liv e s .

In T h e r a v a d a t e r m s , t h e d is c o u r s e s t h e B u d d h a d e liv e r s u p o n h is a r r iv a l

in A r a k a n a n d a g a in ju s t p r io r to h is d e p a r t u r e m a p a s a c r e d g e o g r a p h y o f

A r a k a n a n d lin k e a c h s ite m e n t io n e d w it h t h e b io g r a p h ie s o f h is p r e v io u s

liv e s a n d w it h t h e c o n t in u in g p r e s e n c e o f h is r e lic s in t h e fu t u r e . C e n t r a l

t h e m e s in t h e c o r e e p is o d e s o f t h e M a h a m u n i m y t h a r e a ls o e n c o u n t e r e d in

o n e o f t h e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t p a s s a g e s o f t h e Dhammapada Commentary,
n a m e ly t h e s t o r y o f t h e T w i n M ir a c le , w h i c h r e c o u n t s h o w t h e B u d d h a ,

d u r in g h is la s t life , m ir a c u lo u s ly c r e a t e d s e v e r a l liv in g d o u b le s o f h im s e lf

a n d p e r v a d e d t h e w h o le u n iv e r s e w it h h is p r e s e n c e . T h e T w i n M ir a c le in

th e Dhammapada Commentary is a t e x t u a l m o d e l f o r t h e c r e a t io n a n d p o p u ­

la r v e n e r a t io n o f “ liv in g d o u b le s ,” w h ic h c le a r ly in s p ir e d lo c a l p r o lif e r a ­

t io n s o f m y t h ic t r a d it io n s lik e th a t o f t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e .

T h e M iR a c L e o f t h e B u d d h a ’s D uplication
a s a T ex tu a l M o d e L f O R M a h a m u n i
V a r io u s p a s s a g e s in t h e jatakas 5 2 a n d t h e Milindapanha 5 3 r e f e r to th e T w i n

M ir a c le a s t h e c r e a t io n o f d o u b le a p p e a r a n c e s . A d e t a ile d v e r s io n o f th is

e p is o d e is f o u n d in t h e Dhammapada Commentary,5 4 a t e x t th a t is w id e ly

k n o w n in B u r m a . 55 T h e m e s c e n t r a l t o t h is a c c o u n t a n d r e p e a t e d t h r e e

t im e s in t h e n a r r a t iv e a r e t h e c r e a t io n o f t h e “ liv in g t w in ,” t h e m ir a c le s o f
th e s i x - c o l o r e d r a y s , a n d t h e k a r m ic b e n e fit s o f h is fe a t s a n d d is c o u r s e s to

th e a u d ie n c e . T h e y a r e a ls o e m p h a s iz e d in s im ila r w a y s in t h e m y t h a b o u t

th e c r e a t io n o f t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e .

In t h e Dhammapada Commentary, t h e n a r r a t iv e b e g in s b y s e t t in g o u t th e

g e n e r a l c o n d it io n s f o r t h e p r o p e r p e r f o r m a n c e o f m ir a c le s a n d t h e n m o v e s

o n t o a d e s c r ip t io n o f t h e e v e n t s t h a t le d t h e B u d d h a t o p e r f o r m t h o s e m o s t

a w e s o m e m ir a c le s th a t m a y b e p e r f o r m e d o n ly b y a B u d d h a . O s t e n s iv e ly ,

t h e B u d d h a is m o v e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e s e m ir a c le s b e c a u s e p e r n ic io u s r u m o r s

b y h e r e t ic s c h a lle n g e h is p o w e r . Y e t , a s e a c h B u d d h a p e r f o r m s t h e s a m e

s e q u e n c e o f a c ts in t h a t v e r y lo c a t io n , t h e s e m ir a c le s illu s t r a t e t h e u n iv e r s a l

p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a a n d h is d is p e n s a t io n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o s m o s . M o s t

im m e d ia t e ly r e le v a n t f o r o u r d is c u s s io n o f t h e M a h a m u n i m y t h is t h e

c r e a t io n o f a liv in g d o u b le w it h w h o m t h e B u d d h a in t e r a c t s a n d c o n v e r s e s

o n p o in t s o f d o c t r in e f o r t h e b e n e f it o f th e la r g e a s s e m b le d a u d ie n c e . In th e

c o u r s e o f t h e s t o r y , th e B u d d h a p e r f o r m s t h e T w i n M ir a c le t h r e e t im e s ,

o n c e p r io r to h is a s c e n t to T a v a t im s a h e a v e n , d u r in g h is le n t r e t r e a t t h e r e ,

a n d u p o n h is d e s c e n t b a c k to th e h u m a n r e a lm . U p t o t h is p o in t , t h e s t o r y

o f t h e T w i n M ir a c le fo c u s e s o n h o w t h e B u d d h a c r e a t e s h is li v in g d o u b le s

in s e p a r a t e r e a lm s o f e x is t e n c e , n a m e ly th e h u m a n r e a lm a n d in T a v a t im s a

h e a v e n . B u t t h e b r o a d e r s ig n if ic a n c e o f c r e a t in g li v in g d o u b le s is r e v e a le d

w h e n v i e w e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e c u lm in a t in g e p is o d e o f t h e T w i n

M ir a c le s t o r y . J u s t p r io r t o t h e m o m e n t o f h is r e t u r n to t h e h u m a n r e a lm ,

t h e B u d d h a d e m o n s t r a t e s h is p o w e r t h r o u g h a s t ill g r a n d e r m ir a c le : h e illu ­

m in a t e s a ll r e a lm s o f e x is t e n c e in t h e u n iv e r s e , m a k in g h is p r e s e n c e m a n i­

fe s t a t o n c e t o a ll s e n t ie n t b e in g s in a ll r e a lm s o f t h e e n t ir e c o s m o s . In t h is

c u lm in a t in g fe a t , h e c r e a t e s h is p r e s e n c e s im u lt a n e o u s ly t h r o u g h o u t a ll

r e a lm s o f e x is t e n c e in th e u n iv e r s e , d e fin in g a n in fin it e r e a lm o f h is d is ­

p e n s a t io n w h e r e h is p r e s e n c e p e r v a d e s a n a ll e n c o m p a s s in g , u n iv e r s a l

B u d d h a fie ld .

In t h e s t o r y , t h e B u d d h a p r o h ib it s m o n k s f r o m th e d is p la y o f s u p e r n a t ­

u r a l p o w e r s , b u t d o e s n o t s e e h im s e lf b o u n d b y t h is p r e c e p t . T h u s , d u r in g

h is a s c e n t t o T a v a t im s a , h e c a u s e s fir e , w a t e r , a n d s i x - c o l o r e d r a y s to s p e w

f o r t h f r o m h is b o d y s im u lt a n e o u s ly a n d c r e a t e s a je w e l e d w a lk in th e s k y o n

w h ic h h e a n d h is “ liv in g d o u b le ” a m b le b a c k a n d fo r t h . M a n y o f h is lis ­

t e n e r s g a in a c le a r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e dhamma o n a c c o u n t o f h is m ir a c u ­

lo u s a c t s a n d d is c o u r s e . T h e a c c o u n t o f t h e T w i n M ir a c le c o n t in u e s w it h

t h e B u d d h a ’s a s c e n t t o T a v a t im s a h e a v e n w h e r e h e s p e n d s t h e r a in y r e t r e a t

p r e a c h in g t h e A b h id h a m m a t o h is m o t h e r . W h ile h is a u d ie n c e o n e a r t h

b e m o a n s h is a b s e n c e a n d e m p t y t h r o n e , t h e B u d d h a ’ s d is c o u r s e in

T a v a t im s a h e a v e n e n lig h t e n s n o t o n ly h is m o t h e r , b u t a ls o m a n y o t h e r s in

h e r c o m p a n y . D u r i n g h is s o jo u r n in t h e T a v a t im s a r e a lm , t h e B u d d h a c r e ­

a te s a n o t h e r li v in g d o u b le w h o c o n t in u e s h is s e r m o n s w h e n t h e B u d d h a
 d e s ir e s t o r e s t o r le a v e s t h e r e a lm t o g o o n a lm s r o u n d s in t h e H im a la y a s .

“ A n d th u s , f o r t h e s p a c e o f t h r e e m o n t h s w it h o u t in t e r r u p t io n , h e r e c it e d

t h e A b h id h a m m a P it a k a . N o w w h e n it w a s t im e f o r h im t o g o o n h is

r o u n d f o r a lm s , h e w o u l d c r e a t e a d o u b le a n d s a y t o h im , ‘P r e a c h t h e L a w

u n t il I r e t u r n .’ T h e n h e w o u l d g o t o t h e H im a la y a s , . . . h e w o u l d b r in g h is

a lm s . . . a n d e a t h is m e a l . ” 56

S a r ip u t t a , h is d is c ip le w h o s e p r a c t ic e is a m o d e l o f w is d o m , f o llo w s t h e

B u d d h a e a c h d a y t o T u s it a h e a v e n w h e r e h e w a it s u p o n t h e t e a c h e r , lis te n s

t o h is s e r m o n s , a n d r e t u r n s w it h t h e m e m o r y o f e x t r a o r d in a r y s e r m o n s .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e T h e r a v a d a t r a d it io n , t h is w a s h o w h u m a n b e in g s c a m e t o

k n o w t h e w o r d s o f t h e B u d d h a c o n t a in e d in t h e A b h id h a m m a . A f t e r th e

t h r e e m o n t h s o f th e le n t — w h e n h is a u d ie n c e s o n e a r t h s t ill a n x io u s l y a n t ic ­

ip a t e h is r e t u r n — t h e B u d d h a d e s c e n d s a g a in t o t h e h u m a n r e a lm . D u r i n g

h is d e s c e n t , h e r e p e a t s a g a in t h e s a m e m ir a c le p e r f o r m e d d u r in g h is a s c e n t ,

t h e c r e a t io n o f a d o u b le a n d its a s s o c ia t e d m ir a c le s o f w a t e r a n d f ir e , s ix -

c o lo r e d r a y s , a n d t h e je w e l e d w a lk . H e t h e n illu m in a t e s t h e e n t ir e c o s m o s

s o a ll s e n t ie n t b e in g s m a y p e r c e iv e h im a n d h is u n iv e r s a l r a d ia n c e a t o n c e .

T h u s , t h e t e x t e x p la in s , t h e m a n y w h o h a d fa it h in t h e T w i n M i r a c l e

d e r iv e d m u lt ip le s p ir it u a l g a in f r o m it.

T h e T w i n M ir a c le a n d t h e M a h a m u n i m y t h 57 s h a r e a n u m b e r o f s im i­

la r it ie s , in c lu d in g n a r r a t iv e t h e m e s . B o t h s t o r ie s e m p h a s iz e s t h e p e r f o r ­

m a n c e o f m ir a c le s a n d t h e c r e a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s li v in g d o u b le s t o

f u r t h e r th e p r o p a g a t io n o f h is d is p e n s a t io n (sasana). In e a c h s t o r y , m a n y o f

t h o s e w h o w it n e s s h is m ir a c le s a n d lis t e n t o h is d is c o u r s e g a in in s ig h t a n d

u n d e r s t a n d in g o f h is d is p e n s a t io n . In b o t h n a r r a t iv e s , t h e B u d d h a in t e r a c t s

a n d c o n v e r s e s w it h h is t w in o n r e lig io u s t o p ic s . B o t h th e T w i n D o u b l e a n d

t h e M a h a m u n i C a n d a s a r a a c t in t h e B u d d h a ’s a b s e n c e a s h is le g it im a t e , li v ­

in g e x t e n s io n s in t h e p r o p a g a t io n o f t h e dhamma. S o m e o f t h e s a m e c h a r ­

a c t e r s o c c u r in b o t h s t o r ie s . F o r in s t a n c e , in th e M a h a m u n i s t o r y , S a k k a

p r e p a r e s a t h r o n e o r p a v ilio n w h e r e t h e B u d d h a r e s ts p r io r t o c r e a t in g h is

d o u b le . In t h e T w i n M ir a c le , S a k k a s im ila r ly te n d s t o t h e B u d d h a ’ s t h r o n e

ju s t p r io r t o h is a s c e n t t o h is m o t h e r ’s a b o d e .

B o t h s t o r ie s a r e b io g r a p h ic a l t o t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y d e s c r ib e th e

p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a in t h e w o r l d a n d t h e c r e a t io n a n d v e n e r a t io n o f

h is “ li v in g d o u b le .” B o t h s t o r ie s s h a r e a c o m m o n b io g r a p h ic a l t im e fr a m e

in t h a t t h e e v e n t s a r e p u r p o r t e d t o h a v e t a k e n p la c e d u r in g h is fin a l life .

A n d in b o t h s t o r ie s , t h e c r e a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s li v in g d o u b le s is i n t e r ­

s p e r s e d w it h e p is o d e s a b o u t h is f o r m e r liv e s . R e y n o l d s a n d H a llis e y n o t e a

p e r v a s iv e p a t t e r n in B u d d h is t b io g r a p h ic a l t e x t s “ o f u s in g b io g r a p h y to

p r o v i d e n a r r a t iv e c o n t e x t t h a t a u t h e n t ic a t e s t h e t e a c h i n g s . ” 58 W h e r e a s

jataka ta le s t y p ic a lly a r e f r a m e d b y s t o r ie s o f t h e p r e s e n t t h a t s e t t h e s t a g e

f o r th e B u d d h a t o r e c o u n t h is f o r m e r l i v e s , 59 in t h e M a h a m u n i m y t h t h is
n a r r a t iv e s t r u c t u r e is r e v e r s e d a s t h e m y t h r e c o u n t s e v e n t s in t h e B u d d h a ’s

fin a l life t h a t a r e fr a m e d b y s t o r ie s o f h is f o r m e r liv e s . In th is w a y , t h e n a r ­

r a t iv e fo c u s o f t h e m y t h is s h ift e d t o t h e B u d d h a ’ s v is it t o A r a k a n , a n d t h e

e v e n t s p u r p o r t e d t h e r e a r e le g it im iz e d in r e f e r e n c e t o s t o r ie s t h e B u d d h a

t e lls a b o u t h is v is it s t o t h is r e g io n in p r e v io u s lif e t im e s o r t h e e n s h r in e ­

m e n t o f h is r e lic s in t h e fu t u r e . T h e M a h a m u n i m y t h is f r a m e d b y d is ­

c o u r s e s t h a t t h e B u d d h a g iv e s t o A n a n d a a n d a n a c c o m p a n y in g e n t o u r a g e

w h o , u p o n h e a r in g h im s p e a k , a r e s a id t o p r o g r e s s t o w a r d e n lig h t e n m e n t .

S im ila r s t a t e m e n t s a r e f o u n d , a m o n g o t h e r p la c e s , in t h e c o n c lu d in g c o m ­

m e n t a r ie s in jatakas60 in w h i c h t h e B u d d h a id e n t ifie s h i m s e lf a n d o t h e r

a c t o r s in t h e s t o r y t o in d ic a t e t h e k a r m ic c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e e v e n t s

r e c o u n t e d .

B e y o n d th e s e s im ila r it ie s in t e x t s , a n o t h e r p a r a lle l to t h e T w i n M ir a c le

s t o r y e m e r g e s f r o m t h e r it u a l r e c it a t io n o f t h e f in a l v o lu m e o f t h e

A b h id h a m m a d u r in g t h e a n n u a l p a g o d a fe s t iv a l a t t h e M a h a m u n i S h r in e in

M a n d a la y . It is t h e r e c it a t io n o f t h e Book o f Conditional Relations ( Patthana) ,

a h ig h ly a b s t r a c t, p h ilo s o p h ic a l t e x t t h o u g h t t o c o n t a in t h e dhamma i n i t s
p u r e s t f o r m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e T w i n M ir a c le , t h is t e x t w a s a m o n g t h e d is ­

c o u r s e s th e B u d d h a d e liv e r e d t o h is m o t h e r in T a v a t im s a h e a v e n . B u r m e s e ,

lik e o t h e r T h e r a v a d in s , a ls o b e lie v e th a t it w ill b e t h e fir s t t o d is a p p e a r

w h e n t h e B u d d h a ’s d is p e n s a t io n d e c lin e s .

T h e Patthana is r e c it e d d u r in g t h e M a h a m u n i P a g o d a F e s t iv a l h e ld

a n n u a lly a t t h e e n d o f th e B u d d h is t le n t . T h e fe s t iv a l it s e lf c o m m e m o r a t e s

th e p a g o d a ’s h is t o r y a n d p r o v id e s a n o c c a s io n f o r p o p u la r e n t e r t a in m e n t

a n d fe s t iv it ie s . M a n y p a g o d a s 61 in B u r m a a r e t h e fo c u s o f s u c h a n n u a l c e le ­

b r a t io n s o f lo c a l h is t o r ie s . T h e ir c o n t in u in g s ig n if ic a n c e is a ffir m e d in th e

p r e s e n t t h r o u g h m e r it - m a k in g , o f f e r in g s t o m o n k s , a n d s e r m o n s . S u c h

o c c a s io n s a ls o o f f e r t h e a d d e d a t t r a c t io n o f p o p u la r e n t e r t a in m e n t , m u s ic ,

t h e a t r ic a l p e r f o r m a n c e s , a n d o p p o r t u n it ie s t o s o c ia liz e w it h o n e ’ s fa m ily ,

n e ig h b o r s , a n d v is it in g fr ie n d s .

T h e M a h a m u n i P a g o d a F e s t iv a l is a p o p u la r c e le b r a t io n th a t a ttr a c ts

t h o u s a n d s o f B u d d h is t p ilg r im s t o t h e t e m p le a n d t o t h e c it y o f M a n d a la y .

In a d d it io n t o la r g e - s c a le c o m m u n a l d o n a t io n s t o t h e m o n k h o o d , s e r m o n s

p r e a c h e d b y d is t in g u is h e d m o n k s , a n d t h e d a ily F a c e W a s h in g C e r e m o n y ,

t h e M a h a m u n i P a g o d a F e s t iv a l in c lu d e s a c o m p l e t e r e c it a t io n o f t h e

Patthana t e x t th a t e x t e n d s o v e r s e v e r a l d a y s a n d is b r o a d c a s t in P a li o v e r

lo u d s p e a k e r s . E v e r y f e w h o u r s , s m a ll g r o u p s o f t w o o r t h r e e m o n k s t a k e

tu r n s in c h a n t in g a n d r e a d in g t h e t e x t fr o m p r in t e d e d it io n s . T h e b e n e fit s

o f its r it u a l r e c it a t io n a r e b e lie v e d t o b e g r e a t e v e n t h o u g h m o s t p e o p le liv ­

in g in t h e a d ja c e n t n e ig h b o r h o o d d o n o t s p e n d m u c h t im e lis t e n in g t o it

a n d a r e o n ly s u p e r fic ia lly fa m ilia r w it h its c o n t e n t . N o r d o m o s t u n d e r s t a n d

t h e la n g u a g e o f r e c it a t io n , P a li. Y e t m a n y B u r m e s e s a y th a t t h e liv e s o f r e s ­
 id e n t s a n d t h e d is p e n s a t io n it s e lf w ill b e p r o t e c t e d a s fa r a s t h e s o u n d o f th e

r e c it a t io n c a n b e h e a r d . S im ila r r it u a l r e c it a t io n s t a k e p la c e a t o t h e r p a g o d a

fe s t iv a ls , b u t B u r m e s e e x p lic it ly s ta te t h a t t h e r e c it a t io n a t th e M a h a m u n i is

p e r f o r m e d a s a r it u a l a n a lo g y to t h e B u d d h a ’s e x p o s it io n o f t h e s a m e t e x t t o

h is m o t h e r in T a v a t im s a h e a v e n . T h e y fu r t h e r n o t e th a t th e t w o r e c it a t io n s

o f t h e la s t v o lu m e o f th e A b h id h a m m a c o in c id e in t h e a n n u a l r it u a l c a le n ­

d a r a n d m a r k t h e e n d o f le n t . O n e o f t h e p a g o d a t r u s te e s e x p la in e d : “ In th e

p a s t, th e im a g e u s e d t o s p e a k , b u t it fe ll s ile n t . N o w w e r e c it e t h e P a t t h a n a

t e x t to g a in th e p r o t e c t io n o f th e B u d d h a ’s d is p e n s a t io n .” H is s t a t e m e n t

v o ic e s a s a lie n t B u r m e s e in t e r p r e t a t io n a m o n g B u r m e s e B u d d h is t s a n d

u n d e r s c o r e s t h e p e r c e iv e d p r e e m in e n c e o f t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e w it h in a

c o n c e p t u a l h ie r a r c h y o f B u d d h a im a g e s . T h o s e o f m y B u r m e s e n e ig h b o r s

w h o c la im e d s o c ia l s ta tu s — o n a c c o u n t o f t h e ir d e s c e n t f r o m B u r m e s e r o y ­

a lt y o r s im p ly o n a c c o u n t o f t h e ir p r e s e n t e c o n o m ic c ir c u m s t a n c e s — w o u l d

s e e k o u t t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e o n m a jo r r e lig io u s h o lid a y s b e c a u s e t h e y fe lt

th a t t h e im a g e ’s “ p a s t” p r o v e d its e x t r a o r d in a r y e f f ic a c y in c o m p a r is o n t o

o t h e r B u d d h a im a g e s .

V e n e R a t f o n o f th e B u d d h a
in T ex t o n d E th n o g ra p h y
U n t i l r e c e n t ly , T h e r a v a d a t e x t u a l s c h o la r s h ip e x p lo r e d o n ly r e lu c t a n t ly c u l­

tic v e n e r a t io n o f th e B u d d h a . S e v e r a l r e a s o n s m a y a c c o u n t f o r t h is . F o r

o n e , t r a d it io n a l P a li s c h o la r s h ip s o u g h t t o d is t a n c e “ t r u e ” T h e r a v a d a t e x t s

f r o m t h e c u lt ic v e n e r a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a in t h e f o r m o f r e lic s o r im a g e s .

A n e x a m p le o f th a t a p p r o a c h c a n b e f o u n d in I. B . H o r n e r ’s in t r o d u c t io n

to t h e Milindapanha, w h e r e s h e r a is e s is s u e s c o n c e r n in g t h e v e n e r a t io n o f

th e B u d d h a t h r o u g h r e lic s a n d im a g e s a n d w r it e s , “ ( T ) h e B u d d h a h a d

w is h e d to c o n t in u e t o b e r e p r e s e n t e d m e r e ly b y s y m b o ls s o a s t o d is c o u r ­

a g e t h e g r o w t h o f a B u d d h a - c u lt o n c e im a g e s o f h im s e lf, h o w e v e r m u c h

s t y lis e d , w e r e m a d e . W h y t h e n w e r e t h e y a l l o w e d ? ” 62

T h i s k in d o f b ia s a g a in s t c u lt ic v e n e r a t io n m a y h a v e b e e n s t r e n g t h e n e d

c o in c id e n t a lly b y t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d h is t o r ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e P a li t e x ­

tu a l t r a d it io n its e lf. W h ile c a n o n ic a l t e x t s lik e t h e Mahaparinibbana Sutta d is ­

c u s s a t le n g t h r e v e r e n c e t o b e p a id t o t h e B u d d h a ’s r e lic s , im a g e s a s a

m a n ife s t a t io n o f th e B u d d h a ’s liv in g p r e s e n c e d e v e lo p e d c e n t u r ie s a fte r h is

parinibbdna a n d a r e n o t m e n t io n e d in P a li c a n o n ic a l t e x t s , p e r h a p s d u e to

t h e in t e n t io n s o f t h e r e d a c t o r s .63 W h ile v e n e r a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s im a g e

is m e n t io n e d o n ly r a r e ly in t h e c o m m e n t a r ia l lit e r a t u r e , it fig u r e s p r o m i­

n e n t ly in lo c a l t e x t s , s u c h a s c h r o n ic le s ( vamsa) c o m p o s e d in S r i L a n k a a n d

in t h e B u r m e s e Sdsanavamsa, 6 4 In a B u r m e s e r e t e llin g o f e v e n t s th a t f o l­

lo w e d im m e d ia t e ly a ft e r th e B u d d h a ’s parinibbdna f o u n d in B i g a n d e t , 65 th e
fir s t m ir a c le c a u s e d b y t h e B u d d h a ’s r e lic s o c c u r s s o o n a ft e r h is parinibbana
w h e n M a h a k a s s a p a p a y s h o m a g e t o h is d e c e a s e d b u t n o t y e t c r e m a t e d

b o d y . T h e B u d d h a ’ s r e m a in s m ir a c u lo u s ly s h in e t h r o u g h t h e f u n e r a r y

s h r o u d s a n d c r e a t e a le v it a t e d a p p a r it io n o f h is p h y s ic a l b o d y . T h e v e n e r a ­

t io n o f th e B u d d h a d u r in g h is la s t life is a ls o e la b o r a t e d a t s e v e r a l ju n c t u r e s

in t h e P a li t e x t s . T h e jatakas66 r e l a t e h o w th e B u d d h a n o t o n ly e n c o u r a g e d ,

b u t e x p e c t e d r o y a l s u p p o r t e r s to p a y h o m a g e t o h im . O t h e r e p is o d e s in th e

jatakas illu s t r a t e h o w o f f e r in g s o f f o o d o r o t h e r a lm s t o a fu t u r e B u d d h a

b r in g m e r it t o th e d o n o r a n d d e t a il g r e a t k a r m ic c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r s u c h a c ts

o f g e n e r o s it y . In c o n t r a s t , in t h e M ilindapanha67 t h e B u d d h a is s a id t o h a v e

d is c o u r a g e d A n a n d a f r o m w o r s h ip in g h is p h y s ic a l b o d y ( rupakaya) b e c a u s e

th a t p r a c t ic e w o u l d n o t f u r t h e r t h e w o r k o f h is d is c ip le s .

M o r e r e c e n t s c h o la r s h ip m o v e d a w a y f r o m t h e p r e s u m p t io n o f a “ p u r e ”

a n d in t e r n a lly c o n s is t e n t b o d y o f T h e r a v a d a t e x t s d iv o r c e d f r o m h is t o r ic a l

a n d c u lt u r a l c o n t e x t s o f c o m p ila t io n a n d t r a n s m is s io n . W it h r e g a r d to th e

v e n e r a t io n o f r e lic s , S c h o p e n 68 p o in t s to t h e in c o n g r u it y b e t w e e n e x t a n t

P a li V in a y a t e x t s a n d th e m o n a s t ic p r a c t ic e o f stupa v e n e r a t io n d o c u m e n t e d

in e a r ly I n d ia n in s c r ip t io n s . H e a r g u e s th a t t h e s ile n c e o n th is is s u e in th e P a li

V in a y a — w h i c h a r e p r e s u m e d t o b e a m o n g th e e a r lie s t B u d d h is t w r it in g s

e x t a n t t o d a y — m a y b e th e r e s u lt o f r e la t iv e ly r e c e n t t e x t r e v is io n s . In th e

c o u r s e o f d is c u s s in g t h e c o n t e x t o f c o m p ila t io n o f th e P a li c a n o n a n d its h is ­

t o r ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t , C o llin s s im ila r ly r e m a r k s th a t “ ( A ) lt h o u g h a n u m b e r o f

u n c e r t a in t ie s b e s e t o u r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e e a r lie r h is t o r y o f im a g e s a n d

im a g e v e n e r a t io n in B u d d h is m , t h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t t h e y h a v e c o m e to

p la y a n im p o r t a n t r o le in m e d ia t in g t h e B u d d h a ’s ‘ p r e s e n c e . ’ ” 69

T h e r e la t iv e s p a r s it y o f r e f e r e n c e s t o im a g e v e n e r a t io n in t h e P a li

c a n o n ic a l a n d c o m m e n t a r ia l lit e r a t u r e is m it ig a t e d , in p a r t, b y e p ig r a p h ic

a n d a r c h it e c t u r a l e v id e n c e f r o m m e d ie v a l In d ia n m o n a s t e r ie s , b e g in n in g

w it h t h e f o u r t h / f if t h c e n t u r ie s , w h i c h S c h o p e n h a s r e c e n t ly c o n s i d e r e d . 70

H e a r g u e s t h a t , b e g in n in g w it h t h e fif t h c e n t u r y , P e r fu m e d C h a m b e r s

( gandhakuti) h o u s in g im a g e s o f t h e B u d d h a b e c a m e c e n t r a l a s p e c ts in th e

e m e r g in g r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f m o n a s t ic a r c h it e c t u r e . T h e s e “ ‘p r iv a t e c h a m ­

b e r s ’ [ r e s e r v e d f o r t h e B u d d h a ] w e r e f o r m a lly r e c o g n iz e d a s d is t in c t o r g a ­

n iz a t io n a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e ir m o n a s t e r ie s a n d h a d s p e c i f ic a ll y t it le d

m o n k s o r g r o u p s o f m o n k s a t t a c h e d to t h e m .” 71 H e fu r t h e r s ta te s th a t “ th e

B u d d h a w a s t h o u g h t to h a v e b e e n a c u r r e n t r e s id e n t a n d a n a b id in g p r e s ­

e n c e in m e d ie v a l B u d d h is t m o n a s t e r ie s . . . t h e B le s s e d O n e h im s e lf w a s

t h o u g h t t o b e in t h e P e r fu m e d C h a m b e r .” 72 S c h o p e n c it e s a r c h a e o lo g ic a l

e v id e n c e f r o m t h e n in t h / t e n t h c e n t u r ie s to s h o w th a t im a g e s “ h o u s e d in

th e M e d i e v a l m o n a s t ic gandhakuti w e r e c o g n it iv e ly c la s s ifie d w it h t h e liv ­

in g B u d d h a . . . [a n d ] t h o u g h t to Hue in t h e s e e s t a b lis h m e n t s .” U p o n t h e ir

in e v it a b le d e c a y , t h e y w e r e t r e a t e d r it u a lly lik e t h e r e m a in s o f d e c e a s e d
B u d d h a s a n d e n s h r in e d in stupas, t h u s u n d e r s c o r in g t h e e q u iv a le n c e o f

“ im a g e ” a n d “ a c t u a l p e r s o n . ” 73

S t r o n g h a s a lr e a d y s h o w n 74 th a t fo r m s o f v e n e r a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a r e p ­

r e s e n t e d b y im a g e s o r b y e m p t y t h r o n e s a r e f o u n d in t e x t s a n d p r a c t ic e

a c r o s s th e B u d d h is t t r a d it io n . In h is e s s a y o n t h e P e r fu m e d C h a m b e r (gati-
dhakutt), h e s h o w s th a t t h e c u lt ic p r a c t ic e o f o f f e r in g f lo w e r s , c a n d le s , a n d

p e r f u m e s t o t h e B u d d h a a n d t h e p e r s o n a l d e v o t io n e x p r e s s e d in t h is w a y

a r e “ d e e d s o f d e v o t io n w h ic h m o r e im m e d ia t e ly t r a n s fo r m t h e v e r y m ilie u

in w h i c h t h e y a r e m a d e . ” 75

A w e a lt h o f e t h n o g r a p h ic e x a m p le s c a n b e a d d u c e d to d o c u m e n t v e n ­

e r a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s im a g e a s a c o m m o n m o d e o f r e lig io u s p r a c t ic e

t h r o u g h o u t t h e T h e r a v a d a w o r ld . In B u r m a , c o n s e c r a t e d B u d d h a im a g e s ,

s u c h a s r e lic s a n d o t h e r s a c r e d ic o n s , a r e o b je c t s o f r e lig io u s v e n e r a t io n .

T h e r e is a s ig n ific a n t r a n g e o f in t e r p r e t a t io n s B u r m e s e e n t e r t a in o n h o w

t h e ic o n m a n ife s t s t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a . P e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t d e g r e e

o f c o n s e n s u s e m e r g e s in t h e r it u a l v e n e r a t io n o f B u d d h a im a g e s , b e c a u s e in

t h e c o n t e x t o f th a t r it u a l o b s e r v a n c e , a ll B u r m e s e B u d d h is t s t e n d to a c t as

t h o u g h t h e B u d d h a w a s p r e s e n t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y m a y n o t a c c e p t th a t

p r e m is e e x p lic it ly .

A c o n s e c r a t e d im a g e is f o u n d in n e a r ly e v e r y B u r m e s e B u d d h i s t

h o u s e h o ld w h e r e o ffe r in g s o f f o o d , w a t e r , c a n d le s , a n d fr a g r a n t f lo w e r s a r e

p la c e d b e f o r e it a n d r e lig io u s a ffir m a t io n s a n d v o w s a r e m a d e in its p r e s ­

e n c e . 76 P a y in g h o m a g e “ a s t h o u g h t h e B u d d h a w a s a liv e ” is a c o m m o n

e x e g e s is f o r t h is t y p e o f v e n e r a t io n , e v e n f o r t h o s e B u r m e s e w h o b e lie v e

t h a t a n im a g e s e r v e s p r im a r ily a s a c o g n it iv e r e m in d e r o f th e B u d d h a ’s s p ir ­

it u a l d is c ip lin e a n d e x e m p la r y m a s t e r y o f t h e P a t h . O t h e r s v ie w c o n s e ­

c r a t e d im a g e s a s p o w e r fu l b e c a u s e , t o t h e m , t h e y c o n s t it u t e lit e r a lly th e

p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s p o w e r in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e ir o w n liv e s . T h e

s a lie n c e o f p o p u la r c o n c e p t io n s a b o u t t h e v e n e r a t io n o f im a g e s a n d r e lic s as

e x t e n s io n s o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s p h y s ic a l b o d y is illu s t r a t e d b y its w id e s p r e a d

p r a c t ic e . T o T h e r a v a d in s , t a k in g a n o a t h b e f o r e a B u d d h a im a g e is a s a c r e d

a c t th a t a tte s ts t o t h e t r u t h o f t h is a ffir m a t io n . M a n y B u r m e s e c o n s id e r it

e q u iv a le n t t o m a k in g t h e a ffir m a t io n in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n d w it n e s s e d b y

t h e B u d d h a . 77 W h e n s u c h v o w s a r e b r o k e n , p o t e n t ia lly d is a s tr o u s c o n s e ­

q u e n c e s a n d g r e a t d e m e r it a r e t h o u g h t t o e n s u e .

M o s t h o u s e h o ld im a g e s h a v e b e e n c o n s e c r a t e d in liv in g m e m o r y a t

le a s t o n c e , i f n o t s e v e r a l tim e s . C o n s e c r a t io n e n s u r e s th a t t h e p o w e r s o f th e

B u d d h a e m a n a t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e h o u s e a n d s u r r o u n d in g c o m p o u n d a n d

p r o t e c t its r e s id e n t s fr o m ill fo r t u n e o f m a n y k in d s . O n c e c o n s e c r a t io n h a s

b e e n p r o p e r ly p e r f o r m e d a n d t h e dhammakaya in v o k e d , a ll im a g e s e m b o d y

t h e p o w e r s o f t h e B u d d h a . T h e c o n s e c r a t io n r it u a l,7 * e n t a ils t h e e n liv e n in g

o f t h e im a g e a s m o n k s r e c it e t h e Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, th e fir s t

s e r m o n t h e B u d d h a r e c it e d u p o n h is e n lig h t e n m e n t , w h i c h s e t th e W h e e l

o f L a w in m o t io n . T h e p o w e r o f t h e m o n k s ’ u t t e r a n c e s ,79 s o c a r e fu lly p r o ­

n o u n c e d to s t a y t r u e t o w h a t is b e lie v e d t o b e t h e o r ig in a l P a li, r e s ts o n th e

fa c t th a t b o t h c o n t e n t a n d f o r m o f t h e ir r e c it a t io n is p a r t o f t h e dham­
makaya, t h e s p ir it u a l b o d y o f th e B u d d h a , 80 w h i c h th u s is im p a r t e d in t o h is

im a g e , rupakaya. O n c e c o n s e c r a t e d , t h e im a g e is b e lie v e d t o c o n t a in th e

p o w e r s o f th e B u d d h a a n d h e n c e b e c o m e s p a r t o f b o t h th e s p ir it u a l a n d

p h y s ic a l e x t e n s io n s o f h is d is p e n s a t io n .

T h e p o w e r o f c o n s e c r a t e d im a g e s m a y b e je o p a r d i z e d b y im p e r fe c t io n s

in r it u a l p e r f o r m a n c e , s a c r e d s p e e c h , o r p r io r d e file m e n t s o f t h e m o n k s

w h o i n v o k e d t h e dhammakaya d u r in g th e c o n s e c r a t io n r it u a l. O n c e c o n s e ­

c r a t e d a n d e m p o w e r e d , a n im a g e m u s t b e t r e a t e d w it h c a r e fu l a t t e n t io n to

p r o p e r c o n d u c t in its p r e s e n c e . I m p r o p e r c o n d u c t , a n d p a r t ic u la r ly s e x u a l

b e h a v io r , s h o u ld n o t t a k e p la c e in t h e im a g e ’s p r e s e n c e . S im ila r ly , o n e ’s

fe e t s h o u ld n e v e r b e p o in t e d t o w a r d th e im a g e . M a n y B u r m e s e s le e p w it h

t h e ir h e a d s o r ie n t e d t o w a r d t h e im a g e a n d s o m e , m in d f u l o f p o t e n t ia l

o ffe n s e s , in s ta ll c u r t a in s a r o u n d t h e im a g e t o r e m o v e t h e c o n t e x t o f o r d i­

n a r y life f r o m its s ig h t .

T h e r it u a l r e v e r e n c e c o m m o n ly p a id t o B u d d h a im a g e s a n d o t h e r

fo r m s o f th e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n c e u n d e r s c o r e s t h e p e r v a s iv e n e s s o f b e lie fs

a b o u t t h e B u d d h a ’s p r e s e n c e in t h e w o r ld . A c c e p t in g th a t p r e m is e , fu r t h e r

e x p la n a t io n is n e e d e d t o d e t e r m in e w h y B u r m e s e p e r c e iv e s o m e im a g e s to

b e m o r e e f f ic a c io u s th a n o t h e r s a n d t o d e fin e th e p r in c ip le s u n d e r ly in g th e

c o n c e p t u a l h ie r a r c h y o f im a g e s B u r m e s e e n t e r t a in , b u t a r t ic u la t e o ft e n o n ly

v a g u e ly . T h e e x t r a o r d in a r y e f f ic a c y a t t r ib u t e d to s o m e im a g e s — b u t n o t to

m o s t o r d in a r y im a g e s in h o u s e h o ld s o r n e i g h b o r h o o d p r a y e r h a lls —

s e e m in g ly c o n t r a d ic t s t h e g e n e r a l b e li e f th a t a ll c o n s e c r a t e d im a g e s e m b o d y

e q u a lly h is rupakaya a n d a r e “ e n liv e n e d ” b y h is dhammakaya. In p r in c ip le ,

t h e r e s h o u ld b e n o d if f e r e n t ia t io n c o n c e r n in g t h e e f f ic a c y a t t r ib u t e d to

c o n s e c r a t e d B u d d h a im a g e s . Y e t , lik e m o s t T h e r a v a d in s , B u r m e s e r e c o g ­

n iz e a c o n c e p t u a l h ie r a r c h y o f m o r e a n d le s s p o w e r fu l im a g e s e v e n t h o u g h

t h e y s o m e t im e s fin d it d iffic u lt to e x p la in t h is d iffe r e n t ia t io n o n g r o u n d s o f

p r in c ip le . T h is a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d ic t io n is o ft e n “ r e s o lv e d ” b y a m y t h s o f

o r ig in a t io n a n d “ lin e a g e ” th a t c o m b in e to c r e a t e a b io g r a p h y o f t h e im a g e

its e lf. S u c h b io g r a p h ie s o f im a g e s a r e f u r t h e r a u t h e n t ic a t e d b y th e d e e d s o f

m e r it o f t h o s e w h o b r o u g h t it u n d e r t h e ir p a t r o n a g e . A d iffe r e n t ia t io n in

t h e e f f ic a c y a t t r ib u t e d t o im a g e s m a y th u s b e a r e f le c t io n o f t h e r e la t iv e

s t o r e o f m e r it o f la y d o n o r s w h o s p o n s o r t h e ir c r e a t io n , s u b s e q u e n t c o n s e ­

c r a t io n , o r v e n e r a t io n . P a r t ic u la r ly w h e n h o u s e d in p la c e s th a t a r e p u b lic ly

a c c e s s ib le , s u c h im a g e s b e c o m e s o u r c e s o f m e r it f o r a p o t e n t ia lly u n lim it e d

n u m b e r o f o t h e r k a r m ic a lly c o n d it io n e d liv e s . H e n c e t h e m o s t h o n o r e d

title a B u r m e s e la y s p o n s o r m a y e a r n is th a t o f a d o n o r o f a n im a g e , hpaya:
taga, a h o n o r if ic h e ld in g r e a t e r e s t e e m th a n t h e s p o n s o r s h ip o f a n o r d in a ­

t io n . It in d ic a t e s t h e p r im a r y o b lig a t io n o f t h e T h e r a v a d a la it y t o p r o v id e

f o r a ll p h y s ic a l d im e n s io n s o f t h e d is p e n s a t io n : t h e c o n s t r u c t io n o f t e m p le s

a n d m o n a s t e r ie s , t h e m a t e r ia l r e q u ir e m e n t s f o r th e m o n k h o o d , a n d s o o n .

B e i n g t h e d o n o r o f a c o n s e c r a t e d B u d d h a im a g e is t h e r e f o r e t h e m o s t p r e s ­

t ig io u s s p o n s o r s h ip o f r e lig io n . It e x t e n d s la y p a t r o n a g e a n d p r o t e c t io n o v e r

a s o c ia l d o m a in o f th e B u d d h a ’s d is p e n s a t io n (sasana) a n d a tte s ts t o t h e la y

p a t r o n ’s p r e v io u s a n d fu t u r e m e r it , h is s p ir it u a l a b ilit ie s , a n d s o c ia l p o w e r .

P o s t s c R ip t : M aham unV s M odeRn Reification

T h e e t h n o g r a p h y o n w h ic h t h is e s s a y h a s b e e n b a s e d th u s fa r d r e w o n f ie ld ­

w o r k c o n d u c t e d in 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2 . A r e c e n t r e t u r n to M a n d a la y in t h e s p r in g

o f 1 9 9 4 illu m in a t e d t h e a r g u m e n t s d e v e lo p e d h e r e in u n fo r e s e e n w a y s . In

t h e c o u r s e o f e x t e n s i v e , g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d r e lig io u s c o n s t r u c t io n

t h r o u g h o u t B u r m a , s e v e r a l b u ild in g s h a v e b e e n a d d e d r e c e n t ly t o t h e

M a h a m u n i c o m p le x in M a n d a la y . M o s t s ig n ific a n t f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f th is

e s s a y a r e t w o m u s e u m s , o n e d e d ic a t e d t o th e m y t h o f M a h a m u n i a n d th e

o t h e r t o t h e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y a n d h is c o n t in u e d p r e s e n c e b o t h a t th e s ite

o f th is s h r in e a n d s im u lt a n e o u s ly t h r o u g h o u t t h e u n iv e r s e . A s b o t h s t r u c ­

t u r e s a r e in t e n d e d t o p o p u la r iz e a n d in t e r p r e t f o r p ilg r im s a p a r t ic u la r

u n d e r s t a n d in g o f th e k n o w n t e x t a b o u t th e c o m p le x a n d its im a g e , s o m e

b r i e f d e s c r ip t io n s a r e in o r d e r .

T h e n e w b u ild in g d e d ic a t e d to th e m y t h o h is t o r y o f t h e c r e a t io n o f th e

M a h a m u n i im a g e , A n a w r a t h a ’s fa ile d a t t e m p t to b r in g t h e im a g e to P a g a n ,

its t r a n s p o r t t o U p p e r B u r m a , a n d g r a n d in v e s t it u r e b y K in g B o d a w p a y a in

its p r e s e n t lo c a t io n d is p la y s a p p r o x im a t e ly t h ir t y h u g e p a n e ls o f o il p a in t ­

in g s a lo n g a c ir c u la r w a lk t h a t f o llo w s t h e e p is o d e s o f t h e m y t h . E a c h p a n e l

o f c a n v a s m e a s u r e s a p p r o x im a t e ly 6 — 7 m e t e r s in le n g t h a n d 3 m e t e r s in

h e ig h t a n d is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a c a p t io n d e s c r ib in g t h e s c e n e p o r t r a y e d in

b o t h B u r m e s e a n d E n g lis h . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t io n a l s t y le o f t h e s e p a in t in g s is

e p ic , n o t o n ly in its p r o p o r t io n s , b u t a ls o in t h e m o o d a n d t e n o r th is g r a n d

n a t io n a l m y t h s e e k s t o e v o k e . A t th e c o s t o f h is t o r ic it y , th e d is p la y e m p h a ­

s iz e s p r e c is e ly t h o s e s c e n e s lik e ly t o in s t ill o r r e s o n a t e r e lig io - n a t io n a lis t

e m o t i o n s a m o n g t h e v i e w i n g p ilg r im s . F o r in s t a n c e , t h e s h ip t h a t

B o d a w p a y a ’s s o n a n d m ilit a r y c o m m a n d e r u s e d f o r t r a n s p o r t in g th e im a g e

u p r iv e r is s h o w n t o b e a h u g e g a lle o n v e s s e l w it h m a n y s a ils r e m in is c e n t o f

t h e s o r t o f fle e t s h ip e x p lo r e r s lik e C h r is t o p h e r C o lu m b u s m ig h t h a v e c o m ­

m a n d e d o n t h e ir s e a fa r in g v o y a g e s . T h e c a p t io n b e n e a t h e x p la in s th a t th e

im a g e is b r o u g h t “ b a c k ” to B u r m a , w it h o u t , h o w e v e r , p r o v id in g a r e fe r e n t

fo r th is r e t r o f le x iv e s y n t a c t ic c o n s t r u c t io n . T h e n e x t p a n e l s h o w s t h e s h ip

a n c h o r in g a t t h e I r r a w a d d y r iv e r b a n k a n d th e k in g , B o d a w p a y a , m a r c h in g
o u t in t o t h e w a t e r s t o p u ll t h e r o p e s g u id in g t h e s h ip t o t h e p ie r . T h e d is ­

p la y e n d s w it h t h e e n s h r in e m e n t o f th e im a g e b y th e A m a r a p u r a c o u r t . F o r

th e p ilg r im s w h o v is it t h e m u s e u m , b o t h th e m e d iu m o f r e p r e s e n t a t io n a n d

its s t y le s t r ik e a w e - in s p ir in g c h o r d s . M o s t o f t h e m h a v e n e v e r s e e n b e f o r e

p a in t in g s o f th is s iz e o r s t y le , le t a lo n e o n e s d e p ic t in g e m o t iv e t h e m e s o f a

t e x t w it h w h ic h t h e y h a v e fa m ilia r it y p r io r t o v is it in g th e s a c r e d p r e c in c t o f

M a h a m u n i. M a n y le a v e v is ib ly im p r e s s e d a n d in s p ir e d b y th e r e lig io u s a n d

n a t io n a lis t ic m e a n in g s c o n v e y e d .

T h e m e s s a g e th a t th e p ilg r im is n o w in th e p r e s e n c e o f M a h a m u n i is

e n f o r c e d b y a s e c o n d n e w c o m p l e x d e d ic a t e d t o t h e b io g r a p h y o f t h e

B u d d h a a n d th e s p r e a d o f h is t e a c h in g s . O n e e n te r s th is b u ild in g t h r o u g h a

s e t o f sta irs le a d in g t o a b a lc o n y o n th e s e c o n d s t o r y . Its e n t r a n c e is fla n k e d

o n e it h e r s id e w it h a p a in t in g fa s h io n e d a fte r a p h o t o g r a p h o f K in g M in d o n

a n d o t h e r s o f jataka s t o r ie s . M o s t s ig n ific a n t a r e th e fo u r d e p ic t io n s o f th e

B u d d h a ’s p la c e o f b ir t h a n d th e s ite s o f h is e n lig h t e n m e n t , fir s t s e r m o n , a n d

p a s s in g in t o parinibbana. T h e p a s s a g e th e n le a d s in t o a q u a d r a n g u la r b a lc o n y

th a t e x h ib it s a lo n g th e w a lls p ic t u r e s o f B u d d h is t p ilg r im a g e s ite s in In d ia ,

N e p a l, T i b e t , S r i L a n k a , T h a ila n d , C a m b o d ia , V ie t n a m , C h i n a , K o r e a ,

J a p a n , a n d B o r o b u d u r in I n d o n e s ia . T h e s e a r e f o ll o w e d b y r e p lic a s o f

B u d d h a im a g e s f r o m v a r io u s B u r m e s e d y n a s t ic p e r io d s , in c lu d in g P a g a n ,

P e g u , A v a , S a g a in , a n d M a n d a la y , a n d o t h e r s r e p r e s e n t in g a r tis t ic s t y le s o f

B u d d h a ic o n s f r o m T h a ila n d , S r i L a n k a , In d ia , a n d o t h e r B u d d h is t c o u n t r ie s .

T h e m o s t s p e c t a c u la r d is p la y , h o w e v e r , is r e v e a le d in th e v ie w f r o m

th e b a lc o n y d o w n to t h e g r o u n d f lo o r , w h e r e a s c u lp t e d c o s m o g r a p h y o f

th e B u d d h is t w o r ld u n fo ld s . T h is c e n t e r o f th e e x h ib it is c o n s t r u c t e d s im u l­

t a n e o u s ly in m o d e r n , g e o g r a p h ic a n d t r a d it io n a l, c o s m o lo g ic a l t e r m s a n d

p r e s e n t s a B u r m e s e s c u lp t u r a l in t e r p r e t a t io n o f th e B u d d h a ’s illu m in a t io n o f

th e u n iv e r s e a s r e c o u n t e d in th e Dhammapada. T h e h u g e c o s m o g r a p h ic

m a p in s c u lp t e d r e li e f o n t h e g r o u n d f lo o r b e lo w s h o w s a ll m a jo r s ite s o f

B u d d h is t p ilg r im a g e , in c lu d in g B u d d h a g a y a in I n d ia , K a n d y in S r i L a n k a ,

W a t P h r a K a e o in T h a ila n d , A n g k o r W a t in C a m b o d ia , B o r o b u d u r in

I n d o n e s ia , a n d m a n y o t h e r s in N e p a l, T i b e t , C h in a , K o r e a , a n d J a p a n . A t

th e c e n t e r o f t h is c a r t o g r a p h ic r e li e f lie s M y a n m a r , t h e m o d e r n B u r m e s e

n a t io n w h o s e la n d s c a p e is c lu t t e r e d w it h m a r k e r s in d ic a t in g t h e lo c a t io n o f

n a t io n a l s h r in e s lik e th e S h w e d a g o n P a g o d a a n d o t h e r c h a r is m a t ic p ilg r im ­

a g e s ite s in th e p e r ip h e r a l r e g io n s o f t h e B u r m e s e h e a r t la n d . A t t h e c o s m o ­

g r a p h ic c e n t e r o f M y a n m a r lie s , n a t u r a lly , t h e s ite o f t h e M a h a m u n i P a g o d a

in M a n d a la y . F r o m t h is a x is m u n d i, th e v ie w e r ’s e y e r is e s u p t o a je w e l e d

s t a ir w a y p o is e d in m id a ir a g a in s t a g lim m e r in g b lu e u n iv e r s e . A t o p th is

s t a ir w a y r is e s th e B u d d h a , illu m in a t in g th e u n iv e r s e b e lo w h im a n d a ls o

a b o v e , w h e r e B r a h m a , I n d r a , a n d o t h e r c e le s t ia l b e in g s s t a n d r e v e r e n t ly to

w it n e s s t h e m ir a c le o f h is p r e s e n c e . T h e B u d d h a ’s lu m in o u s r a d ia n c e is
c o n v e y e d b y c o lo r fu l r o w s o f e le c t r ic a n d n e o n lig h t s th a t b o r d e r th e s t a ir ­

c a s e a n d lin k t h e s ite o f M a h a m u n i w it h t h e h ig h e s t r e a c h e s o f t h e u n iv e r s e .

T h e e n t ir e c o s m o g r a p h ic d is p la y r e s ts o n M o u n t M e r u a n d is s u r r o u n d e d

b y t h e s e v e n cakkravala a n d se a s b e y o n d t h e S o u t h e r n Is la n d .

T h e s y m b o lic m e s s a g e s o f t h e e n t ir e m u s e u m d e d ic a t e d t o t h e life o f

t h e B u d d h a a n d t h e s p r e a d o f h is m e s s a g e th u s c e n t e r o n t h e c o n fla t io n o f

t w o p o p u la r ly k n o w n t e x t s in v is u a l f o r m , n a m e ly t h e M a h a m u n i m y t h a n d

t h e p a s s a g e o f th e T w in M ir a c le c r e a t e d b y t h e B u d d h a u p o n h is r e t u r n to

e a r t h a ft e r p r e a c h in g th e A b h id h a m m a t o h is m o t h e r in T u s it a h e a v e n . T h e

c o s m o g e o g r a p h ic m o d e l o f t h e B u d d h is t w o r ld th u s c u lm in a t e s in t h e illu ­

m in a t io n o f t h e B u d d h a t h r o u g h o u t t h e u n iv e r s e w it h t h e M a h a m u n i

P a g o d a a s its a x is m u n d i. T h e v is u a l im p a c t o f t h e s c e n e is h ig h ly e v o c a t iv e

a n d in s p ir in g , c o m b in in g in its a r r a n g e m e n t s fe a t u r e s o f m o d e r n g e o g r a ­

p h y , n a t io n a l b o u n d a r ie s , p ilg r im a g e s ite s , a n d t h e s p r e a d o f B u d d h is m

e n c o m p a s s e d b y a t r a d it io n a l B u d d h is t c o s m o lo g y th a t c e n t e r s o n t h e s ite o f

t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e a t th e m o m e n t w h e n t h e B u d d h a p e r f o r m e d h is m o s t

s p e c t a c u la r m ir a c le , t h e c r e a t io n o f h is liv in g t w in .

T h e m e s s a g e s c o n v e y e d b y th e s e t w o m u s e u m s a r e h a r d ly m o d ifie d b y

c u r a t o r s h ip o r m u s e o lo g ic a l c o n c e r n s fo r p r e s e r v a t io n a n d d is p la y . In s te a d ,

th e m a n y p ilg r im s w h o b e h o ld th e s e d is p la y s fa it h fu lly fin d t h e ir e x p e c t a t io n s

m a t c h e d , i f n o t h e ig h t e n e d , b y th e e t h o s a n d b e lie fs th e s e e x h ib it s a r t ic u la t e .

T h e s e r e c e n t a d d itio n s to th e M a h a m u n i c o m p le x o ffe r y e t a n o t h e r e x a m p le

o f a c o n t in u in g in t e r p r e t iv e p r o c e s s o f p r io r te x ts a n d fu r t h e r s e e k t o d o c u ­

m e n t , in m y t h o - r e lig io u s , b io g r a p h ic a l, a n d c o s m o lo g ic a l te r m s , th e p la c e o f

M a h a m u n i, th e B u d d h a ’s liv in g t w in in th e m o d e m B u r m e s e w o r ld .

C o n clu sio n
T h e M a h a m u n i c o m p le x — th a t is , t h e im a g e , r it u a ls o f v e n e r a t io n , m y t h s ,

a n d t h e ir n a r r a t iv e a llu s io n s to t h e b r o a d e r T h e r a v a d a t e x t u a l t r a d it io n —

fu n c t io n s , in v a r io u s c o m b in a t io n s , a s a s e t o f in d e x ic a l s y m b o ls in m u lt ip le

c u lt u r a l a n d r e lig io u s c o n t e x t s . T o g e t h e r t h e y e v o k e th e c o n s t r u c t io n , in

p r a c t ic e a n d e x e g e s is , o f a n o n g o in g b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a in a s p e c ific

lo c a lit y , M a n d a la y . S u c h in t e r p r e t a t io n f ir m ly lin k s a r e m o t e S o u t h e a s t

A s ia n p e r ip h e r y t o a n u n iv e r s a l B u d d h is t c o s m o g r a p h y a n d c o s m o lo g y . B y

v e n e r a t in g t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e , B u r m e s e T h e r a v a d in s in c o r p o r a t e in t o

t h e ir liv e s t h e liv in g p r e s e n c e o f t h e B u d d h a in h is r it u a l f o r m . T h e ic o n , its

r it u a ls , a n d m y t h s th u s b e c o m e e x t e n s io n s o f a n o p e n - e n d e d B u d d h a b io g ­

r a p h y in w h i c h B u r m e s e B u d d h is t s c o n t in u e t o p a r t ic ip a t e .

T h e b e li e f in t h e e f f ic a c y o f r it u a l s e r v ic e a n d o f f e r in g s b e f o r e th is

im a g e is le g it im a t e d in c o m p le m e n t a r y a n d m u t u a lly r e in f o r c in g w a y s th a t

in c o r p o r a t e s o c io h is t o r ic a l c o n t e x t s a n d r e lig io u s c o n c e p t io n s w it h in a
b r o a d e r B u d d h is t f r a m e w o r k . T h e i m a g e ’s v e n e r a t io n b y m y t h ic a n d h is ­

t o r ic k in g s p r o v i d e s a li n k t o a p r is t in e p a s t t h a t o r i g i n a t e d w it h t h e

B u d d h a ’s v is it t o t h e lo c a l c o s m o g r a p h y o f A r a k a n . T h e r it u a l a ls o a m p lifie s

th e fie ld o f m e r it o f w o r s h ip e r s w h o p a y t h e ir s e r v ic e a n d o b e is a n c e t o t h e

B u d d h a a t t h e M a h a m u n i T e m p l e , w h i c h f u r t h e r e n h a n c e s t h e b e li e f in its

e x t r a o r d in a r y e f f ic a c y . A t a s o c ia l a n d p o lit ic a l le v e l, t h e M a h a m u n i c u lt

lo c a t e s w it h in a s in g le f ie ld o f m e r it a ll t h o s e s o c ia l a n d p o lit ic a l g r o u p s w h o

c la im , in s o m e f o r m , its a p p r o p r ia t io n to t h e ir o w n liv e s . T h e v e n e r a t io n o f

th e M a h a m u n i im a g e h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n th e fo c u s o f m e r it - m a k in g r it u a ls

o f v a r io u s e t h n ic g r o u p s w h o c la im e d p a t r o n a g e o v e r i t .81 Its p a t r o n a g e b y

B u r m e s e k in g s a n d t h e p r e s e n t g o v e r n m e n t n o t o n ly im p lie d a n a n a lo g y to

its m y t h o lo g ic a l p a t r o n , t h e A r a k a n e s e k in g C a n d r a s u r iy a , b u t a ls o s e r v e s as

a s y m b o l o f c o n t r o l o v e r s o c ia l g r o u p s . T h is fa c t e x p la in s w h y c o m p e t it io n

a n d p a t r o n a g e b y p o lit ie s o v e r p o s s e s s io n o f th is im a g e — a n d o t h e r s lik e

it— w a s , o n o c c a s io n , in t e n s e ly c o n t e s t e d . In a s m u c h a s t h e s t o r y o f th e

T w i n M ir a c le is a m o d e l f o r u n iv e r s a liz in g th e d is p e n s a t io n o f th e B u d d h a

a n d h is “ liv in g d o u b le s ” in c e r t a in c o s m ic r e a lm s , t h e M a h a m u n i im a g e a n d

c u lt r e p r e s e n t a p a r t ic u la r , lo c a l e x t e n s io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’s d is p e n s a t io n

a m o n g t h e B u r m e s e . T h e y p r o v i d e a r a t io n a le a n d m o t iv a t io n f o r t h e

T h e r a v a d in p a r t ic ip a t io n in t h e B u d d h a ’s o n g o in g b io g r a p h y in r e lig io u s ,

s o c ia l, c u lt u r a l, a n d h is t o r ic a l a r e n a s .

A c k n o w le d g m e n t s
E a r li e r v e r s io n s o f t h is e s s a y w e r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e B u r m a S t u d ie s

C o l lo q u i u m a t N o r t h e r n I llin o is U n iv e r s it y a n d a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t in g s o f

t h e A m e r ic a n A c a d e m y o f R e l i g i o n in S a n F r a n c is c o d u r in g t h e fa ll o f

1 9 9 2 . R i c h a r d O ’ C o n n o r , S t e p h e n C o l li n s , F . K . L e h m a n , V ic t o r

L ie b e r m a n , F r a n k R e y n o l d s , G r e g o r y S c h o p e n , M ic h a e l A u n g T h w i n , a n d

M a r k W o o d w a r d r e a d e a r lie r d r a fts . I w o u l d lik e t o a c k n o w le d g e t h e ir

c o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t io n s , w h ic h i m p r o v e d th e a r g u m e n t s p r e s e n t e d h e r e .

A ll m is t a k e s a n d o m is s io n s a r e m y o w n .

T h e S m it h s o n ia n I n s t it u t io n , t h e W e n n e r - G r e n F o u n d a t io n , t h e

W o o d r o w W ils o n F o u n d a t io n , t h e S o c ia l S c ie n c e R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l, a n d

t h e fa c u lt y g r a n t - in - a id a t A r iz o n a S t a t e U n iv e r s it y s u p p o r t e d v a r io u s s t a g e s

o f r e s e a r c h a n d w r it in g o n t h e M a h a m u n i c o m p le x . I a m g r a t e fu l fo r th e

s u p p o r t t h e y p r o v id e d .

N o te s
1. See Mircea Eliade’s The Myth o f the Eternal Return or, Cosmos and History',
Bollingen Series no. 46 (Princeton, N .J.: Princeton University Press, 1954,
1974), PP- 49 ff-
2. This topic is also explored in the contributions to this volume by
Houtman, Taylor, and McGill. A broader discussion is found in Hie
Biographical Process: Studies in the History and Psychology of Religion, edited by
Frank E. Reynolds and Donald Capps (The Hague: Mouton, 1976),
particularly in the Introduction by the editors and in Reynolds’ “ The
Many Lives o f Buddha: A Study o f Sacred Biography and Theravada
Tradition.” Concerning hagiography in the modem Thai context, see
Stanley J. Tambiah’s The Buddhist Saints o f the Forest and the Cult of
Amulets, Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984).
3. Unless otherwise specified, I used the term icon to refer to representations
o f the Buddha either in the form o f relics, images, or other artistic modes
rather than in its Peircian sense.
4. Tambiah uses the concept o f indexical symbols or “ shifter” extensively in
The Buddhist Saints of the Forest. He points to the dual role o f indexical
symbols that conveys both semantic meanings and pragmatic conventions
and argues persuasively that indexical symbols provide an analytical entree
into “ the study o f text and context, semantics and pragmatics, meaning that
refers back to classical constructs and forward to uses in the present” (p. 4).
5. Although an etymological violation, I retain in this discussion the meaning
o f “ Twin Miracle” as referring to the miracle o f the Buddha’s duplication.
Following Alfred Foucher (The Great Miracle at Sravasti, in The
Beginnings o f Buddhist Art, L. A. Thomas and F.W. Thomas [trans.], [ 1914 :
reprint, Varanasi, 1972], pp. 147- 284 ), Robert Brown (The Sravasti
Miracles in the Art o f India and Dvaravatl, Archives o f Asian Art, vol. 38 ,
1984, p. 85) writes that Foucher “ decisively argued that the twin miracle
is the display o f fire and water from the Buddha’s body, while also
pointing out that as early as 1880 scholars confused it with a miracle
described in several Pali texts, the duplication o f the Buddha.” Brown also
notes that both miracles, i.e. the mixing o f fire and water
(yatnakapatihariya) and the creation o f a double, occurred in conjunction
and suggests that “ there could have been confusion among ancient readers
o f these texts as well.” (Ibid.)
The passage telling the story o f the Buddha creating his own double is
found, amongst other places, in book 14, story 2 o f E.W . Burlingame’s
translation o f the Dhammapada Commentary, entitled, Buddhist Legends,
3 vols., Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 30 , Pali Text Society, 1990.
6. Several examples o f major cults in the Theravada world can be cited that
center on the veneration o f Buddha images or relics. For example: A. M.
Hocart’s The Temple o f the Tooth in Kandy, Memoirs o f the Archaeological
Survey o f Ceylon, vol. 4 (London: Luzac and Company for the
Government o f Ceylon, 19 31), provides a descriptive account o f the Sri
Lankan relic shrine. Kevin Trainor, in his “ When Is a Theft Not a Theft?
Relic Theft and the Cult o f the Buddha’s Relics in Sri Lanka” (Nutnen,
vol. 39, fasc. 1, pp. 1 —26), looks at the fundamental tension the relic cult
 poses for the tradition between the desire to possess relics and the doctrine
o f nonattachment in Buddhist practice. He juxtaposes canonical sources
such as the Mahaparinibbana Sutta and the Pali literature o f chronicles (vamsa)
which recount, in mythohistorical fashion, the lineage oflocal kingdoms
and the provenance o f relics or images or their movement from one
location to another to lend authenticity to new sacred centers o f power.
The Thai Emerald Buddha and the myths and rituals associated with it
have been discussed by Frank E. Reynolds in his “ The Holy Emerald Jewel:
Some Aspects o f Buddhist Symbolism and Political Legitimation in Thailand
and Laos,” in Religion and Legitimation of Power in Tliailand, Laos, and Burma,
ed. Blackwell Smith (Chambersburg: Anima Books, 1978), pp. 175 -19 3).
Another famous image, the Sinhala Buddha, is the subject o f a chapter
on the “ likeness” o f this image to the original Buddha in Stanley
Tambiah’s The Buddhist Saints o f the Forest, pp. 230—242.
7. It is worth noting that the origination myths o f both the Sinhala Buddha
and the Mahamuni image share many narrative resemblances. However, as
we will see below, the Mahamuni myth is much more explicit about the
Buddha’s direct involvement in creating a living double, whereas the myth
o f the casting o f the Sinhala Buddha draws on the miraculous appearance
o f his relics, which become fused with the image itself.
8. See their article entitled “ Buddha” in the Encyclopedia o f Religion, ed.
Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987), vol. 2, p. 327.
9. For example, the Mahamuni image traveled from Arakan to Upper Burma
when it fell under Burmese patronage. Stanley J. Tambiah documents (Hie
Buddhist Saints of the Forest, pp. 230-242) the extended travels o f the
Sinhala image between competing Thai polities, redefining with each
move the center o f power within these local cosmologies.
10. Reynolds and Hallisey, “ Buddha,” p. 324.
11. Burmese practices o f ritual devotion and personal service to the Buddha
are the subject o f a forthcoming paper o f mine on Burmese devotional lay
societies and its relation to the ideal o f personal devotion personified by
Ananda. See also John Strong’s article on “ The Transforming Gift: An
Analysis o f Devotional Acts o f Offering in the Buddhist Avadana
Literature,” History of Religions 16 (1977), pp. 390-406.
12. See also Tambiah’s discussion on image consecration (The Buddhist Saints
o f the Forest, pp. 19 5-292); Richard Gom brich’s “ The Consecration o f a
Buddhist Image,” in Journal o f Asian Studies 26, (1966) pp. 2 3-36 ; and
Tambiah’s article on “ The Magical Power o f W ords,” in Culture,
Thought, atid Social Action: A n Anthropological Perspective (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 17 -5 9 ; and my “ Paths to
Enlightenment: Theravada Buddhism in Upper Burma” (Ph.D. thesis,
University o f Illinois at Urbana, 1989), for a discussion o f vows taken
before images. For a more general discussion o f the role o f sacred words,
see William Graham’s Beyond the Written Word (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1987).
13. A similar description o f this ritual is found in my “ Paths to
Enlightenment,” where it is discussed as a source o f communal merit.
14. A note on the name o f the image and its complex is appropriate here. The
translation o f the colloquial Burmese name (hpaya: gyi\, Great Lord) and o f
the more formal Pali name, Mahamuni (Great Sage) denote an appellation
o f the Buddha. The Burmese term hpaya:, or Lord, is also used to refer to
the Buddha, to address monks, or in the past, to address nobility or royalty.
15. See Than Tun’s The Royal Orders of Burma A . D . 159 8-18 8 5 (Kyoto:
Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 1989), vol. 9,
pp. xxvii and xxxiv.
16. The Thudhamma lineage is the largest monastic lineage in Burma.
17. The architecture o f this chamber clearly evokes imagery o f the Mahamuni
image as placed within a Perfumed Chamber, the Buddha’s place o f
residence in medieval Indian monasteries and other sacred loci across the
Buddhist tradition. This issue is taken up again below.
18. These dimensions are taken from Taw Sein K o ’s Archaeological Notes on
Mandalay (Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing Press, 19 1 5),
p. 18.
19. See Malalasekara’s Dictionary o f Pali Proper Names (London: Pali Text
Society, 1974), vol. 1, p. 808.
20. The Jambupati style is a common style o f crowned images in Burma. The
mudra depicted here is well-known among Burmese and described, among
other places, in Paul Ambrose Bigandet’s The Life, or Legend, o f Gaudama,
the Buddha of the Burmese (London: Triibner, 1880), vol. 1, p. 9 1, where
the Buddha calls on the goddess o f the earth to testify to his generosity as
King Vessantara. The passage is similarly described in the Nidatiakatha, the
Ceylonese introduction to the Buddhist Birth Stories, translated by T.W .
Rhys-Davids (London: Triibner and Co., Ludgate Hill, 3rd ed., 1880),
vol. 1, p. 10 1.
2 1. J. George Scott (in j. George Scott andJ.P. Hardiman, Gazetteer o f Upper
Burma and the Shan States, part 1, vol. 2 [Rangoon: Superintendent,
Government Printing, 1900], p. 134) describes this ornamentation as one
o f the official status distinctions assigned to nobility at the Burmese
court. He adds that the king wore twenty-four o f these strands, the
crown prince eighteen, and so on, in descending order. The number o f
strands also indicated immunity from corresponding types o f criminal
offenses.
22. Detailed, critical art histories on the iconography and dates o f the image
have not been compiled. Hence its stylistic features are difficult to date
precisely. Its throne, crown, and royal insignia are in the style o f the
Burmese Konbaung dynasty. It is possible that the face, crown, right
hand, and insignia o f the image underwent restoration in 1879 and 1884,
when fires destroyed the temple. Dating the image is also impeded by the
thick and distorting layers o f gold leaf that cover its base, torso, and
shoulders.
23. Ritual veneration o f images similar to the daily Face Washing at the
Mahamuni Temple are also the focus o f cultic devotion elsewhere in the
Theravada world, such as veneration o f the Tooth relic in Kandy, Sri
Lanka, and the Emerald Buddha in Thailand.
24. This arrangement displayed on many Burmese altars is called a gado.pwe:,
which translates as “ asking pardon for wrong doings committed.”
Characteristically, it contains a green coconut with a braided stem and a
bunch o f bananas. It is traditionally presented to the Buddha and others o f
high status.
25. The reason for this fact lies in the special supplications women often seek
when making offerings to this image. As some o f these women have told
me, through this offerings they seek to gain the protection o f the image—
or o f the Buddha— to aid their physical and spiritual ailments, including
infertility, and the health o f their children. Ill people, particularly children,
are made to eat the food offered to the image and thus imbibe its power.
26. The text o f this prayer is found in Pe Maung T in ’s Buddhist Devotion and
Meditation: A n Objective Description and Study (London: S.P.C .K ., 1964).
27. The name o f this sutta means “ loving kindness.” It is translated by R .C .
Childers in his “ Khuddakapatha,” Journal o f the Royal Asiatic Society (1870),
p. 309ff. See also Melford Spiro’s discussion o f this sutta in his Buddhism
and Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese Vicissitudes (New York:
Harper, 1980), pp. 269—270.
28. The opening o f the image’s eyes plays a symbolic role not only in rituals
concerned with the pure beginning o f a new day, but also marks the
“ coming o f life” o f an image during consecration.
29. Gregory Schopen has recently argued that the Buddha was considered an
owner o f property in the organizational context o f medieval Indian
monasteries where donations made to him were to be used for the upkeep
and rituals o f the Perfumed Chamber (see his article on this subject in the
Journal o f Indian Philosophy 18 [1990], pp. 18 1- 2 17 ) . I return to these and
related issues below.
30. Emil Forchhammer in his Report on the Antiquities o f Arakan (Rangoon:
Superintendent, Government Printing, 1892), pp. 2—14, and San Tha
Aung’s The Buddhist Art o f Ancient Arakan (Rangoon, 1979), P- 1 J 3.
recount essentially identical versions o f the Mahamuni myth. Both
versions appear to be based on the Mahamuni Thatnein:, a history o f the
Mahamuni Temple in Arakan for which no date is given, and on an
Arakanese palm leaf manuscript entitled Sappadanapakarana and dating to
the sixteenth century.
3 1. In his History o f Burma ([London: Frank Cass, 1967], pp. 303 and 369),
G. E. Harvey places Candrasuriya’s reign during the second half o f the
second century C .E . However, this chronology is mostly derived from
local texts and largely mythological in character.
32. See Forchhammer, Report on the Antiquities o f Arakan, p. 5.
33. Ibid., p. 6.
34- This site north o f Amarapura is the same site that now houses the
Arakanese image in Mandalay. Bodawpaya’s original choice was to
build a shrine in a remote area at some distance from his capital. The
location o f the newly constructed Mahamuni Shrine became integrated
into populated areas only after Mindon moved this palace in 1858 to
what is now Mandalay. Today it is incorporated in a central part o f
Mandalay.
35. W .S. Desai, A Pageant o f Burmese History (India: Orient Longmans, 1961),
P- 99 -
36. Forchhammer, Report on the Antiquities o f Arakan, p. 7.
37. The dispute over the mode o f transport has direct implications concerning
the authenticity o f the image now housed in Mandalay or the sacrilegious
dismembering it may have undergone in the process. The issue remains a
matter o f debate and speculation reflected in the writings o f earlier
historians such as Flarvey, History o f Burma ; Scott, Gazetteer o f Upper Burma
and the Shan States; and Desai, A Pageant o f Burmese History. Contemporary
discussions o f this issue among Burmese and Western historians continue
to be inconclusive.
38. See Arthur P. Phayre’s History o f Burma (London: Susil Gupta, 1883;
reprint 1967), p. 2 15; and Harvey, History o f Burma, p. 303.
39. See p. 214 , n. 81, by D .G .E . Hall who edited Michael Symes’ Journal of
His Second Embassy to the Court o f A va in 18 0 2 (London: Allen and
Unwin, 1955).
40. Both Harvey, History o f Burma p. 156; and Shway Y oe in Tlte Burmati, His
Life and Notions (New York: W. W. Norton, 1882; reprint 1963), p. 170,
report that the number o f pagoda slaves was regularly increased.
4 1. See Harvey, History o f Burma, p. 156.
42. Both o f these sacred shrines are popularly venerated. The former is
located in Rangoon and believed to house the Buddha’s hair relic, while
the latter, located in Mingun, Upper Burma, houses a footprint o f the
Buddha.
43. See Shway Yoe, The Burman, His Life and Notions, p. 170.
44. With this Burmese term, Shway Y o e refers to a spire that is a traditional
feature o f Burmese religious architecture.
45. Tun, 77le Royal Orders o f Burma, vol. 9, p. xxxiv.
46. The myth recounted here follows Forchhammer’s (Report on the Antiquities
o f Arakan p. 2ff.) rendering o f it found in the Arakanese manuscript
Sappadanapakarana, also mentioned in San Tha Aung’s monograph ( The
Buddhist Art o f Ancient Arakan). In the course o f ethnographic fieldwork, I
collected a number o f versions identical with the one recounted here and
in Schober, “ Paths to Enlightenment.”
47. Vissakamma is known as Sakka’s superb craftsman and architect, who has
built hermitages for the future Buddha during previous lives. He also plays
a similar role in the creation o f Thai and Sinhalese images cast in the
Buddha’s likeness.
48. Forchhammer, Report on the Antiquities of Arakan , p. 4. The term pra-s is a
nonstandard spelling o f hpaya:, the Burmese word for “ lord,” which
designates both religious and worldly rulers such as Buddhas and kings.
49. Forchhammer (ibid., pp. 4, 5) adds that this prophecy is believed to have
been realized as the image was damaged extensively on several occasions.
The passage also offers an explication as to why ill fortune happens even to
the Buddha.
50. The name Candasara translates as “ the part (of the whole) that is uncontrolled
or passionate,” meaning that the image was indeed a part o f the Buddha’s
physical existence, albeit the part that had to suffer the karmic consequences
o f the Buddha’s passionate deeds in former lives, as noted below.
51. The miracles are enumerated in Forchhammer, Report on the Antiquities of
Arakan, p. 5.
52. See the introductions to Sarabhamiga Jataka, no. 483, and Vessantara Jataka,
no. 547, in The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha’s Fortner Births, ed. by E. B.
Cowell (London: Luzac and Company for the Pali Text Society, 1957).
53. See references to the Tw in Miracle in stanza 34 9 -321; to the Buddha’s
preaching o f the Abhidhamma in 350-353; and to the descent to earth o f
Buddha and attendant deities in 350—354 o f I. B. Horner’s translation,
entitled M ilinda’s Questions (London: Luzac and Company, 1969).
54. See book 14, story 2 in E. W. Burlingame’s Buddhist Legends.
Burlingame (p. 57ff.) dates the Dhammapada Commentary to 450 A.IX,
arguing that it postciates the composition o f the jatakas. Although
Buddhaghosa is often associated with this texts as its translator from
ancient Sinhalese back into Pali, John Ross Carter and Mahinda
Palihawadana concur in the introduction o f their translation o f the
Dhammapada [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987], p. 4) that the
identity o f the translator o f the commentary on the Dhammapada remains
a mystery. The text is not strictly a commentary on the Dhammapada,
but rather expands the Dhammapada and becomes itself a “ huge
collection o f legends and folk-tales” (Burlingame, part 1, p. 26). In
Burlingame’s view, the author or redactor modeled the Dhammapada
Commentary after the jatakas, as evidenced by similarities in the narrative
structures.
55. Burmese referred to this text repeatedly in interviews. Its salience in
Burma and elsewhere in the Theravada world is attested by various
translations o f the Pali version into local languages, including Burmese.
In translating this text, Burlingame also relied on a Burmese rendition o f
this text.
56. See Burlingame, Buddhist Legends, part 3, p. 51.
57. Other textual examples, such as the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, speak to this
theme as well.
58. See Reynolds and Hallisey, “ Buddha,” vol. 2, p. 325.
59. See also Reynolds’ and Hudak’s essays in this volume for discussions on
the structural forms o f biographical narratives in the jataka tradition.
60. See, for instance, the concluding comments o f the last ten birth-stories,
where the Buddha identifies himself and others in that particular life.
6 1. Spiro includes a discussion o f pagoda festivals in his Buddhism and Society;
pp. 2 2 9 -2 31; and Schober “ Paths to Enlightenment,” pp. 15 9 -17 7 .
62. Cited from Horner’s introduction to the translation o f the M ilinda’s
Questions, p. xxxi; see also pp. xxvii, xxxi, and xxxii and stanzas I72ff.
Concerning the cultic veneration o f arhats and miracles associated with
places containing relics (see Mil. 309), she concludes that “ (w)onders o f
this particular nature are unknown to the Pali Canon, I believe”
(p. xxxii).
63. See Steven Collins’ excellent treatment o f the historical developments in
the canonization o f the Pali canon and its political and symbolic
implications in his “ On the Very Idea o f the Pali Canon "Journal of the
Pali Text Society 15 (1990), pp. 89—126. There, he analyzes the role o f the
Mahavihara lineage in Sri Lanka in formulating a written Pali canon in a
context marked by tensions between the politics o f royal patronage and
religious differentiation from competing monastic lineages and their
interpretations o f doctrine. The transmission o f some form o f this
redaction o f the Pali canon to Southeast Asia, where it underwent further
transformations, is well established.
64. For a discussion on the role o f images in the commentarial literature, see
Walpola Rahula’s History o f Buddhism in Ceylon (Colombo; M. D.
Gunasena, pp. 1 2 iff) , and also Steven Collins’ references to image houses
mentioned in the commentarial literature in his “ Nirvana, Time and
Narrative,” History of Religions (1992), pp. 2 15-2 4 6 , esp. n. 47). The
veneration o f relics in Sri Lankan chronicles has been analyzed by Kevin
Trainor in an article published in Numen cited above and in his “ The
Relics o f the Buddha: A Study o f the Cult o f Relic Veneration in the
Theravada Buddhist Tradition o f Sri Lanka” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia
University, 1990).
65. See P. Bigandet’s The Life, or Legend, of Gaudama, the Buddha o f the Burmese
(London: Triibner, 1880), vol. 2, pp. 88ff, where Mahakassapa
experiences this miracle o f the Buddha’s rupakaya.
6 6 . In the introduction to the Vessantara Jataka (Cowell, The Jataka or Stories of
the Buddha’s Fortner Births, vol. 6, no. 547, pp. 246ff), the Buddha creates
an apparition o f himself to convince his relatives, members o f the Sakya
clan, who were reticent to pay homage to him. Amazed at his miracles,
they paid homage to the Buddha, who proceeds to tell them the story of
Vessantara.
67. See I. B. Horner’s translation (M ilinda’s Questions, vol. 1, pp. 249-254,
stanzas 177—179) on the veneration o f relics. Milinda raised with Nagasena
the seeming paradox o f the Buddha’s injunction against Ananda’s worship
o f his relics and his encouragement for gods and mankind to venerate his
relics. Nagasena explains that the injunction against worshiping his body
was intended to encourage monks to work toward those goals that
 represent work commensurate with the abilities o f a monk. In Nagasena’s
view, that excludes worship o f the living Buddha’s body, but entails
veneration to his relics.
68. See Gregory Schopen’s article “ Stupa Cult and the Extant Pali Vinaya,”
Journal o f the Pali Text Society 13, pp. 83—100.
69. Collins, “ Nirvana, Time and Narrative,” pp. 236-237.
70. See Gregory Schopen, “ The Buddha as Owner o f Property and
Permanent Resident in Medieval Indian Monasteries,” Journal o f Indian
Philosophy 18 (1990), pp. 1 8 1 - 2 1 7 .
7 1. Ibid., p. 193, text in brackets added.
72. Ibid., p. 196.
73. I am paraphrasing here Schopen’s more detailed argument, ibid., p. 203.
74. See John Strong, “ GandhakutJ: The Perfumed Chamber o f the Buddha,”
History o f Religions 16 (1977), pp. 390-406, where he traces the veneration
o f the Buddha in his Perfumed Chamber through both Pali and Mahayana
sources, including Pure Land.
75. Ibid., p. 406.
76. See Schober, “ Paths to Enlightenment,” for an analysis o f offerings to
Buddha images in the Burmese context. For a more broadly conceived,
but analogous examination o f offerings presented, see again Strong’s “ The
Transforming Gift,” pp. 2 2 1-2 3 7 .
77. See Schober, “ Paths to Enlightenment.”
78. For a comparison o f the consecration o f Buddha images in the Theravada
world, see Richard Gombrich’s “ The Consecration o f a Buddhist Image”
for a Sinhalese example; Schober, “ Paths to Enlightenment” (pp. 36fF.) for
Burma; and Donald Swearer’s “ Hypostasizing the Buddha: Image
Consecration in Northern Thailand,” a paper presented at the annual
meeting o f the American Academy o f Religion, San Francisco, 1992.
79. For an analysis o f the ritual power o f monastic chanting, see Tambiah’s
“ The Magical Power o f Words.”
80. For a discussion on the Buddha’s bodies, see Frank E. Reynolds, “ The
Several Bodies o f Buddha, Reflections on a Neglected Aspect o f
Theravada Buddhism,” History o f Religions 16 (1977), pp. 374-389; and
also Paul Mus’ discussion o f dhammakaya and rupakaya as Theravada
conceptions in his “ Le Buddha Pare,” Bulletin de I’Ecolefran(aise
d ’Extreme-Orient 28 (1928), pp. 153-27 8 .
81. The image continues to be sought out by ethnic minorities that reside at
considerable distance from Mandalay. For instance, I observed an extended
Shan family who went on a pilgrimage to the Mahamuni image in
Mandalay in order to initiate there several young boys into novicehood. I
learned that this was an annual event in which Shans from all parts o f
Burma participated. Their explanation for arranging for the ritual
performance there, rather than in their home town, rested on their claims
o f descent from Shan royalty and the belief that it behooved royalty to
conduct initiation rituals only in this manner.
 Cffie jfexluafization ofa JfConastic
CJracfition: fo r e s t J
<fCon/?s1
/B in ea je, ancfthe C /3ioyraphicaf
P rocess in ZJhaifancf
James L. Taylor

T h is e s s a y e x a m in e s t h e p r o lif ic life a c c o u n t s o f th e e t h n ic L a o B u d d h is t

“ s a in t s ” (arhat) in T h a ila n d s in c e t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e 19 7 0 s . S ig n if ic a n t

b io g r a p h i e s in t h is t r a d it io n c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e lin e a g e o f a w i d e l y

a c c la im e d r e lig io u s v ir t u o s o o f m o d e r n t im e s , A ja a n 1 M a n P h u u r it h a t t o

( 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 4 9 ) .2 M a n y o f M a n ’s e a r ly w a n d e r in g a s c e t ic d is c ip le s s p e n t m o s t

o f t h e ir liv e s o n th e fr in g e o f t h e n a t io n - s t a t e , a n d t h e y e v e n t u a lly b e c a m e

f a m o u s a ft e r t h e y s e t t le d a n d w e r e in t e g r a t e d in t o th e t ig h t ly r e g u la t e d r e li­

g io u s e s t a b lis h m e n t .

In t h e c o u r s e o f a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l f ie ld w o r k , in f o r m a n t s in is o la t e d

n o r t h e a s t e r n T h a i v illa g e s w o u l d r e la t e t a le s o f w a n d e r in g e r e m it e s w h o

f o u n d e d m o n a s t e r ie s in n e a r b y fo r e s t s th a t a r e n o lo n g e r e x t a n t . It is n o t

o n ly t h e c h a r is m a o f t h e s p ir it u a l le a d e r th a t is r e c o g n is e d a n d b e c o m e s

r o u t in iz e d 3 o r d o m e s t ic a t e d , b u t a ls o d ir e c t p u p illa g e s c la im in g t h e f o u n d ­

in g m a s t e r , o r h is fir s t d is c ip le s , a s m o n a s t ic t e a c h e r s . T h e s e lin e a g e m o n k s

a r e fe a t u r e d in b io g r a p h ie s , c o m m e m o r a t iv e t e x t s , a n d m o n a s t e r y h is t o r ie s

a s f o u n d e r s a n d a g e n t s o f m o n a s t ic r e f o r m . T h e y w e r e f o r e s t - d w e lle r s , p o p ­

u la r ly c o n s id e r e d a s s a in ts (arhat). T h e ir m o n a s t e r ie s b e c a m e t h e fo c u s o f
relic cults and their mass popularity in the late 1960s engendered in the fol­
lo w in g decade a n ew genre o f hagiographical w riting in Thailand.

Local Legends a n d B io g r a p h ic a l Modes

in t h e T h e r a v a d a T r a d it io n
In general, autobiographies and biographies can shed light on the underly­
ing social and cultural historical processes. T his can also be claim ed for the
life accounts o f Ajaan M an and his forest m onk disciples. In particular, I
con sid er A jaan M a n ’ s b io grap h y a landm ark o r leitm otiv in m od ern
Buddhist hagiography that gave renew ed respectability to mystical practices
and beliefs in T h eravada Buddhism in Thailand.
P rior to A jaan M an, popular religious texts fell into tw o categories:
the erudite com m entaries on standard Pali texts and fantastic thaum atur-
gical tales o f m ystical experiences. M a n ’s bio grap h y encom passed both o f
these dim ensions and spaw ned a n ew class o f popular religious literature,
such as the m any m agazines on m ystic m onks and practice. Su bsequently,
supernatural p h enom ena gained ren ew ed respectability and was given
credence by converted , literate skeptics in the m etropolis. T h e life stories
o f m editating m onks becam e the fashionable subject o f m any professional
w riters in a n ew literary genre. E v e n i f fantastic m editation experiences,
encounters w ith w ild animals, and discourse w ith celestial beings did not
actually occur, w riters used their im agination to produce the m any p o p ­
ular so -c a lle d ve n e ra b le fath er (L u a n g Phor) p u b licatio n s m en tio n ed
above.
M a n ’s m ain biographers, A riyakhunaathaan, W iriy a n g ,4 and M ahaa
B u a, w e re his disciples. T h e y w e re largely responsible for d ev elo p in g
M a n ’s national reputation. T h ese m onk-biograph ers had been close to
their m aster at various ju n ctu res in his life and en jo yed privileged access to
his introverted, personalized m odes o f teaching and living. Since M a n ’s
early biography appeared in 1 9 7 1 , biographical texts on the m aster’s first
disciples also proliferated in the fo llo w in g years, m any o f them published
in lim ited editions o f crem ation volum es. T h is is not unusual as a great
deal o f extant and nonextant T h ai historical literature appears in lim ited
editions and is published and distributed on the occasion o f a fam ous p er­
son ’s crem atio n .5
Th ese biographies share com m on biographical patterns, such as early
visionary experiences in m editation or sym bolic revelations in dreams that
vin d icate legitim acy in the m aster’ s line. M an rep u ted ly re c eiv e d his
dhamma instruction directly from the B u d d h a ’s first disciples, as in the
instance w h en these saints shared w ith him their kn ow led ge on “ w alking
m editation” during a m editation-vision (sam aathi-nimit).6
 T h e s e lif e a c c o u n t s t y p ic a lly c o m m e n c e a s o r a l le g e n d in t h e lo c a l

id io m li k e t a le s o f in c r e d ib le , m y s t ic a l fe a t s , e n c o u n t e r s w it h p o t e n t ia lly

d a n g e r o u s s p ir it s , w il d a n im a ls , r o v in g b a n d s o f f o r e s t m o n k s e n c a m p e d

in c e m e t e r ie s a w a y f r o m h u m a n h a b it a t io n , s u r v i v in g m a la r ia l f e v e r s , o r

e x t e n s iv e f a s t in g in t h e fo r e s t . S u c h t a le s a r e t o ld a b o u t w a n d e r i n g f o r e s t

m o n k s in it ia lly b y t h e m a s t e r ’ s o w n d is c ip le s a n d in is o la t e d v illa g e c o m ­

m u n it ie s . E v e n t u a l ly , t h e y t a k e o n h o m i le t ic g u is e s a n d a r e t r a n s p o s e d

in t o w r i t t e n b io g r a p h ie s t h a t a r e n u r t u r e d in t h e c a p it a l w it h a g r e a t

d e g r e e o f d e f in it y a b o u t t h e s u b je c t ’ s e x t r a o r d in a r y a c c o m p lis h m e n t s .

F r o m h u m b le o r ig in s , lo c a l o r a l a c c o u n t s b e c o m e n a t io n a l h a g io g r a p h ie s

t h a t a r e r e w o r k e d a n d , in m a n y c a s e s , r e w r i t t e n in t h e c e n t r a l T h a i

id io m .

F o r t h e a n t h r o p o lo g is t , a u t o b io g r a p h ic a l a c c o u n t s a r e o n ly b e g in n in g

t o b e a p p r e c ia t e d a s a c o u n t e r p o in t t o e t h n o g r a p h y a n d a s a m e a n s o f m e r g ­

in g r e a l life e x p e r ie n c e s w it h t h e w r i t e r ’s o w n v is io n .7 T h e y h a v e , a s o n e

w r it e r s a id , a “ c o m m it m e n t to t h e a c t u a l.” 8 In a w id e r s e n s e , t h e y e x p o s e

t h e u n d e r ly in g s t r u c t u r e o f t r a d it io n , o r p r o v id e in s ig h t in t o a n e x p e r ie n t ia l

e n a c t m e n t “ p r e d ic a t e d o n a m o r a l v is io n , o n a v ib r a n t r e la t io n b e t w e e n a

s e n s e o f s e lf a n d a c o m m u n i t y .” 9 L a n g n e s s 10 e a r lie r b e m o a n e d t h e fa c t th a t

“ life h is t o r ie s ” h a d n o t b e e n c o n s id e r e d s u f fic ie n t ly b y a n t h r o p o lo g is t s a n d

th a t im m e n s e p o s s ib ilit ie s f o r g a in in g in s ig h t in t o th e in d iv id u a l a c t o r a n d

h is c o m m u n it y r e m a in e d la t e n t a n d u n e x p lo it e d .

In t h e c a s e o f t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n fo r e s t m o n k s , w r it t e n life a c c o u n t s s h o w

th e in t e r p la y b e t w e e n a n in d iv id u a l a n d th e m ic r o s o c ia l d im e n s io n s o f h is

m o n a s t ic c o m m u n it y , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e w id e r s o c ia l m ilie u o f s ta te

e lit e s , u r b a n - d w e llin g m o n k s , v illa g e r s , a n d lo c a l p a t r o n s o n t h e o t h e r .

B io g r a p h ie s a ls o r e v e a l s o m e t h in g a b o u t t h e n a r r a t o r , o r in t e r lo c u t o r , th e

“ s a in t ” a s s u b je c t , a n d a b o u t t h e p la c e t h e w r it e r c la im s f o r h im s e lf in th e

e n a c t m e n t o f t e x t u a liz e d t r a d it io n .

L if e a c c o u n t s 11 o f f o r e s t m o n k s p e r m e a t e a s e n s e o f c o n n e c t e d n e s s

w it h a n in d e t e r m in a t e , a lle g o r iz e d , a n d p r is t in e p a s t. A s s o c ia t io n s b e t w e e n

th e s e g m e n t a l m o n a s t ic c o m m u n it y th a t tr a n s m it s t h e t r a d it io n t h r o u g h

id e n t if ie d p u p illa g e s a n d m o d e m fo r e s t m o n k s a r e e n h a n c e d in lo c a l o r a l

t r a d it io n u n t il f in a lly t e x t u a liz e d . F o r e s t m o n k s , w h o a r e c o n c e iv e d t o b e

s o t e r io lo g ic a lly a n d d o c t r in a lly n o r m a t iv e , liv e a n d a r e e x p e c t e d t o liv e in

c o n fo r m it y w it h c la s s ic a l h a g io g r a p h ic a l t h e m e s a n d , t h u s , b e c o m e t h e

v e r y s t u f f o f lo c a l l e g e n d . 12 In e f f e c t , a s e lf - c o n s c io u s p a t t e r n in g o r r e p li­

c a t io n o f n o r m a t iv e t h e m e s f r o m t h e B u d d h a ’s lif e , is e x p r e s s e d in p o p u ­

la r t a l e s . 13 T h i s t r e n d r e p r e s e n t s a h o m e s p u n , b u t v e r a c i o u s u n iv e r s a l

p r o d u c t in w h i c h t h e jatakas t a k e o n c o n t e x t u a liz e d f o r m . T h i s w e ll -

k n o w n p r o c e s s o f lo c a liz in g a t e x t u a l t r a d it io n is e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e L a o

v e r s io n o f t h e R a m a y a n a , w h e r e c la s s ic a l I n d ie h e r o e s a r e a d a p t e d t o
c o n d it io n s in a n d a r o u n d t h e M a e k h o n g r e g i o n , 14 a n d in t h e p o p u la r

T h a i- i z e d Ramakien. P a u l M u s 15 n o t e d a s im ila r p a r o c h ia l a d a p t a t io n in

C h a m lit e r a t u r e .

In r e g a r d t o t h e p r in c ip a l b io g r a p h y o n M a n , w e ll - k n o w n T h a i t e x t s

s u c h a s t h e Pathamasambodhikatha w r i t t e n b y t h e p r i n c e - m o n k P a r a -

m a a n u c h i t - c h i n o r o t ( 1 7 9 0 — 1 8 $ 3 ) 16 a n d t h e la t e r Phutthaprawat ( P .:

Buddhapavatti), w r i t t e n b y a n o t h e r p r i n c e - m o n k W a c h i r a y a a n

( 1 8 5 9 - 1 9 2 1 ) 17 m a y h a v e b e e n c o n s c io u s o r u n c o n s c io u s s o u r c e s o f in s p i­

r a t io n f o r t h e n a r r a t o r , n a m e d A ja a n M a h a a B u a Y a a n a s a m p a n n o . B o t h

t e x t s a r e u s e d in t h e n a t io n a l e c c le s ia s t ic a l dhamma c o u r s e s (nak tham) w it h

w h i c h M a h a a B u a w o u l d h a v e b e e n fa m ilia r , h a v in g s p e n t t h e fir s t s e v e n

y e a r s o f h is m o n a s t ic c a r e e r a s a s c h o la r {pariyat) m o n k . T h e f o r m e r w o r k

is a s e r ie s o f s e r m o n s in t e n d e d f o r r it u a l r e c it a t io n a t e v e n t s s u c h a s th e

Wisaakha Buuchaa, w h i c h a r e h e ld a ll n ig h t in c o m m e m o r a t io n o f th e

B u d d h a ’ s b ir t h , e n lig h t e n m e n t , a n d d e c e a s e . It r e p r e s e n t s a T h a i v e r s io n o f

t h e s t a n d a r d b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a , w h i c h is b a s e d o n c a n o n ic a l a n d

S in h a le s e c o m m e n t a r i a l w o r k s a n d w r i t t e n in o r n a t e p r o s e s t y l e .’ 8

P a r a m a a n u c h i t - c h i n o r o t a ls o w r o t e Sunthornkosaa b a s e d
t h e o n a n o ld

A y u t t h a y a a v e r s io n . W a c h ir a y a a n ’s Phutthaprawat i s w r i t t e n i n b r ie f , c r it i­

c a l p r o s e in s t e a d o f c o lo r fu l h o m ilie s , a n d f r o m th e p e r s p e c t iv e o f n in e ­

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r a t io n a lis m . It c o m p a r e s d if f e r e n t lif e a c c o u n t s , e v a lu a t e s

t h e ir r e li a b i li t y , a n d r e f u t e s a n y r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l.

W a c h ir a y a a n is a ls o th e a u t h o r o f a s t r a ig h t fo r w a r d b io g r a p h y o f o n e o f t h e

B u d d h a ’s d is c ip le s (arhat).
M a h a a B u a , w it h o u t c it in g s p e c if ic B u d d h i s t t e x t s , o f f e r s a p a r t ia l

a n s w e r t o lik e ly s o u r c e s o f h is in s p ir a t io n in t h e in t r o d u c t io n t o M a n ’s

b io g r a p h y . T h e r e h e s ta te s th a t “ t h e m e t h o d o f p r e s e n t a t io n . . . f o llo w s

t h a t o f t h e a n c ie n t c o m p ile r s [keji-aajaan] w h o r e c o r d e d t h e h a g io g r a p h ie s

o f s o m e o f t h e N o b le D is c ip le s in v a r io u s t e x t s . ” 19 I n s e v e r a l r e c o r d e d s e r ­

m o n s , M a h a a B u a c la im e d th a t t h e in s p ir a t io n in h is d e p a r t u r e t o t h e fo r e s t

t o p r a c t ic e c a m e f r o m r e a d in g b io g r a p h ie s o f t h e B u d d h a a n d h is e a r ly d is ­

c ip le s , f r o m h is e m p a t h y f o r t h e h a r d s h ip s e n c o u n t e r e d b y t h e arhats, a n d

f r o m h is d e s ir e t o r e a c h th e s a m e s p ir it u a l le v e l. In o t h e r w o r d s , w e le a r n

t h a t t h e “ t e x t in f o r m e d e x p e r i e n c e ” 20 a n d p r o v id e d a m o t iv a t io n f o r r e li­

g io u s p r a c t ic e in t h e c o n t e x t o f e v e r y d a y life . B y w r it in g t h e b io g r a p h y o f

h is t e a c h e r , M a h a a B u a w a n t e d t o p r o v id e o t h e r s w it h a n in s p ir a t io n s im i­

la r t o h is o w n th a t d e v e lo p e d f r o m r e a d in g t e x t u a l a c c o u n t s o f th e B u d d h a

a n d h is arhat d is c ip le s . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f M a h a a B u a ’s v e r s i o n o f M a n ’s b io g ­

r a p h y is p a t t e r n e d a ft e r t h e B u d d h a ’s r e n u n c ia t io n a n d q u e s t f o r s a lv a t io n .

It a ls o r e fle c t s t h e n a r r a t o r ’ s p u r p o s e t o s tre s s t h e in s p ir a t io n a l, e s p e c ia lly in

s h o w in g th a t, c o n t e x t a s id e , M a n ’s life f o ll o w e d a p a t h u n iv e r s a l B u d d h is t

s a in t s h a d t r a v e r s e d in p r e v io u s liv e s . E s s e n t ia lly , fo r e s t m o n k s in s is t th a t
p r a c t ic e a n d p a t t e r n o f p e r s o n a l s a lv a t io n q u e s t p r e c e d e d t h e h a g io g r a p h i-

c a l w r it in g . M a h a a B u a s tre s s e s t h is p o in t in h is o w n s e r m o n s ; th e “ w a y s o f

t h e h e a r t ” fo r m t h e b a s is f o r th e dhamma a n d p a r a b le s in th e t e x t s , n o t th e

o t h e r w a y a r o u n d .

C la s s ic a l e v e n t s m a y n o t b e r e p lic a t e d id e n t ic a lly in c h a n g in g h is t o r ic

c o n t e x t s , f o r , a s K e y e s 21 c o m m e n t e d , e v e n c o n s c io u s ly fa it h fu l im it a t io n s o f

th e p r is t in e m o d e l c a n n o t b e t h e s a m e . T h e b io g r a p h e r t h e n h a s t o s h o w

t h a t , e x t e r n a l c o n d it io n s a s id e , t h e “ u n d e r ly in g s t r u c t u r e o f life is th a t

f o u n d in t h e p a t h o f t h e B u d d h a .” 22 R e g a r d le s s o f d ia c h r o n ic v is t a s , th e

u n d e r ly in g b io g r a p h ic a l p a t t e r n r e m a in s b a s ic a lly u n c h a n g e d . 23

In e x a m in in g M a n ’s b io g r a p h y , T a m b i a h 24 r e f e r r e d t o a t h e o r e t ic a l

“ in d e x ic a l s y m b o l” t o m a k e s e n s e o f its “ d u p le x ” fe a t u r e . T h is d u a l fe a t u r e

in d ic a t e s , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e s e m a n t ic le v e l o r u n d e r ly in g m e a n in g s o f

c u lt u r a lly c o n d it io n e d a s s u m p t io n s a n d c o n v e n t io n a l u n d e r s t a n d in g s a n d ,

o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , in a p r a g m a t ic s e n s e , “ t h e s o c ia l a n d in t e r p e r s o n a l c o n ­

t e x t o f a c t io n , t h e lin e - u p o f t h e p a r t ic ip a n t s , a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s b y w h ic h

t h e y e s ta b lis h o r in f e r m e a n i n g s . ” 25

T a m b i a h ’s u s e o f “ in d e x ic a l s y m b o l” t h u s a llo w s u s t o u n d e r s t a n d

s y m b o lic a n d s t r u c t u r a l m e a n in g s a s w e ll a s w h a t h e c a lls “ in d e x ic a l e x is ­

t e n t ia l, a n d p r a g m a t ic m e a n in g s ” t h a t , t o g e t h e r , c o n s t it u t e a t o t a lit y o f

m e a n i n g . 26 M a n ’s lif e s t o r y t h e n b e c o m e s “ s y m b o lic a lly a n d s e m a n t ic a lly

r e la t e d t o t h e c la s s ic a l c o n v e n t i o n a l h a g io g r a p h ie s o f t h e B u d d h a a n d

e x e m p la r y B u d d h is t s a in t s .” Y e t , a s T a m b i a h c o n t in u e s , t h e “ c o m p o s it io n

[ o f t h e t e x t ] is i n d e x ic a lly a n d p r a g m a t ic a lly r e la t e d t o t h e p u r p o s e a n d

o b je c t iv e s o f t h e d i s c ip le - a u t h o r [ A ja a n M a h a a B u a Y a a n a s a m p a n n o , W a t

P a a B a a n T a a t , U d o r n t h a a n ii P r o v i n c e , N o r t h e a s t T h a ila n d ] , t h e c o n t e x t

in w h i c h h e c o m p o s e d it , a n d its d is t r ib u t io n t o a n d r e c e p t io n b y t h e p u b ­

l i c . ” 27 H o w e v e r , t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t iv e s o f t h e d i s c i p le - a u t h o r , a p a r t

f r o m lin e a g e a f f ilia t io n s , a r e n o t m a d e e x p lic it . K r i s 28 s t a te s th a t in t h e

t r a n s m is s io n o f t h e “ m o d e l” b io g r a p h y , its r e c e p t io n d e p e n d s la r g e ly o n

s o c ia l a n d p o lit ic a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s , w h i c h b lu r t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n th e

in d iv id u a l a n d t r a d it io n . T h i s p e r s p e c t iv e m a y a c c o u n t f o r t h e p o p u la r it y

o f t h is h a g io g r a p h ic a l g e n r e a n d o f c h a r is m a t ic f o r e s t m o n k s a n d u r b a n

B u d d h is t c u lt s in t h e e a r ly 1 9 7 0 s , w h i c h w a s a p e r io d o f in t e r n a l a n d

e x t e r n a l p o lit ic a l c r i s i s . 29

A s ig n ific a n t d e p a r t u r e in M a n ’s b io g r a p h y f r o m its lit e r a r y p r e d e c e s ­

s o r s m u s t b e n o t e d h e r e . W h ile t h e la t t e r g e n e r a lly c o n c lu d e w it h t h e d is ­

t r ib u t io n o f t h e B u d d h a ’ s r e lic s , M a n ’ s lif e a c c o u n t e n d s w it h a f in a l

c o m p e lli n g h o m i ly . T h u s h is b io g r a p h y w a s n o t c o n s t r u c t e d s o le ly to

e n g e n d e r r e s p e c t a n d r e v e r a t io n f o r M a n — w h ic h , c le a r ly , it d id . In a d d i­

t io n , it a ls o o f f e r s d is c u r s iv e p e d a g o g i c a n d p e r f o r m a t i v e in s ig h t s t h a t

e n c o u r a g e t h e r e a d e r to a p p ly dhamma t o m e d it a t io n p r a c t ic e (patibattham).
 M a n a n d H is B io g R a p h e R :
The Legitim ation o f T ex t and Lineage

M ahaa Bua is today regarded as the patriarch o f the forest tradition— a

strict, direct, and occasionally unpredictable teacher w h o continues to
m aintain control o ver his monastic disciples. A fter years o f trying to inter­
v iew the n o w aging teacher, I was only perm itted to exchange a few w ords.
M ahaa B u a, like m any forest-dw ellers, is em blem atic o f the classic renun-
ciant, lives a largely reclusive life-style, and remains disinclined to com m ent
m uch, unless on matters o f dhamma. M y dilem m a as an anthropologist was
the foreboding sense o f intrusion and likely social disequilibrium caused by
m y tem porary presence. I had to find a balance betw een being unobtrusive
and sensitive, yet w ith critical discernm ent necessary for the fieldw ork. B y
w ay o f com prom ise, I spent considerable tim e w ith M ahaa B u a ’s senior dis­
ciples, past and present.
D espite his p oo r health, M ahaa B u a ’s reflexes, responses, and acutely
p erceptive faculties are those o f a man less than h alf his age. His attainments
are beyond doubt by those close to him. A lthough a guarded discretion is
m aintain ed am o n g M ahaa B u a ’ s close disciples, it is b e lie ve d that he
becam e a saint (arhat) nine years after he com m enced his practice and six­
teen years after his m onastic ordination.
Since M a n ’s biography first appeared in 1 9 7 1 30 M ahaa Bua has situated
h im self as the focus o f national attention and sim ultaneously as the central
figure in the northeastern forest tradition. His sermons legitim ate his posi­
tion o f claim ing textual authority through in terw oven discourse, including
apologues and interspersed verbatim w ith the m aster’s voice, so that one is
n e ve r really sure w h eth er it is M ahaa B u a or the in te rlo cu to r (M an)
hom ilizing. T h is intertextured synergic characteristic is, in fact, a com m on
feature o f biographies written by disciples o f the master. In M a n ’s biogra­
p hy, obvious allusions are made to the w riter having a close affinity w ith his
teacher since their first m eeting, w hen M ahaa B ua felt “ a great feeling o f
trust and adm iration.” 3' From M ahaa B u a ’s perspective, he had en cou n ­
tered a unique m onk w h o was intent on fo llo w in g the norm ative doctrinal
path o f orthopraxy, and thus sought to revive pristine “ saintly” ideals.
A n early visionary experience m akes explicit to the reader his p rivi­
leged relationship w ith the master, although in fact this appears to be true
only o f the later years, that is, from 19 4 0 onwards. In his biography on
M an, M ahaa B ua relates a vision in w h ich he w andered through a dense
forest and came across a fallen clum p o f bam boo obstructing his passage. H e
m anaged to crawl through a small opening by taking o ff his outer robe and
pulling it, his b o w l and m editation um brella (klot) behind him . H e then
cam e out into an open space facing the ocean. H e noticed an island in the
fa r d is t a n c e a n d d e c id e d t o t a k e a b o a t o u t to it. W h e n h e a r r iv e d , h e

e n c o u n t e r e d M a n , s it t in g p o u n d in g b e t e l n u t . M a n in q u ir e d h o w h e h a d

m a n a g e d t o g e t t h r o u g h t h e t h ic k e t , a s t h e tr a il w a s v e r y a r d u o u s a n d n o

o n e b e s id e s h im s e lf h a d d a r e d c o m e t h a t w a y . M a h a a B u a w a s t h e n h a n d e d

t h e p e s t le a n d c o n t in u e d to p o u n d b e t e l n u t f o r h is m a s t e r u n t il M a h a a B u a

a w o k e . A f t e r t h is d r e a m , M a h a a B u a w e n t to h is t e a c h e r f o r e x p la n a t io n .

H e w a s t o ld th a t it s h o w e d h is d e t e r m in a t io n to p e r s e v e r e in th e p r a c t ic e ,

a n d th a t a lt h o u g h t h e p a t h is d iffic u lt , h e s h o u ld n o t s u c c u m b t o t h e ta s k s

a h e a d .

P e r s is t e n c e a n d e n d u r a n c e a r e in t e g r a l t h e m e s in t h e d is c o u r s e o f c o n ­

t e m p o r a r y f o r e s t m o n k s . M a n ’ s arhat d is c ip le A ja a n K h a o A n a a la y o is

r e p o r t e d t o h a v e o n c e s a id : “ I f w e p r a c t ic e Dhamma c o n s is t e n t ly a n d r e le n t ­

le s s ly , t h e fr u it o f t h e arahan [a r h a t] p a t h m u s t f o l l o w . ” 32 M a n fu r t h e r t o ld

M a h a a B u a t h a t t h e b e g in n in g is u s u a lly m o r e a r d u o u s th a n th e fin a l s t a g e

o f th e p a t h , b u t w it h p e r s is t e n c e , h e w o u l d e v e n t u a lly a r r iv e o n t h e is la n d ,

w h i c h w a s a n a llu s io n to nibbana.11 F o r e s t m o n k s o ft e n m e t a p h o r ic a lly r e fe r

t o a s c h e m a t iz a t io n o f f o u r n o r m a t i v e p a t h s ( mak; P . magga), f o u r

“ f r u it io n s ” {phon; P . phala ) , a n d t h e u lt im a t e e n lig h t e n m e n t .

In M a h a a B u a ’s v e r s io n o f M a n ’s b io g r a p h y , th e m a s t e r p r e d ic t e d th a t

h e w o u l d h a v e o n ly t w o “ f a it h f u l” f o llo w e r s c a p a b le o f a t t a in in g s a in t h o o d .

M a h a a B u a r e p u t e d ly s a id t h a t, lo o k in g a r o u n d , h e d id n o t s e e lik e ly c a n ­

d id a te s . Y e t s o m e in fo r m a n t s s u g g e s t e d th a t M a h a a B u a ’s d r e a m in d ic a t e d

th a t h e is o n e o f t h e t w o s e le c t e d e x e m p la r y d is c ip le s . N e v e r t h e le s s , p o p u ­

la r arhat a c c la im h a s b e e n w id e ly a c c o r d e d m a n y o f M a n ’s e a r ly d is c ip le s ,

m o s t o f w h o m a r e n o w d e c e a s e d . M o r e o v e r , t h o s e T h a i- L a o fo r e s t m o n k s

a b o u t w h o m t h e r e a r e n o e x t a n t t e x t s a r e n o w a ll b u t f o r g o t t e n . A n o t h e r

a c c o u n t m e n t io n e d th a t p r io r t o h is d e a t h M a n n o m in a t e d f o u r m o n k s to

s u c c e e d h im a n d r e la t e d t h e n a m e s t o a s e n io r , s c h o la r m o n k a n d fr ie n d

f r o m n o r t h e a s t T h a ila n d , P h r a T h a m m a je d ii “ M a h a a J u u m ” f r o m W a t

P h o t h is o m p h o n in U d o m t h a a n ii p r o v in c e . T h e f o u r m o n k s a r e s a id to b e

A ja a n s K h a o , F a n , B u a , a n d M a h a a B u a . O n ly t h e la t t e r is s t ill a liv e a n d h is

le a d e r s h ip p o s it io n la r g e ly t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d .

M a h a a B u a , t o w h o m h is b y n o w n u m e r o u s d is p e r s e d d is c ip le s r e fe r as

“ T h a n A ja a n Y a i , ” th e s e n io r t e a c h e r , is a n im p o r t a n t f ig u r e in t h e p e r p e t ­

u a t io n o f M a n ’s fo r e s t t r a d it io n . H a d it n o t b e e n f o r h is c o n s c io u s , u n r e m it ­

t in g in t e n t t o k e e p t h e m e m o r y a n d t e a c h in g s o f M a n a liv e t h r o u g h r it u a l

e n a c t m e n t a n d r e p e t it iv e d is c o u r s e , lit t le o f t h e m a s t e r w o u l d b e r e m e m ­

b e r e d t o d a y . In fa c t, M a h a a B u a ’s o w n d is c ip le s r e c it e ta le s o f M a n fr o m

t h e ir t e a c h e r ’s s e r m o n s o r f r o m t h e b io g r a p h y o f M a n w r it t e n b y M a h a a

B u a . T a le s a b o u t th e m a s t e r t e n d to b e r e w o r k e d fr o m t h e s a m e m a t e r ia l,

p a s s e d a r o u n d in d is c o u r s e , a n d u s e d f o r in s t r u c t io n a l p u r p o s e s , a lt h o u g h

e a c h e p is o d e d is p la y s its o w n in d iv id u a l tr a its .
 W r it t e n life a c c o u n t s a s “ n a r r a t iv e a r t ” e n t a il a t r a n s fo r m a t io n f r o m o r a l

to w r it t e n t e x t , w h i c h c o n s t it u t e s a c o m p le x a n d “ c h a r g e d ” p r o c e s s o f c o d ­

ific a t io n . C l if f o r d w r it e s th a t “ o n e s o u r c e o f t h e p e c u lia r a u t h o r it y . . . fin d s

b o t h r e s c u e a n d ir r e t r ie v a b le lo s s — a k in d o f d e a t h in life — in t h e m a k in g

o f t e x t s f r o m e v e n t s a n d d ia lo g u e s . W o r d s a n d d e e d s a r e tr a n s ie n t (a n d

a u t h e n t ic ) , w r i t i n g e n d u r e s (a s s u p p le m e n t a r it y a n d a r t if ic e ) . T h e t e x t

e m b a lm s t h e e v e n t a s it e x t e n d s its ‘m e a n i n g ’ . ” 34

T h is is e x e m p lif ie d in m y o w n f ie ld e x p e r ie n c e w it h fo r e s t m o n k s ,

w h e n d u r in g t h e in t e r v ie w s I a s s u m e d th a t s o m e o f m y in fo r m a n t s w e r e

o f f e r in g in f o r m a t io n o n M a n ’s life f r o m fir s t h a n d k n o w le d g e . A f t e r s o m e

t im e , I f o u n d th a t m a n y s t o r ie s w e r e f o u n d e d in t h e “ a u t h o r it y ” o f M a h a a

B u a ’s w id e ly r e a d b i o g r a p h y . 35 T h e t e x t h a d it s e lf t a k e n o n in d e p e n d e n t

life . W h ile t h e r e a r e e x c e p t io n s , t h is p r o c e s s s u g g e s t s th a t w it h t h e p a s s a g e

o f t im e a n d th e p a s s in g a w a y o f in fo r m a n t s a b le to r e la t e c o g n iz a n t o r a l

a c c o u n t s f r o m fir s t h a n d e x p e r ie n c e , t h e c r e a t iv e m o v e m e n t o f m a t e r ia l

f r o m o r a l p e r f o r m a n c e to d e s c r ip t iv e t e x t d is a p p e a r s . I n s t e a d , a s C lif f o r d

s a id , a n e w k in d o f c r e a t iv it y e m e r g e s in w h i c h “ c u lt u r a l d a t a ” p r o g r e s s e s

f r o m “ t e x t t o t e x t ” a n d “ in s c r ip t io n b e c o m e s t r a n s c r i p t i o n . ” 36

M a h a a B u a ’s p r im a r y a im in t e x t u a liz in g M a n ’s life a n d t h e a s c e t ic tr a ­

d it io n h e r e v iv i f i e d in t h e s t r e a m o f t h e e a r ly t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

T h a m m a y u t 37 r e f o r m s w a s h is s t a te d d e s ir e t o k e e p a liv e t h e le g a c y o f M a n

a n d h is fo r e s t w a y o f life . In t h e p r e fa c e t o t h e t e x t , M a h a a B u a s ta te s th a t

h e r e lie d o n in f o r m a t io n f r o m d iv e r s e s o u r c e s in a d d it io n to h is o w n m e m ­

o r y a n d th a t, t h e r e f o r e , d e ta ils m a y b e im p e r fe c t . B u t M a h a a B u a fe lt th e

u r g e n c y t o p r o c e e d w it h h is b io g r a p h ic a l w r it in g a n d t h o u g h t th a t, in t im e ,

s ig n ific a n t d e ta ils “ fa d e f r o m t h e m e m o r ie s o f h is [ M a n ’ s] c o n t e m p o r a r y

d i s c i p l e s . ” 38 M a h a a B u a ’s s e n s e o f u r g e n c y is e x p r e s s e d in h is s t a t e m e n t th a t

h a d h e n o t w r it t e n t h is a c c o u n t , fu t u r e g e n e r a t io n s w o u l d b e d e p r iv e d o f

th e b e n e fit s o f le a r n in g fr o m M a n ’s e x c e p t io n a l e x p e r ie n c e a n d p r a c t ic e .

K r i s 39 a r g u e s th a t life a c c o u n t s a r e a n e f f e c t iv e m e a n s f o r t r a n s m it t in g th e

life p a t t e r n o f a n “ e x e m p la r t y p e ” t o s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t io n s . M a n ’ s life

p r a c t ic e h a s b e c o m e a c o m p e llin g e x a m p le th a t s h a p e s th e s e lf - c o n c e p t io n s

a n d liv e s o f h is d is c ip le s . A c c o r d i n g to M a h a a B u a ’s d is c ip le s , th e t e a c h e r ,

c o n c io u s o f h is c e n t r a l r o le , fe a r s th a t t h e fo r e s t t r a d it io n m a y n o t s u r v iv e

h is o w n d e c e a s e . It is a ls o p la u s ib le th a t o n e o f M a h a a B u a ’s c lo s e d is c ip le s

m a y t h e n w r it e a n a c c o u n t o f h is t e a c h e r , a n d s o m a in t a in t h e b io g r a p h ic a l

p r o c e s s .

A t a n o t h e r d is c u r s iv e le v e l, t h e f r e q u e n t r e fe r e n c e s t o t h e p r is t in e n o r ­

m a t iv e t r a d it io n in M a h a a B u a ’s b io g r a p h y o f M a n lin k s t h e m a s t e r to a n

e x c lu s i v e m y t h ic lin e a g e o f s a in t s (arhat) t h a t c o m m e n c e d d u r in g t h e

B u d d h a ’ s life t im e . T h e e la b o r a t io n a n d p a r o c h ia liz a t io n o f p r is t in e m y t h ic

p a r a d ig m s in t h e b io g r a p h ic a l a c c o u n t s h a s t w o fu n c t io n s . F ir s t, it e n a b le s
 t h e p e r s o n r e c o u n t in g th e s t o r y , in t h is c a s e t h e a u t h o r , t o p r o v id e m y t h ic

s a n c t io n t o t h e t e x t a n d t o h is o w n p e r s o n a l c r e a t iv it y . S e c o n d , t h e lo c a l

r e a d e r is r e a s s u r e d “ th a t th e r e lig io u s tr u t h s r e c o u n t e d h a d b e c o m e m a n i­

fe s t a m o n g t h e m s e lv e s , a n d n o t in fa r a w a y p l a c e s . ” 40

T h is c u lt u r a l g r a ft in g o f lo c a l o n t o u n iv e r s a l t r a d it io n le g it im a t e s th e

lin e a g e th a t lin k s I n d ie , S in h a le s e , a n d T h a i t r a d it io n s in t o a “ s e a m le s s

c lo t h ” f r o m t h e t im e o f t h e B u d d h a t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y .41 A n o t h e r e x a m p le

o f t h is p r o c e s s is r e c o u n t e d in t h e b io g r a p h y o f y e t a n o t h e r o f M a n ’s

a c c la im e d arhat d is c ip le s , A ja a n K h a o A a n a a la y o , w h o d ie d in 1 9 8 3 .

A c c o r d i n g to t h is a c c o u n t , t h e m o n k w a s v is it e d b y M a h a a K a s s a p a T h e r a ,

a d is c ip le o f t h e B u d d h a w h o e x c e lle d in fo r e s t p r a c t ic e . It is r e v e a lin g th a t

M a h a a B u a a ls o a u t h o r e d K h a o ’s b io g r a p h y a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e c r e m a t io n

c o m m it t e e , w h i c h c o m p r is e d s e n io r r e f o r m is t T h a m m a y u t a d m in is t r a t iv e

m o n k s a n d s o m e o f M a n ’s d i s c i p l e s . 42

M a h a a K a s s a p a r e p r e s e n t s t h e id e a l p r a c t ic e o f f o r e s t m o n k s in th e

T h e r a v a d a t r a d it io n . H e w a s r e p u t e d t o b e t h e o n ly m o n k t o b e s o p r i v i ­

le g e d a s t o e x c h a n g e w it h t h e B u d d h a h is r a g - r o b e s , w h i c h a r e t h e m a r k o f

a f o r e s t - d w e lle r . T h is a c t o f e x c h a n g e c o n s t it u t e s t h e B u d d h a ’s e n d o r s e ­

m e n t o f f o r e s t - d w e llin g m e d it a t iv e life a n d le g it im iz e d M a h a a K a s s a p a ’s

a s c e t ic p r a c t ic e s ( dhutanga) a s a n o r m a t iv e p a r t o f th e t e a c h in g s (dhamma). In

fa c t , h e a s s u m e d le a d e r s h ip o f t h e sangha a ft e r th e B u d d h a ’s d e c e a s e . 43 T h e

B u d d h a o n c e q u e s t io n e d M a h a a K a s s a p a a b o u t h is r e a s o n s f o r li v in g a

r e c lu s iv e e r e m it ic life . M a h a a K a s s a p a r e p lie d th a t it w a s f o r h is o w n w e ll­

b e in g a n d th a t o f fu t u r e g e n e r a t io n s “ w h i c h w h e n le a r n in g a b o u t s u c h a

lif e , w o u l d e m u la t e i t . ” 44 T h e B u d d h a w a s s a id to b e p le a s e d w it h th is

r e s p o n s e a n d , a t a t im e w h e n th e sangha w a s b e c o m in g in c r e a s in g ly s e t t le d ,

g a v e a p p r o v a l t o c o n t in u e liv in g in s e c l u s i o n . 45

M a n w o u l d h a v e b e e n fa m ilia r w it h t h is t a le . H e , t o o , is b e lie v e d t o

h a v e b e e n a d is c ip le o f t h e B u d d h a in a f o r m e r life . S o m e in fo r m a n t s s a id

t h a t a lt h o u g h M a n c o u ld n o t a t ta in s a in t h o o d a t t h a t t im e , h e m a d e a

p r o p h e t ic w is h t o r e t u r n w h e n r e lig io n w a s in d e c lin e . T h u s , t h e y s a id ,

M a n k n e w t h e p r is t in e , m o n a s t ic c o d e o f c o n d u c t (vinaya) a n d t h e fo r e s t

p r a c t ic e s e s p o u s e d b y th e B u d d h a . T h i s s h o w s h o w th e h is t o r ic a l p a r t ic u ­

la r it ie s o f t h e D ham m a-Vinaya a s a p r o d u c t o f t h e n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

S ia m e s e r e fo r m s a n d o f t h e u n iv e r s a l t r a d it io n b e c a m e in t e r t w in e d .

M a h a a B u a h a s w r it t e n m a n y p u b lis h e d t e x t s , in c lu d in g s e r m o n s in t e r ­

p o s e d w it h p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s a s a p o lo g u e , o r ta le s f r o m t h e m a s t e r ’s life

th a t a r e n o w d is t in c t iv e o f M a h a a B u a ’s p e r s o n a l s t y le . I n t h is w a y , t h e n a r ­

r a t o r ’s n a m e it s e lf a s s u m e s a c la s s ific a t o r y f u n c t i o n 4 *5 t h a t h e lp s t o m o b iliz e

a n d c o n t r o l d is c o u r s e f o r s p e c ific p u r p o s e s .47 M a h a a B u a ’s s t a t e m e n t s o n

M a n ’s life a n d t e a c h in g s a r e d is c o u r s e m a r k e r s t r a n s fu s e d in t o t h e t e x t th a t

t h e r e a d e r p e r c e iv e s a s s t a t e m e n t s o f fa c t o r t r u t h . In w r it in g a b o u t h is
t e a c h e r , M a h a a B u a p la c e s h im s e lf f ir m ly in th e n a r r a t iv e a n d b e c o m e s a n

in s e p a r a b le p a r t o f t h e w h o le . T h u s a u t h o r a n d w o r k b e c o m e m u t u a lly

d e fin in g . M o r e o v e r , b y d o c u m e n t in g t h e lit t le - k n o w n life o f h is t e a c h e r ,

M a h a a B u a h a s s it u a t e d h im s e lf a s th e r ig h t fu l h e ir t o h is t e a c h e r ’s lin e a g e ,

w h ic h w a s le ft r a m if ie d a n d d is lo c a t e d a ft e r M a n ’s d e c e a s e .

B io g r a p h e r s a r e p r iv ile g e d in h a v in g d ir e c t a c c e s s t o t h e ir s u b je c t s a n d

o t h e r p r im a r y s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t io n . M a h a a B u a h a s im p lie d t h a t h is

p r iv ile g e d a c c e s s t o t h e m a s t e r , d u r in g t h e la s t n in e y e a r s o f M a n ’s lif e ,

u n iq u e ly q u a lif ie d h im t o w r it e M a n ’s life s t o r y . T h is c lo s e s p ir it u a l a s s o ­

c ia t io n b e t w e e n M a n a n d M a h a a B u a is r e f le c t e d in t h e c o s m o lo g ic a l la y ­

o u t o f t h e fo r e s t h e r m it a g e ( samnak) w h e r e M a n s p e n t t h e la s t f iv e y e a r s o f

h is life . T h i s h e r m it a g e w a s lo c a t e d o n t h e o u t s k ir t s o f B a a n N o r n g P h e u r ,

a v illa g e in a n is o la t e d p a r t o f t h e P h u u p h a a n m o u n t a in r a n g e in S a k o n

N a k h o r n p r o v in c e . T y p i c a l o f a ll fo r e s t m o n a s t e r ie s , t h e la y o u t c o n s is t s

b a s ic a lly o f in d iv id u a l m e d it a t io n h u ts ( kuti) d is p e r s e d in t h e fo r e s t . T h is

p a t t e r n h a s n o t c h a n g e d o v e r t h e p a s t f o r t y y e a r s . M a h a a B u a ’s kuti w a s

lo c a t e d c lo s e s t t o M a n ’s f o r m e r d w e llin g . R a d i a t in g in mandala fa s h io n

o u t w a r d s f r o m t h e m a s t e r ’ s h u t , w h i c h w a s t h e s a c r e d c e n t e r o f t h e

m o n a s t e r y , a r e n o w la r g e ly a b a n d o n e d , d ila p id a t e d d w e llin g s t h a t o n c e

w e r e o c c u p ie d b y m o n k s o f le s s e r d is c u r s iv e im p o r t a n c e , t h e n o v ic e s a n d ,

a t t h e im p u r e o u t e r p e r ip h e r y , t h o s e o f t h e fe m a le a s c e t ic s s e c t io n (khana
mae chii).
S ig n if ic a n t s h a r e d fe a t u r e s e m e r g e f r o m c o n t r a s t in g M a n ’s b io g r a p h y

w it h S in h a le s e c o m p o s it io n s s u c h a s t h e n in e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S in h a le s e f o r -

e s t - d w e ll e r P a n n a n a n d a t h a t C a r r it h e r s a n a ly z e s in s o m e d e t a i l . 48

P a n n a n a n d a , a c t iv e f r o m 1 8 5 0 u n t il h is d e a t h in 1 8 8 7 , w a s d e s c r ib e d b y

M a l a l g o d a 49 a s a s o u r c e o f in s p ir a t io n f o r m a n y fo r e s t m o n k s . T o d a y , b o t h

M a n a n d P a n n a n a n d a a r e s e e n a s t y p if y in g th e c a n o n ic a l n o r m o f a s c e t ic

p r a c t ic e . K e y e s 50 o b s e r v e s th a t th e im p o r t a n c e o f M a h a a B u a ’s b io g r a p h y o f

M a n is t h e d e m o n s t r a t io n th a t M a n w a s w it h o u t d o u b t a s a in t (arhat) a n d

th a t “ h is life c o n t a in s a s u p r e m e e x a m p le w h ic h c a n b e e m u la t e d b y o t h e r s ,

in c lu d in g t h e b io g r a p h e r h im s e lf .”

T h e life s t o r ie s o f M a n a n d P a n n a n a n d a a r e fu ll o f h o m ile t ic r e fe r e n c e s

t o o t h e r B u d d h is t le g e n d s , a n d t h e y s e t p r e c e d e n t s in b o t h T h e r a v a d a

c o u n t r ie s f o r la t e r b io g r a p h ie s o f e r e m it ic r e c lu s e m o n k s . B e n e a t h t h e

e m b r o id e r e d n a r r a t iv e s o f M a n a n d P a n n a n a n d a , w e s e e t w o d e t e r m in e d

w o r ld r e n o u n c e r s in t e n t o n liv in g in c o n fo r m it y w it h d o c t r in a l t r a d it io n .

B o t h a c c o u n t s c o n t a in a s im ila r r e je c t io n o f d o m e s t ic a t e d r e lig io n a n d its

a c c r e t io n s . A ls o , b o t h a c c o u n t s a r e s e t a g a in s t a b a c k d r o p o f n a t io n a l

m o n a s t ic r e fo r m s . B o t h m o n k s b e c a m e e m b o d im e n t s o f u n iv e r s a l t r a d it io n ,

w h ile r e t a in in g p a r t ic u la r iz e d c u lt u r a l fo r m s . E a c h e n g e n d e r e d h is o w n d is ­

t in c t iv e lin e a g e o f d is c ip le s w h o , in t u r n , in f lu e n c e d n a t io n a l r e lig io n .
 O n e o f th e im p lic it , d is c u r s iv e a im s o f h a g io g r a p h ie s w r it t e n b y d is c i­

p le s a b o u t t h e ir m a s t e r is t o e s ta b lis h a s u c c e s s io n o r d e r o r lin e a g e w it h in

th e c o n v e n t io n a l a u t h o r it y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m o n a s t ic o r d e r (bhikkhu sangha).
A m e a n s o f a c h ie v in g th is is b y s h o w in g th a t th e a u t h o r - d is c ip le h a d a c lo s e

a n d im m u t a b le r e la t io n s h ip w it h h is m a s t e r a n d , in a s e n s e , a c c e s s t o p r i v i ­

le g e d k n o w le d g e . S t o r ie s a b o u t t h e ir s h a r e d e n c o u n t e r s w it h w ild a n im a ls ,

t h e u n d e r w o r ld , o r h e a v e n ly b e in g s r e in f o r c e th e c lo s e , d y a d ic r e la t io n s h ip

b e t w e e n th e t e a c h e r a n d h is d is c ip le d u r in g th e c o u r s e o f t h e ir a s c e t ic w a n ­

d e r in g . B o t h t e a c h e r a n d d is c ip le e x p e r ie n c e s im ila r v is io n s a n d th e la t t e r ’ s

a r e c a s t c le a r ly in th e m o ld o f th e f o r m e r .

R e c c iR R e n t fe a t u r e s and th e Biograph ical

P r o c e s s in M a n ’s Lineage
In t h e c o u r s e o f r e s e a r c h , I e x a m in e d o r a l h is t o r ie s , b io g r a p h ie s b y o ft e n

u n k n o w n a u t h o r s w h o m in m a n y c a s e s I p r e s u m e t o b e s e n io r d is c ip le s o f

th e m a s t e r , m o n a s t e r y h is t o r ie s th a t o f f e r a c c o u n t s o f t h e f o u n d in g fo r e s t

m o n k , a n d a u t o b io g r a p h ie s . A ll o f t h e s e s o u r c e s p e r t a in t o t h e liv e s o f

T h a il a n d ’s n o r t h e a s t e r n fo r e s t m o n k s in th e lin e a g e o f P h r a A ja a n M a n ,

w h i c h is e t h n ic a lly L a o . W h e r e p o s s ib le , t h e s e t e x t s w e r e c r o s s - c h e c k e d

w it h o r a l a c c o u n t s f r o m f o r e s t - d w e llin g m o n k s a n d e ld e r ly la y in fo r m a n t s

t o id e n t if y c o n s is t e n c y a n d d iv e r g e n c e . H o w e v e r , th is p r o c e s s o f v e r if ic a ­

t io n w a s c o m p lic a t e d b y t h e fa c t th a t s o m e in fo r m a n t s t e n d e d t o s e e k c o n ­

f ir m a t io n in t h e t e x t u a l a c c o u n t s . In g e n e r a l, o r a l a c c o u n t s t a k e o n c r e a t iv e

a c c r e t io n s a n d d iv e r g e f r o m th e t e x t u a l a c c o u n t s . In th e p r o c e s s o f c o m ­

p a r in g o r a l a n d w r it t e n a c c o u n t s , t h e s e d is c r e p e n c ie s — w h e r e id e n t if ie d in

t h e t r a n s m is s io n — h a d to b e c o n s id e r e d in t h e t o t a l f o r m u la t io n o f th e b io ­

g r a p h ic a l t r a d it io n o f fo r e s t m o n k s .

In th e w r it t e n a n d o r a l life a c c o u n t s , c e r t a in d is t in c t iv e b io g r a p h ic a l

p a t t e r n s a n d c o n s is t e n t , a n a lo g o u s t h e m e s e m e r g e d : ( i ) T h e s u b je c t

e x p r e s s e d d is s a t is fa c t io n w it h m o n a s t ic lif e in th e p e r v a s iv e M a h a a n ik a a i,

th e la r g e s t o f t h e t w o T h a i o r d e r s t h a t c o m p r is e a ll m o n k s w h o a r e n o t

o r d a in e d in t h e s m a lle r r e f o r m is t T h a m m a y u t s e c t , o r w it h s c h o la s t ic

( pariyat) p u r s u it s t h r o u g h th e T h a m m a y u t N ik a a i; (2 ) T h e n a r r a t o r u s u a lly

h a d a n im p r e s s io n a b le m e e t in g w it h w a n d e r in g p u p ils o f t h e m e d it a t io n

m a s t e r A ja a n M a n , o r w it h t h e m a s t e r h im s e lf, w h o s t a y e d t e m p o r a r ily

n e a r t h e n a r r a t o r ’s r e s id e n c e ; t h is w a s o ft e n f o ll o w e d b y a s c e t ic w a n d e r in g

u n d e r t h e g u id a n c e o f e it h e r M a n o r h is s e n io r p u p ils ; (3 ) W it h s o m e

e x c e p t io n s , t h e n a r r a t o r w a s r e o r d a in e d in t h e T h a m m a y u t s e c t s o m e t w o

o r t h r e e y e a r s a ft e r t h e in it ia l m e e t in g s o th a t h e c o u ld p a r t ic ip a t e in th e

n o w im p o r t a n t fo r m a l a c ts o r c e r e m o n ie s o f th e sangha p e r fo r m e d b y h ig h -

r a n k in g n o r t h e a s te r n m o n k s (P . Sanghakamtna) ; (4 ) T h e n a r r a to r e x p e r ie n c e d
a n e a r ly v is io n , s ig n , o r m e n t a l im a g e (P . nimitta) d u r in g m e d it a t io n , o r d r e a m

s y m b o lis m , c o n fir m in g h is o r t h o p r a x y a s e s p o u s e d b y th e m a s te r ; (5 ) T h e

n e x t th e m e s te n d t o b e t a le s o f in c r e d ib le fe a ts , s u p e r n a t u r a l e x p e r ie n c e s , a n d

t h a u m a t u r g y th a t le a v e n o d o u b t in th e r e a d e r ’s m in d a b o u t th e s p ir itu a l

p o t e n t ia lit ie s in th e n o r m a t iv e p a th ; th is o ft e n e n ta ils s u b ju g a t io n o f th e r e p ­

r e s e n ta tio n s o f u n iv e r s a l n e g a t iv e fo r c e s (P . Mara) a n d th e p o w e r fu l s p ir it

w o r ld t h r o u g h “ r ig h t e o u s ” p r a c t ic e o f n o r m a t iv e r e lig io n , th a t is , o f th e

“ T r ip le G e m ” ; (6 ) T h e s u b s e q u e n t t h e m e r e c o u n t s th e in t e r a c t io n w it h is o ­

la t e d v illa g e r s a n d m is s io n iz a t io n o f th e dhamma a n d th e m e d it a t iv e v o c a t io n

(unpatsanaathura) p r e a c h e d b y th e t e a c h e r , M a n ; a n d (7 ) F in a lly , th e n a r r a to r

s e ttle s a n d is in t e g r a t e d in t o in s t it u t io n a liz e d m o n a s t ic is m , e it h e r n e a r h is

h o m e v illa g e o r e ls e w h e r e a t th e in v it a t io n o f lo c a l v illa g e r s a n d in flu e n tia l

la n d o w n e r s .

T h e r e a d e r o f M a h a a B u a ’s p r in c ip a l b io g r a p h y o n M a n w o u l d n o t e

t h e s e t h e m e s , a s in t h e m a n y s u b s e q u e n t life a c c o u n t s o f n o r t h e a s t e r n f o r ­

e s t m o n k s . T h e in it ia l p r o c e s s o f r e c o r d in g M a n ’s life a n d t e a c h in g s w a s

t h r o u g h M a h a a B u a ’s s e r m o n s . M a h a a B u a ’s o w n d is c ip le s o r la y fo llo w e r s

r e c o r d e d h is o r a t io n s o n t a p e s , w h ic h h e la t e r e d it e d a n d e v e n t u a lly w r o t e

d o w n . D r a ft s w o u l d fin d t h e ir w a y to B a n g k o k t h r o u g h u r b a n s u p p o r t e r s

a n d w e r e p u b lis h e d b y a c o m p a n y o w n e d b y lo n g - s t a n d in g la y s u p p o r t e r s

o f n o r t h e a s t e r n fo r e s t m o n k s . H o w e v e r , p r io r t o t h e p u b lic a t io n o f M a h u a

B u a ’s w id e ly p u b lic iz e d b io g r a p h y o f M a n , a n e a r lie r , le s s w id e ly d is t r ib ­

u t e d v e r s io n a p p e a r e d a s p a r t o f M a n ’s c r e m a t io n p u b lic a t io n in 1 9 5 0 . 51

T h is fir s t b io g r a p h y o n M a n w a s c o m p ile d b y a p r o lific s c h o la r m o n k

a n d m e d it a t o r , P h r a A r iy a k h u n a a t h a a n S e n g P u s s o , a t th e r e q u e s t o f t h e c r e ­

m a t io n c o m m it t e e , w h ic h in c lu d e d s o m e o f h is s e n io r d is c ip le s . S e n g w a s

b o r n in K h o m K a e n p r o v in c e , n o r t h e a s t T h a ila n d , in 1 9 0 8 in t o a p o o r

f a n n in g fa m ily . H e w a s o r d a in e d a t t h e a g e o f f o u r t e e n a s a n o v ic e a t W a t

P a a S u t t h a a w a a t n e a r t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n t o w n o f S a k o n N a k h o m , a n d th e n

s t a y e d f o r s o m e t im e a t W a t S a m p h a n t h a w o n g in B a n g k o k . T h e r e h e c o m ­

m e n c e d h is s t u d ie s a n d , a t t w e n t y - o n e y e a r s o f a g e , t o o k h is h ig h e r m o n a s ­

tic o r d in a t io n u n d e r t h e r o y a l m o n k S o m d e t P h r a W a c h ir a y a a n a w o n g — th e

E ig h t h S u p r e m e P a t r ia r c h o f th e T h a i S a n g h a in th e p r e s e n t R a t a n a k o s in

p e r io d . S e n g h e ld a n u m b e r o f a d m in is t r a t iv e p o s it io n s in th e n o r t h e a s t a n d

t h e n b e c a m e d e p u t y a b b o t o f th e r o y a l W a t P h r a s iim a h a a t h a a t in B a n g k o k .

H e r e s ig n e d h is p o s it io n t h e r e t o p r a c t ic e dhamma i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n

m o u n t a in s , w h e r e h e b e c a m e k n o w n a s “ h e r m it (1 ruesii) S a n t a jit .” H e d is ­

r o b e d t o w a r d t h e e n d o f h is life d u e t o h e a lt h p r o b le m s .

S e n g ’ s m a t e r ia l o n M a n c a m e m a in ly f r o m a le s s e r - k n o w n f o r e s t

m o n k , T h o n g k h a m Y a a n a p h a s o . T h o n g k h a m w a s s ix t y - e ig h t y e a r s o f a g e

a t t h e t im e o f m y in t e r v i e w in 1 9 8 8 a n d h a d b e e n M a n ’s d is c ip le f o r th e

la s t s ix y e a r s o f t h e m a s t e r ’s lif e . H e s u b s e q u e n t ly d is r o b e d in 1 9 6 4 .
T h o n g k h a m w a s t h e n t w e n t y - e ig h t y e a r s o ld a n d o n e o f s e v e r a l ju n i o r

m o n k s w h o c a r e d f o r t h e a i l in g t e a c h e r u n t il h is d e a t h a t W a t P a a

S u t t h a a w a a t . T h o n g k h a m h a d c o l le c t e d v a r io u s u t t e r a n c e s a n d o t h e r

t e a c h in g s (Thammathesanaa) b y M a n . H is o r ig in a l c o m p ila t io n w a s c r o s s ­

c h e c k e d w it h A ja a n T h e t T h e t s a r a n g s ii, w h o is o n e o f M a n ’ s s e n io r d is c i­

p le s a n d w h o r e p u t e d ly s t a y e d c lo s e t o t h e it in e r a n t m a s t e r d u r in g M a n ’s

e le v e n y e a r s in C h i a n g M a i. O t h e r d e t a ils w e r e t a k e n f r o m S e n g ’s o w n

m e m o r y o f h is m e e t in g s w it h M a n in t h e n o r t h e a s t . In r e c e n t t im e s , t h e r e

h a s b e e n s o m e c o n t r o v e r s y a m o n g M a n ’ s in n e r g r o u p o f d is c ip le s c o n ­

c e r n in g t h is b io g r a p h ic a l c o m p ila t io n . Its t it le Muttothai ( P . Muttodaya)

r e fe r s t o a c o m m e n t s u p p o s e d ly a t t r ib u t e d t o a n in flu e n t ia l n o r t h e a s t e r n

s c h o la r m o n k , w h o w a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y a d m ir e r o f M a n ,Ja o Khun U b a a lii.

H is c o m m e n t im p lie d th a t M a n h a d “ r e le a s e d h is h e a r t ” d u r in g h is t e a c h ­

in g a n d c o n v e y e d t o h is lis t e n e r s “ t h e b ir t h p la c e o f lib e r a t io n ” ( daenkoet

haeng khwaamludphon).
W h ile s o u r c e s o n M a n ’s m o n a s t ic lif e a r e p r o lif ic , n o t h in g o f s u b s t a n c e

h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d o f h is s e r m o n s . T h is m a y a p p e a r u n u s u a l f o r a m o n k

a c c la im e d u n e q u iv o c a lly a s a n a t io n a l s a in t (arhat). A s M a n t a u g h t o n e - t o -

o n e o r in s m a ll g r o u p s , e a c h t a lk w a s t e m p e r e d t o t h e in t u it iv e u n d e r s t a n d ­

i n g o f t h e lis t e n e r . H is t e a c h in g s w e r e th u s h ig h ly p e r s o n a liz e d a n d m u s t b e

s e e n in c o n t e x t . A s T h a n is s a r o B h i k k h u m e n t io n e d in h is tr a n s la t io n o f

Muttothai,52 M a n ’ s t e a c h in g s w e r e a lw a y s f a c e - t o - f a c e in t h e “ f o r m o f p e o ­

p le : t h e s t u d e n t s w h o s e liv e s w e r e p r o fo u n d ly s h a p e d b y th e e x p e r ie n c e o f

liv in g a n d p r a c t ic in g m e d it a t io n u n d e r h is g u id a n c e .”

B e c a u s e o f M a n ’s p e r s o n a liz e d t e a c h in g m o d e , h is d is c ip le s fe lt t h a t it

w a s in a p p r o p r ia t e to t r a n s c r ib e h is s e r m o n s a n d th a t p e r h a p s h is s e r m o n s

s h o u ld r e m a in a n o r a l t r a d it io n t o w h i c h t h e y , h is d is c ip le s , w ill b e t h e s p ir ­

it u a l h e ir s . T h is in s is t e n c e o n t h e o r a l t r a n s m is s io n o f h is t e a c h in g s m a y b e

s e e n a s a d is c u r s iv e s h ift f r o m a s a n c t ifie d d o m a in to t h e m u n d a n it y o f th e

w r it t e n w o r d , w h ic h , in t h e t e x t u a liz in g p r o c e s s , w o u l d lo s e its in h e r e n t

lu m in o s it y . T h e r e a r e h is t o r ic a l a n t e c e d e n t s in t h e m e d it a t io n t r a d it io n f o r

t h is a n t it e x t u a l s t a n c e . 53

Muttothai is w r it t e n in t h r e e p a r ts a n d b a s e d o n M a n ’s ta lk s in L a o t ia n .

T h is t e x t w a s la t e r r e w r it t e n — a n d p r o b a b ly r e w o r k e d — in C e n t r a l T h a i

(Thai Klaang) b y P u s s o S e n g . T h e fir s t p a r t c o n s is ts o f e a r ly s e r m o n s . T h e

s e c o n d p a r t c o n t a in s la t e r s e r m o n s w r i t t e n d o w n b y t w o d is c ip le s ,

T h o n g k h a m a n d t h e la t e A ja a n W a n U t t a m o o f S a k o n N a k h o r n p r o v in c e .

T h e t h ir d p a r t c o n s is ts o f s h o r t c o m p o s it e ta lk s (hotpraphan), e x a m p le s , a n d

dhamma s e r m o n s (hotthammahanyaai). T h e s e la t e r ta lk s w e r e s u p p o s e d ly

w r it t e n d o w n b y M a n h im s e lf w h i le s p e n d in g le n t a t W a t S a p a t h u m in

B a n g k o k a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e a b b o t , P h r a P a n y a a p h is a a n t h e n N u u , a

n o r t h e a s t e r n fr ie n d a n d m o n a s t ic s e n io r o f M a n . T h o n g k h a m s ta te s th a t th e
im p e t u s fo r p u b lis h in g t h is c o m p ila t io n c a m e a b o u t w h e n S e n g s t a y e d w it h

T h o n g k h a m a t W a t P a a N o r n g P h e u r , w h e r e M a n , t o o , s p e n t th e la s t f e w

y e a r s o f h is life . S e n g n o t ic e d t h e u n e d it e d m a n u s c r ip t ly in g in a c o r n e r a n d

a s k e d T h o n g k h a m f o r p e r m is s io n t o t a k e it w it h h im .

T h is w o r k r e fle c t s t h e u n d e r s t a n d in g o f a s c h o la r w e ll v e r s e d in t h e P a li

C a n o n . T h e s e r m o n s c e n t e r o n p it h y P a li u t t e r a n c e s a n d q u o t a t io n s f r o m

th e s u tta s . I f it is n o t M a n ’s p r o d u c t , it m a y w e ll b e th a t th e w r it e r o r w r i t ­

e r s p r o je c t e d in t o t h e d is c o u r s e t h e ir o w n r e f le x iv e in s ig h t s . A t t h e v e r y

le a s t , it in d ic a t e s th a t M a n ’s u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e c a n o n m a y h a v e b e e n

b e t t e r th a n h it h e r t o a s s u m e d , a s M a n s p e n t n e a r ly a ll o f h is m o n a s t ic life

w a n d e r in g in t h e fo r e s t s w it h o u t a d v a n c e d f o r m a l r e lig io u s e d u c a t io n .

P r o v id in g a n a n s w e r to t h is p a r a d o x , a f o r m e r d is c ip le o f M a n e x p la in e d

th a t M a n ’s c a n o n ic a l k n o w le d g e w a s in t u it iv e ly a c q u ir e d a s a r e s u lt o f h is

m e d it a t io n e x p e r ie n c e s a n d th a t, a s a d is c ip le o f th e B u d d h a in a f o r m e r

li f e , M a n h a d d ir e c t a c c e s s t o t h e f o u n d e r ’ s o r a l t e a c h in g s a n d r it u a l

m n e m o n ic s . W h a t e v e r th e a r g u m e n t s , t h e Muttothai, a lo n g w it h a le s s e r

k n o w n s m a ll d o c u m e n t , t h e K han thaw im utti-sam an gkhiith am m a ( t h e

d h a m m a o f lib e r a t io n f r o m t h e “ k h a n d h a ” ) , a r e th e o n ly e x t a n t t e x t s o n

M a n ’ s t e a c h i n g s . 54

F o r e s t m o n k s in M a n ’s lin e a g e r e g a r d M a h a a B u a a s th e a u t h o r it y o n

c o n t e n t io u s m a t t e r s lik e t h e M uttothai a n d h is b io g r a p h y o f t h e m a s t e r a s th e

m o s t a u t h o r it a t iv e t e x t . 55 H o w e v e r , a p u b lic c o n t r o v e r s y d e v e lo p e d a m o n g

t h e r e lig io u s e s t a b lis h m e n t s h o r t ly a ft e r M a h a a B u a ’s b io g r a p h y o f M a n w a s

p u b lis h e d . In t h is in c id e n t , t h e f o r m e r P r im e M in is t e r K h e u k r it P r a m o j

c r it i c i z e d M a h a a B u a ’ s a c c o u n t in h is w id e ly r e a d w e e k l y m a g a z in e ,

Sayaam rat. H e a c c u s e d M a h a a B u a o f s e n s a t io n a liz in g t h e dhamma a n d

in t e r s p e r s in g h is a c c o u n t w it h ta le s o f e a r ly s a in ts , w h ic h , e a s ily a b u s e d a n d

m is u n d e r s t o o d , c a n r e a d ily d e g e n e r a t e in t o “ m e r e e n t e r t a in m e n t .” T h e

p a r t ic u la r p o in t o f c o n t e n t io n w a s M a n ’s v is io n a r y e x p e r ie n c e s ( nimit) in

w h i c h h e c o n v e r s e d w it h s o m e o f t h e s e e a r ly s a in t s — in c lu d in g M a h a a

K a s s a p a — a m y s t if y in g a n d in c o m p r e h e n s ib le e v e n t t o W e s t e r n - e d u c a t e d

r a t io n a lis t t h in k e r s s u c h a s K h e u k r it .

In fa c t , a s im ila r d is c o u r s e w a s r e la t e d in M a h a a B u a ’ s s u b s e q u e n t

b o o k 56 o n t h e n o w f a m e d A ja a n K h a o A n a a la y o , w h e r e h e m e n t io n e d

t h a t K h a o a ls o c o m m u n ic a t e d w it h c e le s t ia l b e in g s ( thewaa ) , s p ir it s (phii ),
a n d t w o e a r ly s a in t s (arhats), P h r a P h a a k u la a n d M a h a a K a s s a p a T h e r a .

K h a o r e p u t e d ly a t t a in e d s a in t h o o d a t a s p e c if ic t im e a n d p la c e in M a n ’s

lif e t im e a n d is s a id t o h o ld dhamma d is c u s s io n w it h M a n th a t le ft n o d o u b t

a b o u t t h e s p ir it u a l a t t a in m e n t o f b o t h m o n k s . E v e n t s s u c h a s t h e s e a r e

p la u s ib le t o t h e w r it e r a n d h is in n e r c ir c le , b u t m a y n o t b e s e e n s o b y a

w id e r u r b a n W e s t e r n - e d u c a t e d r e a d e r s h ip . D e r r i d a 57 s t a t e d t h a t , “ t h e

m e a n in g s a n d in t e n t io n o f t h e a u t h o r m a y n o t c o in c id e w it h th a t o f th e
r e a d e r ” a n d t h a t m u c h d e p e n d s o n t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s a n d c o n t e x t in

w h i c h t h e t e x t is r e a d .

O n e o f M a h a a B u a ’s r o y a l s u p p o r t e r s , Mom Luang J i t t i N o p p h a w o n g ,

r e p lie d t o K h e u k r i t ’s c r it iq u e b y s a y in g th a t t h o s e w h o d o n o t p r a c t ic e la c k

in s ig h t a n d th a t d ia lo g ic m y s t ic a l e v e n t s m e n t io n e d in th e a c c o u n t w o u l d

b e d if f ic u lt t o c o m p r e h e n d f r o m a w o r l d l y p e r s p e c t i v e .5® M a h a a B u a s u b ­

s e q u e n t ly r e c e iv e d m a n y le t t e r s f r o m c u r io u s , e d u c a t e d , u r b a n r e a d e r s a s k ­

in g f o r c o n fir m a t io n o f th e in c r e d ib le m y s t ic a l in c id e n t s a t t r ib u t e d to M a n .

M a h a a B u a h a s s a id th a t th e e v e n t s m e n t io n e d in t h e b io g r a p h y a r e m e r e ly

a f e w o f s u c h h a p p e n in g s a n d c a p a b ilit ie s o f M a n , w h i c h h e ( M a h a a B u a )

w it h h e ld f r o m r e la t in g p u b lic ly . N e v e r t h e le s s , r e s u lt in g fr o m th is c o n t r o ­

v e r s y , in t e r e s t w a s s t ir r e d u p a m o n g t h e m id d le c la s s e s a n d e lit e s in th e

m e t r o p o lis . T h e f o r m e r s o c ia l g r o u p in g is c o m p r is e d la r g e ly o f p r o fe s s io n ­

a ls a n d t e c h n o c r a t s ; t h e la t t e r in c lu d e r o y a lt y a s w e ll a s h ig h - r a n k in g c iv il

s e r v a n t s a n d m a jo r b u s in e s s le a d e r s ; in m a n y c a s e s b o t h w e r e lin k e d b y

“ k in s h ip , c o m m o n in t e r e s t s a n d l i f e - s t y l e . ” 59

S e v e r a l in fo r m a n t s c o m m e n t e d th a t M a h a a B u a b e c a m e c a u t io u s a ft e r

p u b lis h in g M a n ’s b io g r a p h y , s u c h a s t h e a t t e n t io n it r e c e iv e d a n d th e a ll-

p e r v a s iv e p r e s e n c e o f in s a t ia b le u r b a n “ s a in t h u n t e r s ” (naklaa arhat) in th e

n o r t h e a s t e r n fo r e s t s .

M a h a a B u a ’s w o r k w a s d is c r e e t ly c r it ic iz e d b y o t h e r f o r m e r m o n a s t ic

d is c ip le s o f M a n , s u c h a s t h e n o w d e c e a s e d A ja a n T h e t T h e t s a r a n g s ii o f

W a t H in M a a k P e n g in N o m g k h a a i p r o v in c e , w h o w a s h is fo r m a l m o n a s ­

tic s e n io r . T h e t c o m m e n t e d th a t t h e a c c o u n t s h o w e d o n ly t h e f ie r c e s id e o f

M a n ’s p e r s o n a lit y , w h ic h r e fle c t e d t h e a u t h o r ’s o w n t r e n c h a n t a n d f e r o ­

c io u s p e r s o n a lit y . A m o n g o t h e r d is c ip le s o f t h e m a s t e r , A ja a n C h o r p

T h a a n a s a m o o f W a t P a a K h o k m o n in L o e i P r o v in c e is s a id t o h a v e t a k e n

d is p le a s u r e in b e in g m e n t io n e d in t h is b io g r a p h y a n d in t h e r e s u lt a n t s u r g e

o f a t t e n t io n a n d in t e r e s t b y p o p u la r m y s t ic a l p u b lic a t io n s . In th is m a n n e r ,

th e s o c ia l f ie ld o f t h e fo r e s t m o n k in t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n fr o n t ie r p r o v in c e s

t o o k o n a g r e a t e r d im e n s io n , in c o n t r a s t t o its r e la t iv e ly d is c r e t e , b o u n d e d

o r ig in s .

I n M a h a a B u a ’ s w r i t i n g , C h o r p is p o r t r a y e d a s t h e id e a l f o r e s t m o n k ,

a s a lo n e w a n d e r e r f o r m u c h o f h is e a r ly m o n a s t ic lif e , a n d is n o t e d f o r

h is e x t e n d e d r e t r e a t in t h e f o r e s t a n d h is a d v e n t u r e s w it h t ig e r s . T h e t 6°

c o m m e n t e d t h a t C h o r p w a s s t r ic t in h is a u s t e r it y ( P . dhutanga) p r a c t ic e s

a n d a “ r a r e , e n c o u r a g i n g e x a m p le t o o t h e r s .” C h o r p w a s p a r t ia lly p a r a ­

ly z e d f o r m a n y y e a r s a n d c a r e d f o r p r i o r t o h is d e m is e b y s u p p o r t e r s

a m o n g t h e u r b a n e lit e . In fa c t , m a n y o f M a n ’s d is c ip le s , s in c e t h e p u b li ­

c a t io n o f h is b io g r a p h y b y M a h a a B u a , f o u n d t h e m s e lv e s a t t h e c e n t e r o f

in t e n s e u r b a n in t e r e s t . H o w e v e r , t h is t r e n d h a d a lr e a d y b e g u n in t h e

e a r ly 1 9 6 0 s .
 M id d le - c la s s a n d e lit e r e a d e r s h ip , h o w e v e r , h a d a lr e a d y e n c o u n t e r e d

th e n o r t h e a s t e r n fo r e s t t r a d it io n p r io r t o M a n ’s b io g r a p h y t h r o u g h J i t t i ’s

p o p u la r a n d n o w d e fu n c t w e e k ly Siisapdaa. In t h is m a g a z in e , M a n ’s life a n d

t e a c h in g s w e r e fir s t s e r ia liz e d f r o m M a h a a B u a ’ s m a n u s c r ip t , w h i c h w e r e

f o ll o w e d b y s e q u e ls .61 T h is w o r k m a k e s e x p lic it a n d im p lic it m e n t io n o f

s o m e o f M a n ’s p r in c ip a l, f ir s t - g e n e r a t io n d is c ip le s .

C o n clu sio n
D e s p it e h is s im p le p a r o c h ia l r u r a l o r ig in s , A ja a n M a n h a s b e c o m e a h a g io -

le g e n d o f n a t io n a l p r o p o r t io n s . H is lin e a g e t o d a y is t h e f o c u s o f e lit e

p a t r o n a g e a n d c o n t r o l. T h is is la r g e ly d u e t o th e c o n s t r u c t io n a n d d is t r ib u ­

t io n in t h e m e t r o p o lis o f life a c c o u n t s o n M a n a n d h is e a r ly d is c ip le s d u r ­

in g t h e 1 9 7 0 s .

M a n y T h a i- L a o v illa g e r s w o u l d n o t d o u b t t h e “ s a in t ly ” a t t r ib u t e s o f

M a n , a s K h e u k r it a n d o t h e r s d id , a s t h e y t h e m s e lv e s fir s t n u r t u r e d th e s e

ta le s f r o m t h e ir o w n u n d e r s t a n d in g r o o t e d in t h e ir lo c a l c o s m o lo g y a n d

w o r ld v ie w s . T h e o r a l t a le s , v e r if ie d b y c lo s e m o n a s t ic d is c ip le s , w e r e p a s s e d

t h r o u g h s o c ia l a n d k in s h ip n e t w o r k s a n d fr o m v illa g e to v illa g e w h e r e M a n

a n d h is w a n d e r in g d is c ip le s e n c a m p e d in d iv id u a lly o r in s m a ll s e t t le m e n t s

in t h e fo r e s t s . In t im e , t h e m a n y p e r s o n a l ta le s a n d a c c o u n t s w e r e t r a n s ­

f o r m e d in t o w r it t e n h a g io g r a p h ie s p u b lis h e d in th e c a p it a l o v e r t h e p a s t

t w o d e c a d e s , a lo n g w a y f r o m t h e ir r u r a l, p e r ip h e r a l b e g in n in g s . A lt h o u g h

m a r g in a l t o t h e f o r m a l m o n a s t ic e s t a b lis h m e n t a n d t o t h e r o u t in i z e d

m o n a s t ic h ie r a r c h y , fo r e s t m o n k s , n e v e r t h e le s s , a r e t h e m y s t ic a l c o r e o f

o r t h o d o x T h a i r e lig io n . In T h a ila n d , th e t r a n s fo r m a t iv e a n d in t e g r a t iv e

p r o c e s s o f h a g io g r a p h y t u r n e d lo c a l le g e n d a r y r e c lu s e s in t o in s t it u t io n a l­

i z e d 62 n a t io n a l fig u r e s .

N o te s
1. Ajaan is the Thai equivalent term for the Sanskrit/Pali Acariya, in this
context meaning a monastic teacher.
2. On this monk see C. F. Keyes, “ Death o f Tw o Buddhist Saints in
Thailand,” Journal o f the American Academy o f Religion, Thematic Studies 48,
nos. 3 and 4 (1982), pp. 149—180; J. Placzek, “ The Thai Forest
Tradition,” in Southeast Asia: Women, Changing Social Structure and Cultural
Continuity, ed. G. B. Hainsworth (Ottawa: University o f Ottawa Press,
19 81); S. J. Tambiah, The Buddhist Saints o f the Forest and the Cult of
Amulets (Cambridge: Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology, 1984),
and “ The Buddhist Arahant: Classical Paradigm and Modern Thai
Manifestations,” in Saints and Virtues, ed. J. S. Hawley (Berkeley:
University o f California Press, 19 87);}. L. Taylor, “ From Wandering to
 Monastic Domestication: The Relationship between the Establishment o f
the Thammayut Nikaai in the Northeast Region and Ascetic Monks in
the Lineage o f Phra Ajaan Man Phuurithatto,” Journal o f the Siam Society 76
(1988), pp. 64-88, and Forest Monks and the Nation-State: A n Anthropological
and Historical Study in Northeastern Thailand (Singapore: Institute o f
Southeast Asian Studies, 1993).
3. This argument is based on M ax W eber’s discussion on the “ routinization”
o f charismatic authority; see A. M . Henderson and Talcott Parsons, trans.,
M ax Weber: The Tl\eory O f Social A nd Economic Organisation (Glencoe, 111.:
The Free Press, 1947), pp. 36 3-373; and S. N. Eisenstadt, ed., M ax Weber
On Charisma And Institution Building (Chicago: University o f Chicago
Press, 1968), pp. 5 4 -6 1. See also Tambiah’s critique, The Buddhist Saitits of
the Forest, chap. 2 1.
4. A later disciple o f Man named Wiriyang also wrote a biography on his
master, which appeared in 1980, although regarded generally as less
credible than Mahaa Bua’s text. See Phra Ajaan Wiriyang (Phra
Yaanawiriyaajaan), Chiiwaprawat Than Phra Aajaan Man Phuurithatto
(Chababsombuun) (The complete biography o f Phra Ajaan Man
Phuurithatto) (Bangkok: privately published, 2523 [1980]).
5. See, for instance, Grant A. Olson, “ Thai Cremation Volumes: A Brief
History o f a Unique Genre o f Literature,” Asian Folklore Studies, vol 51,
1992, pp. 279-294; and “ Thailand’s Funeral Books,” Asiaweek, June 8,
1986, pp 57-58.
6. Mahaa Bua Yaanasampanno, Phra Ajaan, Patipathaa Khorng
Phrathudongkammathaan saai Than Phra Aajaan Man Phuurithatto (The
practice o f the wandering meditation monks in the lineage o f Phra Ajaan
Man Phuurithatto) (Bangkok: Por Samphanphaanit, 2529 [1986]), p. 31.
7. J. Clifford and G. E. Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of
Ethnography (Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1986).
8. Fischer, “ Ethnicity and the Post-Modern Arts o f M em ory,” Clifford and
Marcus, Writing Cultures, p. 198.
9. Rampersad, quoted in Clifford and Marcus, Writing Cultures, p. 197.
10. L. Langness, The Life History in Anthropological Scicnce (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1965).
11. Keyes, “ Death o f T w o Buddhist Saints,” said that written biographies o f
well-known monks were produced after the beginning o f the twentieth
century when a “ radical change” affected Thai literature through Western
influences in printing methods. Protestant missionaries were the pioneers
in this field: see Charnvit Kasetsiri, “ Thai Historiography from Ancient
Times to the Modern Period,” Perceptions o f the Past in Southeast Asia, ed.
A. R eid and D. Marr (AASA Southeast Asia Publications Series,
Singapore: Heinemann, 1979), p. 160; B. J. Terwiel, A History of Modern
Thailand (University o f Queensland Press, 1983), p. 134; Tambiah, The
Buddhist Saints o f the Forest, p. 1 12 ; see esp. K. E. Wells, History of
Protestant Missionary Work in Thailand 18 2 8 —19 5 8 (Bangkok: Church o f
 Christ in Thailand, 1958), pp. 5, 10. As Charnvit (ibid., p. 15 1)
remarked, even before mass-produced accounts, oral tales o f famous
monks existed and were the stuff from which later written biographies
drew their inspiration.
12. M . Carrithers, The Forest Monks of Sri Lanka (Delhi: Oxford University
Press, 1983), p. 88.
13. This has been referred to as “ tertiary narrative reproduction” (see
Carrithers, Forest Monks of Sri Lanka, p. 79); “ enacted biography” (Ernst
Kris in The Biographical Process: Studies in the History and Psychology of
Religion, ed. Frank E. Reynolds and Donald Capps (The Hague: Mouton,
1976), p. 18); or as an “ amalgam o f classical precedents and parochial
elaboration” (Tambiah, The Buddhist Saints o f the Forest, p. 13 1).
14. See Dhani Nivat, “ The Rama Jataka: A Lao Version o f the Story o f
Rama "Journ al of the Siam Society 36, no. 1 (1946), pp. 1—22.
15. Cited in ibid., p. 21.
16. Paramaanuchit-chinorot was King M ongkut’s (Rama IV) uncle, a well-
known writer and the Seventh Ratanakosin Supreme Patriarch o f the
Siamese Sangha from 18 5 1 until his death at the age o f sixty-four in 1853;
see A. Wichian and S. Sunthorn, comps., Prawat Samanasak lae Phat-yot
(History o f Clerical Ranks and Fans) (Bangkok: Rongphim sii-anan, 2528
[1985]), pp- 46-47.
17. Wachirayaan was the single most important figure in the reformation of
the modern Siamese Buddhist order. He was King M ongkut’s son and the
brother o f King Chulalongkorn (Rama V). Wachirayaan had written
many books, including a life o f the Buddha, Buddhist Proverbs, a standard
work on monastic discipline, and a written system o f ecclesiastical
examinations in use today. He was the Tenth Ratanakosin Supreme
Patriarch o f the Siamese Sangha from 19 10 until his death at the age o f
sixty-two in 19 2 1; see C. Reynolds, ed., The Life o f Prince-Patriarch
Vajiranana (Ohio University Press, 1979).
18. See Frank Reynolds, “ The Many Lives o f Buddha,” in The Biographical
Process, ed. Reynolds and Capps, p. 53; and personal communication with
Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Wat Thammasathit, Rayong, 1989.
19. Mahaa Bua, Siri Buddhasukh, trans., in The Venerable Phra Acharn Mun
Bhuridatta: Meditation Master (1976; Bangkok: Funny Publishing Ltd.
Partnership, 1982). I use my own reference to the original Thai text for
the term keji-aajaan.
20. Brian Stock, The Implications of Literacy (Princeton, N .J.: Princeton
University Press, 1983).
2 1. Keyes, “ Death o f T w o Buddhist Saints.”
22. Ibid., p. 152.
23. Kris, in The Biographical Process, p. 19.
24. Tambiah, The Buddhist Saints of the Forest.
25. Ibid., p. 4.
26. Ibid., pp. 5, 132.
27. Ibid., p. 132.
28. Kris, in The Biographical Process.
29. Tambiah, The Buddhist Saint o f the Forest, pp. 344-345.
30. Mahaa Bua Yaanasampanno, Prawat Than Phra Aajaan Man Phurithatta
Thera (Biography o f Than Phra Ajaan Man Phurithatta Thera) (19 7 1;
Bangkok: Por Samphanphaanit Ltd. Part., 2529 [1986]).
31. Mahaa Bua, The Venerable Phra, p. 72.
32. Mahaa Bua Yaanasampanno, Phra Ajaan, Straight from the Heart, trans.
Bhikkhu Thanissaro (Bangkok: Por Samphanphaanit Ltd. Part., 2530
[1987]), p. 40.
33. Mahaa Bua, Straight from the Heart, pp. 1 1 4 - 1 1 6 .
34. J. Clifford, “ On Ethnographic Allegory,” in Clifford and Marcus, Writing
Cultures, pp. 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 .
35. For a similar discussion in a different context, see George E. Marcus and
Michael M. J. Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique: A n Experimental
Moment iti the Human Sciences (Chicago: University o f Chicago Press,
1986), pp. 36- 37 -
36. In Clifford and Marcus, Writing Culture, p. 116 .
37. The Pali term for this sect is Dhammayuttika-nikaya, the Dhammayut
Order.
38. Mahaa Bua, Sivi Buddhasukh, trans., “ Writer’s note,” in The Venerable
Phra Acharn Mun (n.p.).
39. Kris, in The Biographical Process, pp. 19, 29.
40. Tambiah, The Buddhist Saints o f the Forest, p. 129.
41. C. Reynolds, “ Religious Historical Writing and the Legitimation o f the
First Bangkok Period,” in Perceptions o f the Past, ed. R eid and Marr, p. 103.
42. Mahaa Bua, Patipathaa Khorng, pp. 89—97.
43. H. Hecker, Lives o f the Disciples: Maha Kassapa; Father o f the Sangha, Wheel
Publication no. 345, (Kandy: B.P.S. 1987), p. 32.
44. Hecker, Lives o f the Disciples, p. 17.
45. See Samyutta Nikaya, 16, 5 (in Hecker, Lives o f the Disciples, p. 17).
46. M. Foucault, “ What Is an Author?” in Textual Strategies: Perspectives in
Post-Structuralist Criticism, ed. Josue V. Harari (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1979), p. 147.
47. M. Foucault, The Archaeology o f Knowledge, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith
(London: Tavistock Publications, 1972).
48. See Carrithers, The Forest Monks, esp. chap. 4.
49. Kitsiri Malalgoda, Buddhism in Sinhalese Society 17 5 0 —1900 (Berkeley:
O .U .P., 1976), p. 168.
50. Keyes, “ Death o f T w o Buddhist Saints,” p. 159.
51. A second limited edition was republished by the Electricity Generating
Authority o f Thailand’s active Buddhist Association— under its then
president, Kesem Jaatikawanit, in 1984.
52. This was entitled “ A Heart Released: The Teachings o f Phra Ajaan Mun
Bhuridatto,” unpublished, trans. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1988). The text in
 the Thai original is Muttothai: owaat khorng Phra Aajaan Man
Phuurithattathera (Bangkok: Por samphanphaanit, 2530 [1987]).
53. This antitextual stance is in large part due to the understanding by the
ascetic meditator that the doctrinal truths can only be comprehended
noetically and intuitively. Thus the use o f the text has only a limited
function as a teaching aide and emphasis instead being placed on the
personalized transmission o f higher knowledge as technique (yet in the
Theravada tradition contextually situated in terms o f reaffirmation with
doctrinal sources).
It should be noted that this antitextual stance is institutionally
embedded in the traditional division between scriptural learning (pariyatti)
and praxis {patipatti) as historical process since at least the early Christian
era in Sri Lanka (the so-called Commentarial period); see for instance
Richard Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient
Benares to Modern Colombo (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988),
pp. 15 2 -15 3 -
54. The Khanthawimutti-Samangkhiithamma was supposedly written by Man
around 19 1 5 while the master was residing at Wat Pathumwan in
Bangkok during one o f his rare early visits to the capital. It was
rediscovered at M an’s relic museum at Wat Paa Sutthaawaat in Sakon
Nakhorn province and translated into English in 1995 under the direction
o f Ajaan Thui Chantha Karo, a second-generation disciple o f Ajaan Man.
The “ khanda” (Thai: Khantha) refer to the five aggregates o f conditioned
existence.
55. See Phra Ajaan Wiriyang’s version o f Man’s biography, Chiiwaprawat
Than, o f conditional existence.
56. Mahaa Bua, Patipathaa Khorng.
57. S ee J. Cullen, “Jacques Derrida,” in Structuralism and Since: From Levi-
Strauss to Derrida, ed. J. Sturrock (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979).
58. This seemed to have all the makings o f a division between, on the one
hand, urban elite meditators and traditionalism and, on the other,
rationalist intellectuals and modernism.
59. R . Korff, “ Urban or Agrarian? The Modern Thai State,” Sojourn 4, no. 1
(1989), pp. 48-49.
60. Phra Ajaan Thate (Thet Thetsarangsii) Desaransi, M y Life, trans. Siri
Buddhasukh (Bangkok: Bangkok Printing Press 2521 [1978]), p. 17 1.
See also a more recent English translation by Bhikkha Ariyesako, 77ie
Autobiography of a Forest Monk (Bangkok: Amarin Printing and Publishing,
1993)-
6 1. Mahaa Bua, Patipathaa Khorng.
62. I use the word institutionalized in the sense o f a processual transformation
in which individuated relatively “ free floating” charisma becomes
regulated and domesticated through absorption into the bureaucratic
control o f the state. This word is closely connected with W eber’s notion
o f routinization (mentioned at the beginning o f this paper, see note 3) in
reference to the transformation o f charismatic leadership based on
personal attributes into traditionalized, institutional routine structures.
Essentially I am arguing that the biographical process in Thailand
facilitated the institutionalization and domestication o f wandering forest
monks.
 B u rm ese CSucfcfhist JlCecfitation
J K a ster 0 1 0 3 a JCh/n: JSife before
th e Cjracffe an cfp a s t th e S 'raue
Gustaaf Houtman

W it h t h e r is e o f in d iv id u a lis m d u r in g t h e e a r ly e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w r i t ­

e r s b e c a m e m o r e in t e r e s t e d in t h e u n iq u e n e s s o f p e r s o n s a n d b io g r a p h y

c a m e t o s i g n i f y t h e s t o r y o f t h e lif e o f a n i n d iv i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g .1

B io g r a p h y h a s a lo n g h is t o r y g o i n g b a c k a t le a s t a s fa r a s t h e E g y p t ia n

t o m b s t o n e s a n d e a r ly o r a l h is t o r y . Y e t b io g r a p h y a ls o h a s a s h o r t h is t o r y

in t h a t it h a s b e e n s u b je c t t o r e la t iv e ly r e c e n t t r e n d s . K in d a ll f o u n d th a t

t h e w o r d b io g r a p h y w a s fir s t e m p lo y e d in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o

m e a n a lit e r a r y t r a d it io n u s e d “ t o c r e a t e a s e p a r a t e id e n t it y f o r t h is t y p e o f

w r i t i n g .” 2 T o d a y “ b io g r a p h y ” is a d e d ic a t e d W e s t e r n lit e r a r y g e n r e w it h

s t r ic t r u le s o f c la s s ific a t io n . In t h e Encyclopaedia Britannica b io g r a p h ic a l lit ­

e r a t u r e is d e fin e d a s s e e k in g “ t o r e c r e a t e in w o r d s t h e lif e o f a h u m a n

b e in g , t h a t o f t h e w r it e r h i m s e lf o r o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n , d r a w in g u p o n t h e

r e s o u r c e s , m e m o r y a n d a ll a v a ila b le e v id e n c e s — w r it t e n , o r a l, p ic t o r i a l.” 3

D e r i v e d f r o m G r e e k bio- (life ) p lu s graphy ( w r it in g ) , t h e t e r m s u g g e s t s

t h r e e d is t in c t o r d e r s o f m e a n in g , e x t e n d in g f r o m “ lif e - c o u r s e o f a li v in g

(u s u . h u m a n ) b e i n g ,” “ w r it t e n lif e o f a p e r s o n ,” t o “ a b r a n c h o f lit e r a t u r e

d e a lin g w it h p e r s o n s ’ l i v e s .” 4
 Y e t n o t e v e r y o n e u n d e r s t a n d s “ b io g r a p h y ” in q u it e s u c h a r e s t r ic t e d

s e n s e . S o m e t im e s t h e t e r m is u s e d t o m e a n s o m e t h in g m u c h w id e r in

s c o p e , n a m e ly t h e r e c o r d o f t h e life o f a n y life p r o c e s s , r a n g in g fr o m t h e life

o f a n in s e c t to a g e o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s , o r e v e n o f a n o r g a n iz a t io n .5 At-htok-
pat-ti,6 t h e B u r m e s e t e r m f o r b io g r a p h y , h a s s u c h “ d is p e r s e d ” q u a lit y a s it

g o e s b e y o n d e v e n t s p e r t a in in g t o a h u m a n life a n d m a y in c lu d e e v e n t s p e r ­

t a in in g to a n y o b je c t , w h e t h e r a n im a t e o r in a n im a t e : f o r e x a m p le , it m a y

c o n c e r n v a r io u s ly a n a n im a l, a s p ir it , a n in s t it u t io n , a m o u n t a in , a d ic t io n ­

a r y , o r a h u m a n b e i n g .7 I n d e e d , t h e c o n c e p t f o r “ b io g r a p h y ” m a y h a v e

m a n y o t h e r u s e s in t h e v e r n a c u la r a p a r t f r o m a lit e r a r y “ g e n r e ” : in e v e r y ­

d a y B u r m e s e t h e t e r m is u s e d t o m e a n v a r io u s ly “ fa c t s ,” “ e v e n t s ,” “ a s t a t e ­

m e n t o f f a c t ,” a n d “ n a r r a t io n o f e v e n t s .” T h e B u r m e s e c o n c e p t t h e r e fo r e

c a r v e s o u t a la r g e r a n d le s s c ir c u m s c r ib e d fie ld o f m e a n in g th a n o u r lit e r a r y

s e n s e o f “ b io g r a p h y ” a llo w s fo r , a n d in c lu d e s a d d it io n a lly w h a t w e m ig h t

c a ll v a r io u s ly “ s t o r y ,” “ h is t o r y ,” o r “ f a b le .”

O f t e n s e v e r a l d iffe r e n t , s o m e t im e s c o n t r a d ic t o r y n o t io n s o f b io g r a p h y

c o m p e t e s id e b y s id e w it h in th e s a m e c u lt u r e . F o r e x a m p le , in f lu e n c e d b y

s e c u la r e d u c a t io n a n d s o c ia lis t t h o u g h t , c o n t e m p o r a r y B u r m e s e a u t h o r s a r e

a p t to in t e r p r e t b io g r a p h y in te r m s o f th e m u c h n a r r o w e r r a n g e o f m e a n ­

in g s p r o v id e d b y its W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y e q u iv a le n t c o n c e p t . T h is h a s

b e e n fo s t e r e d b y t h e c e n t r a liz e d B u r m e s e g o v e r n m e n t w it h a s t r o n g t e n ­

d e n c y t o w a r d c e n s o r s h ip o v e r th e la s t f e w d e c a d e s .8

W it h t h is e s s a y I h a v e t w o a im s . T h e fir s t is to p r e s e n t t h e b io g r a p h y o f

a m e d it a t io n t e a c h e r a n d a c c o u n t a n t - g e n e r a l o f B u r m a , U B a K h i n

( 1 8 9 9 — 1 9 7 1 ) . T h is b io g r a p h y m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d in th e c o n t e x t o f th e

in c r e a s e d p o p u la r it y o f B u d d h is t m e d it a t io n a l p r a c t ic e s in c e B r it is h c o lo n ia l

r u le b e g a n in B u r m a in th e e a r ly n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . It w a s K in g M in d o n

(r. 1 8 5 3 - 1 8 7 8 ) w h o fir s t in c o r p o r a t e d in s ig h t c o n t e m p la t io n in t o r o y a l d is ­

c ip lin e in t h e 18 4 O S - 18 5 O S . H o w e v e r , it w a s a t th a t t im e v e r y m u c h a n a r is ­

t o c r a t ic t e c h n iq u e in t e n d e d f o r t h e r o y a l c o u r t a n d th e m o n k s , a n d th e

f ir s t - k n o w n un-pat-tha-na (P . vipassana) in s ig h t c o n t e m p la t io n c e n t e r f o r th e

m a s s e s w a s n o t d e d ic a t e d u n t il 1 9 1 1 in M y o H la , w h e r e t h e M i n - g u n H s a -

y a - d a w t a u g h t . S in c e t h e n , s o m e o n e - t h o u s a n d m e d it a t io n c e n t e r s h a v e

e m e r g e d a ll o v e r B u r m a , b u t a ls o m a n y a b r o a d , w h i c h a d v o c a t e a

B u d d h is m o f p e r s o n a l p r a c t ic e .9 T h e s e c e n t e r s , w h i c h r a n g e f r o m c o n ­

v e r t e d m o n a s t e r ie s a n d fa c t o r ie s t o c e n t e r s n e w ly b u ilt f o r t h e p u r p o s e , a r e

a m a jo r n a t io n a l s e r v ic e in d u s t r y . U B a K h in , th e s u b je c t o f t h is b io g r a p h y ,

is a n u n o r d a in e d in d iv id u a l w h o p la y e d h is p a r t in t h is m o v e m e n t . In th e

r u n - u p t o 1 9 4 8 N a t io n a l I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d th e r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f th e c o l o ­

n ia l c i v i l s e r v i c e , h e r e d is c o v e r s m e d it a t io n a s t h e c o r e m e s s a g e o f

B u d d h is m a n d s e e k s t o h a v e h is o f f ic e , t h e B u r m e s e c iv il s e r v ic e , a n d th e

f o r e ig n e r ta k e a n in t e r e s t in it.
 T h e s e c o n d a im o f th is e s s a y is t o lo o k ( fr o m a W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y

a n g le ) a t th e “ fu z z in e s s ” o f t r a d it io n a l B u r m e s e B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y w it h

r e s p e c t t o th e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n h is t o r y a n d b io g r a p h y . T h e b io g r a p h e r o f

U B a K h in s o u g h t t o “ h is t o r ic iz e ” h is t e a c h e r s o m u c h th a t o n ly 2 7 o u t o f

6 1 4 p a g e s a r e d e v o t e d to th e s u b je c t ’s life , th e r e s t b e in g d e v o t e d to t h e lin ­

e a g e o f p u p ils . A lt h o u g h th is w o u l d h a r d ly q u a lify a s a b io g r a p h y f r o m th e

W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y p o in t o f v ie w , s u c h d e s ig n a t io n is q u it e a c c e p t a b le

f r o m a B u r m e s e B u d d h is t - lit e r a r y p e r s p e c t iv e . A f t e r a ll, t h e b io g r a p h e r

w r it e s th e U B a K h in b io g r a p h y in c e le b r a t io n o f its s u b je c t ’s r e a liz a t io n o f

in s u b s t a n t ia lit y a n d n o - s e lf. T h is , it is a r g u e d h e r e , c a n n o t b e r e a d ily r e c o n ­

c ile d w it h a n a r r o w c o n c e p t io n o f th e “ in d iv id u a l” w h o is p r e s u m e d to h a v e

th e c o n s is t e n c y o f a s e lf, a n d th e t w o u n d e r s t a n d in g s a r e b o u n d to c o m e in t o

c o n flic t . A f t e r d e c la r in g th e c o m p lic a t e d in t e r lin k in g b e t w e e n v e r n a c u la r

b io g r a p h y a n d v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y , I s h a ll c o n c lu d e b y a r g u in g th a t a t le a s t

s o m e a u t h o r s o f B u r m e s e v e r n a c u la r B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y ( in c lu d in g th e

a u t h o r o f th e U B a K h in b io g r a p h y ) a s p ir e fo r t h e ir b io g r a p h y to b e a h is ­

t o r y in w h ic h th e s u b je c t is n o t r e a d ily c o n fin e d in t im e a n d p la c e .

Th e U Ba Khin B io g ra p h y
T h eb io g r a p h y o f U B a K h in c o n s i d e r e d h e r e i s e n t i t l e d Burma's Honourable

Special Teacher U Ba K hin (His Biography and Missionary Works).10 O n e o f

f e w r e n o w n e d u n o r d a in e d in s ig h t t e a c h e r s , h is r e lig io u s a s p ir a t io n s b lo s ­

s o m e d la t e in life , a n d h is fa m e a s a n im p o r t a n t c iv il s e r v a n t p r e c e d e d h im .

T h e b io g r a p h y p o r t r a y s a d u a l c a r e e r : a s e c u la r c a r e e r le a d in g u p f r o m th e

p o s t o f c le r k a t t h e O f f ic e o f t h e A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7

t o t h e p o s t o f a c c o u n t a n t - g e n e r a l o f B u r m a a t n a t io n a l in d e p e n d e n c e in

1 9 4 8 ; a n d a r e lig io u s c a r e e r , le a d in g f r o m a b u d d in g in t e r e s t in in s ig h t o n

J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 3 7 t o b e c o m in g a t e a c h e r in t h e a-na-pa-na t r a d it io n o f t h e L e -

d i H s a - y a - d a w 11 d u r in g h is v is it to th e W e i - b u H s a - y a - d a w 12 in J u l y 1 9 4 1 ,

a n d fin a lly , o p e n in g u p h is o w n in s ig h t c e n t e r o n N o v e m b e r 9 , 1 9 5 2 — th e

I n t e r n a t io n a l M e d it a t io n C e n t r e . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e p r e fa c e s u g g e s ts th a t

t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b io g r a p h y is t o p o r t r a y U B a K h in ( h e r e a ft e r B K ) a s a

B u d d h is t .

T h is b o o k is n o t a p re a c h in g ( da-tna) w o r k in th e se n se o f a c o lle c ­

tio n o f d is c o u r s e s . B u t t h is is a b io g r a p h y ( at-htok-pat-ti) in th e se n se o f a

c o lle c t io n o f e v e n ts a n d e x p e r ie n c e s o f a p e r s o n w h o w a s su c c e ss fu l in

p ra c tic e a c c o r d in g to th e d is c o u r s e e x e r c is e s , a n d in te a c h in g h is p u p ils .

T h e G r e a t T e a c h e r B a K h in m u s t b e c o n s id e r e d a m a ste r o f p e r fe c tio n

pa-ra-mi shin) w h
( o s u c c e e d e d in th e p ro p a g a tio n o f B u d d h is m ( tha-tha-
na) i n a n u n u s u a l w a y . W it h o u t h a v in g p re a c h e d a r o u n d th e w o r ld , h is
 pupils nevertheless enjoy his teachings everywhere. Meditation centres
have appeared in many countries in Asia and Europe— England, America,
Canada, N ew Zealand, Australia.'3

P u b lis h e d in 1 9 8 0 , n in e y e a r s a ft e r B K ’s d e a t h , it is b a s e d o n in t e r ­

v ie w s , r e m in is c e n c e s o f B K ’s b io g r a p h e r , le t t e r s a n d p u b lic a t io n s f r o m

p u p ils ( m a in ly fo r e ig n e r s ) , a n d p u b lic a t io n s a n d b r o a d c a s t s o n B u d d h is m b y

B K h im s e lf. T h e r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n K o L e i, t h e a u t h o r , a n d h is s u b je c t

h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d in s o m e d e t a il e ls e w h e r e . 14 S u f f ic e to n o t e h e r e th a t th e

a u t h o r is a r e t ir e d v ic e c h a n c e llo r o f M a n d a la y U n iv e r s it y a n d B K ’ s p u p il.

K o L e i s t a r te d t h e b io g r a p h y in 1 9 6 3 , b u t B K d id n o t w a n t to h a v e it p u b ­

lis h e d u n t il a ft e r h is d e a t h , w h i c h e x p la in s its la te p u b lic a t io n d a t e . 15 K o L e i

in c lu d e s in t h e b o o k m u c h in f o r m a t io n a b o u t h im s e lf a n d h is r e la t io n s h ip

to B K , in c lu d in g a s u m m a r y in t h e in t r o d u c t io n , a n d t h e e n t ir e c h a p t e r 6

(“ T h e G r e a t T e a c h e r a n d I ” ) . 16 In b r ie f, t h e y fir s t m e t t h r o u g h w o r k in

1 9 3 4 , w h e n t h e a u t h o r w a s u n a w a r e o f B K ’ s r e lig io u s a s p ir a t io n s . H e

b e c a m e B K ’ s p u p il o n ly a ft e r b e i n g r e in t r o d u c e d t o h im b y f o r e ig n e r s

im p r e s s e d w it h h is t e a c h i n g s . 17 A t o n e p o in t K o L e i e v e n d e s c r ib e s B K a s

r e s e m b lin g h is o w n fa t h e r ( d e m is e d in 1 9 4 6 ) in s t a tu r e , a p p e a r a n c e , m a n ­

n e r o f w a lk in g , a n d m a n n e r o f t a l k i n g . 18

U B a K h in
B K ’s life is d e s c r ib e d in t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r u n d e r t h e h e a d in g , “ F r o m

A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l t o G r e a t T e a c h e r . ” 19 B K w a s a t r u e R a n g o o n i t e . T h e

s o n o f U P a w , a b r o k e r , 20 a n d D a w S a w M e i, h e w a s b o r n in 1 8 9 8 in a

R a n g o o n n e ig h b o r h o o d .

U n d e r t h e s u b h e a d in g “ F r o m s t u d y to w o r k ,” it is d e s c r ib e d h o w h is

e d u c a t io n b e g a n w it h t r a d it io n a l m o n a s t ic t r a in in g in a lo c a l m o n a s t e r y

u n t il t h e a g e o f e ig h t ( 1 9 0 7 ) , a ft e r w h i c h h e w e n t t o a M e t h o d is t s c h o o l,

w h e r e h e s t a y e d u n t il t h e s e v e n t h s t a n d a r d ( 1 9 0 7 - 1 9 1 4 ) . “ E v e r s in c e

y o u n g , h e w a s o f e x c e p t io n a l in t e llig e n c e , a n d w it h o u t fa il fir s t in e v e r y

c la s s .” 21 A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t h s t a n d a r d h e w a s a w a r d e d a g o v e r n m e n t

s c h o la r s h ip a n d w e n t t o S t . P a u l’s, R a n g o o n , a c o lle g e o f e x c e lle n t r e p u t a ­

t io n . H e w a s a lw a y s a t t h e t o p o f t h e c la s s a n d w a s a w a r d e d a s c h o la r s h ip a t

c o m p le t io n , b u t d id n o t c o n t in u e h is s t u d ie s . W it h b o t h p a r e n t s d e c e a s e d

b y t h e n , h e h a d n o o n e to e n c o u r a g e h im . H e d e c id e d t o g o h is o w n w a y .

H is fir s t j o b w a s t o w o r k a t The Sun (Thu-n-ya) n e w s p a p e r , o n e o f th e

f ir s t B u r m e s e - l a n g u a g e n a t io n a lis t n e w s p a p e r s s e t u p b y s o m e o f t h e

f o u n d e r s o f t h e Y M B A m o v e m e n t . B y N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 h e h a d b e c o m e a

l o w - g r a d e c le r k a t t h e O f f i c e o f t h e A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l, a n d in

N o v e m b e r 1 9 2 6 , h a v i n g p a s s e d t h e I n d ia n G o v e r n m e n t A c c o u n t a n c y

e x a m s , h e w a s p r o m o t e d to a s s is ta n t o f f ic e s u p e r v is o r . T h e s e o ffic e s w e r e
k n o w n a s t h e “ I n d ia n O f f i c e s ” b e c a u s e t h e y e m p lo y e d n o B u r m e s e . O n ly

th r e e B u r m e s e p e o p le w o r k e d t h e r e a t th e t im e a n d m o s t o t h e r e m p lo y e e s

h a d le ft t h e ir p o s it io n s in t h is o f f ic e d u e to o p p r e s s io n b y t h e In d ia n s . T h is

t r e n d c o n t in u e d d e s p it e th e e ffo r t s o f th e A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l t o tu r n th e

“ In d ia n O f f i c e ” in t o a “ B u r m e s e O f f i c e ” b y h ir in g s ix h ig h ly e d u c a t e d

B u r m e s e a m o n g w h o m w a s a ls o t h e a u t h o r o f B K ’s b io g r a p h y . O n ly B K

s t a y e d o n . H e w a s h e ld u p b y s o m e a s a n e x a m p le o f h o w a B u r m e s e c o u ld

g e t o n a ft e r p a s s in g t h e e x a m s . W it h o u t a u n iv e r s it y e d u c a t io n , B K h a d

b e e n p r o m o t e d f r o m a n o r d in a r y c le r k t o a d e p u t y s u p e r v is o r o v e r n in e

y e a r s . H e s h o w e d c o u r a g e a n d a s t r o n g c o m m it m e n t to s t u d y in g f o r th e

a c c o u n t a n c y e x a m s . H e h a d s u c h g o o d m e m o r y th a t h e c o u ld r e c it e th e

a c c o u n t a n c y b o o k s f r o m b a c k t o fr o n t . In 1 9 3 7 , w h e n B u r m a w a s to h a v e

a s e p a r a t e A c c o u n t a n c y D e p a r t m e n t f r o m I n d ia , B K b e c a m e a s p e c ia l

s u p e r v is o r a t t h e O f f ic e o f th e A u d it o r G e n e r a l. O n F e b r u a r y 2 8 , 1 9 4 1 , h e

w a s p r o m o t e d t o a c c o u n t a n t o f f ic e r o f t h e R a i l w a y s ’ B o a r d .

T h e s e c t io n o n “ T h e G r e a t a u t h o r K h in S h w e i C h o ,” d e s c r ib e s h o w

B K a u t h o r e d n o v e ls o f w h ic h , h o w e v e r , h e w a s n o t p r o u d .

U n d e r t h e s u b h e a d in g “ T h e s e e k e r o f t r u t h ,” B K is d e s c r ib e d in h is

q u e s t f o r B u d d h is t t r u t h . A lt h o u g h a lr e a d y s t u d y in g t h e a-bi-da-ma in

B a s s e in in 1 9 3 1 , 22 a n d h e lp in g t o o r g a n iz e a v is it b y t h e M o - h n y i n H s a -

y a - d a w to R a n g o o n in 1 9 3 4 , it w a s n o t u n t il h is fo r t ie s , f r o m 1 9 3 7 o r

1 9 3 8 o n w a r d s , th a t B a K h in t o o k a s e r io u s in t e r e s t in B u d d h is m . A s K o

L e i p u t it , “ a t th a t t im e T h e G r e a t T e a c h e r c h a n g e d f r o m h is p u r s u it o f

o r d in a r y lit e r a t u r e t o lit e r a t u r e 0 11 th e B u d d h a ’s p r e a c h i n g s . ” 23 H e w a s

p a r t ic u la r ly in t e r e s t e d in t h e w o r k s o f f a m o u s L e - d i H s a - y a - d a w . H e

b e c a m e a m e m b e r o f v a r io u s B u d d h is t a s s o c ia t io n s s u c h a s t h e D a w n

M e r i t ( a-yon
A s s o c i a t i o n a-thin) a n d t h e R e l i g i o u s D u t y R e c i t a t i o n

S o c ie t y (wut yut a-thin), a n d a m e m b e r o f a n a-bi-da-ma d is c u s s io n g r o u p 24

a t S u - l e P a g o d a . “ In t h is m a n n e r , T h e G r e a t T e a c h e r a lr e a d y c a r r ie d o u t

h is v a r io u s d u t ie s in t h e T h r e e J e w e l s t o t h e B u d d h a a n d th e O r d e r a s a

f u lly a w a r e a n d d e v o u t B u d d h is t ( bok-da-ba-tha ta-u )."2S E v e n w h e n t r a v ­

e lin g , h e f a it h f u lly o b s e r v e d r e lig io u s o b lig a t io n s .

B K s t a r te d h is m e n t a l c u lt u r e w it h o u t p r io r d e s ig n . O n a d u t y d a y in

la t e D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 6 , h e a c c o m p a n ie d a r e la t iv e t o t h e h o u s e o f U E i

M a u n g , a B u r m e s e s c h o o l t e a c h e r a n d p u p il o f H s a - y a T h e t - G y i , w h o s o o n

t a u g h t h im t h e r u d im e n t a r ie s o f m e n t a l c u lt u r e . B K b e g a n p r a c t ic in g “ c o n ­

c e n t r a t io n ” m e d it a t io n ( tha-ma-hta) o n J a n u a r y 1 , 1 9 3 7 . 26 B K d is c o v e r e d

t h a t h is c o n c e n t r a t io n w a s s o g o o d th a t h e c o u ld p la y w it h im a g in a r y lig h t

b e f o r e h is m in d ’s e y e in a n y w a y h e w a n t e d t o . H e p r a c t ic e d a-na-pa-tid a t

h o m e b y h im s e lf. T h e s a m e s ig n s o c c u r r e d , a n d h e r e s o lv e d t o g o to D a - la -

b y a w - b w e - g y i V illa g e t o le a r n th e m e t h o d f r o m H s a - y a T h e t - g y i h im s e lf.

H e o b t a in e d a le a v e o f a b s e n c e f r o m h is o f f i c e , 27 b u t h e d id n o t m e d it a t e
s e r io u s ly u n t il J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 3 7 , w h e n h e p r a c t ic e d f o r s e v e n d a y s . W h e n

m a d e t o r e c it e a P a li v e r s e , B K im m e d ia t e ly fe lt im p e r m a n e n c e t h r o u g h o u t

h is b o d y a n d h e c o n t e m p la t e d t h r o u g h o u t th e n ig h t w it h t h e s e fe e lin g s .

T h e n e x t m o r n in g T h e t - g y i c a m e t o e n q u ir e a b o u t th e e x p e r ie n c e s , w h ic h

h e d id e v e r y m o r n in g a n d e v e r y e v e n in g . H e w a s p le a s e d w it h B K ’ s

p r o g r e s s a n d t o ld h im t o s it in m e n t a l c u lt u r e f o r s e v e n d a y s , a n d t o w e a r a

w h it e c l o t h 28 a r o u n d h is s h o u ld e r s . B e f o r e B K le ft , T h e t - g y i s h o w e d h im

th e m o n a s t e r y a n d p a g o d a s o f th e a r e a . It w a s v e r y w in d y , a n d T h e t - g y i

t u r n e d t o B K , a s k in g h im , “ Y o u w h o k n o w s th e t e a c h in g s ( ta-ya) , d o y o u

h a v e t h e c o u r a g e t o w it h s t a n d t h e w in d o f t h e L a w (ta-ya).” H e t o ld B K to

c o n t in u e h is p r a c t ic e a t h o m e . F r o m 1 9 3 7 o n w a r d s B K v is it e d T h e t - g y i

e v e r y y e a r t o le a r n t h e m e t h o d . T h e t - g y i a ls o w e n t o c c a s i o n a ll y to

R a n g o o n t o r e c e iv e h is s t u d e n t s ’ h o m a g e a n d g iv e in s t r u c t io n s in B K ’s

h o u s e .

U n d e r t h e s u b h e a d in g “ F r o m R a n g o o n t o W e i - b u H i l l ,” it is

d e s c r ib e d h o w B K ’s e a r lie s t e n c o u r a g e m e n t f o r t e a c h in g m e n t a l c u lt u r e

c a m e f r o m a fa m o u s m e m b e r o f t h e m o n a s t ic o r d e r . I n 1 9 4 1 B K b e c a m e a

R a i l w a y s ’ D e p a r t m e n t a c c o u n t s o f f ic e r . O n J u l y 2 B K w e n t t o w o r k a t

M y it - t h a s t a tio n b y tr a in . U p o n h is r e t u r n t h e t r a in h a lt e d a t K y a u k - h s e s ta ­

t io n f o r a c o n s id e r a b le t im e . In fr o n t o f t h e s t a t io n h e c o u ld s e e t h e in v it ­

in g S h w e i- t h a - ly a u n g H ill, w h i c h h e c lim b e d w it h o u t d e la y , t o g e t h e r w it h

th e a s s is ta n t s t a tio n m a s t e r , t o w o r s h ip . U p o n lo o k in g n o r t h h e s a w a s m a ll

m o n a s t e r y a t t h e f o o t o f a m o u n t a in . T h e d e p u t y s t a tio n m a s t e r t o ld h im

t h a t t h e v e n e r a t e d W e i - b u H s a - y a - d a w 29 r e s id e d t h e r e w h o w a s t h o u g h t

b y m a n y in th e a r e a t o b e e n lig h t e n e d ( ya-hdn-da). B K im m e d ia t e ly w a n t e d

t o g o t h e r e , b u t t h e d e p u t y s t a t io n m a s t e r r e m a r k e d t h a t W e i - b u w a s

u n lik e ly t o r e c e iv e t h e m a t th a t t im e o f th e d a y . A f t e r lu n c h a t th e s t a t io n ,

B K w e n t in t o h is r a ilw a y c a r r ia g e a n d , t a k in g th e d o c t r in e (ta-ya) a s th e

o b je c t o f h is c o n s c io u s n e s s , s e n t lo v in g - k in d n e s s to t h e W e i - b u H s a - y a -

d a w a n d p e t it io n e d th e H s a - y a - d a w in h is m in d to le t t h e m c o m e a n d p a y

t h e ir r e s p e c t s .

A t a b o u t 3 P .M . t h e y m a d e t h e ir w a y b y h o r s e c a r t t o th is m o n a s t e r y ,

p a s s in g b y t h e K o - n a - w i n P a g o d a o n t h e w a y . T h e y m e t t w o n u n s , w h o

s u g g e s t e d th a t t h e y s h o u ld v is it t h e W e i - b u a b b o t e it h e r d u r in g m o r n in g

b r e a k fa s t o r f o r e v e n in g p r e a c h in g . B K s a id th a t e it h e r t im e w o u ld b e s u it ­

a b le , a s lo n g a s t h e y m ig h t b o w t h e ir h e a d s in r e v e r e n c e . T h e n h e sa t d o w n

a n d , a t t h e p la c e w h e r e h e h a d t a k e n h is s lip p e r s o ff, h e b o w e d h is h e a d

a im in g in t h e d ir e c t io n o f t h e m o n k a n d t h o u g h t , “ H a v i n g c o m e fr o m

R a n g o o n I h a v e c o m e to w o r s h ip y o u H s a - y a - d a w .” A t e x a c t ly th a t t im e

t h e d o o r o f t h e m o n a s t e r y o p e n e d a n d th e H s a - y a - d a w ’s fa c e s h o w e d . H e

a s k e d “ B y w h a t n e e d d o y o u w o r s h ip la y m a n ? .” B K a n s w e r e d , “ B e c a u s e 1
h a v e th e w is h to a c h ie v e t h e p a t h a n d f r u it io n o f e n lig h t e n m e n t (mck-hpo
neik-ban ) , o h lo r d .” T h e H s a - y a - d a w t h e n in q u ir e d , “ R i g h t . . . i f y o u w a n t

t o g o t o e n li g h t e n m (neik-ban), h o w d o y o u p r o p o s e t o g o ? . ” B K
e n t

r e p lie d , “ W it h wi-pat-tha-na k n o w l e d g e I s h a l l g o , o h l o r d . N o w I a m a l s o
p u t t in g in s ig h t (wi-pat-tha-na ta-ya) a s o b j e c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , o h l o r d . ”
“ V e r y w e ll . . . tha-du, tha-du, h o w d i d y o u g e t t h i s t e a c h i n g (ta-ya)?” t h e
m o n k a s k e d . B K r e c o u n t e d h o w h e h a d p r a c t ic e d u n d e r h is b e n e f a c t o r

H s a - y a T h e t - g y i f o r t h e fir s t s e v e n d a y s , a n d h o w h e a lw a y s p r a c t ic e d m e n ­

ta l c u lt u r e o n t h e t r a in w h ile t r a v e lin g . “ I n th a t c a s e y o u la y m a n m u s t h a v e

p e r f e c t io n (pa-ra-mi) . I t h o u g h t o n e h a d t o g o in t o t h e fo r e s t fo r it a n d th a t

it w a s s u c h e x h a u s t in g w o r k ,” th e t e a c h e r r e s p o n d e d . T h e y s p o k e lik e th is

f o r a b o u t a n h o u r . B K le ft a n d w e n t b a c k t h e n e x t d a y to o f f e r t h e H s a - y a -

d a w a v e g e t a r ia n m e a l. P e o p le w e r e s u r p r is e d t o s e e t h e W e i - b u c o n v e r s e

s o m u c h a s h e w a s n o t u s u a lly t a lk a t iv e . In t h e e n d t h e W e i - b u H s a - y a - d a w

in s t r u c t e d : “ T h e t e a c h in g (ta-yd) y o u la y m a n h a v e r e c e iv e d , y o u a r e lik e ly

to h a v e t o s h a r e w it h o t h e r s . Y o u d o n o t k n o w w h e n y o u w ill s e e a g a in th e

la y m a n in y o u r c o m p a n y n o w . P a s s th e t e a c h in g o n t o h im w h ile y o u a r e

s t ill m e e t in g u p . G i v e h im a m e t h o d . G i v e h im t h e t e a c h in g (ta-ya) a s a la y ­

m a n a ft e r h a v in g c h a n g e d to w e a r in g a w h it e c l o t h . ” 30 B a c k a t t h e K y a u k -

h s e s t a t io n , B K t a u g h t t h e d e p u t y s t a t io n m a s t e r in a r a ilw a y c a r r ia g e

a c c o r d in g t o t h e W e i - b u ’s in s t r u c t io n s ; t h is w a s h is fir s t p u p il in m e n t a l

c u lt u r e . T h u s , w it h o u t r e lin q u is h in g h is r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s o f g o v e r n m e n t , h e

h a d n o t o n ly s t a r te d p r a c t ic in g b u t a ls o t e a c h in g m e n t a l c u lt u r e .

U n d e r th e s u b h e a d in g “ A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l a n d G r e a t G u r u 31 U B a

K h i n ,” it is d e s c r ib e d h o w h e a c h ie v e d t h e p in n a c le o f h is t w o c a r e e r s .

D u r in g t h e w a r , B K ’s r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s in g o v e r n m e n t in c r e a s e d a s E n g lis h

a n d In d ia n s w e r e le a v in g th e a c c o u n t a n c y d e p a r t m e n t . 32 H e a ls o t a u g h t v a r ­

io u s g o v e r n m e n t m in is t e r s m e n t a l c u lt u r e , in c lu d in g M y a n - m a A - li n U

T i n , P r im e M in is t e r U N u , a n d M in is t e r o f E d u c a t io n U H la M in . T h e y a ll

c o u ld o n ly r e a c h t h e le v e l o f b r e a t h in g a s th e o b je c t o f m e d it a t io n (a-na-pa-
ttd ka-ma-htan). B K a r r a n g e d f o r th e s e m in is t e r s t o p r a c t ic e w it h h is t e a c h e r

H s a - y a T h e t - g y i , b u t g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s p r e v e n t e d t h e m f r o m

t r a v e lin g . It t h u s fe ll u p o n B K to a s s is t t h e m w it h t h e ir d iffic u lt ie s in p r a c ­

tic e . H s a - y a T h e t - g y i h a d im p r e s s e d u p o n t h e m in is t e r s th a t B K w a s lik e a

d o c t o r t a k in g c a r e o f th e s ic k . T h e y s h o u ld lis te n to t h e t e a c h in g (ta-ya)
g iv e n b y B K , a n d h is m o r a lit y , c o n c e n t r a t io n , a n d w is d o m s h o u ld b e

a c c e p t e d . T h e E n g lis h r e t u r n e d a ft e r th e w a r , a n d B K w a s p r o m o t e d o n

M a y 1 6 , 1 9 4 5 t o t h e r a n k o f d e p u t y a c c o u n t a n t - g e n e r a l.

B it s o f in f o r m a t io n a b o u t B K ’s h e a lt h p r o b le m s , h is d e a t h , a n d th e

in s t it u t io n a liz a t io n o f h is w o r k p e r t a in in g t o m e n t a l c u lt u r e a r e f o u n d

t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e m a in in g c h a p t e r s . W h ile p r a c t ic in g a t t h e A - le - t a w - y a

m o n a s t e r y , B K d e v e lo p e d t r o u b le w it h o n e o f h is e y e s , w h ic h u lt im a t e ly

r e q u ir e d a n o p e r a t io n . H e w a s n o t a llo w e d to s e e in d a y lig h t a n d h a d to
 s t a y in t h e d a r k . M e a n w h ile H s a - y a T h e t - g y i fe ll ill t o o , a n d h e c a m e to

R a n g o o n f o r t r e a t m e n t . T h e y w e r e n o t fa r a w a y f r o m e a c h o t h e r , b u t a s

t h e y w e r e b o t h p a t ie n t s t h e y c o u ld n o t m e e t u p . O n th e n ig h t o f h is d e a t h ,

D e c e m b e r 1 4 , 1 9 4 5 , T h e t - g y i g a v e B K in h is d r e a m t h e in s t r u c t io n to

p r e a c h t h e F ir s t S e r m o n ( Da-m a-set-kya).33 T h e t - g y i w a s p u t in a c a v e

n o r t h o f t h e S h w e i - d a - g o n , n o w c a lle d M a r t y r ’s H i l l . 34 W h e n B K ’ s e y e

d is o r d e r r e c u r r e d a n d h e w a s o f f w o r k f o r a m o n t h t h e f o ll o w in g y e a r , h e

h e a le d h i m s e lf t h r o u g h h is p r a c t ic e o f m e n t a l c u lt u r e : “ G r e a t T e a c h e r

r e s o lv e d t o f o ll o w a p r o lo n g e d fa s t in g . A f t e r h a v in g p r a c t ic e d un-pat-tha-na
h e o b s e r v e d t h e ta-ya s o a s t o s e e t h e im p e r m a n e n c e in p a r ts o f t h e fa c e . F o r

n u t r it io n h e t o o k o n ly t h r e e m o u t h fu ls o f r ic e w it h o il a n d s a lt . . . a ft e r

a b o u t o n e w e e k h e w a s fr e e f r o m d is e a s e , a n d it n e v e r c a m e b a c k . ” 35

O n I n d e p e n d e n c e D a y , J a n u a r y 4 , 1 9 4 8 , B K b e c a m e th e fir s t a c c o u n ­

t a n t - g e n e r a l o f in d e p e n d e n t B u r m a w it h a s a la r y o f 1 ,6 0 0 k y a t s . S in c e s t a r t­

in g in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 a s t h e lo w e s t c le r k w it h o n ly a 4 0 - k y a t s a la r y , h e

h a d b y t h e n t r a n s fo r m e d th e o f f ic e f r o m a n I n d ia n in t o a B u r m e s e o n e . B K

a ls o a c h ie v e d a g e o m e t r ic a l p r o g r e s s io n in r e lig io u s w o r k s a n d r e a c h e d th e

p in n a c le s o f h is d u a l c a r e e r a s a t e a c h e r o f m e n t a l c u lt u r e a n d a s a n a c c o u n ­

ta n t, a t r o u g h ly t h e s a m e t im e . H e b e g a n t o t e a c h a t h is o f f ic e . U p s t a ir s in

h is o f f ic e h e a r r a n g e d a s m a ll r o o m w it h a B u d d h a s h r in e , t h e n t a u g h t h is

e m p lo y e e s in s ig h t ( tha-ma-hta wi-pat-tha-na).i6
In 1 9 5 1 t h e in s t it u t io n a liz a t io n o f h i s m e t h o d s t r u ly b e g a n . O n J u l y 1 8 ,

1 9 5 1 , B K s e t u p th e A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l V ip a s s a n a R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n . 37

T h e f o u n d a t io n o f th is s o c ie t y w a s m o r a lit y . T h e s o c ie t y w a s d e v o t e d to

p r o g r e s s iv e s c ie n t ific r e s e a r c h b e g in n in g w it h w o r k o n c o n c e n t r a t io n , a n d

o n ly c o n t in u in g w it h in s ig h t w o r k o n c e c o n c e n t r a t io n w a s m a t u r e d , te s t in g

w h e t h e r it w a s in c o n fo r m it y w it h Wi-thok-di mek, a n d w h e t h e r it w a s p o s ­

s ib le to a c h ie v e a b r e a k - t h r o u g h in r e s p e c t t o t h e t h ir t y - s e v e n F a c t o r s o f

E n lig h t e n m e n t ( baw-dt-pek-hki-ya ta-yDi). F r o m th is in q u ir y it a p p e a r e d th a t

t h e p a t h t o t r u e “ p r a c t ic e ” (pa-di-pat-ti) , a t t h e b a s is o f w h ic h a r e m o r a lit y ,

c o n c e n t r a t io n , a n d k n o w le d g e , r e q u ir e d o n ly a f e w d a y s p r a c t ic e w it h th o s e

m e t h o d s . P r a c t ic in g lik e t h is , t h e y c o u ld a c h ie v e in s ig h t , b u t a t th e s a m e

t im e , t h e y f o u n d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f s p e c ia l k n o w le d g e 3® t o w a s h a w a y th e

d e file m e n t s a n d c r a v in g f o r o r ig in a t io n .

S o m e In d ia n s w e r e s t ill in t h e o f f ic e , a n d B K n o t o n ly t a u g h t B u r m e s e

B u d d h is t s b u t a ls o t h e s e I n d ia n H in d u s w h o h a d a n in t u it iv e a c c e s s to c o n ­

c e n t r a t io n m e d it a t io n . A f t e r t h e y p r a c t ic e d m e d it a t io n w it h b r e a t h in g a s its

o b je c t (a-na-pa-na), t h e y s a w a lig h t o m e n a n d w e r e g r a t e fu l t o B K , w h o

h a d b e c o m e t h e ir “ G u - r u .” M r . V e n k a t a r a m a n , o n e o f th e In d ia n e m p lo y ­

e e s , e v e n b e c a m e a m a s t e r o f p e r f e c t io n (pa-ra-mi) a n d w e n t b e y o n d m e d i­

t a t io n o n b r e a t h in g ( a-na-pa-na) t o f in d t h e t r u e u n d e r s t a n d in g t h a t is

in s ig h t . T h is w a s c o n fir m e d b y t h e M a - s o - y e in H s a - y a - d a w . N o t o n ly B K ’s
s t a ff, b u t a ls o t h e ir fa m ilie s a t t e n d e d B K ’ s t e a c h in g s (ta-ya) s o th a t m o r e

s p a c e w a s n e e d e d o n t h e t o p f lo o r o f t h e o f f ic e to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e m a ll.

B K c a lle d a m e e t in g o n J a n u a r y 1 1 , 1 9 5 2 , to s e t u p a c o m m it t e e o f te n

p e r s o n s t o r a is e fu n d s to b u y t h e g r o u n d s f o r a n in s ig h t c e n t e r . H is p u p ils

c a m e a n d h a d a lo o k a t it: t h e I n d ia n V e n k a t a r a m a n sa t d o w n o n t h e

g r o u n d a n d h a v in g t a k e n t h e t e a c h in g (ta-ya) a s h i s o b je c t o f c o n c e n t r a t io n ,

th e f o u r g u a r d ia n nats o f t h e t e a c h in g s (tha-tha-na) a r r iv e d a n d e n c o u r a g e d

h im t o t a k e it q u ic k ly a s it w a s t r u e v a n t a g e g r o u n d . 39 B K a n d h is p u p ils

d e c id e d w h e r e to p la c e th e p a g o d a a n d b o u g h t t h e la n d in M a y 1 9 5 2 . T h e

A c c o u n t a n t - G e n e r a l V ip a s s a n a A s s o c i a t i o n 40 w a s s e t u p o n A p r il 2 4 , 1 9 5 2 ,

a n d t e a c h in g b e g a n a t th e c e n t e r in a t e m p o r a r y h u t o n M a y 1 . O n M a y 8 ,

c o n s t r u c t io n o f th e D a - m a - y a u n g - c h i P a g o d a b e g a n , w h ic h w a s c o m p le t e d

b y N o v e m b e r 9 , 1 9 5 2 , w h e n its u m b r e lla w a s h o is t e d . T h e I n t e r n a t io n a l

M e d it a t io n C e n t r e ( I M C ) 41 h a d c o m e in t o b e in g . It w a s t h e t im e o f p r e p a ­

r a t io n f o r t h e S ix t h S y n o d (Than-ga-ya-na ) , a n d t h e r e w e r e m a n y f o r e ig n ­

e r s in B u r m a w h o s o u g h t to k n o w a b o u t in s ig h t .

F r o m 1 9 5 2 o n , B K fe lt h is m a in ta s k w a s t o t e a c h f o r e ig n e r s . T h o u g h

r e t ir e d b y J u n e 1 9 5 3 , B K s t ill w o r k e d h a r d t o f u lfill h is m a n y n a t io n a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .42 A t th e s a m e t im e , h e h im s e lf p r a c t ic e d d a ily , t a u g h t , a n d

p r e a c h e d . D u r in g 1 9 5 5 th e n u m b e r o f f o r e ig n e r s a t th e I M C in c r e a s e d .

W h e n t h e r e v o lu t i o n a r y g o v e r n m e n t c a m e t o p o w e r in 1 9 6 2 , B K

p la y e d a n im p o r t a n t r o le in n a t io n a liz in g B u r m a ’s in d u s t r y a n d d e m o n e t iz ­

in g t h e 5 0 - a n d 1 0 0 - k y a t n o t e s . H e s e r v e d o n v a r io u s c o m m it t e e s , in c lu d ­

i n g t h e I n v e s t i g a t i v e C o m m i t t e e o n R e l i g i o n s e t u p b y t h e 1 9 6 2

R e v o lu t i o n a r y C o u n c i l, o f w h i c h B K e v e n t u a lly b e c a m e t r e a s u r e r . B y

O c t o b e r 1 9 6 2 , B K r e s ig n e d f r o m t h is c o m m it t e e a n d , b y O c t o b e r 1 9 6 4 ,

r e t ir e d f r o m a lm o s t a ll g o v e r n m e n t w o r k d u e t o fu r t h e r h e a lt h p r o b le m s

a n d h is d e s ir e to d e v o t e a ll o f h is t im e t o t e a c h in g m e n t a l c u lt u r e . B K

m o v e d to t h e I n t e r n a t io n a l M e d it a t io n C e n t r e . H is r e q u e s t t o o b t a in g o v ­

e r n m e n t p e r m is s io n to v is it S r i L a n k a w a s d e n ie d in M a r c h 1 9 6 6 o n p o lic y

g r o u n d s . B K ’s d r e a m s t o m is s io n iz e a b r o a d in p e r s o n w e r e n o t to b e r e a l­

iz e d . T h e n e w s th a t h e c o u ld n o t g o a b r o a d w a s b r o u g h t b y t h e p e r m a n e n t

s e c r e t a r y to th e H o m e M in is t r y h im s e lf. “ F o r n o r m a l p e o p le t h is r e fu s a l to

a llo w h im to g o a b r o a d w o u ld h a v e b e e n t e r r ib le , b u t B K c o u ld b e a r i t . ” 43

B y A p r il 1 9 6 9 , it b e c a m e c le a r th a t e v e n i f t h e g o v e r n m e n t w e r e to

c h a n g e its p o s it io n , B K w o u ld n o lo n g e r b e a b le t o g o a b r o a d : h e w a s s e v ­

e n t y - o n e y e a r s o ld a n d fr a il. H e d e c id e d t o s e n d a le t t e r t o a n u m b e r o f f o r ­

e ig n s t u d e n t s h e id e n t i f ie d a s M a s t e r s o f P e r f e c t io n (pa-ra-mi shin),
i n f o r m in g t h e m th a t h e h a d b e e n r e fu s e d p e r m is s io n t o g o a b r o a d . H e a ls o

in d ic a t e d th a t h e h a d s u c c e s s fu lly e x p e r im e n t e d w it h r e m o t e c o n t r o l a n d

c o u ld g u id e t h e m f r o m a d is t a n c e , m u c h lik e t r a n s m it t in g r a d io w a v e s . H e

e n d e d w it h a r e q u e s t t o t h e m to c o m e to B u r m a to b e t r a in e d a s t e a c h e r s .
H is c h o ic e o f w h o m t o tr a in w a s m a d e c a r e fu lly , a s t h e y h a d t o b e fr e e fr o m

p h y s ic a l a n d m e n t a l d is e a s e . B K e v e n t u a lly in s t r u c t e d t h e m b y m a il, a s p e r ­

m is s io n t o t r a v e l to B u r m a w a s d e n ie d .

In 1 9 6 9 B K u n d e r w e n t t h r e e k id n e y o p e r a t io n s a n d r e c e iv e d a b lo o d

t r a n s fu s io n . B K d ie d o n J a n u a r y 1 9 , 1 9 7 1 , d u e t o k id n e y m a lfu n c t io n a n d

in t e r n a l h e m o r r h a g e . B K ’s a s h e s a n d b o n e s w e r e s c a t t e r e d in t h e I r r a w a d d y

R i v e r a fte r c r e m a t io n o n J a n u a r y 2 1 . C a n d le s w e r e lit a t n ig h t a n d th e

p u p ils p r a c t ic e d . O n J a n u a r y 2 1 , 1 9 7 1 , a n o f f e r in g w a s m a d e to s e v e n t y -

t h r e e m o n k s , a n d B K ’s r e m a in in g b o n e s w e r e c le a n e d in c o c o n u t m ilk . B K

h a d t a u g h t 3 ,5 0 0 y o g is , in c lu d in g a b o u t 3 0 0 f o r e ig n v is it o r s a n d d is t in ­

g u is h e d B u r m e s e g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic ia ls , a m o n g t h e m e x - p r e s id e n t S a w

S h w e i T h a ik a n d f o r m e r P r im e M in is t e r U N u .

A lt h o u g h t h e t e x t m a k e s n o d ir e c t s t a t e m e n t a b o u t h is a c h ie v i n g

e n lig h t e n m e n t , 44 h i s s a in t lin e s s is im p lic it : “ T h e b r illia n c e o f t h e b e n e fit s o f

th e m e r it s o f t h e m o r a lit y , c h a r it y a n d m e n t a l c u lt u r e w h ic h H s a - y a - g y i

p e r f o r m e d in t h is life w ill b e v e r y g r e a t . A m o n g t h e s e m e r it s , is th e g ift o f

t h e da-tnd w h i c h is t h e m o s t n o b le , a n d t h e r e is n o m is t a k in g th a t h is

b e n e fit s w ill in c lu d e th a t h e w ill h a v e r e a c h e d t h e t o p . ” 45 A ls o ,

It is no surprise that Hsa-ya-gyi could not support the blood given by the
doctors. Hsa-ya-gyi was someone who, with the strength o f da-ma dat,
helped to destroy greed, ignorance, and anger, and ameritorious elements
called “ defilements” (kt'-lei-tha). He was a person who understood that only
knowledge o f the nature o f impermanence can overcome these defile­
ments. He was a man who took great care not to let these demeritorious
defilements find a way into his work and environment. He wanted the Da-
ma-yaung-gyi Pagoda as a pure retreat and only accepted money from
pupils who had practised under him. He was careful to deny donations
from strangers who, wanting to make merit, came to donate food and
things, as these may be impure. Being someone who upheld this principle,
how could he accept the introduction o f blood into his body that was
derived from people who had not practised the ta-yh with him and did not
know the state o f his physical particles; surely, it was only to be ejected.46

T h e B io g R a p h y A n a ly z e d
H e r e I w is h t o lo o k a t h o w t h e B a H k in v o lu m e c o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a

b io g r a p h y in t h e B u r m e s e v e r n a c u la r s e n s e e v e n t h o u g h o n ly a s m a ll s e c ­

t io n o f t h e t e x t is d e v o t e d t o r e c o u n t in g h is l i f e . 47 A c h r o n o lo g ic a l a c c o u n t

o f h is life is g iv e n o n ly in c h a p t e r 2 ( 2 2 p p .) , t h e b r ie fe s t o f c h a p t e r s , a n d

a p p e n d ix e s (6 p p .) , w h ic h lis t d e ta ils s u c h a s t h e p o s t s h e h e ld , h is p u b lic a ­

t io n s , h is s a la r y , a n d e v e n t h e n u m b e r o f h is id e n t it y c a r d . S o m e s m a ll
e p is o d e s o n h is life a r e a ls o r e c o u n t e d in o t h e r s e c t io n s , b u t p r o p o r t io n a t e ly

v e r y litt le d e a ls w it h B K a s a p e r s o n , a n d m o s t d e a ls w it h B K a s a n in s t it u ­

t io n : a b o u t h is fo r e ig n p u p ils , h is in s ig h t c e n t e r a n d its p a g o d a , t h e n a t io n ­

a lly fa m o u s m o n k s in a t t e n d a n c e a t e v e n t s h e o r g a n iz e d , a n d s o fo r t h .

Sacred Biography versus Hagiography

R e y n o l d s d is t in g u is h e d b e t w e e n “ s a c r e d b io g r a p h y ” a n d “ h a g io g r a ­

p h y . ” 48 T h e fir s t r e fe r s t o “ t h o s e a c c o u n t s w r it t e n b y f o llo w e r s o r d e v o t e e s

o f a f o u n d e r o r r e lig io u s s a v io r ” a n d “ p r im a r ily in t e n d t o d e p ic t a d is t in c ­

t iv e ly n e w r e lig io u s im a g e o r id e a l.” T h e la t t e r “ c h r o n ic le liv e s o f le s s e r

r e lig io u s fig u r e s ” a n d “ p r e s e n t t h e ir s u b je c t a s o n e w h o h a s r e a liz e d , p e r ­

h a p s in a d is t in c t iv e w a y , a n im a g e , id e a l, o r a t t a in m e n t a lr e a d y r e c o g n iz e d

b y h is r e li g io u s c o m m u n i t y .” T h e B K v o lu m e is , s t r ic t ly s p e a k in g , a

h a g io g r a p h y , g iv e n th a t it p o r t r a y s h o w B K im p le m e n t e d t h e B u d d h a ’s

t e a c h in g s a s h e in h e r it e d t h e m . Y e t it is a ls o a s a c r e d b io g r a p h y , g iv e n th a t

B K m o d ifie d t h e m e t h o d o lo g y h e in h e r it e d t o s u it u n o r d a in e d p e o p le , a n d

th a t h e f o u n d e d h is o w n in s t it u t io n s a n d lin e a g e w h ile p u r s u in g h is s e c u la r

c a r e e r a t t h e s a m e t im e .

T h e r e a r e f o u r w a y s in w h i c h th e b io g r a p h e r e s ta b lis h e s B K a s a s a in t ly

p e r s o n . F ir s t , R e y n o l d s 49 s u g g e s t e d th a t o n e m a r k o f a h a g io g r a p h y is th a t

“ s lig h t a t t e n t io n is g iv e n t o c h r o n o lo g ic a l r e n d e r in g o f th e li f e ” b e c a u s e

t h e r e is a n o v e r a r c h in g n e e d t o “ e m p h a s iz e t h e v ir t u e s o r a t t a in m e n t s m a n ­

ife s t e d in t h e s u b je c t ’ s li f e .” T h is , in d e e d , is t h e c a s e h e r e . T h is b io g r a p h y

illu s tr a te s th e c o n t in u it y o f B a K h i n ’ s s p ir it u a l lin e a g e m o r e th a n it r e c o u n t s

th e c h r o n o lo g ic a l s t o r y o f h is p e r s o n a l life . Its o r d e r is n o t w it h o u t a s e n s e

o f u n f o ld in g c h r o n o lo g ic a lly f r o m t h e b e g in n in g o f B K ’s life , in c h a p t e r 2 ,

to th e c o m m e m o r a t io n te n y e a r s a ft e r h is d e a t h in c h a p t e r 1 0 . H o w e v e r ,

th e e p is o d e s a r e c h r o n o lo g ic a lly d is jo in t e d s o a s t o a llo w th e p a s s a g e s o n

B K ’s p r e d o m in a n t ly f o r e ig n p u p ils to c o n v e y in d ir e c t ly t h e u n f o ld in g o f h is

life . T h e r e s u lt is a p u p il- c e n t e r e d h a g io g r a p h y in w h ic h in fla t e d e p is o d e s

o f t h e liv e s o f B K ’s p u p ils s t r u c t u r e t h e p lo t a n d g iv e m e a n in g t o B K ’ s life .

In o t h e r w o r d s , it is a n a c c o u n t o f a n in d iv id u a l’s life d is p e r s e d in t o th e

c o n t e x t o f a lin e a g e h is t o r y .

S e c o n d , i f I c o n s id e r b io g r a p h e r s h a v in g t h e c h o ic e , to “ h u m a n iz e ” o r

to “ s p ir it u a liz e ” a s u b je c t , b y “ in c lu d in g e p is o d e s w h i c h r e fle c t h is c o m ­

m o n h u m a n it y ” o r “ b y e x p u n g in g r e fe r e n c e s t o h is h u m a n w e a k n e s s , m e n ­

ta l la p s e s , s ig n s o f o c c a s io n a l c r u e lt y , a n d s o o n ,” t h is b io g r a p h y h a s c le a r ly

s p ir it u a liz e d its s u b j e c t . 50 B K ’s e m o t io n s a n d in n e r c o n t r a d ic t io n s a r e n o t

c o n s id e r e d , a n d th e m a s t e r is p o r t r a y e d in c o n v e n t io n a l t e r m s o f e x a lt a t io n

t y p ic a l o f a n y b io g r a p h y o n B u d d h is t s u b je c t s : h e h a s t h e a t t r ib u t e s o f

B u d d h is t s a in t s , n a m e ly o f “ p e r f e c t i o n ” (pa-ra-mi);sl “ m o r a lit y ” ( thi-la ) ,

 “ c o n c e n t r a t io n ” ( tha-ma-di) , a n d “ in s ig h t ” (pyin-nya) J 2 H e r a d ia te s “ lo v in g

k in d n e s s ” t o h is p u p i l s . 53 H e is c h a r a c t e r iz e d a s a “ b e n e f a c t o r ” (kyet-zu-
shin).s4 H e a ls o p r a c t ic e d s o m e d e g r e e o f d ie t a r y a s c e t ic is m b y a b s t a in in g

f r o m “ f o u r - le g g e d ” m e a t s , a n d e a t in g o n ly fis h a n d f o w l. O n t h e f r o n t

c o v e r B K is a ls o d e p ic t e d w it h a h a l o 55 a r o u n d h is h e a d . T h e s u c c e s s h e

e n jo y e d in h is c a r e e r a s a c iv il s e r v a n t c lo s e ly s h a d o w e d h is c a r e e r a s a n

in s ig h t t e a c h e r , a lm o s t a s i f it w e r e a m e a s u r a b le in d ic a t io n o f h is p e r f e c ­

t io n s (pa-ra-mi) a n d s u p e r h u m a n s ta tu s .

T h i r d , p e r h a p s c o n v e r s e to t h e a b o v e , t h e a u t h o r h a s s u p p r e s s e d r e la ­

t io n s h ip s a n d e p is o d e s in t h e s u b je c t ’s lif e in s o fa r a s t h e s e c o u ld p o s s ib ly

s h e d d o u b t o n h is s a n c t it y . T h i s le a d s t o a life s t o r y s k e w e d a w a y f r o m th e

f o r m a t iv e f a m ily r e la t io n s h ip s a n d t o w a r d t h e s p ir it u a l lin e a g e . T h is b io g r a ­

p h y is a lm o s t e n t ir e ly lim it e d t o t h e la t t e r h a lf o f B K ’s life , a ft e r h e le a r n e d

m e n t a l c u lt u r e f r o m 1 9 3 7 o n w a r d s . C o m p l e t e ly la c k in g is t h e d e s c r ip t io n

o f B K a s a fa m ily m a n : n o t h in g is c o n v e y e d a b o u t h is f a m ily life , h is w if e ,

a n d h is c h ild r e n . T h e n a m e o f h is w if e is m e n t io n e d o n ly in p a s s in g in th e

e p is o d e o f h is d e a t h . 56 I w a s t o ld b y in fo r m a n t s th a t h e h a d t h r e e c h ild r e n ,

a s o n a n d t w o d a u g h t e r s . B u t I d o n o t k n o w m u c h a b o u t h is n a ta l f a m ily o r

a b o u t h is in t e r a c t io n s in a f a m ily c o n t e x t . T h e fir s t n in e t e e n y e a r s o f h is life

a r e d is m is s e d in le s s th a n h a lf a p a g e .

Fourth, the b io grap h er sought to im press up on the readership the

im portance and reality o f this sanctim onious im age. T h e scholarly style in
w h ich the B K biography is w ritten— w ith full appendixes, letters, and b ib ­
liography— m ay be interpreted as part o f the hagiographical principle. K o
Lei struggles to include as m any facts as possible in the text’s 6 14 pages. T h e
division into chapters w ith num bered subheadings, the m any appendixes,
and an extensive bibliography are evidence both o f the author’s conviction
that B K was a man o f significance, and o f the author’s academ ic back­
ground. It is this urge to record all o f B K ’s achievem ents exhaustively and
in a scholarly m anner that appears to be responsible for the length and co m ­
p lexity. T h is style m ay befit an educated author, but the scholarly approach
is also intended to validate the life o f an apparently secular layman. This
strategy is rem iniscent o f nin eteenth-century b iography as described by
N adel, w h o states that “ T h e acceptance o f the m u lti-vo lu m e life in the
nineteenth century, inflated by lengthy excerpts from letters, reflects the
im portance o f docum ents to validate a life, a defense as w ell as a ju stifica­
tion o f the biographical fo rm .” 57 T h o u g h in m y sum m ary o f his life I have
concentrated m ainly on those episodes im portant to ou r understanding o f
B K ’s life, nearly tw o-thirds o f the biography focuses on correspondence
w ith foreigners and their lives.
T h r o u g h th e s e fo u r h a g io g r a p h ic a l d e v ic e s a c a r e fu lly c o n s t r u c t e d p ic ­

t u r e e m e r g e s o f a n in flu e n t ia l m a n c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y s a n c t it y a n d s u p e r h u m a n
a c h ie v e m e n t . O r , as R e y n o l d s m ig h t p u t it, a b io g r a p h ic a l im a g e a p p e a r s th a t

“ ta k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r a s im p le c h r o n ic lin g o f b io g r a p h ic a l f a c t s . ” 58

Historicized Biography

H o w e v e r , a f if t h d e v ic e is e q u a lly c r u c ia l t o t h is b io g r a p h y , i f n o t

m o r e s o . T h i s is t h e t e n d e n c y t o h is t o r ic iz e B K a n d t o e x t e n d h is in f lu ­

e n c e fa r a n d w id e . T h e a u t h o r v ie w e d B K ’ s w o r k a s a “ m ile s t o n e in h is ­

t o r y ” a n d B K w a s d e p ic t e d in a w a y th a t g o e s b e y o n d h is p e r s o n a l t im e

a n d s p a c e .

M o s t in s ig h t t e a c h e r s a r e m o n k s . M o n k in s ig h t t e a c h e r s c o m m o n ly

h a v e t w o s p ir it u a l lin e a g e s . T h e fir s t , k n o w n a s t h e s c r ip t u r a l le a r n in g lin ­

e a g e (pa-n-yat-t{ -a-sin-a-hset), tr a c e s t h e t e a c h e r s t h r o u g h w h o m m o n a s t ic

o r d in a t io n a n d s c r ip t u r a l le a r n i n g w e r e d e r i v e d . T h e s e c o n d lin e a g e ,

k n o w n a s t h e p r a c t ic e lin e a g e (pa-di'-pat-ti a-sin-a-hset), tr a c e s t h e lin e a g e o f

t e a c h e r s fr o m w h o m m e n t a l c u lt u r e w a s d e r iv e d . T h e s c r ip t u r a l le a r n in g

lin e a g e d o e s n o t in c lu d e th e u n o r d a in e d , a n d B K h a d o n ly a p r a c t ic e lin ­

e a g e lin k e d t o th e u n o r d a in e d H s a - y a T h e t - g y i a s t e a c h e r . A lt h o u g h th e

la t t e r in s t r u c t e d h im t o t e a c h , a la y t e a c h e r c o u ld n o t g iv e B K , a ls o a la y ­

m a n , th e c r e d ib ilit y o f a m o n k w it h h is s c r ip t u r a l le a r n in g lin e a g e t h r o u g h

o r d in a t io n .

T h is p r o b le m o f s p ir itu a l c o n t in u it y w a s r e s o lv e d in t w o w a y s . F ir s t, it is

d e s c r ib e d h o w B K h a d a s a c r e d stupa b u ilt , th e p o w e r o f w h ic h h e c o u ld ta p

a n d u s e to s e n d w a v e s to d is t a n t p la c e s b e y o n d th e g e o g r a p h ic a l b o u n d a r ie s

h e w a s n e v e r a llo w e d to c r o s s . T h is stupa w a s c o n s e c r a t e d in h is in s ig h t c e n ­

te r c o m p o u n d w it h th e a id o f b e in g s in th e B r a h m a r e a lm w h o t h e m s e lv e s

p e r p e t u a t e d th e B u d d h a ’s t e a c h in g s a n d w h o a llo w e d h im t o ta p c o s m ic

e n e r g y ( dat), w h ic h h e e m a n a t e d to h is p u p ils a b r o a d a t se t tim e s w h e n h e

w a s in c a p a b le o f b e in g in t h e ir p r e s e n c e .

S e c o n d , th e a u t h o r e s t a b lis h e d B K ’s s p ir it u a l c r e d e n t ia ls b y f o c u s in g o n

t h e m a s t e r - p u p il r e la t io n s h ip s o c r u c ia l t o t h is b io g r a p h y . H s a - y a T h e t - g y i

h a d b e e n t o ld t o t e a c h b y h is m o n a s t ic t e a c h e r , t h e fa m o u s m o n k L e - d i

H s a - y a - d a w . B K n e e d e d a ls o a fa m o u s m o n k t o le g it im iz e h is t e a c h in g s o

a s t o p la c e h im w it h in a c o n t in u o u s t r a d it io n g o i n g b a c k to t h e t im e o f th e

B u d d h a . H e s o u g h t t h e s a n c t io n f r o m th e fa m o u s m o n k in s ig h t t e a c h e r

W e i - b u H s a - y a - d a w t o t e a c h a n d a ls o b e o r d a in e d u n d e r h im . T h is c o m ­

p e n s a t e s a t le a s t to s o m e d e g r e e fo r B K ’s u n o r d a in e d s ta tu s a n d la c k o f a

s c r ip t u r a l le a r n in g m o n a s t ic lin e a g e .

T h is e m p h a s is o n B K ’s t e a c h in g s a s d e r iv e d fr o m th e a n c ie n t B u d d h is t

t e a c h in g s t h r o u g h e v id e n c e o f h is t o r ic a l c o n t in u it y is , o f c o u r s e , a fe a t u r e

o f B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y a t la r g e . T e a c h in g s h a v e to b e a u t h e n t ic a t e d , th e

in h e r it a n c e o f d u t ie s a n d c o m m a n d s h a v e t o b e s u b s t a n t ia t e d ; a h a g io g r a ­
p h y s e r v e s t o e s ta b lis h le g it im a c y a ft e r d e a th . T h e B u d d h a d e r iv e d le g it i­

m a c y b y m a k in g m e r it t h r o u g h p a y in g h o m a g e t o p r e v io u s B u d d h a s . O n e

m a y r e c a ll h e r e th e e p is o d e w h e r e , in h is life a s th e h e r m it T h u - m e i - d a , h e

la y a c r o s s a d it c h t o a llo w th e D i - p i n - k a - r a B u d d h a to w a lk a c r o s s a n d s u b ­

s e q u e n t ly m a d e t h e v o w to b e c o m e a B u d d h a h im s e lf o n e d a y . 59 It e n d s

w it h a n a c c o u n t o f h is p u p ils , th e B u d d h is t C o u n c ils , t h e d is t r ib u t io n o f h is

r e lic s a n d t e a c h in g s , a n d t h e le g a c y h e le ft b e h in d u p u n t il c o n t e m p o r a r y

tim e s . A n d s o a ls o th e B K b io g r a p h y , lik e b io g r a p h ie s o f o t h e r t e a c h e r s ,

c a r e f u lly d o c u m e n t s t h e lin e a g e s t h r o u g h w h i c h its s u b je c t r e c e iv e d h is

m e t h o d s , a n d h o w h e t r a n s m it t e d t h e s e t o h is o w n p u p ils , s o m e o f w h o m

a r e g e n e r a lly a c k n o w le d g e d t e a c h e r s in t h e B u r m e s e t r a d it io n o f p r a c t ic e .

T h e le g it im a c y o f t h e s e lin e a g e s a ls o e n c o m p a s s e s t h o s e w h o le a r n m e n t a l

c u lt u r e w it h B K . B K w a s t h e r e f o r e h is t o r ic iz e d t h r o u g h t h e m a s t e r - p u p il

r e la t io n s h ip b y h is b io g r a p h e r , w h o p r o je c t e d b a c k in t o h is t o r y a p la c e o f

s ig n if ic a n c e f o r h is s u b je c t , a n d e x t e n d e d B K ’s in f lu e n c e t h r o u g h in t e r g e n -

e r a t io n a l tr a n s m is s io n b e y o n d th e p r e s e n t , p o in t in g a t t h e fu t u r e .

S o fa r I h a v e n o t e d th a t t h e r e is a n im p o r t a n t h is t o r ic a l d im e n s io n to

t h is b io g r a p h y . C e n t r a l t o it is t h e in d iv id u a l’s a c h ie v in g s a n c t it y n o t ju s t b y

h is o w n e ffo r t s a t m e n t a l c u lt u r e , b u t b y t a p p in g in t o a n c ie n t k n o w le d g e a s

t r a n s m it t e d t h r o u g h o r d in a t io n , lin e a g e , s c r ip t u r a l le a r n in g , a n d s u p e r ­

n a t u r a l p r e s e r v a t io n o f k n o w l e d g e in t h e h ig h e r h e a v e n s . T h is a t t e m p t t o

p r o v e t h e h is t o r ic a ffilia t io n o f B K ’ s k n o w le d g e ta k e s t h e b io g r a p h y a w a y

f r o m t h e m u c h m o r e n a r r o w f o c u s o n B K a s a n in d iv id u a l.

B u t t h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r w a y in w h ic h th e b io g r a p h e r p o r t r a y e d B K as

a “ h is t o r ic in s t it u t io n ,” w h ic h b r in g s t h is v o lu m e c lo s e r t o R e y n o l d s ’ s e n s e

o f a s a c r e d b io g r a p h y o f t h e fo u n d e r o f a m o v e m e n t . T h e b io g r a p h e r s a w

B K a s a f o u n d e r o f a n im p o r t a n t n e w m o v e m e n t , t h e h is t o r y o f w h ic h

n e e d e d t o b e w r it t e n . T h e h is t o r y o f th e in s ig h t t r a d it io n s a s t h e s e h a v e

b e e n d o c u m e n t e d in B u r m a h it h e r t o , a r e s h a llo w , d a t in g f r o m th e e n d o f

th e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a t b e s t .

A c o m m o n v ie w b y s t u d e n t s o f B u d d h is t p r a c t ic e is t h a t its h is t o r y u n t il

th e e n d o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y is o n e o f “ s le e p in g t e x t s ” — t e x t s th a t

w e r e m e a n in g le s s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e n o t p u t in t o p r a c t ic e — o n t h e o n e

h a n d , a n d c o n v e r s e ly o f “ s ile n t B u d d h a s ” — e x p e r ie n c e d c o n t e m p la t o r s

w h o d id n o t b o t h e r t o t e a c h t h e ir p r a c t ic e t o o t h e r s — o n th e o t h e r . 60 O n ly

in th e c o u r s e o f t h is c e n t u r y d id B u d d h is t t e x t s c o m e a liv e b y h a v in g b e e n

p u t in p r a c t ic e . E x p e r ie n c e d y o g i , r a t h e r th a n d is a p p e a r in g w it h o u t a tr a c e

a ft e r q u ie t ly a c h ie v in g e n lig h t e n m e n t in th e fo r e s t , h a d n o w a c t u a lly c o m e

o u t t o t e a c h o t h e r s . T h e b io g r a p h e r ju d g e d B u d d h is t h is t o r y in a s im ila r

v e in w h e n h e w r o t e th a t th e c o n v e n t io n a l h is t o r y o f B u d d h is m w a s a h is ­

t o r y o f s c r ip t u r a l le a r n in g , w h e r e B u d d h is t “ p r a c t ic e ” (pa-di'-pat-tf) a n d its

fr u its “ r e m a in h id d e n .” 61 H e p o r t r a y e d B K a s a p io n e e r w h o b r o k e s ile n c e
b y t e a c h in g m e n t a l c u lt u r e t o th e u n o r d a in e d . In t u r n , th e b io g r a p h e r h im ­

s e lf, b y w r it in g th e b io g r a p h y o f B K , a im e d t o t e x t u a liz e c o n t e m p o r a r y

p r a c t ic e f o r p o s t e r it y , t h e r e b y p r o v id in g th e B u r m e s e t r a d it io n o f p r a c t ic e

w it h a h is t o r ic a l c o n t in u it y t h a t it w o u l d n o t o t h e r w is e h a v e . T h is e m p h a ­

sis o n d o c u m e n t in g lin e a g e h is t o r y in t h e B K b io g r a p h y , t h e r e f o r e , m u s t b e

u n d e r s t o o d in t h is c o n t e x t o f u r g e n t ly c o m p e n s a t in g f o r a d e a r t h o f h is t o r ­

ic a l in f o r m a t io n a b o u t th e t r a d it io n o f p r a c t ic e .

B u R m e s e “B fo g R a p h y ”
S o fa r I h a v e s o u g h t t o e x p la in t h e e m p h a s is o n h is t o r y in t h is v o lu m e in

te r m s o f b o t h a m o r e u n iv e r s a lly s h a r e d “ h a g io g r a p h ic a l” t h e m e o f e s t a b ­

lis h in g c o n t in u it y w it h t h e p a s t a n d d e t e r m in in g r u le s o f s u c c e s s io n , a n d

th e “ s a c r e d b io g r a p h ic a l” t h e m e o f e s t a b lis h in g t h e u n iq u e n e s s o f a s u b ­

j e c t ’s r o le in t h e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y m o v e m e n t f r o m t e x t t o p r a c t ic e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , K o L e i w a s c o n s c io u s o f th e im p o r t a n c e o f h is b io g r a p h y as

d o c u m e n t in g t h is h is t o r ic a l t r a n s it io n f r o m t e x t t o p r a c t ic e .

A t t h is p o in t I w a n t t o r a is e t w o q u e s t io n s . F ir s t , h o w “ d is p e r s e d ” c a n

a b io g r a p h y b e c o m e b e f o r e it c e a s e s t o b e a b io g r a p h y ? If, f o r w h a t e v e r r e a ­

s o n , a b io g r a p h e r e m p h a s iz e s m a in ly t h e s u b je c t ’s h is t o r ic a l- in s t it u t io n a l

d im e n s io n s a n d d e v o t e s lit t le s p a c e t o t h e s u b je c t ’s life b e t w e e n c r a d le a n d

g r a v e , c a n it s t ill b e t e r m e d a b io g r a p h y ? In o r d e r to c o m p r e h e n d t h is I

m u s t c o n v e y s o m e t h in g a b o u t B u r m e s e id e a s a b o u t b io g r a p h y .

V a r io u s e a r ly B u r m e s e g e n r e s in c o r p o r a t e b io g r a p h ic a l in f o r m a t i o n . 62

T h e e a r lie s t s t o n e in s c r ip t io n s ( kyauk-sa) in c lu d e d in f o r m a t io n a b o u t M a -

h a - e k - g a P a n - d i- t a ( 1 1 7 4 A .D .) a n d K in g D a - m a - z e i - d i ( 1 4 7 9 A .D .) . W it h

th e e x p a n s io n o f lit e r a t u r e in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e fo u r t e e n t h a n d f ift e e n t h

c e n t u r ie s , m u c h b io g r a p h ic a l in f o r m a t io n c a m e t o b e c o n v e y e d in s t y liz e d

lit e r a r y g e n r e s , m o s t ly c o m p o s e d in v e r s e (ga-bya), o f t e n b y m o n k s a n d

c o u r t ie r s s p e c if ic a lly f o r t h e e a r o f r o y a lt y . T h i s in c lu d e d t h e h is t o r ic a l

r e c o r d s (mAw-gun), w h i c h t o o k n o t a b le e v e n t s in t h e k in g ’ s life a s t h e ir

t h e m e . ( ei-gyin) a r e v e r s e
E u lo g ie s b io g r a p h ie s c o m m o n ly c o m p o s e d a b o u t

m e m b e r s o f r o y a lt y o n t h e o c c a s io n o f im p o r t a n t lif e - c y c le c e r e m o n ie s in

th e f o r m o f a n a d d r e s s t o a r o y a l c h ild , w h i c h t o ld th e c h ild o f t h e g r e a t

a c h ie v e m e n t s o f h is o r h e r r o y a l a n c e s t o r s , t r a c in g t h e lin e b a c k t o a n c ie n t

p r o g e n it o r s o f th e f a m ily . H is t o r ic a l a c c o u n t s o f a c a m p a ig n (a-yei-daw-bon)
p iv o t a r o u n d t h e e x p lo it s o f a m e m b e r o f r o y a lt y . F r o m t h e s ix t e e n t h c e n ­

t u r y o n w a r d s , b io g r a p h ic a l e p is o d e s o f m o n k s a n d k in g s in in t e r a c t io n w it h

e a c h o t h e r w e r e r e c o r d e d in t h e r o y a l c h r o n ic le s ( ya-za win).
T h e in t r o d u c t io n o f t h e p r in t in g p r e s s in t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a r k s

a s ig n ific a n t in c r e a s e in th e s h e e r q u a n t it y o f b io g r a p h ie s in c ir c u la t io n . It

a ls o m a r k e d a c o m p le t e ly n e w e r a in B u r m e s e b io g r a p h y , o f w h ic h c o n -
t e m p o r a r y B u r m e s e t e a c h e r b io g r a p h ie s a r e a n e x a m p le . T h e y w e r e th e

r e s u lt o f a m o v e m e n t in t w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y lit e r a t u r e : f r o m v e r s e t o p r o s e ,

a n d f r o m P a li o r P a li- B u r m e s e neik-tha-ya (P . nissaya) t o t h e v e r n a c u la r .

A ls o , u n t il t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y t h e la it y a n d th e c o m m o n e r w e r e r a r e ly s u b ­

je c t t o b io g r a p h ic a l d e s c r ip t io n , b u t t h e y g r a d u a lly b e c a m e w o r t h y b io ­

g r a p h ic a l s u b je c t s . S in c e a lm o s t a ll e a r ly b io g r a p h y d e a lt e it h e r w it h k in g s

o r m o n k s , t h e v o lu m e c o n s id e r e d h e r e is r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f t h e t r e n d t o w a r d

b io g r a p h ie s o f u n o r d a in e d n o n r o y a l p e r s o n s .

S o m e w h e r e a lo n g t h is h is t o r ic a l t im e s c a le t h e t e r m at-htok-pat-ti c a m e

t o b e u n d e r s t o o d in a s o m e w h a t e x c lu s iv e w a y . S o m e h a v e a r g u e d th a t th is

t e r m t o o k o v e r in p o p u la r r e f e r e n c e f r o m th e m o r e a n c ie n t s c r ip t u r a l t e r m

a-pa-dan ( P . apadana).6 3 B u t t h e t e r m w a s a lr e a d y in u s e d u r in g t h e life o f

t h e fa m o u s m o n k a u t h o r T h i - la - w u n - t h a ( 1 4 5 3 - 1 5 1 8 ) , w h o u s e d it in th e

t itle o f h is b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a ( Bok-dok-pat-ti) . A n d y e t , d e s p it e th is

e v id e n c e , s o m e c r it ic s h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t t h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n a n y f o r m o f

at-htok-pat-t{ in B u r m a u n t il v e r y r e c e n t ly in t h e la t t e r p a r t o f t h e c o lo n ia l

p e r io d : “ B io g r a p h ie s [at-htok-pat-ti] h a v e b e e n a lm o s t c o m p le t e ly a b s e n t in

e a r ly B u r m e s e lit e r a r y h is t o r y . A s f o r p a r t - b io g r a p h ic a l w o r k s s u c h a s t h e

r u lin g b y H k o n - d a w M a u n g K y a - b a n , t h e A -yu-daw Min-ga-la p e t it io n . . .

t h e s e w e r e n o t c o m p le t e b io g r a p h ie s . B io g r a p h i e s c a m e w it h m o d e r n

B u r m e s e lit e r a t u r e a m o n g s u c h w o r k s a s Pi-m d-nin i Pi-m o-nin, w h i c h

r e c o r d s e x p e r ie n c e s in O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y ” 64 T h is n o t io n th a t t h e B u r m e s e

d id n o t h a v e “ b io g r a p h y ” u n t il t h e y v is it e d O x f o r d , d e s p it e a ll t h e e v id e n c e

c it e d a lr e a d y t o t h e c o n t r a r y , n e e d s c lo s e r e x a m in a t io n .

T o d a y t h e t e r m at-htok-pat-ti s e r v e s a s t h e B u r m e s e g e n e r ic t e r m f o r

b io g r a p h y . I t is a P a li c o m p o u n d lo a n w o r d , m a d e u p at-hta ( s e n s e ,
o f

m e a n in g , i m p o r t , a p r i n c ip le , f u n d a m e n t a l id e a ) a n d ok-pat-ti ( o c c u r ­
r e n c e ) . 65 I n t h e P a li t e x t s it m e a n t “ o c c a s io n s , e s p . a n o c c u r r e n c e g iv in g

o c c a s io n t o a dhamma-desana, ” m e a n in g th a t s o m e e v e n t r e q u ir e d d id a c t ic

e la b o r a t io n in t e r m s o f t h e dhamma a s d e r iv e d f r o m a c o n t e x t la r g e r th a n

a p p a r e n t t o t h o s e w h o w e r e w it n e s s to it.

At-htok-pat-ti h a s a w id e r a n g e o f m e a n in g s . F ir s t , it r e c o u n t s t h e s t o r y

n o t s o m u c h o f a b io lo g ic a l in d iv id u a l, a s o f a p e r s o n in t e r m s o f t h e ir life

( o r m u lt ip le liv e s ) , w h i c h a r e n o t s t r ic t ly c ir c u m s c r ib e d . L if e is n o t o n ly a

m a t t e r b e t w e e n th e c r a d le a n d t h e g r a v e , b u t it c o v e r s th e s t o r y o f a n in d i­

v id u a l’s m a n y b ir t h s in d iffe r e n t g u is e s — s p ir it , a n im a l, o r h u m a n . T h is d o e s

n o t n e c e s s a r ily m e a n th a t a p e r s o n ’s life w ill always b e r e c o u n t e d in t e r m s

o f m a n y d iffe r e n t liv e s , b u t b io g r a p h e r s h a v e c r e a t iv e lic e n s e t o w r it e a b o u t

r e la t io n s h ip s a s i f t h e y w e r e b o u n d t o h a v e e v o lv e d a s t h e e f f e c t o f a c t io n s

in p a s t liv e s in t e r m s o f B u d d h is t p r in c ip le s . C o n t e m p o r a r y B u r m e s e c e n ­

s o r s h ip la w s p r e v e n t t o o im a g in a t iv e a c la im . In p a r t ic u la r t h e p o p u la r

b io g r a p h ie s o f c o n c e n t r a t io n m e d it a t o r s , weik-zas, bo-daws, a n d gan-da-ri

p r a c t it io n e r s h a v e b e e n b a n n e d f r o m p u b lic a t io n a n d a r e c o n fis c a t e d fr o m

th e b o o k s t a lls . S u c h “ o c c u lt ” b io g r a p h ie s in c lu d e f o r e x a m p le P a w U

( 1 9 5 2 ) a n d S e in G a n ( n .d .) o n t h e life o f B o B o A u n g , 66 a n d M a u n g G y i

( 1 9 5 2 ) o n t h e life o f A u n g M in G a u n g . 67 T h e s e e x t e n d t h e liv e s o f in d i­

v id u a ls b e y o n d t h e n o r m a l h u m a n life s p a n a n d a llu d e t o t h e m a t u r a t io n o f

p o w e r s o f t h e ir s u b je c t s o v e r m a n y liv e s a s t h e r e s u lt o f c o n c e n t r a t io n m e d ­

it a t io n a n d o c c u lt p r a c t ic e s . B u t e v e n in t h e m a in s t r e a m B u d d h is t t r a d it io n

o f in s ig h t c o n t e m p la t io n ( w i-pat-tha-n a ) , t h e r e a r e a llu s io n s t o p r e v io u s

liv e s . F o r e x a m p le , t h e a u t h o r o f th e M a - h a - s i H s a - y a - d a w , a f a m o u s

te a c h e r , s u g g e s t e d th a t th e m e e t in g w it h h is b e n e f a c t o r w a s b o u n d t o h a p ­

p e n a s in a p a s t life t h e y w e r e a s s o c ia t e d a n d t h e y h a d t h e s a m e la y n a m e . 68

L it e r a r y c r it ic s m a y d is m is s t h is a s m e r e ly a lit e r a r y d e v ic e . H o w e v e r , t h is

d is p e r s a l o f life b y p r o je c t io n o f it in t o h is t o r y b e y o n d t h e in d iv id u a l’s life

s p a n a ls o , I w o u l d a r g u e , a ffe c ts n o t io n s o f “ h is t o r y ,” “ t r a d it io n ,” a n d “ lin ­

e a g e ,” a n d c a n p o t e n t ia lly t u r n a h a g io g r a p h y in t o a f o r m o f r e lig io u s

h is t o r y b a s e d o n t h e e x p lo it s o f m o r e th a n a s in g le in d iv id u a l.

S e c o n d , t h e u s e o f th e B u r m e s e t e r m at-htok-pat-ti in e v e r y d a y v e r n a c ­

u la r ( i.e ., n o t a s a lit e r a r y g e n r e ) p e r t a in s t o “ e v e n t s ” in t h e w id e s t s e n s e

w it h o u t s t r ic t d e lin e a t io n a s t o t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f th e s u b je c t t o w h o m

th e s e p e r t a in , in c lu d in g th o s e r e f e r r in g to o b je c t s a n d in s t it u t io n s . T a k i n g

“ li f e ” in its w id e s t m e a n in g o f c a u s e - a n d - e f fe c t , it is u s e d t o in d ic a t e v a r i­

o u s ly “ fa c t s ,” “ e v e n t s ,” “ a s t a t e m e n t o f f a c t ,” a n d “ n a r r a t io n o f e v e n t s . ” 69

T h u s I c a n r e fe r to t h e at-htok-pat-ti o f a d ic t io n a r y o r a n in s t it u t io n a s w e ll

as o f a h u m a n b e in g . In o t h e r w o r d s , w h e r e I d is c r im in a t e b e t w e e n “ f a c t ,”

“ e v e n t ,” “ h is t o r y ,” “ s t o r y ,” o r “ fa b le ” in E n g lis h , in t h e B u r m e s e v e r n a c u ­

la r th is m a y a ll b e lo o s e ly r e fe r r e d t o b y t h e t e r m at-htok-pat-ti. In t h is w a y

it is , f o r e x a m p le , d iffic u lt t o d e t e r m in e th e life o f a n o c c u lt w iz a r d ( w eik-za )

k n o w n a s A u n g M in G a u n g , w h ic h is b ille d a s b o t h a “ r o y a l h is t o r y ” (ya-
z a-w in ) a n d a “ b io g r a p h y ” ( at-htok-pat-ti ) : d o e s th is la t t e r u s e o f t h e t e r m

m e a n “ b io g r a p h y ” o r s im p ly “ e v e n t s ” ( P a w U 1 9 5 2 ) ? G iv e n th a t A u n g M in

G a u n g w a s p r e s u m e d t o h a v e e x t e n d e d h is life t h r o u g h th e p r o c e s s o f a n

o r d e a l ( htwet-yak pau k thi), it is q u it e p la u s ib le th a t life s h o u ld b e b ille d a s

b o t h b io g r a p h y and h is t o r y . T h is c o m m o n e m p h a s is in b io g r a p h y o f y o g i

o n t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f t h e h e r e a n d n o w s h o w s th a t t h e B K b io g r a p h y is b u t

o n e e x a m p le o f t h e s it u a t io n w h e r e a n y r ig id d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n v e r n a c u ­

la r b io g r a p h y a n d v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y m e lt s a w a y . T h is v e r n a c u la r s e n s e o f

at-htok-pat-ti a s t h e s t o r y th a t g o e s b e y o n d t h e in d iv id u a l in t h e h e r e a n d

n o w is t h u s b o u n d to c o m e in t o c o n flic t w it h th e m o r e n a r r o w W e s t e r n

s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c r it e r ia o f b io g r a p h y , t h e p u r p o s e o f w h ic h is e x a c t ly to

c o n fin e t h e p e r s o n t o t im e a n d p la c e a n d to d iv u lg e h is o r h e r t r u e s e lf.

T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , o t h e r im p o r t a n t w a y s in w h ic h B u r m e s e “ v e r n a c ­

u la r ” d iffe r s f r o m “ s e c u la r - lit e r a r y ” s e n s e o f b io g r a p h y . F ir s t, w h e r e s e c u la r -
lit e r a r y c r it e r ia a r e t y p ic a lly a u t h o r - c e n t e r e d , v e r n a c u la r c r it e r ia a r e t y p i­

c a lly s u b je c t - c e n t e r e d . O b s e r v e r s o f b io g r a p h ic a l lit e r a t u r e h a v e s o m e t im e s

s o u g h t to m a k e a d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n e a r ly a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n

b io g r a p h y . B e c k s o n a n d G a n z ( 1 9 9 0 ) s u g g e s t th a t m o d e r n b io g r a p h y , a s a

c a r e fu lly r e s e a r c h e d a n d r e la t iv e ly d is p a s s io n a t e t y p e o f lit e r a t u r e , is c o m ­

p a r a t iv e ly r e c e n t .70 W it h th e R e n a is s a n c e a n d R e f o r m a t i o n , t h e y a r g u e d ,

t h e r e g r e w a n e m p h a s is o n t h e in d iv id u a l, w h e n t h e m o d e m b io g r a p h y

e v o l v e d ( e .g ., B o s w e l l’s w o r k o n D r . J o h n s o n ) . W it h t h e R o m a n t i c s a n d

la t e r F r e u d ia n in f lu e n c e , t h e in n e r life o f t h e s u b je c t w a s e m p h a s iz e d , a s in

A n d r e M a u r o is ’ w o r k . H o w e v e r , m o r e th a n a n in c r e a s e d e m p h a s is o n th e

i n d iv id u a l a s t h e s u b je c t o f t h e b io g r a p h y , I m ig h t in fa c t c o n c lu d e th a t

t h is d e v e lo p m e n t r e p r e s e n t s a n in c r e a s e d e m p h a s is o n s c r u t in iz in g t h e b io ­

g r a p h e r ’s a b ilit y to w r it e a b o u t t h e s u b je c t .

T h is s h ift in e m p h a s is t o w a r d t h e a u t h o r , w h i c h F o u c a u lt d u b b e d t h e

“ a u t h o r ” f u n c t io n , w o u l d a p p e a r t o h a v e m a r k e d a c h a n g e in W e s t e r n

b io g r a p h y . F o r e x a m p le , C o c k s h u t o b s e r v e d th a t B o s w e l l u s e d t h e t e r m

“ b io g r a p h y ” t o c o v e r b o t h a u t o b io g r a p h y a n d b io g r a p h y , a ft e r w h i c h h e

s u g g e s t s th a t: “ W e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t t h is w a s b e c a u s e m o r e in t e r e s t w a s fe lt

in t h e a c t u a l r e c o r d o f a life a n d in th e fa c ts s h o w n th a n in th e p o in t o f v ie w

f r o m w h i c h it w a s w r it t e n . W h e n t h e q u e s t io n o f p o in t o f v ie w b e c o m e s

c r u c ia l f o r t h e r e a d e r , t h e n o n ly c o m e s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f a u t o b io g r a p h y a s a

s e p a r a t e f o r m .” 71 In o t h e r w o r d s , h e r e t h e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n b io g r a p h y

a n d a u t o b io g r a p h y w a s le s s t h e r e s u lt o f a n in c r e a s e d in t e r e s t in th e in d i­

v id u a l s u b je c t th a n in t h e a u t h o r w h o w r o t e it. It r e c o g n iz e s b io g r a p h y a s a

c r e a t iv e e ffo r t b y a q u a lif ie d a u t h o r . A t t h is p o in t , I s u g g e s t th a t th e s k ill o f

t h e a u t h o r t o g e t u n d e r t h e s k in o f t h e s u b je c t in a t r u t h f u l m a n n e r

b e c o m e s m o r e im p o r t a n t t h a n t h e in e v it a b le s t o r y o f t h e a r c h e t y p a l s a in t a s

a h is t o r ic a l m o t if . In t h is w a y , c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c la s ­

s ific a t io n a s in t r o d u c e d a ft e r B o s w e l l’s w o r k a t t h e e n d o f t h e e ig h t e e n t h

c e n t u r y , n a m e ly w h i c h d is t in g u is h e s b e t w e e n b io g r a p h y (t h e a u t h o r w r it e s

a b o u t s o m e o n e e ls e ) a n d a u t o b io g r a p h y (t h e a u t h o r w r it e s a b o u t h i m / h e r ­

s e lf) , is n o t c r u c ia lly im p o r t a n t in t r a d it io n a l B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y , w h e r e th e

h is t o r ic a l im a g e r y o f t h e s u b je c t r e ig n s , n o t t h e a u t h o r ’s s k ills a t e v o k i n g

t h is , a n d w h e r e t h e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n d iffe r e n t c la s s e s o f b io g r a p h ic a l

s u b je c t ( e .g . “ h u m a n ,” “ m o n k ,” o r o t h e r ) is m o r e im p o r t a n t .

S e c o n d , W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c la s s ific a t io n e m p h a s iz e s f a c t s 72 a n d

se ts g r e a t s t o r e b y d e m a r c a t in g h is t o r ic a lly v e r if ia b le f r o m fic t io n a l e v e n t s ,

a s in t h e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n “ f ic t io n a l” ( h is t o r ic a lly n o t v e r ifia b le ) a n d

“ h is t o r ic a l” ( h is t o r ic a lly v e r ifia b le ) b io g r a p h y . T h is p a r t ic u la r d is t in c t io n is

n o t r e a lly a n is s u e in B u r m e s e t r a d it io n a l b io g r a p h y , w h i c h is p r o b a b ly w h y

t h e B u r m e s e g o v e r n m e n t d e c id e d to t a k e s u c h a s t r o n g lin e a g a in s t t r a d i­

t io n a l b io g r a p h y , w h i c h c o u ld a s c r ib e a ll k in d s o f m ir a c u lo u s s u p e r n a t u r a l
p o w e r s t o t h e s u b je c t , a n d h e n c e p o t e n t ia lly d e s t a b iliz e t h e p o lit ic a l o r d e r

b y t h e u n c o n t r o lle d a p p r o p r ia t io n o f c h a r is m a b y b io g r a p h e r s t o t h e ir s u b ­

je c t s . B u r m e s e c r it e r ia a r e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e e v o c a t io n o f a w e f o r

th e s u b je c t o f t h e b io g r a p h y th a n w h e t h e r s u c h c la im s a r e h is t o r ic a lly a c c u ­

r a te o r n o t.

T h e d if f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s e c u l a r - l i t e r a r y a n d B u r m e s e v e r n a c u l a r

a p p r o a c h e s a r e r e f le c t e d in t h e r e s p e c t iv e c la s s ific a t io n o f b io g r a p h ie s t h e m ­

s e lv e s . If, a s s u g g e s t e d , W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c la s s ific a t io n is b a s e d o n th e

a u t h o r a n d a u t h o r ’s s t y le o f w r it in g , a s in o r d in a r y (t h e a u t h o r w r it e s a b o u t

s o m e o n e e ls e ) , a u t o - (t h e a u t h o r w r it e s a b o u t h im / h e r s e lf ) , f ic t io n a l (h is ­

t o r ic a lly n o t v e r if ia b le ) , o r h is t o r ic a l b io g r a p h y ( h is t o r ic a lly v e r if ia b le ) , v e r ­

n a c u la r b io g r a p h ie s a r e “ p e r s o n a liz e d ” b io g r a p h ie s , c la s s ifie d o n t h e b a s is o f

th e s u b je c t t h e y c o n s id e r , Bok-dok-pat-ti ) ; f o r m o n k s
a s in : f o r B u d d h a s (

(Than-gok-pat-ti o r Htei-rok-pat-tC); f o r n o v i c e s ( Tha-m a-nok-pat-ti ) ; f o r

“ h u m a n s ” (///) s i m p l y b y p r e f ix in g t h e n a m e ( e . g . , Za-nok-pat-ti ) ; a n d fo r

p a r t i c u l a r n a m e d i n d i v i d u a l s ( e . g . , M a-ha Bok-da-gaw-thok-pat-ti o r Shin R a-

hta-tha-rok-pat-ti) . 7 3
B a s e d o n u n s p o k e n c o n v e n t io n s a n d e m u la t io n o f p r e v io u s a u t h o r s ,

th e c r it e r ia o f v e r n a c u la r b io g r a p h y a r e s u b c o n s c io u s , im p lic it , a n d u n a n a ­

ly z e d ; t h is is d if f e r e n t f r o m W e s t e r n s c h o la r ly s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c r it e r ia ,

w h ic h a r e h ig h ly e x p lic it , a n a ly z e d , a n d s h a r p e n e d b y a lo n g in t e lle c t u a l

d e b a t e a b o u t t h e v a lu e o f b io g r a p h y in h is t o r y v e r s u s its lit e r a r y m e r it .

P lu m m e r s u g g e s t s th a t d u r in g t h e V ic t o r ia n e r a t h e r e w a s a s h ift in

e m p h a s is w h i c h “ m a r k e d a le s s e r c o n c e r n w it h t h e p r a is e o f g r e a t m e n t o a

s t r o n g e r c o n c e r n w it h a c c u r a t e r e s e a r c h : t h e m o d e r n b io g r a p h e r h a s a

w e a lt h o f fa c ts a t h a n d th a t h a v e to b e s ift e d o u t , m a d e in t o t h e o r y , c a r e ­

fu lly c h e c k e d .” 74 A ls o , t h e b io g r a p h ic a l s u b je c t h e r e is n o lo n g e r a n illu s ­

tr a t io n o f h is t o r ic a l s a n c t it y , b u t a c r e a t io n o f t h e in d iv id u a l a u t h o r th a t c a n

b e o n ly a s t r u t h fu l a s t h e a u t h o r ’s m e t h o d o lo g y a n d c ir c u m s t a n c e s a llo w .

T h e b io g r a p h e r a t th is p o in t is m o r e a r e s e a r c h e r a n d a c r e a t iv e lit e r a r y

w r it e r th a n a p e r s o n w h o h a s t o w r it e b e c a u s e h e o r s h e is o v e r c o m e b y th e

s u p e r io r a n d a p p e a lin g p u r it y o f th e s u b je c t .

B u t it w o u l d b e w r o n g t o s u g g e s t th a t a ll s e n s e s o f B u r m e s e b io g r a p h y

o p e r a t e in t h e v e r n a c u la r s e n s e s k e t c h e d s o fa r . A lo n g s id e t h e v e r n a c u la r

c la s s ific a t io n ju s t d e s c r ib e d , t h e r e is a t r a d it io n o f b io g r a p h y th a t o p e r a t e s

w it h a m u c h n a r r o w e r a n d c o n c is e c o n c e p t s im ila r to t h e s e c u la r - lit e r a r y

c o n c e p t a s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e . In B u r m a a ls o , th e W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y

e m p h a s is o n a u t h o r a n d h is t o r ic a l v e r if ia b ilit y h a s b e c o m e , in s o m e w a y o r

a n o t h e r , a c e n t r a l f o r c e in t h e c la s s ific a t io n a n d u n d e r s t a n d in g o f b io g r a p h y ,

th u s s h ift in g a w a y f r o m th e t r a d it io n a l fo c u s o n t h e s u b je c t ’s s ig n ific a n c e .

E ls e w h e r e I h a v e s h o w n h o w B u r m e s e B u d d h is t b io g r a p h y t o d a y is p la c e d

u n c o m fo r t a b ly a lo n g s id e “ m o d e r n ” B u r m e s e b io g r a p h y a s d e fin e d a t a
c o n fe r e n c e o n b io g r a p h y o r g a n iz e d b y t h e B u r m e s e g o v e r n m e n t . 75 T h is

f o r u m a d o p t e d t h e u s u a l W e s t e r n s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c la s s ific a t io n , b y n o w

in flu e n t ia l in t e r n a t io n a lly , a n d r e g a r d e d v ir t u a lly a ll p r e v io u s ly p r o d u c e d

B u r m e s e b io g r a p h y a s a n a n o m a ly b e c a u s e it is u n c h a n g in g , le g e n d a r y , a n d

n o t t r u e t o r e a lit y , w h e r e a ll “ b a d is d r o w n e d a n d o n ly t h e g o o d t e n d s t o

b e r e c o u n t e d .”

B fo g R a p b fz e d “H is to rc y ”
In t h e d is c u s s io n s o fa r I h a v e n o t e d th a t at-htok-pat-ti, th e B u r m e s e t e r m

f o r b io g r a p h y , is in its v e r n a c u la r s e n s e a r e m a r k a b ly fle x ib le t e r m th a t c a n

b e m a d e t o m e a n t h e s t o r y o f a lm o s t a n y t h in g , in c lu d in g a n im a t e a n d in a n ­

im a t e s u b je c t s , a n d t h a t c o u ld a ls o m e a n t h e h is t o r y o f a lin e a g e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , a f le x ib le n o t io n o f lif e e n c o m p a s s in g t h e id e a o f r e b ir t h

e x t e n d s a n in d iv i d u a l’ s lif e in t o t h e p a s t a n d a llo w s a b io g r a p h y t o b e

p o t e n t ia lly m o r e h is t o r ic a l t h a n I c o u ld im a g in e in t e r m s o f th e s e c u la r -

lit e r a r y u n d e r s t a n d in g s o f t h is g e n r e . W h e r e I ta lk o f in f lu e n c e a n d e m u la ­

t io n o f h is t o r ic a l p e r s o n a g e s , t h e B u r m e s e b io g r a p h ic a l s u b je c t is p o t e n t ia lly

m u lt ip le h is t o r ic a l p e r s o n a g e s .

C o n v e r s e l y , h o w e v e r , it s h o u ld b e n o t e d th a t t h e B u r m e s e h a v e f o r a

lo n g t im e c o n c e i v e d o f t h e ir h is t o r y w it h in a b io g r a p h ic a l f r a m e w o r k .

R e y n o l d s d r e w a t t e n t io n t o t h is p h e n o m e n o n , 76 w h ic h w a s fu r t h e r e la b o ­

r a t e d b y T a m b i a h .77 T a m b ia h d e v e lo p e d t h e n o t io n o f “ p e r io d iz a t io n ” in

th e c o n t e x t o f h is a n a ly s is o f b io g r a p h ie s o f T h a i t e a c h e r s . H e d is t in g u is h e s

b e t w e e n t w o n o t io n s o f b io g r a p h y in t h e B u d d h i s t t r a d it io n , n a m e ly

avadana, th e e a r lie s t s c r ip t u r a l in s t a n c e f o r a b io g r a p h ic a l e p is o d e , a s it

“ s e e m s t o h a v e r e fe r r e d t o a g r e a t a c t io n h a v in g d e c is iv e c o n s e q u e n c e s ”

u s e d to “ h ig h lig h t a p o in t o f d is c ip lin e o r a m o r a l p r e c e p t .” T h is h e c o n ­

tr a s ts t h e c o n c e p t w it h vamsa, a m u c h la t e r d e v e lo p m e n t th a t “ im p lie d

s o m e k in d o f s u c c e s s io n o f k in g s o r t e a c h e r s .” In t h e la t t e r t h e B u d d h a

b io g r a p h y it s e lf b e c a m e th e k e r n e l o f e la b o r a t e d h is t o r ie s . In t h e S in h a le s e

M ahavam sa a n d t h e T h a i Jin akala m ali, t h e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y fo r m s “ a n e c ­

e s s a r y p r e lu d e t o t h e ir ( S in h a le s e a n d T h a i) r e lig io - p o lit ic a l t a le s ” — i.e .,

b o t h t o th e m o n a s t ic r e lig io - h is t o r y a s w e ll a s th e s e c u la r c h r o n i c l e . 78

In B u r m a , t h e r e is a v e r y s im ila r r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n b io g r a p h y a n d

h is t o r y . H is t o r y w a s f o r a lo n g t im e t h e h is t o r y o f th e B u d d h is t t e a c h e r s a n d

t h e ir t e a c h in g s ( tha-tha-na win), a n d t h e r u le r s a n d t h e ir d y n a s t ie s (ya-za

win). T h e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y in v a r ia b ly p r e fa c e s b o t h o f t h e s e , a n d h is

r e lic s a n d fo o t s t e p s lin k v a r io u s g e o g r a p h ic a l r e g io n s in t o a s in g le h is t o r y .

I n d e e d , th e B u d d h a ’s b io g r a p h y m a y b e s e e n t o e n v e lo p B u r m e s e h is t o r y ,

f o r h is m a n ife s t a t io n s h a v e n o t c o m e to a n e n d . H is da-tii neik-ban, t h e fin a l

r e a s s e m b ly o f h is r e lic s , w ill in it ia t e t h e d e c lin e a n d e v e n t u a l d is a p p e a r a n c e

o f r e lig io n 2 ,5 0 0 y e a r s f r o m n o w , w h i c h w il l m a r k t h e e n d o f h is t o r y f o r

t h is w o r l d - s y s t e m . H e n c e , a s p o i n t e d o u t b y T a m b i a h , t h e B u d d h a ’ s

b io g r a p h ie s n o t o n ly s h o w , b u t p a r t ic ip a t e in “ a r e m a r k a b le v ie w o f th e

‘h is t o r ic a l’ u n f o ld in g o f B u d d h i s m . ” 79

T h e B u d d h a is n o t o n ly p la c e d a t t h e a p e x o f B u r m e s e v e r n a c u la r h is ­

t o r y , b u t B u r m e s e c o n c e iv e h im a s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t s ig n ific a n t s o u r c e

f r o m w h o m t h e y n o t o n ly d e r iv e t h e ir s p ir it u a lit y , b u t a ls o t h e ir la n g u a g e

a n d p h y s iq u e . T h is v ie w B u r m e s e h a v e o f c o n t in u it y w it h b o t h t h e “ s p ir ­

i t u a l” lin e a g e b a c k t o t h e B u d d h a t h r o u g h t h e t r a d it io n o f o r d in a t io n a n d

th e “ p h y s ic a l” lin e a g e t h r o u g h th e lin e a g e o f k in g s is a ls o r e f le c t e d in th e

w a y th e B u r m e s e la n g u a g e is t h o u g h t t o h a v e o r ig in a t e d w it h t h e la n g u a g e

o f t h e B u d d h is t s c r ip t u r e s ( “ th e o r ig in a l la n g u a g e ,” mu-la ba-tha) s o th a t

t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y f o r th e e t y m o lo g y o f t h e B u r m e s e v e r n a c u la r t e r m s a n d

f o r t h e g r a m m a r o f t h e v e r n a c u la r t o b e s o u g h t in P a li. W e s t e r n h is t o r ia n s

a n d lin g u is t s h a v e r id ic u le d t h is v ie w a s u n in f o r m e d a n d in a c c u r a t e . F o r

e x a m p le , B u r m e s e v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y h a s b e e n d e r id e d b y c o lo n ia l h is t o r i­

a n s s u c h a s H a r v e y , w h o f o u n d th a t “ p e r h a p s a s m u c h a s h a lf t h e n a r r a t iv e

t o ld a s h is t o r ic a l d o w n t o t h e t h ir t e e n t h c e n t u r y is f o l k - l o r e . ” 80 H is t o r y ,

c o lo n ia l h is t o r ia n s p r o p o s e d , s h o u ld b e c o n s is t e n t w it h W e s t e r n lin g u is t ic ,

g e o g r a p h ic , b u t in p a r t ic u la r r a c ia l c la s s ific a t io n s . A s H a r v e y p u t it, “ t h e

B u r m a n s a r e a M o n g o lia n r a c e , y e t t h e ir t r a d it io n s , in s t e a d o f h a r k in g b a c k

t o C h i n a , r e f e r t o In d ia . . . t h e s u r v iv in g t r a d it io n s o f t h e B u r m a n a r e

I n d ia n b e c a u s e t h e ir o w n M o n g o l ia n t r a d it io n s d ie d o u t .” 81 In s im ila r

v e in , L u c e w r o t e t h a t “ t h e A b h ir a ja / D h a r a ja le g e n d s s h o w in g th e c o n t i ­

n u it y in t h e B u d d h a ’ s I n d ia n lin e a g e w it h t h o s e o f B u r m e s e r o y a lt y w e r e

p r e s u m a b ly in v e n t e d t o g iv e B u r m a n s a n o b le d e r iv a t io n f r o m t h e S a k iy a n

lin e o f B u d d h a G o t a m a h im s e lf . B u t o n e o n ly h a s t o p u t a B u r m a n

b e t w e e n a N o r t h I n d ia n a n d a C h in e s e , t o s e e a t a g la n c e w h e r e h is r a c ia l

c o n n e c t io n s l i e . ” 82

W h e r e c o lo n ia l h is t o r ia n s c o n c e iv e d o f h is t o r y in t e r m s o f “ r a c ia l” a n d

“ lin g u is t ic ” c o n t in u it y o f a p e o p le , B u r m e s e v e r n a c u la r h is t o r ia n s w e r e

m o r e c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e “ s p ir it u a l” c o n t i n u it y f r o m t h e t im e o f t h e

B u d d h a f r o m w h i c h a ll h is t o r y w a s c o n c e iv e d t o c o m e fo r t h , ir r e s p e c t iv e o f

r a c e o r la n g u a g e . T h e B u d d h a ’s p e r s o n a l v is it s ( o ft e n m a r k e d b y fo o t p r in t s )

a n d h is r e lic s d e t e r m in e d th e p e r ip h e r y o f h is im m e d ia t e g e o g r a p h y , b y

v ir t u e o f w h i c h a ll s h a r e d a c o m m o n h is t o r y . B u t t h is v e r n a c u la r s c h e m e o f

h is t o r y , w h e r e B u r m e s e c o n s id e r e d t h e m s e lv e s a s h a v in g a c lo s e r h is t o r ic a l

r e la t io n s h ip w it h p e o p le in I n d ia , w a s c o n t r a d ic t e d b y th e v ie w e m e r g in g

d u r in g t h e c o lo n ia l e r a , w h i c h p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e y w e r e r a c ia lly a n d lin ­

g u is t ic a lly “ m o n g o lo id ” w it h m o r e a ffin it y t o t h e T ib e t a n s a n d , m o r e d is ­

t a n t ly , t h e C h in e s e , th a n w it h t h e I n d ia n s u b c o n t i n e n t . 83 In r e la t io n t o th is

it is in t e r e s t in g t o n o t e t h a t in s ig h t c o n t e m p la t io n , b y its e m p h a s is o n
im p e r m a n e n c e , c h a n g e , a n d n o n - s e lf , r e le a s e s in d iv id u a ls f r o m t h e ir i m m e ­

d ia t e p a s t a n d a llo w s t h e in t e g r a t io n o f B u d d h is m w it h t h is m u c h c h a n g e d

c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c ie t y a s it w a s in h e r it e d f r o m t h e c o lo n ia l e x p e r ie n c e .

H is t o r ic a l a c c o u n t s o f p r a c t ic e a r e u n lik e t h e o ld e r v e r n a c u la r h is t o r ie s , fo r

t h e y d o n o t c o m m e n c e t h e ir h is t o r y w it h th e life o f t h e B u d d h a , b u t lim it

t h e m s e lv e s o n ly t o th e h is t o r y o f p r a c t ic e in B u r m a . In th is r e s p e c t p e r h a p s ,

t h e s e n e w g e n r e s o f lit e r a t u r e h a v e r e c o g n iz e d a g e o g r a p h ic a l “ b r e a k ” in

a c c o r d a n c e w it h c o n t e m p o r a r y “ s e c u la r ” id e a s a b o u t t h e ir o r ig in a t io n .

S o t r a d it io n a l T h a i a n d B u r m e s e h is t o r y c o u ld b e s e e n a s “ b io g r a ­

p h iz e d ” b e c a u s e t h e y r e c o u n t h is t o r y in te r m s o f d e v e lo p m e n t s in t h e life

o f t h e B u d d h a a n d h is r e l i c s . 84 B u t t h e B K b io g r a p h y c o n s id e r e d h e r e is ,

t h o u g h r e la t e d , s lig h t ly d iffe r e n t . T h e B K b io g r a p h y is “ h is t o r ic iz e d b io g ­

r a p h y ,” n a m e ly a b io g r a p h y o f lin e a g e r a t h e r t h a n ju s t o f a n in d iv id u a l’s life .

How Historical Can Biography Be?

G i v e n t h e d is p e r s e d , la r g e ly h is t o r ic a l n a t u r e o f B K ’s life a s it c o m e s

a c r o s s f r o m h is b io g r a p h y , a n d g iv e n th e im p o r t a n t r o le o f b io g r a p h y in

v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y , I m a y a s k w h a t t h is m e a n s in th e lig h t o f o u r o w n c o n ­

c e p t io n s o f t h e r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n h is t o r y a n d b io g r a p h y a s g e n r e s . A r e

t h e r e a n y lim it s t o b io g r a p h y ? A t w h a t p o in t d o e s a b io g r a p h y b e c o m e , fo r

e x a m p le , a “ h is t o r y ” ?

A s n o t e d a b o v e , t h e c o n fe r e n c e o n B u r m e s e b io g r a p h y a d o p t e d th e

a u t h o r - c e n t e r e d c la s s ific a t io n o f b io g r a p h y a n d d is m is s e d m o s t p r e - t w e n t ie t h -

c e n t u r y B u r m e s e b io g r a p h y a s a n im p r o p e r fo r m o f b io g r a p h y . I f th is g e n r e ,

o f w h ic h th e B K b io g r a p h y is p a r t , is n o t “ b io g r a p h y ,” is it a f o r m o f “ h is ­

t o r y ” ? S o m e h is t o r ia n s , s u c h a s C o l li n g w o o d , c la s s b io g r a p h y a s n o t o n ly

“ n o n - h i s t o r ic a l,” b u t “ a n t i - h i s t o r i c a l . ” 85 W h e n I a s k w h y , I f in d th a t

C o l li n g w o o d p o in t s a t th e b io lo g ic a l lim it a t io n s o n t h e life o f a h u m a n

b e in g , t h e f r a m e w o r k o f w h i c h a llo w s th e t id e s o f t h o u g h t to “ f lo w c r o s s ­

w is e , r e g a r d le s s o f its s t r u c t u r e , lik e s e a - w a t e r t h r o u g h a s t r a n d e d w r e c k .”

C o l li n g w o o d h e r e m a k e s t w o a s s u m p t i o n s . 86 F ir s t , h e v ie w s b io g r a p h y as

lim it e d b y th e c r a d le a n d t h e g r a v e , s o th a t h e c a n n o t c o n c e iv e o f a lt e r n a ­

t iv e c o n s t r u c t io n s o f life in o t h e r c u lt u r e s , e .g ., c o m p r is in g r e b ir t h o r d o c ­

u m e n t in g t h e a u t h e n t ic it y o f a n in d iv id u a l w it h in a t r a d it io n . S e c o n d , h is

e x c lu s iv e v ie w o n h is t o r y a s “ w h a t h is t o r ia n s t h in k it is ” d o e s n o t le a v e

m u c h r o o m fo r a lt e r n a t iv e v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y o f a n y s o r t . A lt h o u g h h e r e c ­

o g n iz e s h is t o r ic a l v a lu e in r e lig io u s d o c u m e n t s a n d b io g r a p h y , a s t h e s e a r e

n o t b a s e d o n th e p r e m is e o f h is t o r y a s a s c ie n c e a n d d o n o t in v o l v e th e

q u a lifie d in t e r p r e t a t io n o f e v id e n c e , t h e s e c a n n o t b e c a lle d “ h is t o r y .”

In a s e n s e , t h e n , i f I a m t o a c c e p t t h e c r it e r ia a d v a n c e d in th e a r g u m e n t s

o f b o t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o n fe r e n c e o n b io g r a p h y a n d o f C o l li n g w o o d , th e
B K b io g r a p h y is n e it h e r b io g r a p h y n o r h is t o r y . B u t n e it h e r t h e g o v e r n ­

m e n t c o n fe r e n c e n o r C o l li n g w o o d w e r e p r e p a r e d t o a d v a n c e b io g r a p h y a s

c o n s t r u c t io n s b y t h e b io g r a p h e r ’s a n d h is t o r ia n ’s r e s p e c t iv e s o c io c u lt u r a l

b a c k g r o u n d s . C l o s e r t o th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s I fin d h is t o r ia n s a n d lit e r a r y c r it ­

ic s p r e p a r e d t o m o d ify th is “ h ie r a r c h ic a l” n o t io n . H e r e t h e a u t h o r ’s f u n c ­

t io n is e x t e n d e d to t h e a u t h o r ’s s o c ia l e n v ir o n m e n t . T h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s

h a v e t h e r e b y c o m e to e x e r t a n im p o r t a n t in f lu e n c e o n h is t o r y , a n d a g r a d ­

u a l s h ift h a s t a k e n p la c e w h e r e , f o r e x a m p le , th e r e la t iv it y o f s c ie n c e is r e c ­

o g n iz e d a s th e p r o d u c t o f a n a u t h o r a t a p a r t ic u la r t im e w it h a p a r t ic u la r

s o c io e c o n o m ic o r o t h e r b a c k g r o u n d , 87 w h ic h a llo w e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

n e w b r a n c h e s o f h is t o r y s u c h a s o r a l h i s t o r y . 88 N e v e r t h e le s s , h e r e I h a v e

m e r e ly e x t e n d e d t h e s a m e s e c u la r - lit e r a r y q u a lif ic a t io n o f b io g r a p h y , w h i c h

is th a t t h is r e c o g n iz e s b o t h b io g r a p h y a n d h is t o r y t o b e n o t o n ly “ c r e a t e d ”

b y a u t h o r s , b u t a ls o in a w id e r s e n s e b y th e a u t h o r ’s s o c io c u lt u r a l e n v ir o n ­

m e n t a n d p e r s o n a lit y . T h e s e t h e r e f o r e a t t r ib u t e a g e n c y f o r t h e life s t o r y to

t h e a u t h o r m o r e th a n , a s in th e v e r n a c u la r b io g r a p h y , t o th e im m u t a b le

s t o r y s a n c t it y w h ic h th e a u t h o r m e r e ly h a s th e p r iv ile g e o f “ f a c ilit a t in g .”

T h e r e a d e r ’s p r e o c c u p a t io n h a s c h a n g e d f r o m a “ lit e r a l” in t e r e s t in th e t e x t

a s s im p ly t r u e in a d iv in e s o r t o f w a y , t o a “ lit e r a r y ” in t e r e s t a s a t e x t th a t

h a s b e e n “ h u m a n ly ” c r e a t e d a t a p a r t ic u la r t im e in a p a r t ic u la r p l a c e . 89

V e r n a c u la r b io g r a p h y a n d h is t o r y a r e b o t h lit e r a l ( n o t lit e r a r y ) s u b je c t -

c e n t e r e d ( n o t a u t h o r - c e n t e r e d ) g e n r e s in w h i c h a s u b je c t m o v e s s o m e ­

w h e r e in b e t w e e n t h e in t e r s t ic e s o f life e p is o d e , life , lin e a g e , a n d h is t o r y .

“ B io g r a p h y ,” in th is w a y , c o u ld r e f e r t o “ h is t o r y ” , a n d , c o n v e r s e ly , “ h is ­

t o r y ” c o u ld r e f e r t o “ b io g r a p h y .”

V e r n a c u la r b io g r a p h y t h e r e f o r e m e r g e s in t o v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y w it h o u t

a c le a r b o u n d a r y in b e t w e e n . I h a v e s h o w n h o w v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y is

s o m e t im e s p r e f ix e d a n d e n v e lo p e d b y t h e b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a .

H o w e v e r , I h a v e n o t y e t n o t e d th a t th e b io g r a p h y o f th e B u d d h a is th e

o n ly b io g r a p h y o f a n in d iv id u a l to m e r it t h e d e s ig n a t io n “ h is t o r y ” (win) i n
B u r m e s e . F o r e x a m p le , a s u s e d b y D a - m a - r e ik - h k i - t a ( 1 9 8 0 ) th e t e r m bok-
da win r e f e r s t o t h e b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a w it h n o o t h e r e p is o d e s

b e y o n d in f o r m a t io n d ir e c t ly r e le v a n t t o h is life . O u t o f 1 0 1 p a g e s , o n ly th e

fir s t d e a ls w it h h is v o w t o b e c o m e a B u d d h a d u r in g h is life a s t h e h e r m it

T h u - m e i - d a a n d t h e la s t p a g e d e a ls w it h h is r e lic s in t h e R a n g o o n

S h w e d a g o n P a g o d a : t h e r e s t d e a ls w it h h is life d ir e c t ly . Y e t t h e t e r m bok-
da win c a n a ls o r e f e r to t h e lin e a g e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r B u d d h a s , in w h ic h

c a s e th e p r e f ix B u d d h a s h o u ld b e r e a d in t h e p lu r a l. F u r t h e r m o r e , w h e n th e

t e r m dispensation is a d d e d , a s in bok-da tha-tha-na win, I m a y fin d a c o m b i­

n a t io n o f a b io g r a p h y o f t h e B u d d h a a n d t h e h is t o r y o f t h e r e lig io n u n t il

t h e p r e s e n t . F o r e x a m p le , in Z a - n a - k a ( 1 9 5 1 ) t w o p a g e s a r e d e v o t e d t o th e

B u d d h a ’s p r e v io u s life a s T h u - m e i - d a w h o g iv e s a w a y h is w e a lt h a n d , a s a
h e r m it , p r o s t r a t e s h im s e lf in f r o n t o f t h e t h e n B u d d h a , f o r t y - n in e p a g e s to

G o t a m a ’s b ir t h a n d h is life , s e v e n p a g e s t o t h e d is t r ib u t io n o f h is r e lic s a n d

t h e c o u n c ils a ft e r h is d e m is e , a n d a fin a l s ix p a g e s t o B u d d h is m in B u r m a .

B u t t h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t, w h e n u s e d in th e s e n s e o f D a - m a - r e ik - h k i - t a ,

( 1 9 8 0 ) t h e t e r m bok-da win, w h ic h s t r ic t ly s p e a k in g m e a n s “ h is t o r y o f th e

B u d d h a ,” is t h e b io g r a p h y o f G o t a m a B u d d h a o n ly ( w it h o u t t h e s t o r y o f

o t h e r B u d d h a s ) a n d w it h o u t th e a d d it io n a l h is t o r y . U s e o f th e t e r m win in

t h e s e n s e o f “ b io g r a p h y ” is n o t a c c e p t a b le r e f e r e n c e t o th e b io g r a p h y o f

a n y o n e e ls e b u t t h e B u d d h a .

I s u g g e s t , t h e r e fo r e , t h a t th e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y is c o n c e iv e d a s b o t h a

h is t o r y a n d a b io g r a p h y . I f t h is is t o b e in t e r p r e t e d a s a r o le m o d e l f o r

B u r m e s e b io g r a p h ie s , I m a y a s k w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e a s p ir a t io n s h e r e t o b e a

“ h is t o r y ” t o o . I n d e e d , t h e r e is s o m e e v id e n c e t o s u g g e s t th a t t h is is t h e c a s e .

T h e o n e e v o lv e s a lm o s t s u r r e p t it io u s ly f r o m t h e o t h e r . B u r m e s e B u d d h is t

lit e r a t u r e r e c o g n iz e s t w o d iffe r e n t t y p e s o f b io g r a p h ic a l d e s c r ip t io n . T h e

fir s t , w it h t h e s u f fix htok-pat-ti', i m p l i e s t h e s t o r y o f t h e in d iv id u a l w h o s e

n a m e p r e c e d e s t h e s u f f i x , a s i n M a-ha-si htei-rok-pat-ti, t h e b io g r a p h y o f th e

v e n e r a b le M a h a s i. H e r e t h e s t o r y is r e c o u n t e d w it h t h e p e r s o n a s a f o c u s ,

t h o u g h it m a y , a s w it h B K , q u it e r e a d ily d e p a r t in t o t h e h is t o r ic a l r e a lm s

a w a y f r o m t h e p e r s o n a s a n in d iv id u a l a n d ju s t s e e k t o u n d e r s t a n d th e o r ig ­

in a t io n o f h is s p ir it u a lit y d e e p in t o t h e p a s t, a n d / o r h is h is t o r ic a l in f lu e n c e

o n o t h e r s .

T h e s e c o n d t y p e o f d e s c r ip t io n , w it h th e s u f fix win, im p lie s a s u c c e s ­

s io n o f b io g r a p h ie s r e la t e d b y lin e a g e t o a m a in p e r s o n a g e . D e r i v e d f r o m

wun-tha (P . vamsa), i.e ., “ r a c e ,” “ lin e a g e ,” “ t r a d it io n ,” “ d y n a s t y ,” “ s p ir it u a l

lin e a g e ,” o r “ h is t o r y o f p e r s o n s o r p la c e s ,” t h e t e r m win it s e lf h a s c o m e to

m e a n h is t o r y . I h a v e a ls o n o t e d th a t Bok-da-win is s o m e t im e s e x c e p t io n a lly

u s e d t o r e fe r t o a s in g le b i o g r a p h y ,90 a n d m a y b e u s e d (a p a r t f r o m m e a n in g

“ b io g r a p h y ” in t h e c a s e o f t h e B u d d h a ) t o r e f e r t o t h e lin e a g e o f t h e

t w e n t y - f o u r B u d d h a s w h o p r e c e d e d G o t a m a B u d d h a a n d n o t ju s t t o h is life

a s G o t a m a , c o n n e c t e d t o o n e a n o t h e r b y v o w s t o b e c o m e B u d d h a s t a k e n

in t h e p r e s e n c e o f p r e v io u s B u d d h a s . H e r e it is u s e d in t h e s e n s e o f a c o m ­

p il a t io n o f b io g r a p h i e s w it h in a lin e a g e . I n t h is w a y , t h e b io g r a p h ie s

in c lu d e d in t h e tha-tha-na win r e fle c t a n o r d e r e d h is t o r ic a l s u c c e s s io n o f p e r ­

s o n s r e la t e d b y p u p ila g e to a s in g le t e a c h e r .91

T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t s o m e t im e s t h e “ h i s t o r y ” (win) is c o m p o s e d

b e f o r e t h e “ b io g r a p h y ” (at-htok-pat-ti) o f its f o u n d e r is is s u e d a s a s e p a r a t e

d o c u m e n t . In t h is w a y , t h e b io g r a p h y o f t h e M a h a s i, th e c h i e f m o n k o f o n e

o f th e b ig g e s t in s ig h t a s s o c ia t io n s in B u r m a , w a s fir s t p u b lis h e d in 1 9 7 4 in

t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a m b it io u s History o f Practice (pa-di-pat-ti tha-tha-na win),

w h i c h s t r u n g t o g e t h e r h is b io g r a p h y w it h 1 8 6 b r i e f b io g r a p h ie s o f h is

p u p ils w h o w e r e t e a c h in g a t in s ig h t c e n t e r s a ll o v e r t h e c o u n t r y .92 H is
b io g r a p h y w a s p u b lis h e d o n ly m u c h la t e r in 1 9 8 2 , s e p a r a t e ly a s a b io g r a p h y

in t h e fir s t s e n s e , n a m e ly a s a htei-rok-pat-ti (in m u c h t h e s a m e f o r m a t ) . 93

W h ile M a h a s i ’s b io g r a p h y w a s in it ia lly p u b lis h e d a s a p r e lu d e t o m a n y

s u b s e q u e n t b io g r a p h ie s , a s t h e lin e a g e ’s s t a n d a r d o n ly t o b e p u b lis h e d la t e r

a s a s e p a r a t e b io g r a p h y , t h e B K t r a d it io n , in c o n t r a s t , la c k s a n y c o n s is t e n t

r e c o r d o f a p r e c e d in g s e p a r a t e “ lin e a g e .” T h e r e is o n ly o n e d o c u m e n t b y

K o L e i, w h ic h h a p p e n s to b e a “ b io g r a p h y ” b u t m u s t a t t h e s a m e t im e

a d d r e s s t h e h is t o r ic a l d im e n s io n s o f t h e B K h e r it a g e .

I d o n o t h e r e w is h to s u g g e s t th a t v e r n a c u la r b io g r a p h y (,at-htok-pat-ti)
a lw a y s e v o lv e s f r o m a p r io r v e r n a c u la r h is t o r y (win). It is , f o r e x a m p le ,

q u it e p o s s ib le f o r b io g r a p h ie s t o p r e c e d e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a v e r n a c u la r

h is t o r y . I n d e e d , H t e i H la in g ( 1 9 8 1 ) a n d W i- t h o k - d i ( 1 9 7 6 ) 94 c h r o n ic le d

th e t r a d it io n o f p r a c t ic e in B u r m a b y s u m m a r iz in g f r o m p r e e x is t in g b io g r a ­

p h ie s o f m o n k s a n d la y p e o p le r e n o w n e d f o r t h e ir p r a c t ic e . W h a t I d o s u g ­

g e s t , h o w e v e r , is t h a t v e r n a c u l a r b io g r a p h y s t r e s s e s t h e h is t o r ic a l

d im e n s io n s o f its s u b je c t a n d th a t it is in th e n a t u r e o f t h e B u d d h is t t r a d i­

t io n t o e m p h a s iz e h is t o r ic a l c o n t in u it y o f th e s u b je c t a s e a r ly a s p o s s ib le ,

w it h o u t w h i c h a b io g r a p h y c a n n o t b e a c r e d ib le p r o p o s it io n . T h e B K

b io g r a p h y , b y h a v in g n o p r e c e d in g “ h is t o r y ” (win) p u b lis h e d , s e r v e s n o t

o n ly a s a b io g r a p h y in t h e n a r r o w s e n s e o f r e c o r d in g s o m e o n e ’ s life , b u t as

a b io g r a p h y in th e w id e - r a n g in g B u r m e s e s e n s e o f at-htok-pat-ti, m e a n in g a

d e s c r ip t io n o f t h e c o n t in u it y o f h is t e a c h in g s w it h t h e p a s t, a n d o f h is h e r ­

it a g e a m o n g s t h is p u p ils . In o t h e r w o r d s , it is b io g r a p h y a s w e ll a s h is t o r y in

th e v e r n a c u la r s e n s e . 95

C o n clu sio n
K in d a ll a r g u e d th a t “ b io g r a p h y a s a n in d e p e n d e n t a r t f o r m , w it h its c o n ­

c e n t r a t io n u p o n t h e in d iv id u a l life a n d its c u r io s it y a b o u t t h e in d iv id u a l

p e r s o n a lit y , is e s s e n t ia lly t h e c r e a t io n o f W e s t e r n m a n .” H e fu r t h e r m o r e

s u g g e s t s th a t in A s ia , a n d in p a r t ic u la r in C h in a a n d J a p a n , b io g r a p h y d e v e l­

o p e d a s a b y - p r o d u c t o f h is t o r ic a l w r it in g , s o th a t “ b io g r a p h ic a l lit e r a t u r e

d o e s n o t s h o w t h e d e v e lo p m e n t , n o r a s s u m e th e im p o r t a n c e , o f W e s t e r n

life w r i t i n g . ” 96

W h e n w e lo o k a t B u r m a , K in d a ll’s s t a t e m e n t w o u l d , a t fir s t s ig h t ,

a p p e a r t o b e v a lid . It is u n d o u b t e d ly t r u e , a s I h a v e n o t e d in t h e c a s e o f th e

B K b io g r a p h y , th a t t h e r e is a n e m p h a s is o n h is t o r y in t h is b io g r a p h y . It is

a ls o t r u e th a t t h e d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n b io g r a p h y a n d h is t o r y is n o t s e lf-

e v id e n t . B u t o n c e t h e v e r n a c u la r c a t e g o r ie s a r e c o n s id e r e d in s o m e d e t a il, I

fin d th a t w h a t B u r m e s e m ig h t r e fe r t o a s “ b io g r a p h y ” I w o u l d o ft e n p r e f e r

t o c a ll “ lin e a g e h is t o r y .” C o n v e r s e ly , w h a t B u r m e s e c a ll “ h is t o r y ” c o u ld

r e a d ily b e in t e r p r e t e d a s a f o r m o f b io g r a p h y .
 A s t h e B K b io g r a p h y s h o w s , t h e r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n h is t o r y a n d

b io g r a p h y c a n e v id e n t ly b e c o n c e i v e d in v a r io u s w a y s . B io g r a p h ie s o f

in s ig h t t e a c h e r s d o c u m e n t c o n t in u it y a n d s e e k t o le g it im iz e t h e n e w lin ­

e a g e t h e s e t e a c h e r s e n g e n d e r . In b u i ld in g u p o n R e y n o l d s ( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d

T a m b ia h (198 4), I s u g g e s t t h a t, o n c e t h e in t e r e s t in a p e r s o n ’s life p e r s is ts ,

t h is life b e c o m e s r e w r it t e n a s t h e f o c a l p o in t o f a lin e a g e s t r u n g t o g e t h e r in

t h e f o r m o f m u lt ip le lin k e d b io g r a p h ie s c a lle d tha-tha-na win, w h ic h m a y

( a n d it is p r o b a b ly th e a u t h o r ’ s in t e n t io n th a t t h e y s h o u ld ) b e c o m e n a t io n a l

h is t o r ie s . T h e B K a n d M a h a s i b io g r a p h ie s illu s t r a t e in t e r s e c t io n s a lo n g

th e s e t r a je c t o r ie s o f at-htok-pat-ti, w h e r e in d iv id u a l p e r s o n s a r e te a s e d o u t o f

t h e ir “ in d iv id u a lit y ” in th e h e r e a n d n o w to t r a n s c e n d th e c o n t e m p o r a r y

w o r ld a n d t o b e c o m e a f o r c e in h is t o r y . A s u c c e s s fu l b io g r a p h y h e r e is o n e

th a t c a n c o n v in c e th e r e a d e r s h ip o f th e c la im t o a lo n g h is t o r ic a l p e r io d o f

in f lu e n c e o n t h e s u b je c t , a n d b y th e s u b je c t o n o t h e r s . T o t h is e x t e n t , t h e n ,

v e r n a c u la r b io g r a p h y b o t h e n c o m p a s s e s a n d is e n c o m p a s s e d b y v e r n a c u la r

h is t o r y , a n d a s t r ic t t y p o lo g ic a l d is t in c t io n b e t w e e n t h e t w o is fa ls e . T h e s e

a r e n o t d is c r e t e , b o u n d e d g e n r e s , b u t “ d is p e r s e d ” g e n r e s a lw a y s in t h e

p r o c e s s o f e v o l v i n g f r o m o n e in t o t h e o t h e r .

It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r t h a t K in d a ll’ s t w o p r e m is e s s h o u ld b e q u a li­

fie d a s f o llo w s . F ir s t, it is n o t th a t B u r m e s e b io g r a p h ic a l w r it in g is a b y ­

p r o d u c t o f h is t o r ic a l w r it in g ; in s t e a d , it r e p r e s e n t s a n a p p e a l fo r le g it im a c y

o f its s u b je c t w h ic h , b y v ir t u e o f t h e n a t u r e o f B u d d h is m , m u s t b e r o o t e d

in a h is t o r ic a l d is c o u r s e a b o u t lin e a g e a n d s p ir it u a l c o n t in u it y . S e c o n d , it is

n o t th a t b io g r a p h ic a l w r it in g is a n y le s s im p o r t a n t in B u r m e s e lit e r a t u r e a s

c o m p a r e d to W e s t e r n lit e r a t u r e ; in s t e a d , it is th a t t h e y b o t h i n v o l v e a n

e n t ir e ly d iffe r e n t g e n r e b a s e d o n d if f e r e n t c o n c e p t io n s o f life a n d h is t o r y .

T h e B u r m e s e c o n c e p t in c o r p o r a t e s a n im a t e a s w e ll a s in a n im a t e s u b je c t s

a n d , b y v ir t u e o f p e r c e iv in g life a s d is p e r s e d a c r o s s d iffe r e n t s p e c ie s a n d

liv e s , ta k e s p o t e n t ia lly a b r o a d e r “ h is t o r ic a l” t im e s c a le in v ie w .

T h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e , o f c o u r s e , la r g e ly m o d e r a t e d b y s e c u la r e d u c a t io n

in t r o d u c e d in th e c o u r s e o f t h is c e n t u r y , w h e n t h e g e n r e s o f “ b io g r a p h y ”

a n d “ h is t o r y ” c a m e t o b e r e d e fin e d in B u r m a m u c h a lo n g t h e lin e s s u p ­

p o r t e d b y t h e W e s t e r n s y lla b u s in t r o d u c e d in t o t h e s c h o o ls a n d u n iv e r s it ie s .

N e v e r t h e le s s , t h e w a y B u d d h is t t e a c h e r s s u c h a s B K a r e h is t o r ic iz e d in t h e ir

b io g r a p h ie s is b o u n d u p w it h t h e h is t o r ic a l n a t u r e o f B u r m e s e B u d d h is m .

In fa c t , t h e t e n d e n c y t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e s u b je c t a s a h is t o r ic a l d is p e r s e d in d i­

v id u a l is s t ill e v id e n t in t h e B u r m e s e c la s s ific a t io n o f “ B u d d h is t .” D if fe r e n t

v e r n a c u la r t e r m s h a v e c o m e t o b e u s e d t o d e s ig n a t e d if f e r e n t c la s s e s o f

B u d d h is t , d e p e n d in g o n h o w p u r e a n d h o w h is t o r ic a lly c lo s e t h e p e r s o n is

t o t h e B u d d h a ’ s t e a c h in g s in t e r m s o f o r d in a t io n a n d m e n t a l c u lt u r e .

B u d d h is t s a r e d e s ig n a t e d e it h e r a s “ in s id e B u d d h i s m ” ( bok-da tha-tha-na
win) o r “ in s id e B u d d h e n d o m ” ( bok-da ba-tha win).97 T h e fir s t is c lo s e s t to
th e o r ig in a l h is t o r ic a l s o u r c e in o r d in a t io n , in t e r p r e t a t io n , a n d p r a c t ic e .

T h e la s t is m o r e d is t a n t, h a v in g b e e n in h e r it e d t h r o u g h c o n v e n t io n , b ir t h ,

a n d p a r e n t a l e d u c a t io n . T h e p o in t t o n o t e h e r e is th a t th e t e r m win h a s a

d o u b le m e a n in g . F ir s t , it m e a n s s o m e t im e s “ h is t o r y ,” w h e n a h is t o r ic a l

s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s is r e c o u n t e d w it h r e f e r e n c e t o e it h e r t h e B u d d h a ’s

t e a c h in g s ( tha-tha-na win ) o r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t io n s o f r u le r s ( ya-za win).

S e c o n d , t h e t e r m win i s u s e d s o m e t im e s t o r e f e r t o a “ c o r e ” B u d d h is t b y

o r d in a t io n o r a c t io n ( e .g ., m e n t a l c u lt u r e ) , a s in tha-tha-na win. I f t h e fir s t

ta k e s win in th e s e n s e o f P a li vamsa, w h i c h im p lie s a s u c c e s s io n o f g e n e r a ­

t io n s a n d th e s o u r c e o f t h is , t h e s e c o n d r e fe r s to a n in d iv id u a l m e m b e r

“ w it h in ” t h is h is t o r y (a s in “ P a r t y m e m b e r ,” pa-ti win). T h e t e n d e n c y

t o w a r d h is t o r ic iz in g B K is t h e r e f o r e n o t ju s t a n o t h e r d e v ic e o f t h e b io g r a ­

p h e r , b u t it is g e n e r ic t o t h e d e fin it io n o f “ B u d d h is t ,” s o m u c h s o th a t, f o r

a n in d iv id u a l t o b e a t r u e B u d d h is t , t h e y h a v e t o b e d e s ig n a t e d a s a n i n c u m ­

b e n t in a h is t o r ic a l t r a d it io n . T h is r e in f o r c e s t h e v ie w t h a t I h a v e a lr e a d y

d e v e lo p e d h e r e , w h ic h is r e f le c t e d in t h e B u r m e s e g e n r e s o f “ b io g r a p h y ”

a n d “ h is t o r y ,” n a m e ly th a t t h e r e is a n o v e r a ll e m p h a s is o n s it u a t in g th e

B u d d h is t s u b je c t in a lo n g h is t o r y , in h is t o r ic iz in g t h e B u d d h is t .

R e y n o l d s s h o w e d in h is a n a ly s is o f th e B u d d h a b io g r a p h y h o w a g r a d ­

u a l p r o c e s s o f in c o r p o r a t in g n e w e le m e n t s o v e r t im e c u lm in a t e d e v e n t u a lly

in f u ll- lif e s t o r ie s o f t h e B u d d h a . T h e r e is o n e im p o r t a n t p o in t e a s ily o v e r ­

lo o k e d in th e o v e r w h e l m i n g d e t a il o f t h is p r o c e s s . T h e B u d d h a ’s la s t life a s

G o t a m a s e e m s t o h a v e r e c e iv e d le s s a t t e n t io n in t h e e a r ly b io g r a p h ic a l

m a t e r ia l e x t a n t th a n d id th e a c c o u n t s o f p r e v io u s B u d d h a s in th e lin e a g e o f

B u d d h a s a n d G o t a m a ’s p r e v io u s liv e s . P e r h a p s , a s in t h e B K b io g r a p h y , th e

p r e s u m p t io n th a t r e a liz a t io n o f n o - s e l f h a s b e e n a t t a in e d in m e n t a l c u lt u r e

c a n o n ly le a d to b io g r a p h ie s th a t s t e p b e y o n d th e lim it s o f in d iv id u a lit y s e t

b y th e s e c u la r - lit e r a r y c r it e r ia d is c u s s e d in t h is e s s a y .

A c k n o w le d g m e n t s

I w o u ld lik e t o t h a n k a n u m b e r o f p e o p le f o r t h e ir h e lp a n d s t im u la t in g d is ­

c u s s io n ( b u t I a m n o t im p ly in g th a t t h e y n e c e s s a r ily a g r e e w it h t h is e s s a y ):

U H la P e , R ic h a r d B u r g h a r t , M ic h a e l C a r r it h e r s , C h a r le s H a llis e y , M a r k

H o b a r t , J o h n K n ig h t , K h in N y o , L a n s C o u s in s , a n d D o m in iq u e R e m a r s . I

a m g r a t e fu l t o t h e L e a c h - R A I F e llo w s h ip f o r a s s is ta n c e in c o m p le t in g th is

e s s a y .

N o te s
i. Though biography, in the general sense o f “ human document,” goes back
to the most ancient o f times, most who look at the history o f biography
 have pointed at the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a watershed.
Ken Plummer, Documents o f Life: An Introduction to the Problems and
Literature o f a Humanistic Method (London and Boston: George Allen and
Unwin, 1983), p. 8, suggests that, although autobiography goes back to
Egyptian tomb inscriptions and oral history, the sense o f individualism that
arose in the eighteenth century provided a new sense o f biography much
in the way Lionel Trilling (Sincerity and Authenticity [Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1972], p. 42) said that “ at a certain point in history men
became individuals.” At this point in time people “ start to develop fully a
sense o f themselves as objects o f introspection, o f interest, o f value, when
the individual begins to brood and reflect over his or her inner nature; a
time when the individual starts to retreat from the public life into the
realms o f privacy— the inner thought, the private home, the real self.”
Boswell’s Life o f Samuel Johnson (1791) in particular stands out as the most
eloquent example o f biography. R . Gittings ( The Nature o f Biography
[London: Heinemann, 1978], p. 35) suggested that biography failed to
develop as a distinctive form until the Victorian era, with the writings o f
Carlyle, Mrs. Gaskell, and Lytton Strachey.
2. Paul M. Kindall, “ Biography” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed.,
Macropaedia, vol. 2, 1980), p. 1 0 1 1 .
3. Ibid.
4. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).
5. W. R . Siebenschuh, “ Biography” (American Academic Encyclopedia,
CompuServe, 4/28/91).
6. The romanization o f Burmese adopted here is the conventional
transcription with accented tones as developed in John Okell, A Guide to
the Romanization o f Burmese (James G. Forlong Fund, vol. 27 [London:
Royal Asiatic Society, 19 71], pp. 66-67).
7. The Burmese term has been used in relation to a hill, as in “ The
biography o f Pok-pa hill” (Pok-pa-taung i at-htok-pat-ti) by Tha Tin, Hsei-
hsa-ya-gyi and U Ba Sein (n.p., n.d.).
8. G. Houtman, “ Traditions o f Buddhist Practice in Burma” (Ph.D. diss.,
University o f London, 1990), pp. 326—37.
9. The implications o f the vernacular terminology for “ Buddhism” and
“ Buddhist” from the perspective o f this new-Buddhist movement have
been analyzed in G. Houtman, “ H ow a Foreigner invented Buddhendom
in Burmese: from tha-tha-na to bok-da ba-tha” (Journal o f the Anthropological
Society at Oxford, vol. 2 1/2 , 1991).
10. Ko Lei, U (see also under pen-name Zei-ya Maung), Myan-ma-gon-zaung-
pok-ko-htii Hsa-ya-gyi U Ba Hkin at-htok-pat-ti httin tha-tha-na-pyu lok-ngan-
tnyh [Burma’s special person glorious Hsa-ya-gyi U Ba Hkin, his
biography and missionary works] (Rangoon: Ngwei-sa-yin min-gyi-yon
Wi-pat-tha-na A-hpwe, 1980), cited hereafter as KL.
11. The Le-di Hsa-ya-daw (1846—1923) was a famous monk-scholar who,
although he did not set up dedicated meditation centers, was extremely
 influential in the meditation traditions o f Burma. He taught many monks
and some lay people who went on to found meditation centers
throughout the country.
12. The Wei-bu Hsa-ya-daw (1896—1977) was a famous meditation teacher.
13. KL (1980, p. i).
14. See Houtman (1990, 204-205).
15. KL, pp. 9, 66, 160.
16. Ibid., pp. 2 4 5 -3 2 1.
17. Ibid., pp. 261-26 6.
18. Ibid., p. 294.
19. Ibid., pp. 66-88.
20. We do not know what kind o f broker his father was.
2 1. KL, p. 67.
22. Ibid., p. 591.
23. Ibid., p. 76.
24. A -bi da-ma pyan pwa yet A-thin.
25. KL (1980, p. 76).
26. Ibid., p. 591.
27. It should be noted that B K ’s leave for meditation was taken three months
before the accountancy office was to be separated from India, which may
not have been a coincidence.
28. Ta-bet-hpyu, for which another word is law-bet. Commonly put on during
Buddhist duty day.
29. In Burma, abbots are popularly known by the name o f the region in
which they reside. Hence, the Wei-bu Hsa-ya-daw derives his name from
a nearby mountain spur.
30. “ A white cloth” is peik-hpyu le-pi; KL (1980, p. 83).
3 1. The designation o f U Ba Khin as a “ guru” in Burmese is interesting, as it
is not a Burmese term and not normally used to address a teacher.
However, as explained in this essay, U Ba Khin worked in an “ Indian”
office that he eventually transformed into a “ Burmese” one. But he was a
teacher to some Indians, and many foreigners who came to Burma were
more comfortable with the Indian designations than with the Burmese
“ Hsa-ya-gyi.”
32. During the period ofjapanese occupation (1942-19 45), BK was director
o f the Accountants and Auditors Department (KL 1980, p. 592).
33. Ibid., p. 592.
34. The name o f the hill was A -z a -n i Kon.
35. KL (1980, p. 359).
36. This association, known as Bok-da-tha-tha-na a-kyo-hsaung A-thin, was
founded on November 10, 1950; it counted 497 members, o f which 24
were officials (KL 1980, p. 592).
37. Ngwei-sa-yin-min-gyi-yon Wi-pat-tha-na-dat-pyin-ya A-hpwe.
38. Weik-za-dat a-htu.
39. KL (1980, p. 99).
40. Ngwei-sa-yin min-gyi-ydn Wi-pat-tha-na A-hpwe.
41. A-pyi-byi-hsaing-ya Pa-di-pat-ti-lok-ngan Hta-na (KL 1980, p. 100).
42. He was still head o f the Department o f Merchandise and Crops, head o f
the Traffic Auditors, and head o f the Accountancy School.
43. K L (1980, p. 405).
44. The term pa-rx-neik-ban san thi is not used for death.
45. K L (1980, p. 440).
46. Ibid., p. 437.
47. Other episodes on B K ’s life include: a subsection on “ the looking for a
place and the building” (KL 1980, pp. 98—100); an episode in the chapter
on the relationship between the biographer and B K (chap. 6); on the
deteriorating health, death, and subsequent commemoration o f B K (chaps.
8,9); and on the contents o f his preaching (chap. 11). Elsewhere I
identified three pervasive themes both in this and in the biography o f the
Ma-ha-si Hsa-ya-daw: namely, the distinction between different forms o f
Buddhist action, in particular between scriptural learning (pa-ri-yat-ti) and
practice {pa-dt-pat-ti); the foreigner and the notion o f “ globality” ; and the
master-pupil relationship and the notion o f “ lineage” (Houtman 1990,
p. 2 14 -2 33).
48. Frank Reynolds, introduction to “ The Many Lives o f Buddha: A Study o f
Sacred Biography and Theravada Tradition,” in The Biographical Process:
Studies in the History o f the Psychology o f Religion, ed. F. E. Reynolds and
D. Capps (The Hague: Mouton, 1976).
49. Ibid., p. 5.
50. Ibid.
51. E . g . , K L (1980, pp. i, iii, 83, 375).
52. Ibid., pp. 373, 393, 440.
53. Ibid., pp. 42, 278.
54. Ibid., p. 462.
55. A Burmese friend interpreted this halo as a “ clever” presentation,
because— with U Ba Khin sitting outside— it could also be interpreted as
the full moon appearing behind him.
56. K L (1980, p. 439).
57. Ira Bruce Nadel, Biography: Fiction, Fact and Form (London: Macmillan
Press, 1984), p. 6.
58. Reynolds (1976, p. 4).
59. The story o f Thu-mei-da and Di-pin-ka-ra forms the first couple o f
illustrations in a book about the Buddha’s life by Da-ma-reik-hki-ta, Bok-
da-win-yok-pon [Illustrated life o f the Buddha] (Rangoon: Sa-be-u, 1980),
pp. 5—6, and in a book by Bi-wun-tha Za-na-ka, Yok-son bok-da-tha-tha-na
win [An illustrated history o f Buddhism] (Rangoon: Y M B A , 19 51). In
both o f these the Gotama Buddha-to-be lies across a ditch with flowers
held up high in offering to the previous Buddha, who walks over him.
Both have the distribution o f the relics and the way Rangoon Shwedagon
commemorates these, but only the latter has the story o f the Councils.
60. These interpretations come from two works on the practice tradition:
Da-ma-sa-ri-ya U Htei Hlaing, Myan-ma Naing-tigan pa-di-pat-ti tha-tha-na-
win: ya-hhn-da hnin pok-ko htu tnyci [History o f the Burmese practice
tradition: enlightened and special persons] Rangoon: Bok-da A-than Sa-bei,
1981) p. 12; and Thi-la-nan-da (1979, p. i). See Houtman (1990, p. 76—96).
6 1. KL (1980, pp. ix-x).
62. I am indebted for my understanding o f early Burmese biographical
literature in particular to Prof. Em. Hla Pe, “ Burmese Literature”
(typescript submitted to Letteratura d ’ Oriente, n.d.) and U Hla Kyaing,
Myan-ma at-htok-pat-ti tha-maing [The history o f Burmese biography] in
At-htok-pat-ti sa-bei-hnt-hnciw hpa-hle-bwe sa-dcin [Proceedings o f the
conference on biography] (Rangoon: Sa-bei Beik-man, 19 71), pp. 1 —39.
63. Hla Tha-mein, Myan-ma Naing-gan gan-da-win pok-ko-gyaw-mya at-htok-pat-
ti [Collected biographies o f famous authors from Burma] (Rangoon:
Han-tha-wa-di, 1961), p. nya and Nei-yin U Kaw-wi-da, Mo-hnyin Ma-
ha-htei-ra-pa-dan [Biography o f the M o-hnyin Hsa-ya-daw], 1st ed.
(Rangoon: N ei-yin U Ka-wi-da, 19 71), p. xiv. This is the main biography
o f a meditation teacher pupil o f the Le-di Hsa-ya-daw, which includes an
astrological chart on pp. 1 5 - 16 .
64. At-htok-pat-ti, Myan-ma swe-zon kycin [MSK] [Burmese encyclopaedia],
vol. 15/19 7 6 , compiled by Myan-ma Naing-gan Ba-tha-byan Sa-bei A -
thin (Rangoon: Sa-bei Beik-man Pon-hneik-daik), pp. 353-354 .
65. Pali atthupatti, “ sense, meaning, explanation, interpretation” (T. W. Rhys-
Davids and William Stede, Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary
(London: Pali Text Society, 19 2 1- 19 2 5 , reprint, 1979. Rhys-Davids &
Stede suggested P. attha means “ interest, advantage, gain; (moral) good,
blessing, welfare; profit, prosperity, well-being,” which is also used to refer
to interpretation according to the “ letter” (P. attha) as opposed to the
“ spirit” (dhamma) o f a particular passage. Htun Myin in Pa-li thet waw-ha-ra
a-bi-dan [A dictionary o f Pali loanwords] (Rangoon!?]: Tek-ga-tho-mya
sa-ok-pyu-su htok-wei-yei kaw-mi-ti, sa-zin 3 1, 1968), pp. 460, 461,
translates at-hta as meaning a-kyas'ng a-ya, for which J. A. Stewart and
C. W. Dunn in A Bunnese-English Dictionary (London: Luzac and Co
(pts. I—II), SO AS (pts. Ill—V I), 1940—1981) give “ the facts.” Htun Myin
(1986) translates at-htok-pat-ti as hpyit-zin, meaning “ occurrence,” “ event,”
or “ happening.” Biographies are sometimes not referred to in the title as
either htei-rok-pat-ti or at-htok-pat-ti, but simply as “ his life” (thu ba-wa), as
is the case for example with Htei Hlaing, Da-ma-sa-ri-ya U (A-na-gati
Hsa-ya lliet-gyi thu ba-wa, thu-ta-ya hnin thu kyei-zu [He who has introduced
Burma to the world— A-na-gan Hsa-ya Thet-gyi, his life, his teachings, and his
grace] Rangoon: Ni-thit Sa-ok-daik, 1978).
66. U Paw U, Pok-pa-taung-ka-lat weik-za-do Aung Min Gaung i htwet-yak-pauk
ya-za-win at-htok-pat-ti (Rangoon: Mi-ba Myit-ta Pon-hneik-daik, 1952);
Pa-hta-ma-gyaw U Sein Gan, Bo Bo Aung at-htok-pat-ti hnin ko-gwe-ni
(Rangoon: Myan-ma-yok-shin-sa Pon-hneik-daik, n.d.).
67. U Maung Gyi, Weik-za-do Aung M in Gaung i htwet-yak-pauk ya-za-win at-
htok-pat-ti (Rangoon: Mi-ba-myit-ta Pon-hneik-daik, 1952).
68. Thi-la-nan-da (1979, p. 8).
69. Examples o f the term at-htok-pat-ti are as follows: “ as for the history o f a
country, these are the records o f a country’s at-htok-pat-ti or past
happenings” (Nain-ngan-tha-maing hso-thi-hma naing-ngan i at-htok-pat-ti”
(wa) shei-hasng-hnasng hpyit-do-go yei-hmat-htci-thi hmat-tan-bin hpyit thi,
M S K vol 6, p. 110 ); “ the at-htok-pat-ti and circumstances o f printing the
dictionary” (A-bi-dan yaik-hneik-gyin at-htok-pat-ti), which refers to the
Pali Dictionary on which the Le-di Hsa-ya-daw had been commissioned
to work by Western Pali scholars (Le-di U , Wun-ni-ta Le-di Hsa-ya-daw
Ma-ha-htei-myat-gyi i ma-ha-htei-rok-pat-ti-ga-hta [The biography o f the
Le-di Hsa-ya-daw], [Rangoon: Han-tha-wa-di, 1956], p. 19 1); or in the
title “ The history o f events relating to the B T N A organization o f the
Union o f Burma” (Pyei-daung-zu Myan-ma-naing-ngan-daw Bok-da Tha-
tha-na Nok-ga-ha A-hpwe at-htok-pat-ti tha-maing). It is used as “ fact” in:
“ considering the facts that the eyes are staring and do not wink, he must
be the god Sakka.” It is used in the sense o f “ statement o f facts” in “ they
told (the King) where his (Mahosadha’s) parents dwelt and all about them
and his age.”
70. Karl Beckson and Arthur Ganz, Literary Terms: A Dictionary, 3rd ed.
(London: Andre Deutsch, 1990).
7 1. Michel Foucault, “ What Is an Author,” in Language, Counter-Memory, and
Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews, ed. Donald F. Bouchard (Oxford:
Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 1 1 3 - 1 3 8 . A. O. J. Cockshut, The Art of
Autobiography in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century England (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1984), p. 13.
72. Nadel (1984, p. 5) emphasizes this when he says, “ The importance o f fact
in biography corresponds with the seventeenth-century rise o f science, the
eighteenth-century emergence o f empiricism, the nineteenth-century
dominance by history and the modem emphasis on individual experience
rather than a collective tradition. . . . Facts, evidence, establish the
authenticity o f a life, as realism— aligned with objectivity— replaces
romance.”
73. See Houtman (1990, pp. 326-327).
74. Plummer (1983, p. 10).
75. Houtman (1990, p. 326—337).
76. Reynolds (1976, p. 55).
77. Stanley Jeyaraj a Tambiah, The Buddhist Saints o f the Forest and the Cult of
Amulets (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 16 -19 .
78. Ibid., pp. 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 .
79. Ibid., p. 19.
80. G. E. Harvey, History o f Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 18 24 ,
the Beginning o f the English Conquest (London: Longmans, 1925), p. xvii.
81. Ibid., p. 5.
82. G. H. Luce, “ Old Kyauske and the Coming o f the Burmans, ’’ Journal of
Burma Research Society, vol. 63 (1959), p. 000.
83. For the debate about the merits o f colonial versus Burmese vernacular
history, see Htin Aung, Burmese History Before 12 8 7 : A Defense of the
Chronicles (Oxford: The Asoka Society, 1970).
84. This so-called “ biographical view o f history” is not unique to Burmese or
Thai history. The practice by Western writers o f dating events from the
time o f Christ’s birth is thought to have originated with the
Chronographia (Chronicle) o f Eusebius at its earliest, a Latin adaptation by
St. Jerome, and the influential Bede’s (672—735) “ Ecclesiastical History o f
the English People.” With these genres, local history came to be dated
from and inextricably bound up with the life o f Christ.
85. R . G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1983), P- 394 -
86. Ibid., pp. 1 0 - 1 1 , 302.
87. E.g., E. H. Carr, What Is History?, 2nd ed. (London: Penguin Books,
1990), p. 165.
88. Paul Thompson, The Voice o f the Past: Oral History, 2nd ed. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1988).
89. See also A. J. Minnis, Medieval Theory of Authorship: Scholastic Literary
Attitudes in the Later Middle Ages, 2nd ed. (Aldershot: Wildwood House,
1988), p. 5, who describes how between the twelfth and the thirteenth
centuries commentators o f the Bible began to view texts as creations not
o f the divine author, but o f human authors, so that the interest changed
from a “ literal” to a “ literary” interest.
90. The term urin could refer, as noted above, to history in a much wider sense
when prefixed with other terms. Most o f the information about Burmese
history is derived from the win. Nine traditional categories mentioned
include: (1) the lineage o f the Buddhas (bok-da win)', (2) the lineage o f the
Buddha’s relatives (ma-ha urin); (3) the lineage o f kings (ya-za urin);
(4) future events (a-na-ga-td win); (5) the lineage o f the relics o f the Buddha,
silent Buddhas, and ya-hdn-da (da-hta da-tu-urin); (6) the history o f Sri Lanka
(1di-pd-urin); (7) the history o f stupas and pagodas (htu-pa win); (8) the history
ofB odhi trees (bdw-di win); and (9) the history o f Buddhism (tha-tha-na urin)
(See A-shin Bi-wun-tha Ma-htei-myat Aw-ba-tha Thu-dei-tha-nd tha-yok-
pya a-bi-dan [A reference dictionary] (Rangoon: Thu-dam-ma-wa- di Sa-
pon-hneik-taik, 1975). We may add here gan-da urin, the history o f the Pali
Canon, and the recent “ history o f practice” (pa-di-pat-ti urin).
Yet the contemporary generic term for history is no longer win, but
tha-maing, a term which has undergone a shift in meaning during the
colonial era. If as late as 1906 the term history was still translated into
Burmese by using win, this soon changed. Tin Ohn, in “ Modem
Historical Writing in Burmese” (Historians o f Southeast Asia, ed. D. G. Hall
[London 19 61], p. 93), noting the important changes in Burma during the
1920s, including the introduction o f secular schools, English as a language
 o f instruction, and new-style Burmese syllabi for schools, observed that the
Burmese sense o f history had also changed. These changes involved
recasting the term tha-maing to signify history o f all sorts, including secular
history; it came to mean “ history” or “ chronicle” (Hok Sein 1981), and
“ the knowledge and systematic study o f past events pertaining to, e.g.,
nations, creeds, institutions and peoples” (Myan-ma A-hpwe A-bi-dan).
From the end o f the 1920s, Tin Ohn noted, there was a “ growing
acceptance o f the meaning o f the word history in its wider sense,” so that
it “ has acquired a new connotation, namely, a history that covers political
as well as economic, social, and cultural life o f the people.”
It should not be mistaken that the term tha-maing acquired this
meaning quite late. Harvey (1925, p. xviii) still characterized tha-maing as
“ local histories . . . frequently late, . . . written by individuals, they have
not the range and accuracy o f the great official compilations,” and Pe
Maung Tin (i960, p. xxi) glossed these as “ mainly devoted to objects
which testify to the establishment o f the religion,” and, though sometimes
also used for other objects such as monasteries and towns, this is “ generally
associated with the prose-history o f a pagoda.” The Burmese Encyclopaedia
(M S K , vol. 13, p. 33) gives the following: “ The term tha-maing means
records in either prose or rhyme o f special places such as pagoda, cave,
monastery, pagoda stairs, pagoda porch, refuge for worship o f the Buddha,
epistle, and special people.”
91. The Ma-ha-si Hsa-ya-daw was chief monk o f the B T N A (Bok-da Tha-
tha-na Nok-ga-ha A-hpwe-gyok), which was originally set up by
influential ministers o f the 19 48 -19 6 2 democratic government and in
1996 had over 300 meditation centers in Burma and abroad.
92. Ma-ha-si Tha-tha-na Yeik-tha, Ma-ha-si pa-di-pat-ti tha-tha-na win [The
tradition o f practice o f the Ma-ha-si Hsa-ya-daw] (Rangoon: Tha-tha-na
Yeik-tha, 1974 (BurE 1336)), p. 756. As it said in the preface to this
“ history” : “ We have had to publish the Histor)> o f Ma-ha-si practice (Ma-ha-
si pa-di-pat-ti tha-tha-na win ) only: in order that there be no possibility o f
hiding from Buddhists the Ma-ha-si’s vigor in energetically achieving the
brilliance o f practice-oriented Buddhism (pa-di-pat-ti tha-tha-na) to reach
beyond Burma— such as Asia, America, and Europe, and inasmuch as it is
the responsibility o f present Buddhists to advance Buddhism (ta-ya) for the
benefit o f those who come later; and in order to establish and prolong
practice Buddhism.” (Thi-la-nan-da, A-shin Bi-wun-tha, Ma-ha-si Hsa-ya-
daw-hpa-yh-gyi i htei-rok-pat-ti [The biography o f the Ma-ha-si Hsa-ya-
daw], part 1 [Rangoon: Tha-tha-na Yeik-tha, 1979], p. vi).
93. The transition from history to biography is also evident elsewhere.
Modern Burmese biography has its “ roots” in the religious (tha-tha-na win)
and secular chronicles (ya-za win), from which during the twentieth
century the biographies o f famous monks and kings came to be composed
retrospectively. The biographies o f U Thi-la and the Htut-hkaung Hsa-
ya-daw, famous for their practice, appeared many decades after their lives
 ended, only after adherents o f practice, becoming self-conscious o f history
and lineage o f practice, pulled these subjects from their embeddedness in
the chronicles.
94. Wi-thok-di, Tha-tha-na U (also known as Bo Thein Hswei), Ss'n-lsn ya-
pyei-mein-gsn da-ma ctw-wa-da-myci [A century o f the teachings o f the Sun-
lun Hsa-ya-daw] (Rangoon: A-myo-tha sa-ok-daik, 1976).
95. Hagiography thereby continuously recycles through unique constructions
o f continuity between life episodes into lives, between lives into lineages,
and between lineages into a country’s history, and the other way around.
T o the extent that history is about constructing sensible strands o f
continuity between biographical episodes, by means o f which it extends
the lives o f teachers into their pupils and o f kings into their subjects’ lives,
hagiography is at the root o f history. To the extent that contemporary
hagiography is retrospectively composed from royal and monastic lineage
histories, history is at the root o f hagiography.
96. Kindall (1980, p. 10 13).
97. Houtman (1991).
A Translation and Ethnohistorical Analysis o f the R 3yavacakam u
Phillip Ij. Wagoner
1993, 256 pp., illus.
Cloth ISB N : 0-8248—1495—9
“ T he text, discovered early in the century, was treated fragmentarily by sev­
eral generations o f historians, its contents culled to be fitted to analyses o f
Vjjayanagara kingship, institutions and culture rather than being appreci­
ated as a literary work deserving attention in and for itself. T hat is Wagoner’s
objective, and he has made a fine work o f it. . . . An altogether convincing
and pleasing read as well as an impressive contribution to our understanding
o f the South Indian past.”
—Journal o f South Asia Research

LiotiS o f t h e N u n s
Biographies o f Chinese Buddhist Nuns from the Fourth to Sixth Centuries
Translated by Kathryn Ann Tsai
1994, 200 pp.
Cloth ISB N : 0 -8 2 4 8 -15 4 1-6
“T h e translation itself is impeccable. T he English reads smoothly, and prob­
lem passages are duly discussed in the footnotes. . . . With Kathryn Tsai s
reliable translation, scholars from various fields can now begin to venture
into this evasive confluence o f gender, history, and hagiography.”
—China Review International

I m a g e s o f Pouieiz
Balinese Paintings M ade fo r Gregory Bateson and M argaret M ead
Hildred Geertz
1995, 144 pp., duotone illus.
Cloth ISB N : 0 -8 2 4 8 -16 4 6 -3; paper ISB N : 0-8248—16 79 -X
“ Geertz insightfully calls the processes by which these painters worked ‘bi-
cultural.' She looks to European style and the touristic market for their en­
riching, not impoverishing, roles in shaping local creativity; by doing so she
has opened up new avenues for our multicultural understandings.” —Science

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