GHAPTER 2

Wavegqldfl*g, amd Fabriaatiom

One of the most important components in any optical fiber system is the optical fiber itself, since its
transmission characteristics play a major role in determining the performance of the entire system.
Some of the questions thal arise eortceming optical fibers are
1. What is the structure o[ an optical fiber?
2. How does light prspagate along a fiber?
3. Of what materials are fibers made?
- 4. How is the fiber fabricated?
5. How are fibers incorporatod into cable structures'?
6. What is the signal loss or attenuafion mechanism in a fiber?
7. Why and to what degree does a signal get distorted as it travels along a fiber?
The purpose of ttris chapter is to present some of the fundamental answers to the frst five questions
in ordei to attain a good understanding of the physical stru€ture and waveguiding properties of optical
fibers. Questions O anO Z are answered in Chapter 3. The discussions address both conventional silica
and photonic crystal fibers.
Since fiber optics technology involves the emission, traRsmission and detection of light, we begin
our discussion by first considering the nature of light and then we shall review a few basic laws and
definitions of optics.l Following a description of the structure of optical fibers, two methods are used to
describe how an optical fiber guides light. The first approach uses the geometrical or ray optics concept
of light reflection and refraction to provide an intuitive picture of the propagation mechanisms. In the
second apprOaCh, light is treated as an electromagnetic wave which propagates along the optical fiber
waveguide. This irnvolves solving Maxwell's equations subject to the cylindrical boundary conditions
of the fiber.
,/
{tz.L
ffi
F The Nature of Light
The concepts conceming the nature of light have undergone several variations during the history of
physics. Until the early seventeenth century, it was generally believed that light consisted of a stream of
 minute particles that were emitted by luminous sources. These particles were pictured as travelling in
straight lines, and it was assumed that they could penetrate transparent materials but were reflected from
opaque ones. This theory adequately described certain large-scale optical effects, such as reflection and
refraction, but failed to explain finer-scale phenomena, such as interference and diffraction.
The correct explanation of diffraction was given by Fresnel in 1815. Fresnel showed that the
approximately rectilinear propagation character of light could be interpreted on the assumption that
light is a wave motion, and that the diffraction fringes could thus be accounted for in detail. Later, the
work of Maxwell in 1864 theorized that light waves must be electromagnetic in nature. Furthermore,
observation of polarization effects indicated that light waves are transverse (i.e., the wave motion is
perpendicular to the dirqction in which the wave travels). In this wave or physical optics viewpoint, the
electromagnetic waves radiated by a small optical source can be represented by a train of spherical wave
fronts with the source at the center as shown in Fig. 2.1. A wave
fronr is defined as the locus of all points
in the wave train which have the same phase. cenerattyl6ffi wave fronts passing through either
the maxima or the minima,of the wave, iuch as the peakor trough of a sine *uu", fo, exilpte. Thus, the
wave fronts (also called phase fronts) are separated by one wavelength.

Spherical wave fronts Plane wave fronts

Point source

fig. 2.1 Representatians oJ splrcrical ard plnne uatse Jronts and. their associaled" rays

When the wavelength of the light is much smaller than the object (or opening) which it encounters,
the wave fronts appear as straighi lines to this object or opening. In this case, the light wave can be
represented as a plane wave, and its direction of tiavel iniicated by a light raf which is drawn
"*-b"large-scale optical effects such
perpendicular to the phase front. The light-ray concept allows as reflection
and refraction to be analyzed by the simple geometrical process of ray tmcing. This view of optics is
referred to as ray or geometrical optics. The concept oflight rays is very usefU because the rays show
the direction of energy flow in the light beam.

4.1.1
' Linear Polarization
The electric or magnetic field of a train of plane linearly polarized waves traveling in a direction k can
be represented in the general form
A(x. r) = QiAoexpLi (at - k.x)l (2.1)
withx=-rer+ley*zerrepresentingageneralpositionvectorandk=kq+fr.,,er+k.e.representingth€
wave propagation vector.
Here, Ao is the maximum amplitude of the wave, a = 27tv, where y is the frequency of the light; the
magnitude of the wavevector k is k = 2ttfi,, which is known as the wave propagation constant, with ),
being the wavelength of the light; and e, is a unit vector lying parallel to an axis designated by j.
il
l'+
,!K,

F'tbers: Stnlciltres, Wat-teguiding, and Fabrication

Note that the components of the actual (measurable) elecffomagnetic field represented by Eq. (2.1)
are obtained by taking the real part of this equation. For example, if k = ker, and if A denotes the electric
field E with the coordinate axei chosen such that €i = €*, then the real measurable electric field is given
by
E r(2, t) = Re(E) = e{or cos(at - kz) (2.2)

which represents a plane wave that varies harmonically as it travels in the z direction. The reason for
using.the exponential form is that it is more easily handled mathematically than equivalent expressions
given in terms of sine and cosine. In addition, the rationale for using harmonic functions is that any
'.:: waveform can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal waves using Fourier techniques.
The electric and magnetic field distributions in a train of plane electromagnetic. waves at a given
instant in time are,shown in Fig. ?.2, The wave-s are moving in the direction indicated b.y the vector k.
Based on Maxwell's equatio:rs.!1 can be shown2 that E and H are both perpendicular to the- direction of
propagation. This condition defines a plane wave, that is, the vibrations in the electricJield lle,parallel
io other at all points in the wave. Thus, the electric field forms a plane calledthe plane of vibration.
"i"f,
Likewise all points in the magnetic field component of the wave lie in another plane of vibration.
Furthermore, E and H are mutually perpendicular, so that E, H, and k form a set of orthogonal vectors.

v
l
H.'

Fyg. 2.2 Etecffic and. mognetic-field.distrihttions in a train oJ plrute electromagnetic uaues

The plane wave exar,nple given by Eq. (2.2) has its electric field vector always pointing in the. e,
dir_ection. Such a wave iq linearly polarized with polarization vector er. A general state of polarization
is described by considering another linearly polarized wave which is independent of the first wave and
]- orthogonal to it. Let this wave be
Er(z t) erE6rcos(art kz + 6) (2.3)
= -
 where 6 is the relative phase difference between the waves. The resultant wave is
E(z t) = &(2, r) + E,(i, t) (2.4)
If 6 is zero or an integer multiple of 2n, the waves are in phase. Equation (2.4) is then also a linearly
polarized wave with a polarization vector making an angle
EoY-
e = arctan (2.s)
Eo*
with respect to e, and having a magnitude

n=(Ei,*rir)',' (2.6)
This case is shown schematically in Fig. 2.3. Conversely, just as any two orthogonal plane waves can
be combined into a linearly polarized wave, an arbifary linearly polarized *uue Le resolved into
two independent orthogonal plane waves that are in phase. "an

ffg. 2.3 Addition oJ hn tteaflU polilizd" uaDes twfiW a zeto

W,
relntil:e plwx fufueenthem

J2.1.2 Elltptlcal and Clrcular polarlzatlon

For general values of 6the wave given by Eq. (2.4) is elliptically polarized. The resultant field vector E
will both rotateand change its magnitude as a function of the angular frequency ar. From Eqs. (2.2) and
(2.3) we can show that (see Prob. 2.4) for a general value of d,

(*1. [# I \H(+l c.s 6= sin2 d (2.7)

 which is the general equation of an ellipse. Thus, as Fig.2.4 shows, the endpoint of E will trace out an
ellipse at a given point'irt space. The axis of the ellipse makes an angle a relative to the x axis given by
ZEu*Er, cosi
tan2a= (2.8)
83, - 4n
To get a bettor pieture of Eq. (2.1),let us elign the principal axis of the ellipse with the r axis. Then
I
a= Q, or, equivalently, 6 = t t
ttlz, 3ttl2, ..,, so that Bq. (2.7) becomes
I
a"
t.' _
;

v
(*\-[#l =, (2.e)

t, EI
,,/

F, T
E
"
t e f .t,
\l
,

J_=,
/r' Ey

0/)
El{'. 2.4 Elliptlcally plarizedlightresultsJromthe addtfwnaJfimlircarlg polaritedwaues
oJ uequal atnplffude hadng a rwnzcro ptwse dtlference 6 behpeen them

This is the familiar equation of an ellipse with the origin at the center and semi-axes E6, and E*.
When Es, * Eoy-,Eti.8tdthe relative phase difference d = *,tc/2 + 2mft, where m = A, +1, +2,..., then
we have circularly polarized light.In this case, Eq. (2.9) reduces to

1*rtr=4 (2.10)
which defines a circle. Choosing the positive sign for 6, Eq* (2.2) and (2.3) become
(2.t1\
Er(2, t) = -erEr sin (ot - kz) (2.12)
In this case, the elrdpoint of,B*ill
face out a circle ata given point in space, as Fig.2.5 illustrates. To
see this, consider an observer.loegted at some arbitrary point 2,.1 toward whom the wave is moving. For
convenience, we will pick this paint at za tt/k at t = A. Then, frorn Eqs (2.11) and (2.12) we have
Er(z, t) * * erEo and En(2, t) = Q
so that E lies along the negative.r axis as Fig. 2.5 shows. At a later time, say t = fina, the electric field
vector has rotated througlr 90" and now lies aforrg the positive y axis at 2."s. Thus, as the wave moves
toward the observer with inereasing time, the resultant electric field vector E rotates clockwise at an
 fig. 2.5 Addition of ht:o eqtnl-anplirude Uneorlg polarizcd wales u:ifh a relatilse ptwse
differerrce 6 = r/2 + 2mn results in a fuht circularlg potafized. uaue

angular frequency al. It makes one complete rotation as the wave advances through one wavelength.
Such a light wave is right circularly polaized.
If we choose the negative sign fur d, then the electric field vector is given by
E = Eo[e, cos(ott - ke),+ e, sin(art - kz)1 (2.13)
1

J
Now E rotates countercIoclew[se and the wave is lefi circurarry potarized.

J2.r.3 The 9uantum,e_ErG of Ltght

The wave theory of light adequately accounts for all phenomena involving the transmission of light.
However, in dealing wi*r the interaction of light and matter, such as occurs in dispersion and in the
emission and absorption of light, 4either the particle theory nor the wave theory of light is appropriate.
Instead, we must tu1n to quaryry theory, which indicates that optical radiafion has particle as well as
wave properties. The particle naflile arises from the observation that light energy is always emitted or
absorbed in discrete,urits,called-qaatrtu ot photons. In all experiments used ts show the existence of
photons, the photon energy is fouq.d to depend only on the frequency v. This frequency, in tum, must be
measured by observing a wave property of light.
i
. The relationship be1*eeritro 6-. y E and the frequency v of a photon is given by
E=hv (2.14)
j
tr
l
A

Fibers; Sfrttcfiires, Waoeguiding, and Fobricatian

where h = 6.625 x 10-34 J.s is Planck's constant. When light is incident on an atom, a photon can
transfer its energy to an electron within this atom, thereby exciting it to a higher energy level. In this
process either all or none of the photon energy is imparted to the electron. The energy absorbed by the
electron must be exactly equal to that required to excite the electron to a higher energy level. Conversely,
an electron in an excited state can drop to a lower state separated from it by an energy fuv by emitting a
photon of exactly this energy.

l_
.,{k} Baslc Optical Laws and Definitions
This section reviews some of the basic optics laws and definitions relevant to optical fiber transmission
technology. These include Snell's law, the definition of the refractive index of a material, and the concepts
of reflection, refraction, and polarization.
..{.2.t Refractlvo Index
A fundamental optical parameter of a material is the refractive index (or index of refraction). In free
spacealightwavetravelsataspeed c=3x 108m/s.Thespeedof lightisrelatedtothefrequency vand
the wavelength 1. by c = vL Upon entering a dielectric or nonconducting medium the wave now travels
at a speed.a, which is chmacteristic of the material and is less than c. The ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to that in rnatter is,the index of refraction n of the material and is given by

n=- c (2.1s)
a
Typical values of n are 1.00 for aA 1.33 for water, 1.45 for silica glass, and2.42 for diamond.

4.2.2 Refleotlon aud Re&actlon

The concepts of reflection and refraction can be interpreted most easily by considering the behavior of
light rays associated with plane waves traveling in a dielectric material. When a light ray encounters a
boundary separating two different media, part of the ray is reflected back into the first medium and the
remainder is bent (or refracted) as it enters the second material. This is shown in Fig.2.6 where n2 < ry.
The bending or refraction of the light ray at the interface is a result of the difference in the speed of light
in two materials that have different refractive indices. The relationship at the interface is known as
Snell's law and is given by
n, sin @1 =nzsinQz (2.16)
or, equivalently, as
n1 cos 0, = nZCoS 0Z (2.17)
where the angles are defined in Fig. 2.6. The angle @1 between the incident ray and the normal to the
surface is known as the angle of incid.ence.
According to the law oi reflection, the angle g, at which the incident ray strikes the interface is
exactly equal to the angle that the reflected ray makes with the same interface. In addition, the incident
ray, the normal to the interface, and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane, which is perpendicular to
the interface plane between the two materials. This plane is called the plane of incidence. When light
ftaveling in a certain medium is reflected off an optically denser material (one with a higher refractive
index), the process is referred ta as external reflection. Conversely, the reflection of light off of less
optically dense material (such as light traveling in glass being reflected at a glass-air interface) is called
internal reJlection.
 Material
boundary

ffg. 9.6 Rqfractun and. refuctton oJ a lfgft rag at a. fi:rrurlrd.Aourffiry

-\o
,o

As the ailgle of incidencc $r in an optically denser material becomes lryger, the refracted angle p2
approaehes rrl2. Beywd ttris point no refraction is possible and ttte light rays become totally iatemally
reJlected. The condidons roquircd for total intemal reflection can be determined by using Snell's law
lEq. (2.16)1. Consider Fig: 3.?, which shows a glass surfaee in air. A light ray gets bent toward *re glass
surface as it leaves the glass in accordance with Snell's law. If the angle of incidence p1 is increased, a
point will eventually be reached where the light ray in air is parallel to the glass surface. This point is
known as the cndq{ Wk at itqcidence p. When the incidence angle is greater than the critical
fi
angle, the condition for total internal reflection is satisfied; that is, the light is totally reflected back into
the glass with no light escaping from the glass surface. (This is an idealized situation.,In praetice,'dre&,
is always some tunneling of optical energy through the interface. This can be explained in terms of the
electromagnetic wave theory of light, which is presented in Sec. 2.4.)

nz4 nl I
Retacted Refracted
No Refracted
T r4y ray
ray

Incident Refl€cted
r{y rey

Hg. 2.7 Repes'erttuttorta{thesifrffilaryleand.totalir.temnlreflaf;iimataglfrs$-atrharlae

As an example, csl*ide,r fte glass*eir interface shown in Fig. 2.7. Wherr dre light ray in air is parallel
to the glass surfrse, dren 6 = Sb so that sin h = t. The critical angle in the glass is thus

sin @"
* n2
(2.18)
nl
I

I
EXaWl,e ?.. Using a1 * I .48 for glass and n, = 1.ffi ttre inhrface at an angle Or greater than 42.5" is totdly
i for aia 0" is about 42.5o Any light in the glass incident on reflected back into the glass.

In addition, when light is totally internally

reflected, a phese changp.d:opel*rs,in the
reflectsd wave. This phase ehange depends on 180
the angle 0, < rcl2 * @" aecording to the
relationshipsl \.\d"
Ea
tan (2.19a) I
(l
120
*= 5
o
a
Qv
o
o

tan
6o
1= n.
rtr; ai-l
sin 0,
(2.tsb)
OA

Aoo
Here, dy and 6o are the phase.shifts of ttre
electric-field wave component$ normal and
parallel to the plane of incidence, resPectively, l0 20 30 40 50
andn = n1ln2.Tltese phase shifts are shown in fi (degrees)
Fig. 2.8 for a glass-air interface (n = 1.5 and 0"
= 42.50). The values range from zero immediately fU. 2.8 Phase shiJts oecurring Jrom the
at the critical angle to nlL Q, when p, = 90o.
- reJtection of waue comPonents
These basic optical principles will now be narmal (dN,) and parallet (6r) to the
used to illustrate how optical power is platw of incidence
transmitted along a fiber.
u{,2.3 Polarlzatlon Components of Ught
An ordinary lightwave consists of many Eansverse electromagnetic waves that vibrate in a variety of
directions (i"e., in more than one plane) and is called unpolariryd light. However, one can represent aRy
arbitrary direction of vibration as a combination of a parallel vibration and a perpendicular vibration, as
shown in Fig. 2.9. Therofore, one can consider unpolarized light as consisting of two orthogonal plane

Multitude of Parallel
polar-ization polarization
components component

Perpeadicllar
polarization
component

Fig. 2.9 Wfizaffn&representedasacombirwtionoJaparullelulbafanwrdaperpendtaiar

uibration
polarization components, one that lies in the plane of incidence (the plane containing the incident and
reflected rays) and the other of which lies in a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence. ThEse are
the parallel polarization and the perpendicular polarizatior components, respectively. In the case when
all the electric field planes of the differerit transverse waves are aligned parallel to each other, then the
lightwave is linearly polarized. This is the simplest type of polarization, as Sec. 2.1.tr desffibes.
Unpolarized light can be split into separate polarization components-either by reflection'off-of a
nonmetallic surface or by refraction when the light passes from one rnateridl to another. ,A.s noted:in
Fi$.2.6, when an unpolarized light beam ffavelling in air impinges on a nonmetallic surface srrch as glass;
part of the beam is reflected li,nd part is refracted into the glass. A circled dot and an irrrow designate the
par:ilel and perpendicular polarization components, respectively, in Fig. 2. 10. The reflected beam ispartially
polarized arld at a specific angle (known us the Brewster's angle) the reflected light is completely
perpendicularly polarized. The parallel component of the refracted beam is transmitted entirely into the
glass, whereas the perpendicular component is only paniatly refracted. How much of the refracted light is
polarized depends on the angle at which the light approaches the surface and on the material composition.

Incident ray

Perpendicularpolarization
O
€ Parallel polarizatron

@ Partiallyrefractedperendicularpolarization

Fig. 2.1O Behnsiar oJ an unynloriz-ed Light beam at the interJace fuhoeen air and, a
nonmetallic surJgce

2.2.4 Polarizatlon€ensitive Materials

The polarization characteristics of light are important when examining the behavior of components
such as optical isolators and light filters. Here we look at three polarization-sensitive materials or devices
that are used in such coqltrrerents: These are polarizers, Faraday rotators, and birefringent crystals.
 OpfrcatFtbers: St*

and blocks the

A pol.arizer is a material or device that transmits only one polarization component
light n:polarizer that has a vertical ffansmission
other,For example, in thp case when unpolarized ",i*'5
polarization cornponeflt passes through the device' A familiar
axis as shown in fig. 2.1i, only the vertiial
to reduce the glare of partially polarized
example of this the use of polfozing sunglassei
"or""ti,
.unfijn reflections from road or water surfaces-. To see the polarization property of the sunglasses, a
The polarization filters in the
;;;"; gf glare spots will appear when users tilt their head sideways.
sunglasses block out trr" porulir"a hght coming from these
glare spots when the head is held normally'

Polarizer

Fig. 2.11 Onty,.the,udrticdl.phtization component passes through a oerticallg oriertted

polarizer
passing through it
A Faraday rotatoris a device that rotates the state of polarization (SOP) of light
by a specific amount. For examPle a
popular device rotates the SQJ clockwise
by45" or a quarter of a wavelength, as
shown in Fig. 2.12.' '
This rotation is independent of the SOP
of input light, but the rotation angle is
different depending on the direction in
which the light passes through the devicg.
That is, the rotation prldccss'is'.'not
45o FaradaY rotator
reciprocal. In this proces-q. the SQJ of.the
input light is maintained ffi?I 9;":otzitl,% ypig. Z.LZ AFaradng rotator isatuuic9 tlwtrgtare;1
For example, if the inpiit hlght'to a 45" ttw state oJ potnrization claclcrtsise bg 45"
Faraday rotator is linearly tridlarized in a or a quanter oJ auanselength
vertical direction, then the rotated light
;;tr;;,h"t;.y;A'j*;';r-H;;t'pot#r"a at a 45" angle. The Faraday rotator material usuallv is an
ury,,fr"nl" crystat .o"t u* ytttir* iron garnet (YIG) and the degree of angular rotation is proportional
to'the
"" thickness of the deviie.
This means that
Btr;i;;;; A, ionit" t yrqcttve crystals have a properry c4lga (ouble reftaction.
'ditei"nt-Jor! i*o p"tp"naicular axes of the crystal as shown in
the indices of refracrion arj slightly
Fi;.';,fu:;-il;;;-"J.n * r:r.rimaterials is known ai a ipatiat walk-:offpolarfzer (SWP). The SWP
 splits the lighr signal entering it into two
orthogonally (perpcndicularly) polarized beams.
One of the beams is called w ordinary ra! or o-
ray, since it obeys Snell's law of refraction at the
crystal surface. The second beam is called the
extraordinary ray ot e-ray, since it refracts at an
angle that deviates from the prediction of the
standard forrn of Snell's law. Each of the two
orthogonal polarization components thus is
refracted at a different angle as shown inFig.2.l3.
For example, if
the incident unpolarized light
Unpolarized
arrives at an angle perpendieular !o the surface of
incident ray
the device, the o-ray can pass straight through the
device whereas the e-ray component is deflected
O Extraordinary ray polwization
at a slight angle so it follows a different path
-<--> Q1di16ry ray polaization
through the material.
Thble 2.1 lists the ordinary index no and the extra-
ordinary index n" of some common birefringent
Ftg. z.fg A bire{ringent crystal splits the
Light signal enterirg X into htso
crystals that are used in optical communication perpendiularlg polortzed beams
components and gives some of their applications.

Crystal name Symbol no ne Applications

Calcite CaCO3 1.658 1.486 Polarization controllers and beamsplitters
Lithium niobate LiNbo3 2.286 2.2m Light signal modulators
Rutile Tio2 2.616 2.903 Optical isolators and circulators
Yttrium vanadale Yy04 1.945 2.149 Optical isolators, circuliators, and beam displacers

Befbre going intr: details on optical fiber characteristics, this section first presents a brief overview of
the underlying concepts of optieal fiber modes and optical fiber configurations. The discussions in Sec.
2.3 tfuough 2.7 adfuess conventional optical fibers, which consist of solid dielectric stfl.rctwes. Section
2'8 describes (he structure of photonic crystal fibers, which can be created to have a variety of internal
microstructures. Chapter 3 describes the operational characteristics of both categories of fibers.

An optical fiber is a diefgefie waveguide that operates at optical frequencies. This fiber waveguide is
normally cylindrical in forrn. It confines electromagnetic energy in the iorm of light to within its surfaces
and guides the light in a direction parallel to its axis. The transmission propertier-of a, optical waveguide
 Optical Nbers: Stnrchrres, W@

an optical
are dictated by its strucnyal characteristics, which have a major effect in detenirining how
signal is atrectea as it propagates along the fiber. The structure basically establishes the information-
capacity of the nUer anO also influences the response of the waveguide to environmental
"iryirg
perturbations
The propagation of light along awaveguide can be described in terms of a set of guided electromagnetic
waves called the modeiofthe iaveguide. These guided modes are referred to as the bound
ot trapped
modes of the waveguide. Each guided mode is a patterruof elecffic and magnetic field
distributions that
intervals. Only a certain discrete number of modes are capable of
is repeated along tf,e fiber at {ual
propagating aloig the guide. As will be seen in Sec. 2.4, these modes are those electromagnetic waves
it ui rutirfy the hornogJneous wave equation in the fiber and the boundary condition at the waveguide
surfaces.
Although many different configurations of the optical waveguide have been discussed in the literature,3
the most widely accepted structuri is the single solid dielectric cylinder of radius a and index
of refraction
The core is surrounded by a solid
n 1 shown in Fig. Z.ti. fnis cylinder is known as the core of the fiber.
in principle, a cladding
dielectric cladiing which hasa refractive indexn2that is less than 21. Although,
purposes' The cladding
is not necessary fJr fight to propagate along the cdre ofthe fiber, it serves several
reduces ,"utt".ing tosi ttrat resutti from dielecnic discontinuities at the core surface, it adds mechanical
strength to the fi6er, and it protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with
which it could
come in contact.

ffg. 2. t4 khematlc oJ q 61rusentt:rrr;rt slticafiber strttcture, A ciraiar soltd" mre oJ reJractlue

index n, is iunotnd.ed" bg a ctaddbg houing a reJractilre index flz 1 fl t. An elastic
plast:a bt+ffer enmPstiates tle fifur

In standard optical fibers the core material is highly pure silica glass (SiOr) and is surrounded by a
glass cladding. Higher-loss plastic-core fibres with plastic claddings are also widely in use. In addition,
irost fibers ai" enJapsrrtut"i in an elastic, abrasion-iesistant plastic- matenal. This material adds further
strength to the fiber ana mechanically isolates or buffers the fibers from small geometrical
iiregularities,
could otherwise cause scattering
distoiions, or roughnesses of adjacint surfaces. These perturbatitins
fibers are incorporated into cables
losses induced by iandom microsicopic bends that can atite when the
or supported by other structures.
Variations in the material composition of the core give rise to the two commonly used fiber
types
th, refractive indeiof the core is uniform throughout and undergoes
rt o*n in Fig. 2.15. In the first
an abrupt
"u.",
unge (or step) at the cladding boundary. This is called a step'index fiber In the second
case,
"t
the core refractive indei is made to'vary as a funciion of the radial distance from the center of the fiber'
This type is a graded-index fiber
Both the step- and the graded-index fibers can be further divided into single-mode and multimode
classes. As the- name imp-lies, a single-mode fiber sustains only one mode of propagation,
whereas
multimode fibers
multimode fibers contain many hundieds of modes. A few typical sizes of single- and
 Multimode fibers offer several
are given in Fig:2,15 to provide an-id1 of the dimensional scale.
advantages,compared'with'sirtgle-mode fibers, As we shall see in
chapter 5, the larger core radii of
and facilitate the connecting
multimode fibers make it,easier to launch optical power into the fiber
be launched into a multimode fiber using
together of similar fibers- Another advantage is ttratiigtrt can
a light-emifiing-diode (LED) source, whereas single-mode
fibers must generally be excited with laser
laser diodes (as we shalldiscuss in chapter 4)'
diodes. Although LEDs have less optical otltput poier than
they-are easier to make, are less expensive, require less complex
ciicuitry, and have lOnger lifetimes
than laser diodes; thus,making thern-more desirable in certain
applications'

Fiber Cross Section and RaY Paths Tlpical dimensions

Inilex profile
n2t ft { 125 pm
(cladding)
-l2au-J--- _T 8-12 Pm
l_-_--
_lr
(core)
_T
Monomode stepindex fiber
+ 125-400 pm
(cladding)

_t 5G-200
(core)
pm

_T
nzt inl
+ 125-140 Pm
(cladding)
I l--Es A

) -,tr-:-o
--'-- _I 5G-100 Pm
(core)
_r Multimode graded-index fiber
-T
rrg. 2.16 Ctr4partson of 9ou.:enaorwtstngte-mde andmiltilnode step-indexandgradd'
hdex qPtioaljtbers

dispersion' we shall describe

A disadvantage of multimode fiters-rs tfrat they quffer from intermodal
Briefly, intermodal dispersion can be described as follows' When an
this effect in detail io Ch;$er 3.
ffiffifi; ;ffiil;]ril; tiu*r, tr'"-optical power in-the gulse is {iryiuyte$over all
modes of the fiber. E";[; th" modes tirut propagate ]n a multimode fiber
(or most) of the
travels at a slightly
#;,ilffi;. hffi;i 'ill1" the pulse
"an
moaes in a'giverioptic"t pltt:ffiJi3;f#Til:t
to spread out in time as it travels along the flber- ilJ:*tl
Jiff"."nt times,'thus causing
reduced by using a graded-
ffi;il i.ri" i t"i*rrkl-iiiiirtio" or tnterm.odnl distortion, can be larger bandwidths (data rate
inJex profile in a nber core. ft ir afo*. graded-index fibers t9
hav.e m99h
trtel utpp.ino"inu".t. Even higher band-widths are possible in single-mrcde
transmission
"apaulitie*i
fibers, where intermodal dispersion effects are not present'

2.g.2 RaYB and Modee

fiber can be r:p.reseltel by a superposition
The elecuomagnetic light field that is guided along an optical
*S"*-iiJ guided irodei consists of a seJ of simple electromagnetic field
of bound or tr,apped
"rtri"t"
 jl;rll::1rr;,l::

Opticat Nbers: Sbttctures, Wat)eguidirlig; orld' Fabricalian lffi

A
configurations. For monochromatic light fields of radian frequency @ amode traveling.in the positire z
direcfron(i'e.,alongthefiteraxis)hasatimeandedependenie$ivenby -
, ei@t-p)
parameter
The factor B is the z component of the wave propagation constant k = 2rl )' andis the main
p
of interest in describing fiber modes. For guided modes, can assume only certain discrete values,
which are determined dom the requirement tha! the mode field must satisfy Maxwell's. equations and
the electric and magnetic field tounaary conditions at the core-cladding interface. This is described
in
detail in $ec.2.4.
Another method for theoretically srudying the propagation characteristics of light in an optical fiber
is the geometrical optics or ray-trdcing approach. This method provides a good approximation to the
11ghtaJceptance and guiding properties'of opical fibers when the ratio of the fiber radius to the wavelength
ijarge. This is known asthi small-wavelength limit. Although thelaV anproach.is sgictly validgnlyin
the zJro-wavelength limit, it is still relatively accurate and extremely valuable for nonzero wavelengths
whgn the numbei of guideci modes'is large; that is, for multimode fibers. The advantage of the ray
approach iS that, with the exact electromagnetic wave (modal) analysis, it gives a more direct
"o*p-*qa
interpretation ofthe Iight propagation charactbristics in an optical fiber.
^pirysical
Sior" the c^oncept of a ligt* ray is vJrydifferent from that of a mode, let us see qualitatiVely what the
relationship is between trr"*. rnL mathematical details of this relationship are beyond the scope of this
(along the fiber
book but can be found in the literature.6; A guided mode traveling in the z direction
axis) can be decomposed into a family of superimposed plane waves that collectively form a
standing-
wave pattern in the direction transverieto the fiber axis. That is, the phases of the plane waves are such
that the envelope of the collective set of waves remains stationary. Since with any plane wave we can
associate a light ray that is perpendicular to the phase front of the wave, the family of plane waves
mode forms a set of rays called a ray congruence. Eachtay of this panicular
correspondinf to u iu.ti"ular
set travels in the fiber at the same imgle relative to the fiber axis. We note here that, since only
a certain

number M of discrete guided modes eXist in a fiber; the possible angles of the ray congruences
picture
corresponding to fhese moa". at'e,also limited to the same number M. Although a simple ray
upp"*r'to allow rays at any angle greater than the critical angle to propagate in a fibet the allowable
quantized propagation ungtls reiult when the phase condition for standing waves is introduced into the
ray picture. This is discussed further in Sec. 2.3.5.
'Iiespite
the usefulness of the approximate geometrical optics method, a number of limitations and
discrepancies exist between it and the exact modal analysis. An important case is the analysis of single-
mode tr few-mode fibers, which must be dealt with by using electromagnetic theory. Problems involving
coherence or interference phenomena must also be solved with an electromagnetic approach.
In addition,
when.a knowledge of the field distribution of individual modes is required.
a modal analysis is necessary
This arises, ior example, w|en analyzing the excitation of an individual mode or when analyzing the
coupling of power between rnodes at waveguide imperfections (which we shall discuss in Chapter 3).
enol1"r dir.."p*"y between the ray optics approach and the modal analysis occurs when an optical
fiber is unifordybeniwith a constant;adius of curvature. As shown in Chapter 3, wave optics correctly
predicts that every mode of the curved fiber experiences some radiation loss. Ray optics, on the other
iland, erroneously predicts that some ray congruences can undergo total internal reflection at the curve
2.3.3 Steo-Inde= Flber Stnrcture
We begin our discussion of light propagation in an optical waveguide by considering the step-index
fiber. In practical step-index fibers the core ofradius a has a refractive index n1 which is typically equal
to 1.48. This is surrounded by a cladding of slightly lower index n2, where
nz= n{l - A) (2,.2o)
The parameter A is called the core-cladding index difference or simply the index dffirence. Yaltrcs of
n2 are chosen such that A is nominally 0.01. Typical values range from I to 3 percent for multimode
fibers and from 0.2 to 1,0 percent for single-mode fibers. Since the core refractive index is larger than
the cladding index, elecffomagnetic energy at optical frequencies is made to propagate along the fiber
waveguide through internal reflection at the core-+ladding interface.

Since the core size of multimode fibers is much larger than the wavelength of the light we are interested
in (which is approximately ! pm} an intuitive picture of the propagation mechanism in an ideal multimode
step-index optical waveguide.is most easily seen by a simple ray (geomenical) optics represeatation.Gll
For simplicity, iq this analysls we shall consider only a particular ray belonging to a ray coRgnrence
which represents a fiber mode. The two types of rays tfrat can propagate in a fiber are meridional rays
and skew ruys Meridional rays are confined to the meridian planes of the fiber, which are the planes
that contain the axis of symmetry of the fiber (the core axis). Since a given meridional ray lies in a single
plane, its path is easy to track as it travels along the fiber. Meridional rays can be divided into two
general classes: bound rays that are rapped in the core and propagate along the fiber axis according to
the laws of geometrical riplics, and unbound rays that are refracted out of the fiber core.
Skew rays Ne not confined to a single plane, but instead tend to follow a helical-type path along the
fiber as shown in Fig. 2.16. These rays are rnore difficult to track as they travel along the fiber, since
they do not lie in a single plane. Although skew rays constitute a major portion of the total number of
guided rays, their analysis is not necessary to obtain a general picture of rays propagating in a fiber. The
examination of meridionalrays will suffice for this purpose. However, a detailed inclusion of skew rays
will change such expressionsas the light-acceptance ability of the fiberandpowerlosses of lighttraveling
along a waveguide.6'lo

Ray path prgjecled

on fiber end face

Ftg. 2.16 Rag optics representat'ron oJ skeu rags trarseling in a step-index optical@ are
 A greater power loss arises when skewrrays are included in the analyses, since f{r of the skew rays
that g"eometric optics pridic'ts to be trappedln the fiber are actually leaky rays.s't1".Jl':*
leaky rays
*. o"nrv partialli cordned to the core of the circular optical fiber and attenuate as the light fiavels along
,t" ffiif *uregoid.. This partial reflection of leaky rays cannot be described Uy p].".r.ry thesry alone'
Inste'ad, the ana{sis of radiation loss arising from these types of rays must be described
by mode theory'
This is explained further in Sec. 2-4.
The meridional ray is shown in Fig. 2-17 Acceptance
Refracted ray
for a step-index fiber. The light ray enters the cone n2 Claddirrg
fiber core from a medium of refractive index
n at an angle 0s with respEct to thefrber axis
and strikes the- coretladding ihterface at a n 1ill
normal angle Q.If it strikes this interface at nt Core
such eln angle that it is'totally iriternally
nz Cladding
reflected, then the meridional ray follows a
Entrance rays
zigzag path along the. fiber core, passing
through the axis of the gUide after each Fig.z.LZ Meridional rag optics repre'
reflection. sentation oJ the ProPagation
From Snell's law, the minimum angle @6n mechanism in an ideat steP-index
that supports total internal reflection for the oPtical uatseguide
meridional ray is given bY
flt (2.2t)
Slll Q-;n = -
nl

Rays striking the core-+ladding interface at angles less than @r,n will refract out
of the core and be
lost in the chd-ing. sy apftying 3nefl's law to the air-fiber face boundary, the condition
otBq' (2'21)
can be related to th".rn*i*urr entrance angle 0o, ** through the relationship

nsin 06..*= nlsing. =(nl -nl)t/' (2.22)

where 0" - fit2'-'O,.Thus,.thoSerayshaving entrance angles 0s less than 06, ru* will be totally internally
reflected at the coie-cladding interface.
Equation (2.22) atsa defin'es the namerical aperture (NA) of a step-index fiber for meridional
rays:

NA = n sin 06,-* = (d - nl)''' = n J^ (2.23)

Eq. (2.20),
The approximation on the right-hand side is valid for the typical case where A, as defined by
is much^liss than l. Since thE numerical aperture is related to the maximum acceptance angle, it is
commonly used to describe the light acceptance or gathering cpalility of a frbeq and to
calculate source-
power couplfrg Jffi"i"nii"r. This is detailed in Chapter 5. The numerical aperture is a
to-fiber optical
0.14 to 0'50'
dimensionless quantity whlchis less than unity, with values normally ranging from

(b) From Eq. (2.23) the numerical aperture is

E x ampl e 2. 2 Cqnsider a rli*l+iinode silica fiber that
NA = 0.242
has a core refractive index n, = 1,48 and a cladding index
(c) From Eq. (2.22) the acceptance angle in air is
nz= 1'46'
(a) From Eq. (2-21) the critical angle is given by 00.* = sin-r NA = sin-r 0.'242 = 14"

/ rta .o-r
. --=sll 1.46
0. =sln-r nt
g0.5o
=
1.48
2.3.5 ltrave Repre?-entation in a Dielectrlc Slat Wavegulde
Refening to Fig.2.l7,
!h" tpy thqory appears to allow rays at any angle O greater than the critical angle
@, to propagate along ttie fibe1However, when the interference effect due to the phase of the plane wave
associated with the iay is taken into account, it is seen that only waves at certain discrete *gf.* grau,"t
than or equal to @. are capable ofpropagating along the fiber.
To see this, let us consider wave propagation in an infinite dielectric slab waveguide of thickness d.
lts refractive indeli n, ,is greater than the index z2 of the material above and below the slab. A wave will
thus propagate in this guide through multiple reflections, provided that the angle of incidenbe with
respect to the upper and lower surfaces satisfies the condition given in Eq. (2.221.
Figure 2.18 shows the geometry of the waves reflecting at the material interfaces. Here, we consider
I
two rays, designated ray and ray);2,.associated with the same wave. The ray,s arg incidgnt on the
material interface at an angle 0 < 0" = ttlT - Q,. The ray paths in Fig. 2.18 are denoted by soiia fines and

The condition requiredfor wa.ve propagation in the dielectric slab is that all points on the same phase
front of a plane wave must be in phase. This means that the phase change occurring in ray 1 when
travelling frory no-rntl-fo poirrq B minui the phase chirnge in'ray')between point" C anab musi differ by
an integer multiple of 2n As the wave travels through the material, it undergoes a phape shift given by
4

where kr = the propagation constant in the medium of refractive index n,

k = k1ln1 is the free-space propagation constant
s = the distance the wave has traveled in the material
The phasb of the wave changes not only as the wave travels but also upon reflection from a dielectric
interface, as described in Sec. 2.2.
In going from point A to point B, ray Lffavels a distance sr = d/sin g in the material, and undbrgoes
two phase changes 6at the reflection points. Ray 2 does not incur 4ny reflections in going from point C
to point D, To, determiue its phasq change, first nole- !!ral the distance from point A to point D is AD
(dltan 07 - d tan 0. Thus, the distance between points C and D is =

.s2 = AD cos g= (cos2 g- sin2 0; dtsin 0

Phase front of
. dowriward.travelhng wave

upward-travelling wave

Fig. 2.18 LiQht uaite propogating along afiber warcguide. Ptnse chonges occir both as
tlrc toaue tratsels tlvoughtttefiber medium and. atthe reflectian points
 Flbers; Shrrctures, WaDeguidW, and Fabrication

The requirement for wave woeasan;;;i ** be written as

(2.24a)
=!J Gr-s2) + Z6-2nm
wherem= 0, 1, 2,3, .... Substituting the expressions for s, and s2 into Eq' (2'24a) then yields

ry{ L-[(cos2 e -sinz e)a l]. r, =ztcm (2.24b)

)' [sin0 [ sino l]
which can be reduced to
2ttndsin? (2.24c)
*6=fim
L
plane of incidence' we have from
Considering only electric waves with components normal to the
F.q. (2.19a) that the phase shift upon reflection is

-,-",*[tr1#ry] (2.25)

be a decaying and not a growing

The negative sign is needed here since the wave in the medium must
wave. Substituting this expression into Eq. (2.24c) yields

(2.26a)

(2.25b)

Eq' (2'26) will propagate in

Thus, only waves that have those angles which satisfy the condition in
g

the dielectric slab waveguide (see Prob. 2.13)'

Mode Theory for Circular ltraveguides

m mechanism in a fiber, it is
i";;, a more detailed understanding of the optical po\iler.propagation
n"""rr*u to solve tntaxwett's equations-subject 6 the rylindrical boundary condition-s at thenumber
interface
in a of
;;;;;; ,h" li"aaiiig of
;;;;;,,h"ia-fiir"" the fiber. This has been done in extensive detail
w"ffi' rot u io*pf"t" traunent'is scope of this book, only a general outline of a
beyond the
simplified
"
(but still complex) analysis will be given here'
in ciicular optical 2.4.1 we frst give a qualitative
tiefor" pi"."ntirg th" ;ari" ,noA" tt lbers, T 1"".
ou"*la* if th.
"ory
oimoa"t in'a-waveguide. Next, 1ec.2.4.2 p]e.s:nts a.trie{ summary of the
"oiq"po that thgse. who are not
il;i}|fi r;.ri . obiained from the analys"i in S""t. 2.4.3 through 2.4.9,
designated by
so
a star (*) without loss of
familiar with Maxwell', eqoations can skipover those sections
continuity.
 When solving Maxwell's equations for hollow metallic waveguides, only transverse electric (TE)
modes and transverse magnetic (TM) modes are found. However, in optical fibers the core-cladding
boundary conditions lead to a coupling between the electric and magnetic field components. This givei
rise to hybrid modes, which makes optical waveguide analysis mori complex than metallic waveguide
analysis. The hybrid modes are designated as IIE or EH modes, depending on whether the transverse
electric field (the E field) or the transverse magnetic field (the H field) is larger for that mode. The two
lowest-order modes are designated by tIE,, and TE61, where the subscriptsiefer to possible modes of
propagation of the optical field.
Although the theory of light propagation in optical fibers is well understood, a complete description
of the guided and radiation modes is rather complex since it involves six-component hybrid
electromagnetic fields that have very involved mathematical expressions. A simpli6"u6inte-z: of these
expressions can be carried out, in practice, since fibers usually are constructed so that the difference in
t]re cge and cladding indices of reiraction is very small; that ii, n, n2<< 1. With this assumption, only
-
four field components need to be considered and their expressions become significantly simpler. The
field components are called lineaily polarized (Lp) modes and are labeled ifr, j
*t"r" and m are
integers designating mode solutions. In this scheme for the lowest-order modei,'each Liro. mode is
derived from an fIEr- mode and each LPr- mode comes from TE6r, TM6r, and FlEo_ modej.'Thus, the
fundamental LPo, mode corresponds to an fIE, mode.
Although the analysis required for even these simplifications is still fairly involved, this material is
key to understanding the principles of optical fiber operation. In Secs. 2.4.3 through 2.4.9 we first will
solve Maxwell's equations for a circular step-index waveguide and then will discribe the resulting
solutions for some of the lower-order modes.

2.4.1 Ovenriew of Modes

:

Before we progress with a discussion of mode theory in circular optical fibers, let us qualitatively
examine the appearance of modal fields in the planar dielectric slab waveguide shown in Fig. 2.I9. The
this waveguide is a dielectric slab of index n, that is sandwiched between two dielectric layers
"9T.ot
which have refractive indices nzl nt. These surrounding layers are called the cladding. This represents
the simplest fory
9f an optical waveguide and can serve as a model to gain an understanding of wave
propagation in optical fibers. In fact, a cross-sectional view of the slab waveguide looks the same
as the
cross sectional view ofan optical fiber cut along its axis. Figure 2.19 shows the field patterns of several
of the lower-order transverse electric (TE) modes (which are solutions of Maxwell's equations for the
slab wavegu;6"2-to;. The order of amode is equal to the numberof field zeros across the guide. The
order of the mode is also related to the angle that the ray congruence corresponding to this mode makes
wjtlr the plane of the waveguide (or the axls of a fiber); ihat i{ the steeper ttL ;ti;; ,h" higi"r the order
of the mode-. The plots
$ow that the electric fields of the guided modls are not completeiy confined to
the central dielectic slab (i.e., they do not go to zero at the guide-+ladding interface)-, bul-instead, they
extend partially into the cladding. The field-s vary harmonicity in ttre guifrng regi;;';i;;il;"tive index
n, and decay exponentially outside of this region. For low-order modes the fields are tightly concentrated
near the center of the slab (or the axis of an Jptical fiber), with little penetration into it? li'-,aa:ig
On the other hand, for higher-order modes tn" n"ta. are distributed-more toward tt
A;;.
of the guide
and penetrate farther into the cladding region. " "ag".
Solving Maxwell's equations shows that, in addition to supporting a finite number of guided modes,
the optical fiber waveguide has an infinite continuum of radiaiion *rd"t that are not trapfed in the core
and guided by the fiber but are still solutions of the same boundary-value problem. Theiadiation field
 OpfrmlFibers; "Stnrctures, Wauegutdtng, and. Fabrlcalion

Evanescent tails extend into ilre cladding

rE,/ \
Cladding z2 't/ \li TEz
I
Exponential
decay

C.ore n1

Exponential
Cladding z2
.l decay
Mode type: Zeroth-order

fE. 2.19 Electric field" dtsffibttttans Jor seueral of the lower-order guid.ed modes in a
s?mmetical'slob usatseguide

basically results from the optical power that is outside the fiber acceptance angle being refracted out of
the core. Because of the finite radius of the cladding, some of this radiation gets trapped in the cladding,
thereby causing cladding modes to appear. As the core and cladding modes propagate along the fiber,
mode coupling occurs between the cladding modes and the higher-order core modes. This coupling
occurs because the,elecfic fields of the guided core modes are not completely confined to the core but
extend partially into the cladding (see Fig. 2.19) and likewise for the cladding modes. A diffusion of
power back and forth between the core and cladding modes thus occurs; this generally results in a loss
of power from the core modes. In practice, the cladding modes will be suppressed by a lossy coating
which covers the fiber or they will scatter out of the fiber after traveling a certain distance because of
roughness on the cladding surface.
8' 12' 13 i.
in addition to bound and refracted modes, a third category of modes called lealq modess'6'
present in optical fibers. These leaky modes are only partially confined to the core region, and aftenuate
by continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagate along the fiber. This power
radiation out of the waveguide results from a quantum mechanical phenomenon known as the tunnel
ffict.lts analysis is fairly lengthy and beyond the scope of this book. However, it is essentially based
on the upper and lower bounds that the boundary conditions for the solutions of Maxwell's equations
impose on the propagation factor p. A mode remains guided as long as B satisfies the condition
n2kcB<nft
where t
n, and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and cladding, respectively, and = 2xlL T\e
boundary betwten truly guided modes and leaky modes is defined by the cutoff condition p = nrk. As
soon as pbecomes smaller tltatn2k, power leaks out of the core into the cladding region. Leaky modes
can carry significant anounts of optical power in short fibers. Most of these modes disappear after a few
centimeters, but a few have sufficiently low losses to persist in fiber lengths of a kilometer.

An important pararneter connected with the cutoff condition is the V number defined by
ho
v=T@ -n?)v'= L *o (2.27)
 l

This is a dimensionless number that determines.how many modes a fiber can support. Except for the
lowest-order fIE,, mode, each mode can exist only for values of V that exceed a certain limiting value
(with each mode having a different ylimi0. The modes are cut off when
F = nzk rhis occurs when
V <2.405. The IIEI mode has no cutoff and ceases to exist only when the core diameter is zero. This is
the principle on which single-mode fibers are based. The details for these and other modes are given in
Sec. 2.4.7.
The Y number also can be used to express the number of modes M in amultimode fiber when V is
large.- For this case, an estimate
of the total number of modes supported in a fiber is

(2.28)
"=+(Tlot-"n=l
Since the field of 'a'guided mode partly into the cladding,
extends as shown in Fig. 2.19, afinal
quantity of interest for a step-index fiber is the fractional power flow irithe core and cladjing for a given
mode. As the Vnumber approaches cutoff for any particular mode, more of the power of that mode is in
the cladding. At the cutoff point, the mode becomes radiative with all the optical power of .the mode
residing in the cladding. Far from cutoff-that is, for large values of V-the fraction of the average
optical power residing in the cladding can be estimated by
P. a

whg,re P iq the total. optical power in thg fiber. The d.etails for the power distribution between the core
and the cladding of various LPrT modes are given in Sec. 2.4.9. Note that since M is proportion al to V2,

$:.pqY."t
floy.iltlt chqdi$-decreases as-V increases. However, this increases the number of modei
in the fiber, which is not desiiable for a high-bandwidth capability.
2.4.g Marwell's H[uatlons*
To analyze the optical waveguide we need to consider Maxwell's equations that give the relationships
bgtween the electric qrd qagnetic, fiel4s. Assuming a linear, isotropic dielectrii material having no
currents and free charges, these equations take the form2

12_30a)
dt
' I vxH-aD, (2.30b)
:: .:t , .:. ., dt
V.D=0 (2.30c)
V.B=0 Qsoa
whire
P.: .E, LnO n'= p-ff.Jhg,parametei e is the permittivity (or dielectric constant) and p is
peungability of the mgdium-, ,. . . ,
re,I1tlo.lsliip deliniag thE wave plenomena o{ the electrolnagnetic fields can be derived from
."$-
Maxwell's equations.,Taking-th9 curl,ofEq,.1z.zoa1and making us'e-of E+ (2.300) yields

v x (v x E) = -r$fvrn )*.ett#, (2;3la)

l
Using the vector identity (see App. B),
Vx(V"xE) =V(V'E)-V2E
and using \. (2.3Oc) (i.e., V'E = 0), Eq. (2.31a) becomes
^ ep
VjE=
a2E (2.3rb)
ar,
Similarly, by taking the curl otEq' (2.30b), it can be shown that
a2H
VIH = ,F# (2.31c)

Equations (2.31b) and (2.31c) are the standard wave equations'

2.4.4 ' ', :

JyavegufdeEqridtfona* 2.20. For this

Consider electromagnetic waves propagating along the cylindrical fiber shown in Fig.
(r, lying axis of the
fiber a cylindrical ioordinate .y*t"- Q,- zl is defined with the z axis along the
waveguide. If the electromugn"ii" waves are to propagate along the z axis, they will have a functional
dependence of the form
E = Eo(r, ei@t-Fzl (2.32a)
Q)
H = IIo(r, si(ot-Fzl (2.32b)
Q)

which are harmonic in time r and coordinate z. Thelparameter B is the z component of

the propagation
conditions on thg electromagnetic fields at the core-
vector and will be determined by the boundary
When Eqs (2.3h) and 8.32b) are substituted into Maxwell's
cladding interface described in Sec. 2.4.6.
curl equations, we have, from Eq. (2.30a)

+ irB,a)=-''u'' (2.33a)
i[*
iBE,.*= ialtHE, : Q33b)

(2.33c)
i[*,o,-*)= -ittaH,
and, from F;q. (2.30b),

i[+. i'FHa)="'u' (2.34a)

,:
' .', , ,ioH,+*=-ieaEq (2.34b)

By gliminating variables these, equatrons Canle-lwritt9n ych

tfat,
-wP"
f. *6,Hr,{" known' the
remaining transverse components E'r, er, H, and Hrcan be determined. For examp!", EOo: 11, can be
from'Eqs (Z.3ia) ana <Z'.i+i> so that the'bomponent 11, or E,, respectively, can be found in
"iil;6
terms of E or .EI., Doing so Yields :
 Direction of wave ProPagation ' ,

F1rg.z.zO Cgtindrical coordinate system used Jor analAzing electromagnetic uaDe

Proqagation in an oPtical fuer

aH' )
E.=- +( p*+to,;'A (2.35a)
qL[ d' )
(2.35b)

"=-i(+*-u'*)
''=-il'* +*) (2.35c)

,,=--i(+*.,.*) (2.3sd)

where ( - afeP- fr' = ll - B'. wave-equation in cylindrical

Substitution of Eqs (Z.35ci and (2354 into Eq. (2.34c) results in the
coordinates,
02E, +L?E n L dzn, +02E_=O
'
(2.36)
dr2 rdr r2002 4

and substitution of Eqs (2.35a) and (2.35b) into Eq. (2'33c) leads to

Y!-*LaH, + I a2H z
+ a2H - =o (2.37)

It is interesting to note that Eqs. (2.36) and (2.37) eachcontain either only,. or 9nly.Il"
This appears
of E and H are uncoupled and can be chosen arbitrarily
to imply that thJ longitudinal components
p.*iA"i that they .utirfy Eqs (2.36i and (2.37). However, in general, coupling of E a1d I/. is required

bV th" boundaryconditions oi the electromagnetic

field components described in Sec' 2'4'6' If the
blrraa.y conditions do not lead to couplingletween the field components, mode solutions can be
obtained in which either Er=0 or Hr= ti. wrr* Er= 0 ttrg mo{s3re calledtransverse electric otTE
;
;fr;,ffi *iin lr. b-u{"v are catLd ffansverse'magnetic or TM modes. Hybrid modes exist if both
E- and H- ue no*"ro.-ft"'r" *gt a"Signated as HE 6r EH modes, depending on whether Hr-or E*
[t p""r*fyl *uk", a larger contribution to the transverse field. The fact that the hybrid modes are
p."r"nt in Lptical *ur"g,iid". makes their analysis more complex than in the simpler case of hollow
metallic waveguides where only TE and TM modes are found'
2.4.5 Wave Equatlons for Step'Iqdcr Flbersr
fiber.-A standard mathematical
we now use the uuou"ffili*o find the guided modes in a step-index method' which
procedure for solving.q*,fur such as 4. iZ.:Ol is to use the separation-of-variables
assumes a solution of the for-m (2'38)
E,= AFrQ)Fz@)FzQ)F+(t)
Aswasalreadyassumed,thetime-andx.dependentfactorsaregivenby
(2.3e)
F'(z)F4Q) = si@t-Fz)
In addltion, beg.ause of.the circular
wave is sinusoidal in time and propagates in the z direction.
since the
symmetry of the waveguide, each fieH ;;p;ent must not change when the coordinate @ is increased

iy Zn. W" tttut assume a periodic function of the form

(2.:40)

* *r"0r",1',13;il". an integer since the fields must be periodic

The constant y can be positive
-- @with apeiodof 2n.
in
E
brtrtitriing Eq. (2.+O) into Eq. (2.38), the wave equation for [Eq' 2'36)] becomes
d2F, . t a!*(
V*ra, \ -4ln
n r') =o e.4t)
An exactly identical equation can
which is a well-known differential equation for Bessel functions.2L26
be derived for Hr.
a homogeneous core of refractive index n1
For the configuration of the step-index fiber we consider
and radius a, which i. ,o,'ooraei by an infinite cladding
of index n2' The-reason for assuming an
infinitely thick cladding'is'that the guided modes in the "or"
hur" exponintialll dTuYlTg fields outside
outer boundary of the cladding'.In practice'
the core and these must have insignificant values at the
thick so that the guided-mode field does
optical fibers are a"rigilJ *itr, aioailes. tlat are sufficiently
not reach the outer tirra*y tfr. .iuaaing To ge! an idea of the field patterns' the electric field
"f
distributions for several of the lower-order guided rrioo"r in a
symmetical-slab waveguide were shown
in Fig. 2.l4.Thefieldsvary harmonically in the guiding region of refractive index nl and decay
exponentially outside of this region.
outside the core. For the inside region
Equation (2.41) must now be-solved for the regions inside and
0, whereas on the outside the solutions
the solutions for the guided modes must remain"finite as r -)
are Bessel functions of the first kind of order
must decay to zero u, , - -. Thus, for r < a the solutions
y. For these functions we Use the common designation J u@r) ' Hete, u2 = tq - P2
with k1 = 2nntl h' The
expressions for E and fI. inside the core are thus
(2'42)
Er(r < a)= AJr(ur) ,ivo'i@t-|d
(2'43)
Hr(r < a) = BJu(ur)
'ivQ'l@tt-Fd
where A and B are arbitrary constants'
modified Bessel functions of the second
outside of the core the solutions to Eq. (2.41) are given by
for Erand II. outside the core are
kind, K,(wr), where i= p; -,7r*itf, t, = 2nnzlL. The e*presiions
therefore (2'44)
= CKv(wr) eivoei@t-PzJ
Er(r > a)
(2'45)
HzQ > a) = DKr(wr)
"lv0'i@t-92)
with C and D being arbitrary constants'
 The definitions of J,(ur) and K,(wr) and yiirious rccursion.relations are given:in App e From the
definition of themodifiedBgBse!function, itis seen that KJwr) -+ -. Sinia K,(wr) must go
? "*'aswr
tozeroas1--1'*,itfollowsthatw)0.This,intum,impliesthatp2fo,whichrepre."ot u"rioffcondition.
\tte cutoffcond.itionisthe poirit'atrirtrich a mode is no longerbound to the core region. A seeond condition
onf 9an Ue !9{u9e0 from the behavior of ,I,(rr). Insid" thq core the parameter u-*u.t be real for F, ro be
real, from which it follows that &1 > P. Th" permissible range of for bound solutions is therefore
B
n2k=kr{B<kr:'nrk (2.46)
wheie ft = Zttl),is the free-space propagation consiant.

2.4,6 Modal Pquatio.n! ,

The solutions for pmust be determined from the boundary conditions. The tioundry conditions require
that the tangential components Erand Erof E inside and outside of the dielectric interface at r a must
=
be the s4n1e, 4nd.simil.arl.y
fgr the tangential components H, and I1., Consider first the tangential
components of E. For the?'iomponent-*e have, from yq. (Z.iZ) at tn! inner cor.-"fuOairrgffi;;rry
(Er= Er) and from fa.
{2,U1at the outside of the boundary (8, = Er2), that
Et - Ea= AJ,Q.n) -
CK,(wa) = 0 (2.47)
The @ component is found froni:Eq , (2.35b). Inside the core the factor q2 is given by
(2.48)
where t, = Znnrlh= aG*, while outside the core
*2 = fr2 -14 (2.4e)
withk, =21vr2ll=,Qur{w .substiarting,fos,Q.az) and(2.43)into Eq.r(2.35 b)tofindEq1, and, similarly,

I
I

Eu - Eqr= - ,rtl o4 - naauti@n;]

I
J,@n)

.J
where the prime indicates iiiffeientiation with respect to th€ argument ' l
l
Similarly, for the tangential components of H ii is readily *iio*n'thut, at r = a, i
Ht - Ha= BJv(ua) - DKu(wa) = S (2.5t) I

Hqt - HE2=
, U:r* r,@n) + t,a,"rut ,{ual (2.s2)

-
#l' + K, (w a) + c ot e 2w x i 1w a1f=o

Equations (2.47), (2.5O), (2.5I), and (2.52) are a set,of four equations with four unknown coefficients,
A, B, C, and D. A solution to these equations exists only if the determinant of these coefficients is zero:
 Ju(ua) 0 -Ku(wa)
!@l! i,"1ua) -\x"1wa1 iol x'"1*o1
4h@o)
au' u aw' w
0 Ju@a) 0 -Ku(wa) {2"53)

-t9 tisa) ff t"o*t -# n:,r,^ 4x"@o)

aw'
Evaluation of this tleGelininant-yields the following eigenvalue equation for B:

Q.s4)

where

=JiQ.
'-
lt,* wKr(wa)
and '-'v
Gre
Ko_.(Y?,
uJr(*\
to the range given
Upon solving Eq. (2.5a) for p, it will be found that only discrete values restricted
by {. i;
ir.;;t #rri Jr"iio.'e-tttro"gh Eq. (2.s4) is a complicated transcendental
particular modq
.gguation
will proviae
which is
all the
generally solved by numerical techniiues, its solution for any
equation fbr some of the lowest-order modes of
characteristics of that mode. we shall now consider this
a step-index waveguidu.

2.4.? Mgdes h stcPI*{fT 4bers*

Bessel functions' These
To help describe the motbd, *e ,it{uu-{i*t examlne the behavior of.the /-type
are plotted in Fig. Z.Zt- ioi'ttte fi*t tf,t"" orders. The J-type Bessel functigns
*.: :':Tlq to harmonic
fuilctions- Because
functions since tfiey exhibitosct]ta$oqlrbetrar4or forreal k, as is the case for'siriusoidal
given value. These roots will
of the oscillatory Uefravior*4; ther! will be rr roots of Eq. (2.54) for a
v
i" J*igr"t"dbi B,*, and the corresponding modes are either
TE,^,N* EfI,,, or Y[E* Schematics
cross section of a step-
of the transverse electric field patterns for the four lowest-order modes over the
index fiber are shown inFig.2.22.
For the dielectric fiber w"aveguide, all modes are hybrid modes except those
for which v = 0' When
y = 0 the right-hand side of Eq.-(2.54) vanishes and two different eigenvalue equations result. These are
$s + ;'ffo= 0
Q'55a)
or, using the relations for Ji and Ki in App'
J{u.a)
* Kt(wa) -O (2.ssb)
. _ uJo(ua) wKx(wa)
which corresponds to f80,, modes (E, = 0)' and
' '' tcff,"+*]flo=o (2.56a)

' k?JJua)
-o
*kZKJwa) (2.s6b)
uJo@a)
wKn(wa)
(see Prob. 2'16).
which corresponds to TMo,, modes (H. = 0). The proof of this is left as an exercise . q'
 When y* 0 the situation is more complex
and numerical methods are needed to solve
Eq. (2.5q exactly. However, simplified and
highly accurate approximations based on the
principle that the core and cladding refractive
indices are nearly the same have been
d"ir"6te,m'n. The condition that n, - nz 11 | e
was referred to by Gloge as giving riie to
wedcly guided modes. A treafrnent of these
derivations is given in Sec. 2.4.8.
Let us examine the cutoff conditions for
fiber modes. As was mentioned in relation to
Eq. (2.46), a mode is referred to as being cut
off when it is no longer bound to the core of
the fiber, so that its field no longer decays on
the outside of the core. The cutoffs for the F1rg. 2.21 Voriation oJtlw EtesseljnctionJufu)
various modeq are found by solving Eq. (2.54) Jor tlw fvst tlvee orders (v = O, 1, 2)
in the limit wz -+ O. This is, in general, fairly ptotted. as afurrction oJ x
complex, so that only thg results,la, 16 which
are listed in Thble 2-2,
will be given here.
An important parameter connected with the cutoff condition is the normalized frequency V (also
called the V number or V parameter) defrnedby

v2 = (u2 + w2)* =(TI @ -,,il =(T\ -" (2.s7)

which is a dimensionless number that determines how many modes a fiber can support. The number of
modes that can exist in a waveguide as a function of V may be conveniently represented in terms of a
normalized propagation constant b defined by20

Lowest-order mode

HErr

TEor TM61 HEzr

W. 2.22 Fiber end- uiews oJ the trantsuerse electric field. uectors Jor the Jour lawest-order
ndes in a step-indexfiber
i
Flbers; fuufrireE, Wat:qpfdng, and Fablcallon

Mode Cutoff condition

0 TE6., TMs,, h(ua) =0

i [IE1_, EH1_ t(ua) = Q
>2 EHr tr{ua) = Q

HE-,
g.tlr,-,(,,) =#l'@a)
[r; )

o=T=W_
a2w2 (Blk\z _n4

A plot of D (in terms of Blk) as a function of V is shown in Fig. 2.33 for a few of the low-r:rder modes,
This figure shows that each modecan exist only for values of Vthat exceed a certain limiting value, The
modes are cut off when plk = n2. The [1811 mode has no cutoff and ceases to exist only when the core
diameter is zero. This is the principle on which the single-mode fiber is based. By appropriately choosing
a, fl1, ?lld n2 SO tbflt

v=ff<"7 -n|1rtz <z.4os (2.s8)

which is the value at which the lowest-order Bessel function /o = 0 (seo Fig. 2.21), allmodes except the
[IE,, mode are cut off

' Normalizedfreqwncy Y

W. 2,29 Plots oJthe propogollon cntstant (tnterms oJ F/k) os afinctlory^oJVJor aJew oJ

the bwest-order mdes (Mdlfied wlth permisstonJrom Glagdl
Example 2.3 A step-index fiber has a normalized
frequency V = 26.6 al a 1300-nm wavelength. If the core
NA=v 1 =2a.6 l'3 =tj.zz
radius is 25 trtrl let us find the nurnerical aperture. From 2tca %r (25)
Eq. t2.5'l) we have

The parameter V can also be related to the number of modes M in a multi-mode fiber when M is large.
An approximate relationship for step-index fibers can be derived from ray theory. A ray congruence will
be accepted by the fiber if it lies within an angle 0defined by the numerical aperture as given inF4. Q.23):
NA=sin0=@l-njfz (2.59)
For practical numerical apertures, sin 0 is small so that sin 0 = 0. The solid acceptance angle for the
fiber is therefore
dl= n02 = n@? - n?) (2.60)
For electromagnetic radiation of wavelength ,1, emanating from a laser or a waveguide, the number of
modes per unit solid angle is given by 2AtA?, where A is the area the mode is leaving or entering.2s The
area A in this case is the core cross section na2. Thefactor 2 comes from the fact that the plane wave can
have two polarization orientations. The total number of modes M enteing the fiber is thus given by

,=#n=ffrf -C,=l (2.61)

2.4.8 Llnearly Polarized Modes*

The exact analysis for the modes of a fiber is mathematically complex. However, a simpler but highty
accurate approximation can be used, based on'the principle that in a typical step.in6sx fiber the difference
between the indices of refraction of the core and cladding is very small; that is, A << 1; This is the basis
of the weakly guiding fiber approximation.T'1e'2o'27In this approximation the electromagnetic field
paffernsandthepropagationconstantsofthemodepatsFlE,*,,.andEH*,, marevery similar.Thisholds
likewise for the tlree modes TE,., TM6., andHE2*. This can be seen from Fig. 2.23 with (v, m) = (0, I
and(2,1) forthe modg groupings {[IErr], {TE.r, TMgr, [1821], {HE31, EHrr}, {HEr2}, {I{E4r, EH,},
and {TE6r, Tlld,z,lfi,,l. The result is that only four field components need to be considered instead of
six, andthefielddescription is further simplifiedby theuse of caretesian instead of cylindricalcoordinates.

When A << 1 we have that k? =kZ = B2 . Using these approximations, Eq. (2.50 becomes

{" *.t{, = tY(i. #) (2.62)

Thus, Eq. (2.55b) for TEo- modes is the same asE4. Q.56b) for 1}r4s. modes. Using the reculrence
relations tor J i and Ki given in App. C, we get two sets of equations for Eq. (2.62) for the positive and
negative signs. The positive sign yields

Jrr(ua) , Kr*r(wa) (2.63)

uJr(ua) wKu(wa)
The solution of this equati'On gives a set of modes called the EII modes. For the negative sign in
Eq. (2.62) we get ---;n
 Opdcal Ftbers; Stnrcfurres, Wat:eguiding, and Fabricqtion

Ju;@a) _Ku-t(wa) (2.64a)

=O
uJu(ua) wKr(wa)
or, alternatively, taking the inverse of Eq. (2.64a) and using the first expressions for Jr(ua) and Kr(wa)
from Sec. C.1.2 and Sec. C,2.2,
_uJu-z(ua) _ wKr-z(wa) (2.64b)
Jua(ua) wKua(wa)
This results in a set of modes called the HE modes.
If we define a new parameter
(t for TE and TM modes
; = .{v*r for EH modes (2.6s)

[,- I for tIE modes

then Eqs (2.55b) (2.63), and (2.&b) can be written in the unified form
uJi-tfua) __wK,t(w:a)
(2.66)
J,(ua) Kt(wa)
Equations (2.65) and(2.66) show that within the weakly guiding approximation all modes characterized
by a iommon set ofj and m satisfy the same characteristic equation. This means that these modes are
dlgenerate. Thus, if an WwL, **od" ir degenerate with an EHr-r, - mode (i.e., if tIE and EH modes of
corresponding radial order m and equal circumferential order v form degenerate pairs), then any
combination of an [IEv+1,. mode with an EHor,. mode will likewise constitute a guided mode of the
fiber.
Such degenerate modes arre called linearly polarized QP) modes, and are designated LPy, modes
regardless of tn"ir TM, TE, EH, or IIE fietd configuration2o. The normalized propagation conltant b as
a function of V is given for various LPrT modes inFig.2.24 general, we have the following:
1. Each LPo, mode is derived from an FIE,, mode.
2. BachLPl. mode comes from TE6r, TMs, andHB*modes.
3. Each LP,* mode (v>-Z) is from an fIE*,.. and an EH *r,. mode.
The correspondence between the ten lowest LP modes (i.e., those having the lowest cutofffrequencies)
and the raditional TM, TE, EH, and IIE modes is given in Table 2.3. This table also shows the number
of degenerate modes.
A very useful feature of the LP-mode designation is the ability to readily visualize a mode. In a
complete set of modes only one electric and one magnetic field component are significant. The electric
field vector E can be chosen to lie along an arbitrary axis, with the magnetic field vector H being
perpendicular to it. In addition, there are equivalent solutions with the field polarities reversed. Since
each of the two possible polarization directions can be coupled with either a cos j@ or a sin j@ azimuthal
dependence, four discrete mode patterns can be obtained from a single LPrT label. As an example, the
four possible electric and magnetic field directions and the corresponding intensity distributions for the
LP,, mode are shown Fig.2.25. Figure 2.26a and2.26b illustrate how two LP1 modes are composed
from the exact IIE2, plus TEel and the exact HE21 plus TMo, modes, respectively.
 d

i'0.6
d

-e
E o.+
il
"s

W, 2,24 *to qf ttw Ctryaltqn,eanetar:f b aa a jncfinn qf V Jor uErtow l,Pyn.nrcrcs,

{Reprofu*ed utith perrrdes tnn fum Glqd' )

LP-mode designatlon Trditi onal - mo de d e s i g nat i o n Number of degenerate

and number ofmodes modes

LPor IIE11 x 2 2
LPrr TEs1, TMo1, I{F,r, x 2 4
LP,, EH11 x Z,HErrx? 4
LPoz ex2 )
LPrr EH2, x z,HEuxz 4
LP,, TEm, TMo2, tfr.ux2 4
LP*r EH31x2,HE,x2 4
LPzz EHr2 x 2,1#,rrx2 4
LPo: f-IErl x 2 7

LP,, Ellorx1, HE., x ? 4

2.4.9 Powcr Flos ta 6tcp-Ildo+ Flberg*
A final quantity of interest for step-index fibers is the fractional power flow in the core and eladding for
a given mode. As illustrated in Fig. 2.l9,the electromagnetic field for a given mode does not go to zero
athe core-cladding interface, but changes from an oscillating form in the core to an exponcntial decay
in the cladding. Thus, the electromagnetic energy of a guided mode is carried partly in the core and
partly in the cladding. The further away a mode is from its cutoff frequency, the more concentrated its
ir.rgy is in the core. As cutoff is approached, the field penetates farther into the cladding region and a
gr"ater percentage of the energy uavels in the cladding. At cutoff ttre field no longer decays outside the
core and the mode now becomes a fully radiating mode.

Intensity distribution

WW
E vertically polarized

@@
E hotizontally polarized

ffg. 2.25 The Jour psstble tratuuerse elecfficfreld otd magnetlcfreld. dlrectlorw and the
corespondtng tnter.slfu dlsffibtfiIonsJor tlle LPn mde

The relative amounts of power flowing in the corc and the cladding ean be obtained by integrating
the Poynting vectdf in the axial direction,

S-= I Re(ExH*).e
1

"22---t-..-^r-z
(2.67)

over the fiber cross section. Thus, the powers in the core and cladding, respectively, are given by

P"*= (2.68)
il: fr'n .H;-EyH:)dodr
P.uo = it: frr r@,H., - ErHi)dQdr (2.6e)

where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate. Based on the weakly guided mode approximation,
which has an accuftrcy on the order of the index difference A betrveen the core and cladding, the relative
core and cladding po*er. for a particular mode v are given byzo'ze
 t3@o)
+=(, 5)l Jr*r(ua) Ju_1(ua)
(2.70)
and
DD
'clad tl-- 'core (2.71)
-
P P'.
where P is the total'power in'the mode v.
The relationships between P"or" and P"66 are
plofted in Fig. 2.27 interms of the fractional LPrr
powers P"orc/P and P"1^olP for various LPrT
1
modes. In addition, far from cutoff the I
average total power in the claddr4g has been i\
derived for fibers in which rhany modes can i
propagate. Because of this large nurnber of
I
I
modes, those few modes thatare appreciably HEzr
close to cutoffcan be ignored to a reasonable
approximation. The derivation assumes an
incoherent source, such as a tungsten
filament lamp or a light-emitting diode,
which, in general, excites every fiber mode
with the same amount of power. The total
average cladding power is thus approxi-
mated by2o

(rw) = o
r-,,,
I P )orut 3
where, from E q.(L6I) , M,isthe totahurnber
(2.72)
ffiffi
of modes entering the fiber. fmmFig. Z.2l
(b)
and Eq. (2.72) itcan be seen that, since M is
proportional to V2, the power flow in the Fig; 2.26 Cornpasition oJ two lPrr,mdes trom
cladding decreases as Vincreases. exact modes and.their transuer.se
electric field" and- intensily distributions

E x ampl i 2; 4 As rur exafoplg'coniidef afiberhaving
a core radius of 25 1tm, a core index of L,18, and A = 0.01.
Atan operating wavelength of 0.84 1rm the value of Vis
39 and there we760 modes in the fiber. FromBq. (2.72),
approximalely 5 percent of the power propagates in the
cladding. ff Ais decreased to, say, 0.003 in ordei io discrease
signal dispersion Gee Ctgp.t* 11 ,1hen2"41, modes propagare
in the fiber and:about 9:percent of the power resides in the
cladding. For the case of the single-mode fiber, considering
the !Po, mgde (the IIE,, mode) inFig.2.27, it is seen that
for V = I about 70 percent of the power propagates in the
cladding,.whereas for V = 2.405, which is where the LP,,
mode (the TEo, mode) begins, approximately 84 percent
of the power is now within the core.
I
l
I
I
I
 i:

,.t
{ Optical Ftbers: Strttctur'es, WW

\
o
rL

246
l/
Fig. 2.27 FYactionatpouerJlow tntlrc clndding oJastep-indexopticatfiber as afunctionoJ
v. wlwnv'+ 7, the curue ntnnbers vmdesignate tlrc HDo*t,^arTdEHr-1,mmodes.
For v = 7, tt:re curue numbers vm giue--the HEr*, TEo^, andTMo*modes
(Reprodtrced' u:ith permis sion Jrorn Glry*o )

m singte-mtde rlbers
Sl"gi"i"oa" fibers are constructed by letting the dimensions of the core diameter be a few wavelengths
and the cladding; FronBq' (2'27)
ir*i"ff, S-f Z) and by having small index di*erences between the core
or (2.S'A) with V = 2.4, it"ui b" ,"", that single-mode propagation is possible for fairly
large variations
A. However, in practical
i, ,atues of the physical core size a andthe core-claddin-g index differences
percbnt,
designs of single-moa" nU"ii, ttre,core-cladding index di=ffere19e.varie1 b.1YqP 0.2 and 1.0
just below cqtoff of the first higher-order model that is,
ana Ihe core dlameter shpuld be chosen to be the
typical single-mode fiber may t uY" of 3 pm and
foi V .tightty less'than 2y'. For example, a 1 :9l"-tudlus
(2'27)l,this
;;;#;i;d;"9f O1 ut u *ufi"ngtrt or o.a pr". From Eqs (2.23) and (2.57) lorEq'
yields V = 2.356.

2.5.1 Mode Field Diameter

Formultimodefibersthecorediar.nQterandnumericalaperturearekeyparametersfordescribingthe
p.rop9-rtles. tn iingle-mo4e fibers the geometric distribution of light in the
propagating
;fiffiil;rrio1 Thus fundamental
ifoOe is wtrat i,needed *hio.pr"dicting the perfoqrance characteristics of these fibers. a

parameter of a single-rnode im"r is, tni *rd"A"ta diameter (Ym) This parameter can be
detemined'
irom the mode.figid OlstUution of-the fundarnental fiber mode, and is a function of tty ggtical source
fiber. mode-field diameter is
wavelength, the core radius, *d.*re refraclive index profile of the The
fibers not all the light
analogoils to the core diameter:in multimode fibers, except that in single-mode
2.28 illustrates this,effect'
that piopagates through the fiber is carried in the iore (see Sec. 2.4). Figure
 For example, &t V = 2 only 13 percent of the optical
power is confined to the core. This percentage increases
for larger values of V and is less foi smaller-V values.
The_MFD is an important parameter for single-mode
^.
flber, since it is used to predict fiber properties such as
splice loss,.bending loss, cut-off wavelength, and 01L
waveguide dispersiou. Chapters 3 and 5 describe these
pafameters and their effects on fiber performance. A
variety of models have been p^roposed for characterizing
and measuring the MFD.30-35 These include far_fieli
scanning, near-field scanning, traflsvefse offset, variable
aperture in the far field, knife-edge, and mask methods.30
The main consideration of all these methods is how to
approximate the optical power distribution.
A standard technique to find the MFD is to measure
Core diameter
the far-field intensify distribunm R
@) and rherr calculate
the MFD using the Petermarin II equation32 -+- e'LO

I zll t'st"
l- Mode
nerd

_ "1'''
drryter
MFD= 2Ws=ZlJi:_,
r'trlrdr | Q33)
l_ )o )
where Zwo(called the spot size) isthe
Flg' 2'28 Distribution oJ tight in a
the
full width of
single-mde fiber ahoue its
far-field distribution. Foicaleulation simpticity the exact
field distribution can be fitted to a Gaussian function2r *taff tuauelength. For a
Gaussian distrlbution the
E(r)=Eoexp (r,lw&) e.i4) MFD is stuen ii ii tiJ
where r is the radius and E6 is the field at zeraradius, wldrh aJ ttte optlcal pwer
as
shown in Fig. Z.Z9.T\enthe MFD is given by the rlez widthof
the optical power.

As described in Sec. 2.4.8, o-rdinary single-mode fiber there are actually two independent,
degenerate propagation .o6.r3G3e.-in.any
These mode-s are very ririi* but their polarization planes
are
o.tmosg't rhese may. be ehose-n arbitrarily ag the horizonial ,nJ it r."ririiviprj*zations as
fnl
shown in Fig' Z.}9.F;tther tfese two polarization modes constitutes" the fundamental tfi,,
9f mode.
In general, the electric field9n9
of the light propagating along the fiber is a linear superposition of
these two"
polarization modes an{_depends olr the polarization of
tfie fight at rhe Iaunehing pnint io;";dH;;."
suppose we arbimmily ihoose one of the modes to have iirt un.u"rr"
the r direction and the:other independeat orthogonal, mode
;i";d."fi;il poiurtz"o atong
to be polarized in the y direcri* u, shown in
Fig' 2'29' In ideal tbe.rs w.r$ perr""t rot3tional synmetry, trr* i*u modes
are degenerate with equal
propagation constants (krx.kr),a1d any polarizationstate
iqiected inro the firer wil prlpaluie orctrungeo.
In actual fibers there are iniperfections, such as asymmetrical lateral stresses,
noncircular cores, and
variations in refraefive-index profiles. These imperfections break
the cireular symmetry of the ideal
fht-.Td lift the degeneracy of the two modes. Tlre modes p.opugui. *ith different phase velocities, - and
the difference between their'effective refractive indices i*
fiber birefring"n
"ai"itrr" ",
 ;

f,

H-qr&oetal'mode Vertical mode

! Ftg. 2.2g ltj"l,o p oJmetuiaamentalfiEll

"ry
in a sbqli-ndefiber

B7= n'- n* (2.7s)

\
Equivalently, we may define &e birefringence as
D (2.76)
F=ko(ny-n)
whers h= Znl)t is the free,tpaee,propagation constant. ''
If 11g[t is injected into the- fibei.so that both modes are excited, then one will be delayed in phase
relative to the other as they Fopagate. When this phase difference is an integral multiple of 2n, the two
modes will beat at this poini aIrd ;h" input polarization state will be reproduced. The length over which
this beating occurs is'the fiber beat length,
Lp= 2nl7 (2.77)

Examole 2.5 A sinslemodeoptical fiberhas abeat 2n

length of 8 cm at 1300 nm. From Eqs. (2.15) to (2.77) we 'B=4-
Lp 0.08 m
=7g.5m-r
have that the modal birefringence i9
This indicates an intermediate-type fiber, since
I'3xlOlm = I x 10-'1 (a typical high-
B.=
r n..-n-=L-
) =1.63xr0-5 birefringences can vary from B,
Lp 8x10.'m birefringence fiber) to Bf = I x lO-E (a typical low-
u, altematively, birefringence fiber).

Fiber Stnrcture
# t Graded-index
";ze
In the graded-index fiber dcslgn th1 core refractive index decreases c9nti1u91slY.yth incrlasine rad$
distance r from the'center-tif-ttiti:ltber,'but is generally constant in the cladding. The'most commonly
*J.";r*.,ion io. the refractive-index variition in ihe core is the power law relationship

core axis, rc2 is the refrrctiveindex+f the cladding, and thedirrensionless ryram-eter crdefines the shape
of the indeiprofile;Thei1gfuxdifference A for the eraded-jiidex fiber is gi@-by
i1'
I
II
 I

if
n_"r'-"i _flt-tt2 (2.7e)
2"? nl
The approximation on the right-hand side of this equation reduces the expression for A to that of the
step-index fiber given by Eq. (2,20). Thus, the same symbol is used in both cases. For d= e,Eq. (2.78)
reduces to the step-index profile n(r) = yir.
Determining the NA for graded-index fibers is more complex than for step-index fibers, since it is a
function of position across the core end face. This is in contrast to the step-index fiber, where the NA is
constant across the core. Geometrical optics considerations show that light incident on the fiber core at
position r will propagate as a guided mode only if it is within the local numerical aperture NA(r) at that
point. The local numerical aperture is defined as{

NA(r) = {tn'<rl-n:lt.2 =NA(o)f -(r/a)" for rsa (2.80a)

. |.0 for r>0
where the axial numerical aperture is defined as

NA(0) = [n2(o)-n?1Y2 =@? -nilV'=n Jitr (2.80b)

0L
0 0:4 ,, A.6 0.8 1.0

fig. Z.3O A comparbon oJ tJtg ruunerical aperdres Jor fibers haDing uarious are index
profites

.
Thus, the NA of a graded-index fiber decreases from NA(0) to zero as r moves from the fiber axis to
I
the core--cladding boundary. A comparison of the numerical apertures for fibers having various aprofiles {

is shown in Fig. 2.30. The number of bound modes in a graded-index fiber iser
M--do2kzn?L-ov' (2.81)
" a+2 ' a+22
where lr = Zrcil" and the rigl+hand'approximation is derived using Eqs (2.23) and (Z:.Tt). As Sec. 3.4
describes. fiber manufacturers typically choose a parabolic refractive indcx profilc given by a = 2.O. ln
 Optical Ftbers; Stnrcturres, Waueguiding, and. Fabricalian

this case, Mc= V214, which is half the number of modes supported by a step-index fiber (for which
a,= *) that has the same Vvalue, as Eq. (2.61) shows.

m I'iber Materials
In selecting materials for optical fibers, a number of requirements must be satisfied. For example:
1. It must be possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers from the material.
2. T\e material must be hansparent at a particular optical wavelength in order for the fiber to
guide light efficiently.
3. Physically compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for the core and
cladding must be available.
Materials that satisfy these requirements are glasses and plastics.
The majority of fibers ar9 made of glass consisting of either silica (SiOr) or a silicate. The variety of
available glass fibers ranges from moderate-loss fibers with large cores used for short-transmission
distances to very transparent (lowJoss) fibers employed in long-haul applications. Plastic fibers are less
widely used because of their substantially higher attenuation than glass fibers. The main use of plastic
fibers is in short-distance applications (several hundred meters) and in abusive environments, where the
greater mechanical strength of plastic fibers offers an advantage over the use of glass fibers.

2.7.1 Glass Fibers

Glass is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides, sulfides, or selenides.4zaa 7X" resulting material is a
randornly connected molecularnetworkrather than a well-defined ordered structure as found in crystalline
materials. A consequence of this random order is that glasses do not have well-defined melting points.
When glass is heated up from room temperature, it remains a hard solid up to several hundred degrees
centigrade. As the temperatu e increases further, the glass gradually begins to soften until at very high
temperatures it becomes a viscous liquid. The expression "melting temperature" is commonly used in
glass manufacture. This term refers only to an extended temperature range in which the glass becomes
fluid enough to free itself fairly quickly of gas bubbles.
The largest category of optically
transparent glasses from which optical
fibers are made consists of the oxide
glasses. Of these, the most common is 1.48
x
o
silica (SiOr), which has a refractive index 13 GeO2
of 1.458 at 850 nm. To produce two similar () Pzos
materials that have slightly different
indices of refraction for the core and clad- H r.+o
{)
ding, either fluorine or various oxides
(referred to as doponrs), such as BrOr, Bzo:
GeOr, or PrOr, are added to the silica. As F
1.44
shown in Fig. 2.31 the' addition of GeO, sl0 t5 20
or PrO, increases the refractive, index. Dopant addition (mol %)
whereas doping the silica with fluorine or
BrO, decreases it. Since the cladding must IIg. 2.31 VarialioninreJracttue index as aJtutction
.i have a lower index than the core, examples oJdopW corwentration m srlica glass
I
I
of fiber compositions are
1
 1. GeOr-Siq corc; SiG? cladding
2. Prq-SiO2 cere; SiO, cladding
3. SiO2 core; Bpr-SiQ cladding
4. GeAz B2q-SiO, core; BrOr-SiQ cladding
Here, the notation GeO2-Siq2, f,at example, denotes a Ge$2-doped silica glass.
The principal raw material for silica is high-purity sand. Glass composed of pure silica is referred to
as eiiher silica glass, fased. rilic.c, or vitreoas sillca Some of its desirable properties are a resislance to
deformation at temperatures as high as 1000oC, a high resistance to breakage from thermal shock because
of its low thermal expansion. go@ chemical durability, and high fiansparency in both the visible and
infrared regions of interest to fikr optic communication systems. Its high melting temperature is a
disadvantage if the glass is prepared from a molten state. However, this problem is partially avoided
when using vapor deposition techniques.

2.7.2 Active Glass Fibers

Incoqporating rare-earth elements'(atomic numbers 57*?l) into a normally passive glass gives the resulting
material new optical and magnetic properties. These new properties allow the material to perform
amplification, altenuation, anl prasj retardation on the light passing through i1.as-a1 Doping can be
carried out for silica, tellurite, and halide glasses.
Two commonly used materials for fiber lasers are erbium and neodymium. The iolic coucentrations
of the rare-earth elements are low (on the order of 0.005-0.05 mole percent) to avoid clustering effects.
By examining the absorption and fluorescence specffa of these materials, one can use an optical source
*hieh it an absoqption"wavelengh to excite elecfions to higher energy levels in the rare-earth
"mits
dopants. When these excited elecfons are stimulated by a photon to drop to lower energy levels, they
emit light in a narrow optical speetrum at the fluorescence wavelengh. Chapter 11 discusses the
applications of fibers doped with rare-earth elements to create optical amplifiers.

Chqracteristic PMMA FAF PF PAF

Core diameter 0.4 mm 0.125*0.30 mm

Cladding diameter l.0mm 0.25-O.60 mm
Numerical ap.rture A.2:5 0.20
Attenuafion 150 dB/km at 650 nm < 40 dBlkm at 650-1300 nm
Bandwidth 2.5 Gbls over 200 rn 2.5 Gbls over 550 m

2.7.3 Ptastic Optieal Fibers

The growing demand fordelivering high-speed services directly to the workstation has led fiberdevelopers
to create high-bandwidth graded.index polymer (plastic) optical fibers (POF) for use in a customer
premises.4s,ae The core of *rese'fibers is either polymethylmethacrylate or a perfluorinated polymer.
These fibers are h€ee,,laSerr€d to.as PMMA FOF and PF POR respectively. Although they exhibit
considerably greateroptieal signal :rttenuations than glass fibers, they are tough and durable. For example,
since the modulus of these polymers is nemly two orders of magnitude lower than that of silica, even a
 fiber cable
l-mmdiameter graded-index FOF is sufficiently flexible to be illtalled in conventional
of plast'rc fibers are 10-20 times larger, which
routes. Comparei with silica fibers, the core diameters
saerificing optical coupling efficiencies. Thus,
allows a relaxation of connectsr toletances wittrout
can be used to fabricate connectors, splices, and
inexpensive plastic injection-molding technologies
transceivers.
Table 2.4 gives sample characteristics of PMMA and PF polymer optical
fibers'

lz.e It Photonic CrY',rstal Flbers

|
---
E
Irritially this
In the early 1990s researchers envisioned and demonstrated a new optical fibe_r structura
known as a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) or s mictostruatured
was calle,ia hotey fiber and later beeame
that the cladding
fiber.5cv Trc aifrerence between this Rew structure and that of a conventional fiber is
of PCF contain air holes, which mn along the entire length of the
and, in some cases, the core regions a
fiber. Whereas the malerial prcrtrties of the core and cladding define the light-transmissioucharacteristics
which
of conventional fibers, tte .tuctorat arrangement in a PCF creates an internal rnicrosm'lcture'
offers another dimension of light control in the fiber'
refractive index
The size and spacing (knoJn as the plrcft) of the holes in the microstructure and the
characteristics of photonic crystal fiberc' The two
of its constituent mate;ai determine fre tigtrt-guialng
taslc pCn categories are index-guiOing TiUers and photonic bandgap fibers. The light transmission
mechanism in ai index-caidiflg fb*r is iimitar to tlrai in a conventional fiber, since it has a high-index
for PCF the effiective refrastive index of the
core srilrounded by u tJ**irido* cladding. However, a
a phatonie bandCsp
cladding depends on the wavelength and the size and pitch of the holes. In contrast,
by a micro structured cladding. This class of'fibers guides
fiberhuu-a hollow eore which is iunounded
light by means of a photonic baodgap effect.
2.8.1 Index-Guldtng'PICF
Figure 2.32 shows a two-dimensional Solid high-index core Buffer coating
cross-sectional end vierv' of,the iffucture
of an index.guiding PCF- The fiber has a
solid core that is iurrcunded by a eladding
region which contains air hoies- amning
oo\oooo
along the length of the fiber- Ttre holes
have a diameter d and apitch,i.' Although ooo\\ oco
ooo
the core and the claddiagare made of the coo ooo
same material (forexample, pure silica),
&e air holes lower the e{fective index of
ooo
refraction in the ,;.adding region, since
n = I for air and 1.45 for.si]iea" Con-
sequently, the microsfircture arr{ngsment Claddiagwith
#ooo"!3: Hole
diameter d

creates a stepindex optical fiber. embedded holes

The fact that the cors can be made of
Pitch A
pure silic4 gives the PCF arnun'rbor of
opemtional advantages Over convenlional tle sf-lcfile
hbers, which typically have a germanium-
fE. 2.32 Cross-sectio nal end- uieu oJ
aJ an indexguiding plwtonic crystnlfikr
doped silicacore. These include very low
Iosses, the ability to transmit high optical power levels, and a high resistance to darkening effects from
nuclear radiation. The fibers can support single-mode operation over wavelengths ran^ging from 300 nm
to more than 2000 nm. The mode-field area of a PCF can be greater than 300 pm2 compared to the
80 pm2 area of conventional single-mode fibers. This allows the PCF to ffansmit high optical power
levels without encountering the nonlinear effects exhibited by standard fibers (see Chapter 12).

2.A.2 Photonic BandEiap Fiber

Figure 2.33 shows a two-dimensional cross-
sectional end view of the structure of a
photonic bandgap (PBG) fiber. In contrast
to an index-guiding PCR here the fiber has ffiooooooJ%\
a hollow core that is surrounded by a
cladding region which contains air holes
f oo\ocoo
ooo\,-----.ooo
o o o (\ )o o o
running along the length of the fiber. Again
the holes in the cladding region have a
diameter d and a pitch A. oooVooo
The functional principle of a photonic
bandgap fiber is analogous to the role of a
\ ooocoo
Hole
periodic crystalline lattice in
which blocks electrons
bandgap region. In a PBG
from
semicortductor,
a
occupying a
fiber the hollow
Cladding withKloororoo#
embedded holes
diameter d

core acts as a defect in the photonic bandgap

Pitch A
structure, which creates a region in which
the light can propagate. Ftg.2.33 Cross-secti,onal end uieu oJ the
shttcfitre oJ a ptatonic bandgop fiber

m Fiber Fabrication
Two basic techniquesss-S8 are used in the fabrication of all-glass optical waveguides. These are the
vapor-phase oxidation process and the direct-melt methods. The direct-melt method follows traditional
glass-making proceduies in that optical fibers are made directly from the molten state of purified
co*ponents bf silicate glasses. In the vapor-phase oxidation process, highly pure vapors of metal halides
1e.g., SiCto and GeCl) react with oxygen to form a white powder of SiO2
particles. The particles are
then colleited on the surface of a bulk glass by one of four different commonly used processes and are
sintered (ffansformed to a homogeneous glass mass by heating without melting) by.one of a variety of
techniques to form a clear glass rod or tube (depending on the process). This rod or tube is called a
perform.It is typically around 1O-25 mm in diameter and 60-tr20 cm long. Fibers are made from the
preformsz-ss by using the equipment shown in Fig. 2.34. The perform is precision-fed into a circular
heater called the d.rawing furnace.Here the preform end is softened to the point where it can be drawn
into a very thin filanient, which becomes the optical fiber. The turning speed of the takerrp drum at the
bottom of the draw tower determines how fast the fiber is drawn. This, in turn, will determine the
thickness of the fiber, so that a precise rotation rate must be maintained. An optical fiber thickness
monitor is used in a feedback loop for this speed regulation. To protect the bare glass fiber from extemal
contaminants, such as dust and water vapor, an elastic coating is applied to the fiber immediately after it
is drawn.
 Precision feed mechanism

Flg. 2.94 *hemotic oJ afiber-drau:ing apgrufi$

2.9.1 Outside Vapor-Phase Oddatlon

The frst fiber to have a loss of less than 20 dBikm was made at the Corning Glass
Workstu2 by the
is illustrated in Fig. 2'35. First, a layer of
outside vapor-phase oxidation(OvPo) process. This method
graphite or ceramic. mandrel' The
SiO, particle, iutt"O a soot is deposited irom a burner onto a rotating
gtu.i soot adheres to this bait rod and, layer by layer, a cylindrical' polou.s glass preform is built up' By
vapor stream during the deposition process, the
iroperly controlling the constituents of the metal halide into the preform'
incorporated
lmr .o-positions-and dimensions desired for the core and cladding can be
gither step- or graded-index preforms can thus be made.
Wren tfre Aeposition process is completed, the mandrel is removed and the porous tube is then
vitrified
preform. This clear perform is
in a dry atmosphere at ; high temperaiure (above 1400') to a clear glass
shown in Fig. 2.34.The central
subsequently mounted in aiber-drawing tower and made into a fiber, as
hole in the tube perform collapses during this drawing process'

2.9.2 Vapor-Phase Arlal DePosition

process
The OVpO process described in Sec. 2.9.1 is a lateral deposition method. Another OVPO-type
the SiO2
is the vapor-phase axial deposition (VAD) method,63'fl illusfiated in Fig. 2.39.1n this.method,
from
purti"t". ur"ior*ed in the s,u*" *uy as described in the OVPO process. As these particles emerge
as a seed. A porous
the torches, they are deposited ontothe end surface of a silica glass rod which acts
preform is grown in the axial direction by moving the rod upwald. The rod is also continuously rotated
it is
io maintairicylindrical symmetry of the particle deposition. As the porous preform moves upward,
localized zone)
transformed into a solid, transparent roilpreform by zone melting (heating in a narrow
with the carbon ring heater shown in Fig. 2.:6. The resultant preform can then be drawn into a fiber by
heating it in another furnace, as shown inEig.2.34.
8o6 step and graded-iniex fibers in eithir muitimode or single-mode varieties can be made by the
occurs with
VAD method. The advantages of the VAD method are (1) the preform has no central hole as
 O2 + metal halide vapors

Bait rod (Mandrel) Soot preform Glass particles

(a) Soot deposition

Glass
preform
[:Hffi.-i:"t*,
@ uw l;.""
H vu
67\
L_
co." )'{cludding o,u,. Fiber
I preform
(6) Soot preform (c) Preform sintering (d) Fiber drawing
cross section

fig. 2.35 Basic steps in preparing a preJonnby the OVPO process. (a) Boiit rod. rotates and.
fflrlrues back ardiorth under the burner to prodtrce a un!f,orm depositian oJ gtnss
soot partictes along the rod; (b) Proflites can be step or graded index;
(c) Follon:W deposition, the soot preJorm is sintered into a clEar gtass preforrn;
(d) fiber-f dranunJrom the gtnsi pr.J"rnt (Reprodtrced. u:ith pirmissaiJrom
Schuttz.ss)

the OVPO process, (2) the preform can be fabricated in continuous lengths which can affect process
costs and product yields and (3) the fact that the deposition chamber and the zone-melting ring heater
are tightly connected to each other in the same enclosure allows the achievement of a clean Jnvironment.

2.9.3 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition

The modified ch,emicaL t'apor deposition TMCYD) process shown in Fig. 2.3'l was pioneered at Bell
Laboratories,43'6s-6't and widely adopted elsewhere to produce very lowlloss graded-index fibers. The
glass vapor particles, mising from the reaction of the constituent metal halide gases and oxygen, flow
through the inside of a revolving silica tube. As the SiO2 particles are deposited, they are sintered to a
clear glass layerby an oxyhydrogen torch which travels back and forth along the tube. When the desired
thickness ofglass has been deposited, the vapor flow is shut offand the tube is heated strongly to cause
it to collapse into a solid rod preforrn. The fiber that is subsequently drawn from this preform rod will
have a core that consists of the vapor-deposited material and a ctaaOing that consisti of the original
silica tube.

2.9.4 Plasma-Activated Chemlcal Vapor Deposltion

Scientists at Philips Research invented the plasma-activated chemical vapor deposition (PCYD)
process.6&70 As shown in Fig. 2.j8, the PCVD method is similar to the MCVD process in that deposition
occurs within a silica tube. However, a nonisothermal microwave plasma operating at low pressure
initiates the chemical reaction. Wjth the silica tube held at temperatures in the range of 1000-1200"C to
reduce mechanical stresses in the growing glass films, a moving microwave resonator operating at 2.45
 process deposits clear glass
GHz generates a plasma inside the tube to activate the chemical reaction. This
is required. When one has
,11ut"rld directly on ttre tube wall; there is no soot formation. Thus, no sintering
just in the MCVD case'
Jefost"A the desired glass thickness, the tube is collapsed into a preform as

2.g.5 Photolri" C"y"t"I Fibu" F"b"toti*

The fabrication of a photonic crystal fib-er also Pulling machine
is based on first creiting a preformTlja. The
perform is made by rireans of an alray of hollow
capillary silica tubes. To make a preform for an
index-guiding fiber, the capillary tubes first are
bundled in an array around a'solid silica rod. rod
For a photonic bandgap fiber, the hollow core Transparent
is established by leaving an emBty space at the preform
center of the array. Following the array stacking Vessel
processes, these configur'ations are fused
Ring heater
iogether to create a preform and then made into
a fiber using a conventional optical fiber
drawing tower.
In the drawing process, the holes keep their
original arrangement. This allows the creation
of any type of array pattern (for example, close- Thermo-
packed arrays, a single circle surrounding a large viewer
iolid core, or a star-shaped hollow core) and
Glass particles
hole shape, (for exampie,' circular,, hexagonal,
or oval openings) in the final fiber.r' Reaction chamber

In addition to using silica, polymer and soft

glass materials, such asPMMA and SF6 or SF57
Fl'g. 2.36 ApparatusJortteV,\D (uapor ptwse
Schott (lead silicate) glass, also have @n,u ed
?t-76. p'''t11,"."
anat depositinnJ process (Repro-
to make photonic cryi,tal fibetsf3' drrced uilh PrmissionJrom lzausa
fiber types the prefeirm is made,by an:extrusion and tnogaki,ffi A rcgo, IEEE)
process. In an example extrusion'process a glass

::t t Soot deposit

Sintered glass
+ Traversing burner

(ry\Wd ctvmical uaryr deposifar| p,rocess. @eproduced'

- 2.gZ
Fig. ffhematic oJ MCVD
uithpermiislbinfiomsclufifs)
 Reactants Exhaust

(SiCl++ 02+ dopants)

Plasma

Glass layers

<-
-+
Moving microwave resonator

fig. 2.38 $x,]lr:mattc.,"JrcVD @itnsriw-actilnted chemtcat uaryr deposilton) pnocess

disk is heated until it is soft and tlren is pressed through a die. The sffucture of the die dbtermines the
configuration of tfre fiber cross,section. The extrusion time typically is around two hours. After the
preform is fabricated, fibers are made using standard optical fiber drawing equipment.

m Mechaniesl Properties of Fibers

In addition to the transmissioir preperties of optical waveguides, their mechanical characteristics play a
very important role when fibers are used as the transmission medium in optical communication systemsTT-
80.
Fibers must be able to wi&stand the stresses and strains that occur during the cabling process and the
loads induced during the installation-and.service of the cable. Dtring cable manufacture and installation,
the loads applied to the fiber can be eitherimpulsive or gradually varying. Once the cable is in place, the
service loads are usually slowly varying loads, which can arise from temperature variations or a general
settling of the cable foliowing-:installation.
Strength and static fatfgiare thg,two basic mechanical characteristics of glass optical fibers. Since
the sight and sound of shattering glass are quite familiar, one intuitively suspects that glass is not a very
stong material. However, the longitudinal breaking stress of pristine glass fibers is comparable to that
of metal wires. The cohesive bond strength of the constituent atoms of a glass fiber governs its theoretical
intrinsic strength. Maxiinum tensite strengths of 14 GPa (2 x 106 lb/in.l have been observed in short-
gauge-length glass fibers. fhis is close to the 20-GPa tensile strength of steel wire. The difference
b"t*""n giass-and metal is that, under an applied sEess, glass will extend elastically up to its breaking
strength, whereas metals can be stretched plastically well beyond their true elastic range. Copper wires,
\

for example, can be elongated plastically by more than 2! percent betore they fractUre' For glass fibers,
elongations of only about 1 percent are possible beforeifracture occurs.
Irf practice, thekistence of stress concentrations at surface flaws or microcracks limits the median
strength of long glass fibers to the 7ffi-to-3500-MPa (1-5 x 10s lb/in.2) range. The frlcture strength of
(the one that
a giv"en length-oiglass fiber is determined by the size and geometry of the severest flaw
prido"". tfr! Urg"-st streJs concent ution) in the fiber. I hypothetical; physical flaw model !s sh9w1-i1
'fig. iSg. 1nis eiliptically shaped crack is generally referred to as a Grffith m_icrocracl|l-. Lt has a width
w, a depth ,16, anda tip radius p. Thelsrength of the crack for silica fibers follows the relation
(2.82)
K=Y tno
. where the stress intensity factor K is given in
k-1r-,
terms of the stress o in megapascals applied ll
\ to the fiber, the crack depth yin millimeters,
: and a dimensionless constant I that depends tip radius p
. oD flaw geometry. For surface flaws, which
i___br-crack
I *"the most critical in glass fibers, y = G .

From this equation the maximum crack size Applied stress d +

allowable for a given applied stress level can
be calculated. The maximuin values of K Fig. 2.39 A ttgpotletical mdel oJ a micrarack
depend upon the glass composition but tend in ott oPticalfiber
to be in the range 0.6{.9 MN/m3/2.
Since an optical fiber generally contains
many flaws tf,at have u r*ao-m, distribution of size, the fracture strength of a fiber must be viewed
statistically. lf F (o,I) is defined as the cumulative probability that a fiber of length L will fail below a
stress level o, then, under the aSsumption that the flaws are independent and randomly distributed
in the
fiber and that the fracture will occur most flaw, we have
" at theF(o'L)=l-e-IN(A
severe
(2.83)
where N(o) is the cutnulatiue nnnber of flaws per unit length with a strength less than o. A widely used
form for N(o) is the bmpirical eipression

N(o'=
r(oY (2.84)
u[a.]
where rn, o6, and h ue constants;related to the initial inert strength distribution. This leads to the so-
called Weibull expressions2 ':

F(o.L)= 1_exp (2.8s)

[-t*l;]
A plot of the Weibull expression is shown in Fig. 2.4O for measurements formed on long-fiber samplesTs'83.
Thesi data points were oUt i*A by Esting to destruction a large number of fiber samples. The fact that
a single .u*" be drawn through the data indicates that the failures arise from a single type of flaw.
"*
ny dreru environmental control if,the fiber-drawing fumace, lengths of silica fiber greater than 50-km
with a single failure disnibution can be fabricated.
 In contrast torstrerEith;.,which,relates.to instantaneous failure under an applied load, stetie fatigue
relates to the slow growth of pre-existing flaws in the'glass fiber under humid,conditions.and tensile
stress78. This gradual.flaw growth,can$es tre fiber to fail at a lower stress level than that which could be
reached under a strength test. A flaw such as the one shown in Fig. 2,39 propagates through the fiber
because of chemical erosion of the fiber material at the flaw tip. The prirnary cause of this erosion is the
presenee of'water in the environment, which reduces the snengttr oi ttre Sio2,bonds in the glass: The
speed of the growth reaction.is.increased,when the fiber,is put under sEess Certain fiber materials are
more resistant to s{atiarfatigue than others,rr}itlr fused:silica being the most resista$t of the glasses in
water. In general, coatings that are applied to the fiber immediately during the manufacturing process
afford a good degree of proteetiron against environmental corrosions4.
Another important factor !o consider is dynamic fatigue. When an optical cable is beihg installed in
a duct, it experiences repeated sftess owing to surging effecB. The surging is caused by varying degrees
of friction between the optical eable and the duct or guiding tool in a manhole on a curyed route.
Varying sfiesses also. ar,ise in aerial cables that are set into ftansverse vibrafion'by the wirrd.lheoretical
and experimental investigationsss'86 havs shown that the time to failure under these conditions is related

Tensile strength (I b/i#)

105 2 3 4 5 6789rc6)
99.9 7
ee
l-
95 I- o Silicone-coated
e0l- fibers
80 [- o Ethylene-vinyl-acetate-
7ol coated fibers
60F
501- o
o
401- o
301- o, rG
rE
o
5
ctl
,ol- O(
I
_d

2?.
99 I
ol^t
rol- -2S
a
95
sF _?ob
li
JI
90
=
EI
{
il
.80.

60
70 srl 44
o
k
50
,.44
T
30
E ?
I -5
\o 20 0.5
o\ I
I
10
0.2
,a)
-0;l
4 5 67 -1
,

FE'2.4O A Wa:biil tgpe'ptat sha:ulrng t}e ewanafipe protubilifu tlwtfrbeirs oJ 2O-m and.
l-lcrn lengttts uilt Jracfire at the.indicated applied.stress. (Reprodtrced with
prmissiort Jrom Miller, Haft, Vroom. and. Bouderuffi )
 are found from the cases of static
to the maximum allowable stress by, the same lifetime parameters that
stress and stress that increases at a constant rate' 87' 88 In
-trt method'
. A high assurance oi tiU". reliability can be provided by proof testing.33' an

opticalTiber is subjected to a tensile load greater than thaiexpected at 1ny

time'during9"
".fl:
Empirical
pais the proof test are rejected'
manufacturing, instattatiln, and service. Any dbers which do not
proportional to a power
studies of slow crack growth show that the growth tate dfldt is approximately
of the stress intensity factor; that is,
4l- =tYu (2.86)
dt
Here, A and b are material constants and the stress intensity factor is given by W. Q.82).For most
glasses, b ranges between 15 and 50.
'\ If a proof iest stress op is applied for a time to then from Eq. (2.86) we have

B(o!-z -60-z)=ouo', (2.87)

-.-\ where q is the initial inert strength and'

'=*(+\'#
when this fiber is subjected to a static stress or after proof testing, the time
(288)

to failure r, is found from Eq'

(2.86) to be
(2.8e)
,("ur-' - ob-') = o! r,

Combining Eqs (2.87) and (2'89) yields

,("!'' - o!-') = "urto +.ob, t, Qso)

To find the failure probability F, of a fiber after a time r, after

proof testing, we frst define N(r, o) to
be the number of flawsper *iif"irgtf, which will fait in a time / under an applied stress o' Assuming
ttratN(q) >> N(q), then

Solving Eq. (2.90) for, q and:substituting into Eq' (2'84), we have' from Eq' (2'91)'

r ll @i,, + o! t,) I n + oi'zfv<t-ztl* (2.e2)

N(r, q) =
ej 1

The failure number N(tp, oe) Wr unit length during proof testing is
found from Eq. (2-92) by setting
o, = op and letting /, = 0, so that

oootofo*our-r)!(b-z)
(2.e3)
N(te, cp) =
4 Os
 Letting N(t*, o*) = N,, the failurg probability F, for a fiber after it has been proof tested is given by

F = l_e_Z(N,_ilp)
I'S : (2.e4)
SubstitutingEqs'(2:92) and (2.93) intoEq. (2_94), we have

ml(b-2)
F" = 1- exp (2.9s)

["'{l['.#)# il
where C = n/o,rt, , and where we have ignored the term

tul
+--, (2.e6)

This holds because typical values of the parameters in this term are oJop=0.3 0.4, tp= la s, b > 15,
-
op= 35A MN/m2, and B = 0.05 - O.S 6aXim2;2s.
The expression for F, given by Eq. (2.95) is valid only when the proof stress is unloaded immediately,
which is not the case in actual proof testing of optical fibers. When the proof sfress is released within a
finite duration, the C value should be rewritten as

B
(2.e7)
o'pI,
where yis a coefftcient of slow-crack-growth effect arising during the unloading period.

Lz.+ ;, f iber Optic Cables

In any practical application of optical waveguide technology, the fibers need to be incorporated in some
type of cable structure8e-es 11t" cable structure will vary gieatly, depending on whether trre caufe is io
be pulled into underground or intrabuilding ducts, buried directly in the ground, installed on outdoor
poles, or submerged under water. Different cable designr ur" ,"quir"d for iach type of application, but
certain fundamental cable design principles will apply in every case. The objectives of cable manufacturers
have been that the optical fiber cables should be installible with the same equipment, installation
techniques, and precautions as those used for conventional wire cables. This requires special cable
designs because of the mechanical properties of glass fibers.

,2.ll,.l Cable Stnrctures

"One important mechanical propefty is the maximlm allowable axial load on the cable, since
this factor
determines the length of cable that can be reliably installed. In copper cables the wires themselves are
generally the principal load-bearing members of the cable, and elongations of more than 20 percent are
possible without fracture. On the other hand,,extremely strong optical fibers tend to break at 4-percent
elongation, whereas typical good-quality fibers exhibit long-length breaking elongations of about
0.5-1 .0 percent. Since static fatigue occurs very quickly at stress levels above 40 percent of the permissible
 Optlml Ftbers.' Stnrctures, Wat:qutdttg, and Fobrication

elongation and very slowly below 20 percent, fiber elongations during cable manufacture and installation
should be limited to 0.1 - 0.2 percent.
Steel wire has been used extensively for reinforcing electric cables and also can be used as a strength
member for optical fiber cables. For some applications it is desirable to have a completely nonmetallic
construction. either to avoid the effects of@@t. In such
cases, plastic sfiength members and highltensiie-strength synthetic yarns are used. A popular yarn is
i
Kevhrb, which is soft but tough.yellow syntiretic nylon material belonging to a generic yam family
known as aramids. Good fabrication practices will isolate the fibers from other cable components, keep
them close to the neutral axis of the-cable and allow the fibers to move freely when the cable is flexed or
stretched.
The generic cable configuration shown in Fig. 2.41 illusrates some common materials that are used
in the optical fiber cabling process. Individual fibers or modules of bun9led fiber grouping9 an4
copper wires for
,.-_rr---e tape and oilier
w-rapping e encapsulate
t these fiber groupings together. Surrounding all these components is a tough I qc&er that provides
to the cable so that the fibers inside are not
-crush resistance and handles any tensile stresses applied
t*r"gam" jacket also protects the fibers inside igainstjbrasion, rngl!gfe,-9!l-!9!vents, an@r
contairinantr. Tt" jacket type largely defines the applicatioEtrar:Gtics, for example, heavy-duty
outside-plant cables for direct-burial
and aerial applications have much
thicker and ou'ghei jaekets than light- Outer sheath
duty indoor iables. i
Yam strength member
The two basic fiber optic cable
structures ard the tight-buffered fiber Buffered strength member
cable design and the loose-tube cable Paper/plastic binding tape
configuration. Cables with tight-
buffered fibers norninally are used Basic fiber building block
indoors whenias the loose-tube structure Insulated copper conductors
is intend6il-for long-haul outdoor Polyurethane/PVC j acket
applications. A ribbon cable is an
extension of the tight-buffered cable. In
all cases the fibers themselves consist
Flg. 2.41A tgptcat stx-Jiber cable created bg
strandirg slx baslc fiber-build@ blrcks
of the normally manufactured glass core around a cenlrol strerEthmember
and cladding which is surrounded by a
protective 250-pm diameter coating.
As shown in Fig. 2.42, in the tight-buffered design each fiber is individually encapsulated within its
own 900-pm diameter plastic buffer structure, hence the designation tight-buffered design. The 900-pm
buffer is nearly four times the diameter and five times the thicliness of the 250-pm protective coating
material. This construotion feature contributes to the excellent moisture and temperature performance
of tight-buffered cables and also permits their direct termination with connectors. In a single-fiber module,
a layer of amarid strength material surrounds the 900-pm fiber structure. This configuration then is
encapsulated within a PVC outer jacket.
lithe loose+ube cable c,onfi$uration one or more standard-coated fibers are enclosed in a thermoplastic
tube that has an inner diameteiwhich is much larger than the fiber diameter as shown in'Fig. 2.43.T\e
fibers in ttre tube are slightly longer than the cable itself. The purpose of this construction is to isolate
the fiber from any stretching of the
Glass fiber with cladding
surrounding cable structure caused by factors
such as temperature changes, wind forces, or
ice loading. The tube is filled with either a Fiber coating (250 pm)
gel or a dry water-blocking material that act
as buffers, enable the fibers to move freely
Fiber buffer (900 pm)
within the tube, and prevent moisture from
entering the tube. Yarn strength member
To facilitate the field operation of splicing
cables that contain alxge number of fibers,
cable designers devised the fiber-ribbon Outer cablejacket
(e.9.,2.4 mm diameter)
structure. As shown in Fig. 2.4!, tbe ribbon
cable is an arrangement of fibers that are F79.2.42 Construction oJ a stmplex tight-
aligned precisely next to each other and then bufiered fiber cable mdule
are encapsulated in a plastic buffer orjacket
to form a long continuous ribbon. The number of fibers in
a ribbon tlpically ranges from four to twelve. These ribbons
Thermop lastic tube
can be stacked on top ofeach other to form a densely packed
,z^\-
,r' \
arrangement of many fibers (e.g., 144 fibers) within a cable
structure. /or,""\
There are many different ways in which to arrange fibers
inside a cable. The particular arangement of fibers and the
cable design itself need to take into account issues such as
the physical environment, the services that the optical link
\v
I rrul )
(a) End view
Optical fiber

(b) Side view

will provide, and any anticipated maintenance and repair Fig. 2.43 Corrcept oJaloose-htbe
that may be needed.
cable corfigurafion
2.Lt.2 Indoor Cable Designs
Indoor cables can be used for interconnecting
instruments, for distributing signals among office
users, for connections to printers or servers, and
for short patch cords in telecommunication
equipment racks. The three main types are
Coated fibers Plasticencapsulation
described here. (250-pmouterdiameter)
Interconttect cable serves light-duty low- Fta.2.iL4 Example oJ a hrelue-fiber
fiber count indoor applications such as fiber-to- ribbon cable module
the-desk links, patch cords, and point-to-point runs
in conduits and trays. The cable is flexible,
compact, and lightweight with a tight-buffered construction. A popular indoor cable type is the duplex
cable, which consists of two fibers that are encapsulated in an outer PVC jacket. Fiber optic patch
cords, also known as jumper cables, are short lengths (usually less than 2 m) of simplex or duplex cable
with connectors on both ends. Thby are used to connect lightwave test equipment to a fiber patch panel
or to interconnect optical transmission modules within an equipment rack.
 cabte consists of up to 12 tight-buffered fibers stranded around a central sfength
Bt1p1kout orfanout
member. Such cables serve low- to medium-fiber-count applications where it is necessary to protect
on individual fibers
individual jacketed fibers. The breakout cable allows easy installation of connectors
in the cable. With such a cable configuration, routing the individually terminated fibers to
separate

pieces of equipment can be achieved easily.

Distribution cable consists of,individual or small groupings of tight-buffered fibers stranded

aI*rA *.ral strength mernber. This cable serves a wide range of network applications for sending
and video signals. Disfibution'cables are designed for use in intra-building cable
" trays,
data, voice,
that they enable groupings
conduits, and loose placeiientin dropped-ceiling structures. A main feature is
of fibers within thelable to be branched (distributed) to various locations'

2.11.3 Outd?or Cables

applications. Invariably
Outdoor cable installations include aerial, duct, direct-burial, and underwater
i
(,
these cables consist of a looseltube structure. Many different designs and sizes of outdoor cables are
in which the cable will be used and the particular
available depending on the physical environment
application.
intended for mounting outside between buildings or on poles or towers'
The two
Acrial cableis
popular designs are the self-supportiog *a the facility-supporting cable structures.T\e self-sapporting
poles without
cable corfiains an internal strength mlmber that permits the cable to be strung between
using any additional support rnrih*i.*r for the cable. For thefacility-supporting cable ftst a separate
poles and then the cable is lashed or clipped to this
wire or strength 111".u.i is stmng between the
member.

Annored cablefor direct-burial or underground-duct applications has one or more layers of steel-
jacketing as shown in Fig' 2'45'
wire or steel-sheath protective armoring below a layer of polyethylene
This not only providls additional str"ngth to the cable but also protects it from gnawing animals such as
cables. For example, in the
squirrels or Lunowing rodents, which-often cause damage to underground

Central strength member

Loose-tube structure

Wrapping and binding taPes

Comrgated steel taPe

Water-blocking comPound
Inner polyethylene jacket

Outer polyethylene jacket

Ftg. 2.45 Exomple a4frguration oJ an armored outdmrfiber opdc cable

 y'it"g States the plains pocket gopher (Geomys busarius) can destroy unprotected cable that is buried
less than 2 m (6 ft) deep- other cable components include
binding tapes, and water-blocking materials:
a central strengttr member, *6fu;;;
tlndenoater cable,also known as submaine cable, isused in rivers, lakes, and ocean environments.
since such cables normally are exposed to high water pressures, ttrey h";"
requirements than underground cables. For example, as shown
;;;h ;;e stringent
in Fig. 2.46 cablesthat can be used in
rivers and lakes have various water-blocking layeis, one or .;;rd;""
m""r priv"iiyr"ne shearhs,
and i. heavy outer armor jacket. ,cables thai run under the o."ari
hur" further layers of armoring and
contain coppej wires to provide electrical power for submersed optical
arnplifiers or regenerators.

Loose-tube structure
Strength member
(steel wires)

Wrapping tape and

moisture barrier

Polyethylene
inner sheath

Wrapping tape and

lead sheath
Polyethylene
central sheath
Bedding layer
(yam + asphalt)
Galvanized steel
wire armoring
Outer protective sheath

Ftg. 2-tl.6 Examprb co4figrtration oJ an wrderusaterfiber optic cabte

2.11.4 InstallattoT Mettrglds

Workers can install optical fiber cables by plowing them directly into
the ground, laying them in an
outside trench, pulling or blowing them through-ducts (both indoor
urairta"".iir'Jrrr". spaces,
suspending them on poles, placing them underwater. Although each method has its own
special
handing procedures, they all-orneed to adhere to a common set of"precaurions.
d;l;;lr;e
sharp bends of the cable, minimizing stresses on the installed cabie, periodically
avoiding
allowin! extra cable
slack along the cable t9llt f:t unexpected repairs, and avoiding
exceisive pulling forces 6n the cable.
fhe rrU-T has priblished a number of L-ieries re"o.*"rditions for the construction, installation,
and protection of fiber optic cables in the outside plant.
Table 2.5lists some of these recommendations-and states their
application.
 OpficatFibers; Strurture+ W*q"AuW, *A Fe'ffi

Recommpndation Name Description

L.35, Installation of oqtical fiber cabks in the Gives guidance for installing optical cables in ducts, on
access network, Oct. 1998. poles, and through direct burial.

L.38, Use of trenchless.techniques for the Describes underground drilling techniques for installing
construition of underground infrastructures for telecommunication cables without the need for
telecommanication cable installation, Sept. 1999. disruptive excavation or Plowing.

L.39, Invesrtgafion af tle soil before using Describes soil-investigation techniques for obtaining
trenchkss techniryls, MaY 200O.' information about the position of buried objects and the
nature of the ground.

L.42, Mini-trench instailarton techniques, Describes a technique for puuing duct-based underground
March 2003. optical cables in small trenches. This allows quicker
Y'
, installations, lower cost, and limited surface disruption'

L.43, Micro4rench irustallatioft techttique s, Describes installing underground cables at a shallow

March 2003. depth in small grooves.

L.57, Air-assisted install.cttion of optical Describes air-assisted methods for installation of optical
fiber cables in ducts.
fiber cables, MaY 2003.

$ pnoeLEMS
2.1 Consider an electrib fietd fepresented by the where
expression Az +al+Z.ararcos(6, -6r)
= a?

n=
[tooei3o" ",
*20t"-i*'", * o"t"o'"r)rl'' and

Express this as a measurable elecftic field as q sin6, +arsin6,

described by Eq. (2.2) at a frequency of
100 MHz.
2.2 A w aveis specified by y = $ cos 2.td2r - 0'82),
where y is expressed in micromcters and the
propagation cbnstanl lE'given in prn Find
l.
(a) the amplitude, (D) the wavelength, (c) the
angular frequency, and (d) the'displacement
.+.at time, = 0 and z = 4 [rm.
( 2.S Eonsider two plane waves X1 andX2 traveling
\'-z1n the same direction. If they have the same
: frequency ar but different ar.nplitudes a, and
phases 6,, then we c.att represent them by
Xr = at cqs (o)r - 6,1) I
Xr= azcos'(ar- 4) .
According to the principle ol superposition,
the resultant wave X is si'rnply the sum of X,
andX2. Show thatXgan be written in the form
X= A,cos (at - 0)
tan @=
arcos6, +arcos6,
Cz.&rrtr,i.ally polarized light can be represented
by th"t*o orttrogonal waves given in Eqs (2.2)
- and (2.3). Show that elimination of the
(at - kz) dependence between them yields
(r.\ -(l\ -rtnE, cos6=sin26
[,ao.,J [r., J Eo, Eo,
which is the equation of an ellipse making an
angle a with the x axis, where a is given by
Eq. (2.8).
2.s l-et E*= E* = I in Eg. (2.7). Using a comput€r
$ or a graphilal calculator, write a program to
tF) plot this equation for values of 6= (nal8, where
n = 0, 1,2, ....'16. What does ttris show about
the state of polarization as the angle dchanges?
 2.6 Show that any linearly po'larized wave may
be considered as the supelposition of left and
right ciicularly polarized Waves which are in
phase and have equal amplitudes and
frequencies.
2.7 Light traveling in aA sEikes,a glass plate at an
angle 0, = 33o, where 0, is measured between
the incoming ray and the glass surface. Upon
striking the glass, part ofthe beam is reflected
and part is refracted. If the refracted and
reflected beams make an angle of 90' with
each other, what is the.refractive index of the
glass? What is the critical angle for this glass?
2A A point source of light is 12 cm below the
surface of a large body of watei (n = 1.33 for
water). What is the radius of the largest circle
on the water surface through which the light
can emerge?
A 45"45"-90o prism is immersed in alcohol
(n = 1.45). What is the minimum refractive
index the prism must have if a ray incident
normally on one of the short faces is to be
totally reflected at the long face of the prism?
Show that the critical angle at ah interface
between doped silica with nr = 1.460 and pure
silica with nz= 1.450 is 83.3".
The reflection coefficient R, for parallel
polarized light is given by
o _\cos(p2-n2cos(pl
,,, -i"*rpr*i@6
Show that the condition R : 0 for the nrewster
angle occurs when tan et = ny'i,rh.
2.12 Calculate the numerical aperture of a step-
index fiber having \ = 1.48 and n2 = 1.46.
What is the maximum entrance angle 00.,,,o
for this fiber if the outer medium is air with
n = 1.00?
2.13 Consider a dielectric slab having a thickness
d = l0 mm and index of reAaction n, = 1.50.
l,et the medium'above and below the slab be
air, in which flz = I. Let the wavelength be
,t = 10 mm (equal to the thickness of the'
waveguide). , i
(a) What is the critical angle for the slab
waveguide?
(b) Solve Eq. (2.26b) graphtcally to show that
there are three angles of incidence which
satisfy this equation.
(c) What happens to the number of angles as
the wavelength is decreased?
2.14 Denve the approximation of the right-hand
side of Eq. (2.23) for A << 1. What is the
difference in the approximate and exact
expressions for the value of NA if n, = 1.49
and nr= 1.49t
2.15 Using the expressions in Eqs (2.33) and (2.34)
derived from Maxwell's curl equations, derive
the radial and hansverse electric and magnetic
field cornponents given in Eqs (2.35a) to
Q35A. Show that these expressions lead to
Eqs (2.36) nd (2.37).
2.16 Show that for y = 0, Eq. (2.55b) corresponds
to TEo, modes (E. = 0) and that Eq. (2.56b)
corresponds to TMo* modes (H, = 0).
Z.fi Yenty that qr = 4. = F' when A << 1, where
k, and k, ue thecore and cladding propagation
constants, respectively, as defined in Eq.
(2.46).
2.18 A step-index multimode fiber with a numerical
aperture of 0.20 supports approximately 1000
modes at an 850-nm wavelength.
(a) What is the diameter of its core?
(b) How many modes does the fiber support
at 1320 nm?
(c) How any modes does the fiber support at
1550 nm?
2.19 (a) Determine the normalized frequency at
820 nm for a step-index fiber having a
25-pm core radius, /21 = 1.48, arfi n = 1.46.
(b) How many modes propagate in this fiber
at 820 nm?
' (c) How many modes propagate in,hiff".,
at" l32O nm? .._
._r
(d) How many modes propagate in this fiber
at 1550 nm?
(e) What percent of the optical power flows
in the cladding in each case?
:
2.20 Consider a fiber with a 25-pm core radius, a
core index nr = 1.48, and A = 0.01.
(a) If ),= 1320 nm, what is the value of Vand
how many modes propagate in the fiber?
 OpticatF-ibers: S
(b) What percent of the optical power flows
in the cladding?
(c) If ttre core--cladding dffierence is reduced
to A = 0.003,rhow mamY modes does the
fiber support and what fraction of the
optical Power flowsin the cladding?
ttre core radius necessary'for single-mode
2.21 Find
operation at 1320 nm of a step-index fiber with
,rl = t.+SO and nr= 1'47-8' What are the
numerical aperture and maximum acceptance
angle of this fiber? , . '
.
L22 Amanufacturer wishes ts make a silica-core'
step-index fiber with' V =.75 and 11ume1^9al
aperture NA = 0.30 to be used at 820 nm' If n,
size and
= t.+Sg, what should the core
cladding index be?
2 23 Draw adesign curve of the fractio'ml reft active-
index difference A versus thecore radius a for
a silica-core (nr = 1'458), single-mode fibel to
operate at 1300 nm. Suppose the fibe-r we-select
from *ris curve has a 5-Hn core radius' Is this
fiber still single-mode at820 um? Which modes
exist in the fiber at 820 nm?
2.24 tJsing the following approximation for
fro= o1o.ss + i-6lg'v3i2 +,2'w9 u4) ^ How many grcms are needed for a l-km-
and plot E(r)t4swith rran^ghrg from
"Juftut"
0 to 3 for values of V = 1 .0, 1'4' 1 '8, 2'2, 2'6'
and 3.0. Herc a is the fiber ra.{ius'--
2.25 Commonty availaUte single-modefibers have
beat lengtirs in the range 10 cm < I,<.2 m'
What range of birefringent i'efractive-index
differences does this correspond to for I =
1300 nm?
2.26 Plotthe refractive-inclex piofiles framnlto n2
(
as a function of radiat Cistance r a for
graded-
index fibers thatliirre dvalues of |,2,4'8'ar;rd
- (step index), Atsru* the fters lloyg a25'
Prn co; radius,'n, = ,l'48, andA 19:01'
2.2i1 Czlculatethe numbero-f modes at 820 nm and
1.3 pm in agraded-index'fibe1-having a
parabolic-index profile (a'= 2) ;' a-25-*m core
iadius, nr = 1'48,'and nr l'1'46' How does
2;2E Calculate the numeri,cal apertures of (a)
'index
of i, = l'60 and a cladding index of
: fl2= 1.4g, (b) step-index fiber having a silica
a
c6re 6r= 1.458) and a silicone resin cladding
(n, = 1.405).
2.29 When a preform is drawn into a fiber' the
principle of conservation of mass must be
satisfi id under steady-state drawing conditiors'
Show that for a solid rod preform this is
represented bY the exPression
,=sfzT
\d
)
where D and d arb the preform and fiber
diameters, and S and s are the preform feed
' andfiber-drawspeeds,respectively'Atypical
drawing speed is l.2mls for a 125-pm outer-
diameter fib"r. Whut is the preform feed-rate
in cm/min for a 9-mm-diameter pteforyJ
2.30 A silica tube with inside and outside radii of 3
and 4 mm, respectively, is to have a certain
thickness of glass deposited on the inner
surface. What should the thickness of this
glass
deposition be if a fiber having a core diameter
ofiO pmand an outer cladding diameter of
125 pm is to be drawn from this perform using
Wo
the MCVD fabrication Process'
2.31 (a) The density of fused silica is2'6 g/cm3'
long 5O-Pm-diameter fiber core?
(b) If the core material is to be deposited
' inside of a glass tube at- a 0'5-g/min
deposition rate, how long does it take to
make the Preform for this fiber?
2.32 Dwing fabrication of optical fibers' dust
particles incorporated into the fiber surface are
prime examples of surface flaws ttrat can lead
io reduced-fiber strongth' What size dust
a glass fiber having a
particles are tolerable if
i0-N/mm3/2 stress intensity factor is to
'
withstand a 7oo-MN/m? stress?
2.33 Static fatigue in a glass fiber refers to the
condition *h"t" u fiber is stressed to a level
o,, which is much less than the fracturestress
aJsociated withthe weakest flaw' Initially' the
fiber will not fail but, with time, cracks in the
fiber will grcw as a result of chemical erosion
a
at the crack tip. One model for the growth rate
of a crack of depth 7 assumes a relation of the
form given in Eq. (2.86)'

(c) Using this equation,: s[row that the time
required for a crack ofinitial depth 1,to
grow to its failure size 26ris given by
2r,n
t = - x(i-t"21
@&6flx!'-u''
(b) For long, static fatigue times (on the order
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