a

ISSN 0101-2061 (Print)

Food Science and Technology ISSN 1678-457X (Online)

DDOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.11718

Mineral content, phenolic compounds and bioactive amines of cheese bread

enriched with cowpea
Rodrigo Barbosa Monteiro CAVALCANTE1 , Marcelo Antônio MORGANO2, Maria Beatriz Abreu GLÓRIA3,
Maurisrael de Moura ROCHA4, Marcos Antônio da Mota ARAÚJO5,
Regilda Saraiva dos Reis MOREIRA-ARAÚJO6*

ABSTRACT
Cheese bread presents great acceptance and market expansion. Due to the lack of standardization in its manufacturing, various
ingredients can be added. It was aimed to determine the content of minerals, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity
in cheese bread enriched with biofortified cowpea. Two formulations were prepared, standard cheese bread (without cowpea)
and enriched cheese bread. The minerals were analyzed using the plasma emission spectrometry technique with inductive
coupling, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity were determined by spectrophotometry and the amines by High
Performance Liquid Chromatography. All analyzes were performed in triplicate and for the comparison of the means between
two variables, Student’s t-test was applied and for multiple comparisons, the Tukey test. It was observed that the enriched cheese
bread is source of copper, zinc and sodium and presents high content of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium, considering
the recommendations for the children’s audience. The concentrations of total phenolics, flavonoids and condensed tannins
increased significantly with the introduction of cowpea. It was also observed an significant increase of spermidine, cadaverine
and agmatine. The antioxidant activity was statistically higher in enriched cheese bread. It is concluded, therefore, that cheese
bread with cowpea contributes to the supply of minerals and bioactive compounds.
Keywords: Vigna unguiculata; bakery product; micronutrients; phenolic compounds; bioactive amines.
Practical Application: The study reports a technological innovation in the production process of a mixture of cheese bread
enriched with the whole flour of biofortified cowpea. Cheese bread was chosen due to the contribution of the bakery products
on a family budget. Cowpea was from a biofortified cultivation with high levels of iron, zinc, phenolics, and polyamines.
The product is designed to meet the interests of consumers for foods with a better nutritional value and functional.

1 Introduction
Cheese bread is a traditional product of the state of Minas
Gerais, Brazil, the production of which has increased considerably
in recent years, in association with the growth of the market,
including the export of the product. However, despite its
increasing consumption, there is no standardization in terms
of the manufacturing, identity and quality. Innovations that are
allowed by manufacturers, such as the addition of raw materials
that will enrich the product (Anjos  et  al., 2014; Machado &
Pereira, 2010).
The fortification presents several advantages, including the
great adherence of the population, the low risk of toxicity, as the
margin of harmlessness is very wide, and the non-modification
of eating habits (Taddei et al., 2011), especially when they include
legumes, such as the cowpea, as a vehicle of fortification.
The cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) provides a
significant amount of protein, 23 to 25%, and carbohydrates,
56.8%, and has a large quantity of food fibers (3.9%) and low fat
(1.3%). This raw material is characterized as a source of minerals
and vitamins. There is also the presence of bioactive compounds,
such as phenols and polyamines (Cavalcante et al., 2017a).
Phenolic compounds are chemical structures with hydroxyls
and aromatic rings, which confer antioxidant power. In simple
forms or polymers, free or complexed to sugars and proteins,
these compounds originate from the secondary metabolism
of plants and are essential for their growth and reproduction;
in addition, they are formed under conditions of stress, such
as infections, injuries, and ultraviolet radiation (UV), among
others (Angelo & Jorge, 2007). According to Hobbs et al. (2014),
Lima (2005), and Martinez-Valverde et al. (2000), the growing
interest in phenolic compounds stems from their association with
a reduced risk of diseases, such as atherosclerosis and cancer;
the bioactivity is related to the fact that phenolic compounds
help control autoxidation.

Received 03 Apr., 2018

Accepted 31 Mar., 2019
1
Programa de Pós-graduação em Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal do Piauí – UFPI, Teresina, PI, Brasil
2
Centro de Ciência e Qualidade de Alimentos, Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos – ITAL, Campinas, SP, Brasil
3
Laboratório de Bioquímica de Alimentos, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais – UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
4
Programa de Melhoramento Genético de Feijão-caupi, Embrapa Meio-Norte, Teresina, PI, Brasil
5
Fundação Municipal de Saúde, Teresina, PI, Brasil
6
Departamento de Nutrição, Universidade Federal do Piauí – UFPI, Teresina, PI, Brasil
*Corresponding author: regilda@ufpi.edu.br

Food Sci. Technol, Campinas,      Ahead of Print, 2019 1/7 1

 Chemical composition of cheese bread enriched
The contribution of cowpea in the content of phenolic
compounds to the population is constantly reported in the
literature. In researches by Barros et al. (2017), Cavalcante et al.
(2017b) a variation of 89.43 to 295.23 mgGAE (Equivalent Gallic
Acid)/100g was observed in grains of 9 cultivars of cowpea. In the
grains of the cultivar BRS Aracê, used in the present study, the
content of 205.1 mgGAE/100g was verified. Moreira-Araújo et al.
(2017) identified among the phenolic compounds contained in
cowpea, the catechin, epicatechin, gallic acid, ferulic acid and
chlorogenic acid.
Bioactive amines are formed from the usual metabolic
processes of animal cells, plants, and microorganisms. In addition
to the antioxidant activity, polyamines (spermine and spermidine)
are important in the maturation and recovery of the intestinal
mucosa, the mediation of hormones and growth factors, and
the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic
acid (RNA), and proteins. Biogenic amines, in turn, are neuro
and vasoactive, due to their effects on vascular and neural
systems. Due  to its possible toxicological effects, biogenic
amines in excessive quantities are a quality indicator in the
food manufacturing process (Cunha et al., 2012; Glória, 2005).
Barros et al. (2017) obtained values of 69.15 to 106.98 mg/kg
of spermidine and 13.53 to 43.43 mg/kg of spermine in grains
of four cultivars of cowpea.
Bakery products present as staple foods in alimentation
and provide an ideal matrix for fortification due to consumer
acceptance and convenience, enriching these products with
legumes can be an effective strategy to increase / stimulate the
consumption of vegetables found reduced. Thus, it was aimed
to determine the mineral content, bioactive compounds and
antioxidant activity of cheese bread enriched with biofortified
cowpea.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Raw materials
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) grains of biofortified
BRS Aracê cultivar were cultivated in 2017 from the experimental
field of Embrapa Mid-North of Teresina-PI, which is 72 meters
high at 5° 5’ S 42° 48’ W. The grains were kept in the laboratory
in low density polyethylene bags with a 0.08 mm thick film at
a temperature of 8 °C until the time of analysis.
The other raw materials, such as sweet starch, whole
milk, soybean oil, parmesan cheese, eggs, and salt, used in the
formulation were obtained from local markets.
2.2 Obtaining cowpea flour (FFC)
According to the method of Frota et al. (2010), the cowpea
grains were milled in a semi-industrial mill to obtain the whole
cowpea flour (0.5 mesh). The flour was used immediately after
manufacture.
2.3 Preparation of the cheese bread
According to methodology adapted from Cavalcante et al.
(2016) for the preparation of cheese bread, the dry ingredients
(sweet starch, FFC, parmesan cheese, and salt) were homogenized
2 2/7
and then the remaining raw materials (milk, egg, and oil) were
added to the mixture. The mass was homogenized and then
shaped manually, so that the loaves could acquire a round shape.
The breads, arranged in greased baking tin, were roasted (260°C
for 25 min) in a pre-heated electric oven (260°C for 10 min).
The detailed formulations are provided in Table 1.
2.4 Minerals
After washing with Extran detergent (Merck), all of the
glassware used remained immersed in a 25% (v/v) nitric acid
solution (HNO3) for 24 h. Subsequently, the glassware was
rinsed with distilled and demineralized water (resistivity of
18.2 MΏ cm-1).
For the preparation of the sample, dry digestion was used
(Horwitz & Latimer, 2000). The minerals were determined using
the plasma emission spectrometry technique with inductive
coupling (ICP OES) (Varian – Vista MPX - Mulgrave Victoria
- Austrália) with axial vision, equipped with a 40 MHz radio
frequency (RF) source, a solid state simultaneous multielement
detector of the type CCD (Charge Coupled Device), a peristaltic
pump, nebulizer chamber and a seaspray nebulizer. The system
was fully controlled by ICP Expert software using as plasma gas
the liquid argon with purity of 99.996% (Air Liquid, SP, Brasil).
The operating conditions of the ICP OES equipment were:
RF power (1000 W), nebulization gas flow rate (0.9 L/min),
main argon flow rate (15 L/min), auxiliary argon flow rate
(1.5 L/min), integration and read time (10 and 5 seconds),
number of replicates (3), torch configuration (axial).
2.5 Total phenols, total flavonoids and condensed tannins
To obtain the extracts, the procedure was adapted from
Rufino et al. (2007). A 50 mL Falcon tube was used to weigh
3 g of the defatted sample, with the addition of 10 mL of 50%
methanol. The sample was homogenised and extracted for
30 minutes with ultrasound. The sample was then centrifuged
at 4000 rpm for 15 minutes, and the supernatant transferred to
a 25 mL volumetric flask.
To the residue of the first extraction 10 mL of 70% acetone
was added, followed by homogenisation and extraction for
30 minutes with ultrasound. This was centrifuged at 4000 rpm
for 15 minutes, and the supernatant transferred to the same
flask. The volume was topped up using Milli-Q water.
Table 1. Percentages of raw materials used in standard cheese bread
formulation and in enriched formulation (F cowpea flour).
Standard cheese bread F
Raw materials
(%) (%)
Sweet starch 100 80
Cowpea flour (FFC) - 20
Whole milk 50 50
Soybean oil 20 20
Egg 20 20
Parmesan cheese 25 25
Salt 1 1
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas,      Ahead of Print, 2019
 Cavalcante et al.
The extract produced with methanol 50%:acetone 70%:water
(2:2:1) resulted in better extraction yields.
The content of the bioactive compounds was determined
by spectrophotometric methods (BEL 1102 – Monza – Milão -
Itália). Total phenolics (Rossi & Singleton, 1965), total flavonoids
(Kim et al., 2003), modified by Blasa et al. (2006), and condensed
tannins (Price et al., 1978).
2.6 Bioactive amines
Ten bioactive amines were researched, and the methodology
used for the separation, detection, and quantification of amines
was High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), by the
pairing of ions in reverse phase column (LC – 10AD – SIL –
10AD VP – Shimadzu – Kioto - Japão) (Adão & Glória, 2005).
2.7 Antioxidant activity
The antioxidant activity was determined by spectrophotometric
method described by Brand-Williams et al. (1995), 2,2–Diphenyl–1–
Pikryl-hydrazil (DPPH), and Re  et  al. (1999), 2,2’Azino-bis
(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6sulfonic acid) (ABTS).
2.8 Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was carried out using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program, version 21.0
(International Business Machines, 2016).
Three repetitions of each formulation were performed for
the chemical analysis. These were performed in triplicate and for
comparison of the averages between two variables, the Student’s
t test was applied, and for multiple comparisons, the Tukey test
was used at the level of 5%, with a confidence interval of 95%
for the tests (Andrade, 2013).
3 Results and discussion
According to resolution N°. 54 from November 12, 2012,
Brazilian Health Surveillance Agency (Brasil, 2012), foods that
provide at least 15% and 30% of the dietary reference intake
(DRI) values can receive the claims of “source” and “high content”,
respectively. On the exposed, the cheese bread with FFC presents
itself as a source of copper, zinc, and sodium, with a high content
of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium (Table 2).
The DRI used was from children 4 to 6 years of age because
of this public still being frequently affected by nutritional
deficiencies, especially in developing countries like Brazil.
Landim et al. (2016) evaluated the impact of ingestion of enriched
cookies with biofortified cowpea (BRS Xiquexique) (pack of
30g/3 times a week for 60 days) in this same public (preschool)
susceptible to iron deficiency anemia. The results showed that
anemia, before the intervention, the prevalence was 12.2%
and after the intervention 1.4%. Therefore, the efficacy of the
enriched cookie with cowpea in the control of iron deficiency
anemia in children was verified, besides the high acceptance of
the product (94.3%).
The mineral supply of the formulated product may be the
result of the use of a biofortified raw material, with high content
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas,      Ahead of Print, 2019
of iron and zinc in the grains. Simplício (2013) developed bread
enriched with 25% of FFC (BRS Aracê) and determined higher
levels of the minerals analyzed, with the exception of calcium
(59 mg/100g). However, this result may be due to the mix of the
flour used for bread making (especially wheat flour, whole‑wheat
flour, and FFC).
Ugwuona & Suwaba (2013) verified an increase in the levels
of calcium, iron, phosphorus, and zinc in breads enriched with
20% of defatted Jack bean flour or 20% of Jack bean protein
concentrate. The levels of calcium (33 mg/100 g) and phosphorus
(13 mg/100 g) were lower than those obtained in the present
study. This difference may be the result of different formulations
of the products compared.
Rybicka & Gliszczynska-Swiglo (2017) reported that bakery
products enriched with less popular raw materials, such as
amaranth, chickpeas, acorns, buckwheat, oats, millet, and quinoa,
are the best source of minerals, compared to the same products
manufactured from popular raw materials, like rice, corn,
potatoes, and wheat. Thus, incorporating products enriched in
the diet improves the micronutrient intake by the population, an
indispensable resource in countries with nutritional deficiencies.
Considering the IDR for the adult population, enriched cheese
bread is a source of calcium, phosphorus, sodium and zinc.
The addition of cowpea in the formulation of cheese bread
promoted an increase (p < 0.05) in the concentrations of the total
phenolics, total flavonoids, and condensed tannins, as shown
in Table 3. According to Verardo et al. (2018), formulations of
multigrain breads exhibited increased amount of polyphenols
and greater bioaccessibility of polyphenols and antioxidant
activity than those exhibited by the standard bread.
The tegument of cowpea is the main source of the
phenolic compounds, and colorful teguments have the highest
concentrations. Cowpea grains of biofortified BRS Aracê
cultivar (with colorful teguments) showed concentrations of
total phenolics (205.1 mgGAE)/100 g) greater than those by
grains of the cultivars of BRS Xiquexique (199 mgGAE/100 g),
BRS Tumucumaque (177 mgGAE/100 g), BRS Millennium
(133 mgGAE/100 g), BRS Itaim (132.3 mgGAE/100 g), BRS Cauamé
(98.1 mgGAE/100 g), and BRS Guariba (89.4 mgGAE/100 g);
Table 2. Mineral content in cheese bread enriched with cowpea (F)
and the percentage of coverage of the DRI.
Cheese bread with
Minerals cowpea (F) (mg/100g) % DRI
(average ± SD)
Calcium 211 ± 7 35.2
Copper 0.07 ± 0.0 15
Iron 0.8 ± 0.0 13
Phosphorus 187 ± 5 37.4
Magnesium 25.6 ± 0.2 35
Manganese 0.2 ± 0.0 11.5
Potassium 204 ± 10 5.4
Sodium 347 ± 14 29.0
Zinc 1.3 ± 0.0 26.5
SD - Standard Deviation; Was considered the DRI for children from 4 to 6 years old
(Brasil, 2005).
3/7 3
 Chemical composition of cheese bread enriched

both of grains with white tegument. Therefore, selection of the
plant variety was effective in increasing the phenolic compounds
in the developed product (Barros et al., 2017; Cavalcante et al.,
2017b; Mesquita et al., 2007).
According to Moreira-Araújo  et  al. (2018) among the
phenolic compounds identified in cowpea, stood out the catechin
(2.07 to 6.48 mg/100g), epicatechin (0.48 to 8.67 mg/100g), gallic
acid (45.4 to 93.4 mg/100g), ferulic acid (11.1 to 32.07 mg/100g)
and chlorogenic acid (0.59 to 3.08 mg/100g).
Coelho (2014) also confirmed the increase in the total
phenolics content from 197.2 to 261.9 μgGAE/g in breads that
were enriched with chia flour (Salvia hispanica L.). This result
is due to the fact that foods of plant origin are the main sources
of bioactive compounds in the diet.
The compounds present from the class of total flavonoids
have a significant contribution to the total phenolic content.
Verardo et al. (2018) enriched bread with 30% buckwheat and
reported that the addition of whole grains in products increases
especially the levels of total flavonoids and phenolic acids. In this
study, an increase from 72 to 139 mg/kg in the total flavonoid
content and from 37 to 97 mg/Kg in the total quantity of phenolic
acids was observed.
Barros et al. (2017) verified the presence of total flavonoids
in grains of four cowpea cultivars, the grains of the BRS Aracê
variety exhibited a medium value of 58.35 mg equivalent to
quercetin (EQ)/100g, justifying the observed increase in the
levels of total flavonoids in the enriched bread.
The condensed tannins presented a reduced contribution
at 3.5 and 7.0 mg equivalent to catechin (EC)/100g in the levels
of flavonoids in the standard and enriched breads, respectively
(Table 3).
In relation to the bioactive amine content, Diniz (2015)
reported that cheese, in addition to fish, is associated with
outbreaks of histamine intoxication, with Cheddar, Gouda,
Gruyere, and Swiss cheeses being the most involved due to their
high maturation periods. However, the histamine concentrations
in cheeses that had already been implicated in outbreaks ranged
from 850 to 1870 mg/kg, which was much higher than that found
in the enriched cheese bread (7.3 mg/Kg) (Table 4). Tyramine,
which is often involved in food poisoning, and tryptamine and
phenylethylamine, which have adverse effects in people sensitive
to detoxification, are absent in bread with FFC.
As shown in Table 4, spermidine is the bioactive amine in
greater concentration in developed products. The cowpea has a
high content of this amine (129.4 mg/kg), according to the Table
of Contents of Bioactive Amines in Foods (TAMIN). According
to Diniz (2015) the high content of spermidine in plants is
due to the participation of this polyamine in the processes of
morphogenesis, rooting, flowering and senescence. Cowpea is
the raw material responsible for the increase of spermidine in
cheese bread enriched (p < 0.05) and this increase is considered
appropriate when considering the antioxidant and growth effects
of the polyamines.
It can be verify that the parmesan cheese is the raw material
that most contributes to the levels of biogenic amines in
formulations. Still according to TAMIN the legumes have little
or no biogenic amine.
From the reports of Galgano et al. (2012), Linares et al. (2012),
Pachlová et al. (2012), Santos et al. (2003), Spizzirri et al. (2013),

Table 3. Levels of phenolic compounds in standard and enriched cheese bread.

Standard cheese bread Cheese bread with cowpea (F)
Bioactive compounds
(average ± SD) (average ± SD)
Total Phenolics (mg GAE/100g) 105.3 ± 5.16ª 188.4 ± 8.92b
Total Flavonoids (mg EQ/100g) 51.7 ± 1.6ª 85.9 ± 2.77b
Condensed Tannins (mg EC/100g) 3.5 ± 0.0a 7.0 ± 0.28b
SD - Standard Deviation; GAE - Equivalent to gallic acid; EQ - Equivalent to quercetine; EC - Equivalent to catechin; The use of the same letters between the standard cheese bread and
cheese bread with cowpea indicates that there is no significant difference between the means, based on the Student’s t test at the level of 5%, 95% confidence interval.

Table 4. Bioactive amine content in the cowpea, standard cheese bread, and cheese bread enriched with cowpea.
Bioactive Cowpea Standard cheese bread Cheese bread with cowpea (F)
amines (mg/kg) (Aracê cultivar) (average ± SD) (average ± SD) (average ± SD)
Tyramine Nd Nd Nd
Putrescine 1.9 ± 1.7b 2.5 ± 1.2ª 3.6 ± 3.0a
Cadaverine 2.9 ± 0.9ca 3.8 ±1.2ª 7.2 ± 2.7b
Histamine 2.8 ± 4.8b 7.9 ± 3.9ª 7.3 ± 1.8ª
Serotonin Nd Nd Nd
Agmatine Nd 1.2 ± 2.0a 3.3 ± 3.9b
Spermidine 129.4 ± 32.1c 9.7 ± 9.7ª 14.1 ± 7.3b
Phenylethylamine Nd 0.4 ± 0.6a 0.1 ± 0.2a
Tryptamine Nd Nd Nd
Spermine Nd Nd Nd
SD - Standard Deviation; Nd- Not Detected. Alike letters between the cowpea flour and the standard cheese bread and bread with cowpea indicate no significant difference between
the means, based on the One Way ANOVA: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons test and the Tukey test at the level of 5%, 95% confidence interval.

4 4/7 Food Sci. Technol, Campinas,      Ahead of Print, 2019


Table 5. Antioxidant activity in standard cheese bread and enriched bread with full cowpea flour.
Antioxidant Activity Standard cheese bread (average ± SD)
DPPH (µmol TEAC/100g)
ABTS (µmol TEAC/100g)
SD - Standard Deviation; DPPH - 2,2–Diphenyl–1–Pikryl-hydrazil. ABTS - 2,2’Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6sulfonic acid); TEAC - Antioxidant capacity equivalent to trolox.
The use of the same letters between the standard cheese bread and cheese bread with cowpea indicates that there is no significant difference between the averages by Student’s t test at
the level of 5%, 95% confidence interval.
and Ubaldo  et  al. (2015), cheese contains significant levels
of histamine, putrescine, cadaverine, and spermidine. The
main factors affecting the formation and accumulation of
biogenic amines in cheese are the availability of amino acids,
the presence of microorganisms with the appropriate catabolic
pathway activated and environmental conditions favorable to
the decarboxylation activity.
In this way, the reduced levels of biogenic amines in the
formulated products can be a result of the quality of raw materials,
among them, the parmesan cheese. So, it can be affirmed that
factors such as quality of milk, initial culture used, concentration
of NaCl, time and temperature of storage and maturation, pH
and post-maturation technological processes have been properly
considered during the manufacture of cheese used in the
formulations, since the content of biogenic amines in cheese can
reach concentrations of up to 2000 mg/kg (Linares et al., 2012).
Clearly, the cheese bread enriched with FFC presents a
low content of polyamines (< 35 mg/kg) and biogenic amines
(Diniz, 2015). The formulated cheese bread had higher content
of spermidine, cadaverine and agmatine compared to standard
bread (p < 0.05). Due to the absence of agmatine in cowpea
analyzed, the increase of this biogenic amine may be the result
of the manufacturing process.
The introduction of the cowpea increased the concentration
of the bioactive compounds in the product, and, consequently,
the ability to trap free radicals. This increase is in accordance with
the work of Barros et al. (2017), in which the grains in the BRS
Aracê cultivar had an antioxidant activity of 614.7 and 660.1 µmol
antioxidant capacity equivalent to Trolox (TEAC)/100 g, determined
by DPPH and ABTS methods, respectively. These values were
higher than those obtained in the grains of the cultivars of BRS
Millennium, BRS Tumucumaque, and BRS Xiquexique.
As shown in Table 5 the enriched cheese bread had the highest
antioxidant activity (p < 0.05) determined by both methods,
DPPH and ABTS, with 497.5 and 735.1 µmol TEAC/100 g,
respectively.
Two methods were employed because of the different
characteristics and mechanisms of action of the bioactive
compounds, as well as the principles of the methods and the
nature of the radicals.
It can be verify that an increase in the raw material sources
bioactive compounds improves the antioxidant activity of bakery
products. In a search by Lin & Zhou (2018), it was observed
that the gradual fortification of quercetin in bread formulation
resulted in a significant increase in the antioxidant activity in
vitro. This increase was from 2.9 to 285.8 mg TEAC/100g and
8.4 to 298.5 mg TEAC/100g, using the radical ABTS and DPPH,
respectively.
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas,      Ahead of Print, 2019
Cavalcante et al.
Cheese bread with cowpea (F) (average ± SD)
307.4 ± 14.7ª 497.5 ± 14.6b
464.1 ± 8.1ª 735.1 ± 14.0b
Although the bread with FFC had a greater antioxidant
activity (p < 0.05), the standard formulation presents a significant
content, which may be due to the antioxidant properties of the
Maillard reaction products formed in the crust of the bread,
according to Buchner  et  al. (2006), Lin & Zhou (2018), and
Sivam et al. (2010). The phenolic compounds intrinsic of the
food and the intermediate products of the thermal degradation
of phenolic compounds, as well as the compounds from the
complex polyphenol-protein/starch can contribute to the
antioxidant properties of the formulated products.
4 Conclusions
In terms of the mineral content, the formulated product is
source of copper, zinc, and sodium and has a high content of
calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium.
The total phenolic content, total flavonoids, and condensed
tannins increased in the enriched cheese bread.
The cheese bread enriched with FFC presented low levels of
biogenic amines. The formulated product had higher content of
spermidine, cadaverine and agmatine compared to standard bread.
With the increase in the concentration of the bioactive
compounds, it was possible to verify the improvement of the
antioxidant activity of the cheese bread with cowpea.
It was therefore concluded that the cowpea, a regional
and market-expanding raw material, presents itself as a viable
option for the enrichment of gluten-free bakery foods, such as
cheese bread. In addition to the supply of important nutrients,
the formulated product presents itself as a vehicle for bioactive
compounds.
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