SD Refresher GD

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 1)
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
STRUCTURAL REFRESHER
What is Compressive Strength?
• the maximum
compressive stress that
under gradually applied
load a given solid material
will sustain without fracture.
Is the capacity of a
material or structure to
withstand loads tending to
reduce size.
CONCRETE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FAILURES
What is Tensile Strength?
• it is often shortened
to tensile strength (TS) or
ultimate strength, is the
capacity of a material or
structure to withstand loads
tending to elongate. The
resistance of a material to
breaking under tension.
GRADE
- Steel bar shall be graded according to its
minimum yield strength
• Grade 230 (33) bars (Structural Grade) – Low Rise
Buildings and Low Loading Conditions
• Grade 275 (40) bars (Intermediate Grade) – Medium
Rise Structures/Infrastructure Work
- 10mm to 20mm diameter
• Grade 415 (60) bars (High Tensile Grade) - Med & High
Rise Structures
- 20mm to 50mm diameter
LENGTH
- rebars are available at commercial sizes 6 m,
7.5 m, 9 m, 10.5 m and 12 m
- and available on special sizes 13.5 m, 15 m
SIZE
- rebars are available at diameters 10 mm, 12
mm, 16 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 28 mm, 32 mm,
36 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm
TENSILE STRENGTH FAILURES
What is Fatigue Strength?
• is the highest stress that a
material can withstand for
a given number of cycles
without breaking. It is
affected by environmental
factors such as corrosion.
What is Impact Strength?
• is the capability of the material to withstand a
suddenly applied load and is expressed in terms of
energy.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Proportional Limit
• From the origin O to the point
called proportional limit, the stress-
strain curve is a straight line. This linear
relation between elongation and the
axial force causing was first noticed
by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is
called Hooke's Law that within the
proportional limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain or the constant
of proportionality k is called the
Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's
Modulus and is equal to the slope of
the stress-strain diagram from O to P.
Elastic Limit
• The elastic limit is the limit
beyond which the material
will go back to its original
shape when the load is
removed.
Yield Point
• is the point at which the
material will have an
appreciable elongation
or yielding without any
increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in
the stress-strain diagram is
the ultimate strength or
tensile strength.
Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the
strength of the material at
rupture. This is also known
as the breaking strength.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Clear Cover
• Is the least distance
between the surface of
embedded
reinforcement and the
outer surface of the
concrete
FOOTING PLAN AND DETAILS
FOOTING PLAN AND DETAILS
SCHEDULE OF COLUMNS
SCHEDULE OF BEAMS
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Stress
•It is the unit strength of
element, is the applied
force or system of forces
that tends to deform a
body.
•The stress applied to a
material is the force per
unit area applied to the
material.
Kinds of Stress
Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisting) Shearing

(Axial Stresses)
Tangential Stress
Circumferential stress or
hoop stress, a
normal stress in
the tangential (azimuth)
direction. A force acting
in a generally horizontal
direction.
Torsion
the action of twisting or
the state of being twisted
due to an applied
torque, especially of one
end of an object relative
to the other.
Slenderness Ratio
is the ratio of the length
of a column and the
least radius of gyration of
its cross section.
Slenderness Ratio
Radius of Gyration
The distance from an axis at which the mass of a body may be
assumed to be concentrated and at which the moment
of inertia will be
equal to the moment of inertia of the actual mass about the
axis, equal
to the square root of the quotient of the moment of inertia and
the mass.
Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration
Bending Moment
Is the reaction induced in a structural element
when an external force or moment is applied to
the element causing the element to bend.
Bending Moment
Statically Determinate
In which the reactions of the supports may be
determined by the use of the equations of static
equilibrium.
Σ of Forces along X axis (Horizontal)

Σ of Forces along Y axis (Vertical)
Σ of Moments (Positive and Negative)
Determine whether the beams are Statically
Determinate of Indeterminate:
Determine whether the beams are Statically
Determinate of Indeterminate:
Method of Sections
In this method, we will cut the
truss into two sections by passing
a cutting plane through the
members whose internal forces
we wish to determine. This
method permits us to solve
directly any member by
analyzing the left or the right
section of the cutting plane.
ΣFh = 0, ΣFv = 0 and ΣMo = 0
Method of Joints
The free-body diagram of any
joint is a concurrent force
system in which the
summation of moment will be
of no help. Recall that only
two equilibrium equations can
be written
ΣFh = 0 and ΣFv = 0

Casting Bed
Punching Shear
Punching shear arises when a
concentrated load is applied to
a small area of a slab or, most
commonly, the reaction of a
column against a slab or
footing. The resulting stresses are
verified along defined control
perimeters around the loaded
area.
Retaining Wall
a wall designed to resist the
lateral displacement of soil
or other materials.
Sheet Pile
walls have been used to
support excavations for
below-grade parking
structures, basements, pump
houses, and foundations, to
construct cofferdams, and to
construct seawalls and
bulkheads. Permanent
steel sheet piles are designed
to provide a long service life.
Batter Pile
shall be used to transfer
inclined load and
horizontal forces. In the
preliminary design, the
load on batter pile is
generally considered to
be axial.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Why do we use Tie Beams?
• is
to resist overturning
of eccentric Footings
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Design Loads
Dead Load
• consist of the weight of
all materials and fixed
equipment incorporated
into the building or other
structure
**Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for

Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)
Design Loads
Live Load
• those loads produced by
the use and occupancy of
the building or other
structure and do not
include dead load,
construction load, or
environmental loads such
as wind load, earthquake
load and fluid load
Design Loads
Wind Load
•the force on a structure
arising from the impact of
wind on it.
Design Loads
Earthquake Load
•The total force that an
earthquake exerts on a
given structure
Design Loads
Other Loads:
• Impact Loads
• Fluid Loads
• Snow Loads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Pedestal
A concrete pedestal is a
compression element
provided to carry the loads
from supported elements
like columns, statues etc. to
footing below the ground. It
is generally provided below
the metal/steel columns. In
general pedestal width is
greater than its height.
Column
is a structural element that
transmits, through
compression, the weight of
the structure above to
other structural elements
below. In other words,
a column is a compression
member.
Column
Wood Moisture
Wood Moisture Content is the
weight of water in a piece of wood
expressed as a percentage of oven
dry weight of wood. Fresh cut trees
can have a wood moisture content
over 200%, while completely dried
wood will have a wood moisture
content of 0%. Wood in buildings
usually has a wood moisture content
of 5% to 15%.
Joists
a length of timber or steel
supporting part of the
structure of a building,
typically arranged in
parallel series to support
a floor or ceiling.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Credits to the owner of the photo

Purlins
is any longitudinal,
horizontal,
structural member
in a roof.
Sagrods
A tension member
used to limit the
deflection of a girt
or purlin in the
direction of its
weak axis or to
limit the sag in
angle bracing.
Gusset Plate
Gusset plates are thick
sheets of steel that are used
to connect beams and
girders to columns or to
connect truss members.
A gusset plate can be
fastened to a permanent
member either by bolts,
rivets or welding or a
combination of the three.
Core Sample
is a cylindrical section of (usually) a naturally
occurring substance. Most core samples are
obtained by drilling with special drills into the
substance, for example sediment or rock, with
a hollow steel tube called a core drill.
Spacing of Lateral Ties
The spacing of these ties shall not exceed:
 16 x longitudinal bar diameter,
 48 x tie bar diameter or
 the least dimension of the compression
member
Spacing of Stirrups
Table of Lap Splice
.0
Sample Beam Details
.0
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Wide Flanges
Wide Flange beams have flanges that are nearly
parallel to the web of the material unlike the traditional
I-Beam. Wide Flange can be found in many structural
applications such as bridges and buildings. The
horizontal elements of the I are known as ”flanges”,
while the vertical element is termed the "web". I-beams
are usually made of structural steel and are used in
construction and civil engineering.
Wide Flanges
Channel
is a hot rolled,
mild steel structural C
shape with inside
radius corners that is
ideal for all structural
applications, general
fabrication,
manufacturing and
repairs.
Metal Sheet
is metal formed by an
industrial process into
thin, flat pieces. It is one
of the fundamental
forms used
in metalworking and it
can be cut and bent
into a variety of shapes.
Base Plate
a flat
supporting plate or frame
at the base of a column
or beam, designed
to distribute the
column's weight over
a greater area and
provide
increased stability
Angle Bar
an iron or steel bar,
brace, or cleat in the
form of an angle. Also
called angle, angle bar,
L bar, L beam. A piece
of structural iron or steel
having a cross section in
the form of an L.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
What is Flexural Stress?
Stresses caused by
the bending
moment are known
as flexural or
bending
stresses. Resistance
to bending.
What is Torsional Stress?
is the twisting of an object
due to an applied torque.
Torsion is expressed in
newton per squared meter
(Pa) or pound per squared
inch (psi) while torque is
expressed in newton
metres (N·m) or foot-
pound force (ft·lbf).
Resistance to twisting.
What is P-delta Effect?
• The secondary effect on
shears and moments of
structural members due
to the action of the
vertical loads induced
by horizontal
displacement of the
structure resulting from
various loading
conditions.
What is a Shear Wall?
Is a wall designed to
resist lateral forces
parallel to the place of
the wall. It carries
earthquake loads down
to the foundation. They
provide large strength
and stiffness to building
in the direction of their
orientation.
Overhanging Beam
a simple beam
extending beyond one
of its supports. The
overhanging reduces
the Positive moment at
midspan while
developing a negative
moment at the base of
the cantilever over the
support.
Cantilever Beam
A projecting beam
supported at only
one end fixed.
Fatigue
Failure to maintain
elastic limit
subjected to .0
repeated series of
stress
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Dynamic Load
• An imposed force
that is in motion, that
is, one that may vary.0
in magnitude, sense,
and direction.
Lateral Load
•A force acting on
a structure or
a structural member in
a transverse direction, eg.0
wind forces on a bridge

or building at right angles
to its length, which trusses
and girders are not
primarily designed to
withstand.
Splicing
•A lap is when two pieces
of reinforcing bar (rebar)
are overlapped to create
a continuous line of rebar.
.0
The length of the lap

varies depend on
concrete strength,
the rebar grade, size, and
spacing.
Dowels
•Dowel bars are short steel bars that provide a mechanical
connection between slabs without restricting horizontal joint
movement. They increase load transfer efficiency by allowing
the leave slab to assume some.0 of the load before the load is
actually over it. This reduces joint deflection and stress in the
approach and leave slabs.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Lift Slab Construction
•Itis a methodology
whereby concrete floor slabs are
poured on the ground, one on top of
the other, and then lifted into
.0 place
on top of columns by hydraulic jacks.
Used for very tall multistory buildings,
this method offers substantial savings
in formwork.
Tilt-up Construction
•isform of construction in which the
wall is precast horizontally on the
ground adjacent to its permanent
location and then lifted up .0into the
vertical plane. It is then fixed to an
already constructed edge beam or
foundation slab. Connections are
made between adjacent units to
ensure stability and the joints sealed
to make them weathertight.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Post-tensioning
•Post tensioning is a technique for
reinforcing concrete. Post-tensioning
tendons, which are prestressing steel
cables inside plastic ducts .0
or sleeves,
are positioned in the forms before the
concrete is placed. Afterwards, once
the concrete has gained strength but
before the service loads are applied,
the cables are pulled tight, or
tensioned, and anchored against the
outer edges of the concrete.
Pre-tensioning
Pre-tensioned concrete is a
variant of prestressed
concrete where the
tendons are tensioned prior
.0
to the concrete being cast.

RCD vs. PCD
.0
Built-up Section
are used when the span,
load and corresponding
bending moment are of
such magnitudes that
rolled steel beam section.
A metal beam made
of beam shapes, plates,
and/or angles that are
welded or bolted
together.
Welds
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Shear
Forces done
perpendicular the
longitudinal axis or the
length of the material
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Wide Flange vs. I-Beam
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Reading of Steel Bar Markings
Reading of Steel Bar Markings
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Grade Beam
- is a type of foundation
system used to distribute the
weight of a building
over unstable soil
- It consists of a reinforced
concrete beam that transmits
the load from a bearing wall
into spaced foundations such
as pile caps or caissons
Grade Beam
Tie Beam
• is
used to resist
overturning of
eccentric Footings
Plinth Beam
• is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of
cracks from the foundation into the wall above when the
foundation suffers from settlement. Plinth beams distributes
the load of the wall over the foundation evenly.
Plinth Beam
Strap Footing
•It is a type of
combined footing,
consisting of two or
more column footings
connected by a
concrete beam.
Strap Footing
Strip/Continuous Footing
- often called wall
footing, is a
continuous strip of
concrete that serves
to spread the weight
of a load-
bearing wall across
an area of soil
Isolated/Spread Footing
- are most commonly used footings for
RC columns because it is simple and most economical.
An isolated footing is used to support a single column.
Isolated footings are independent footings which are
provided for each column. This type of footing is used
when:
- Columns are not closely spaced.
- Loads on footings are less.
- The Safe bearing capacity of soil is generally high.
Isolated/Spread Footing
Combined Footing
- When two columns are close together, causing
overlap of adjacent isolated footings
- Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing
overlap of adjacent isolated footings
- Proximity of building line or existing building or
sewer, adjacent to a building column
Combined Footing
Stepped Footing
- In these type of footing three concrete cross
sections are stacked upon each other. This type
of footing is used generally in residential
buildings. These types of footings are
constructed in olden days now they are
outdated.
Stepped Footing
Sloped Footing
- They are done with great care
to see that the top slope of 45
degree is maintained from all
sides. When compared the
trapezoidal footing with the flat
footing the usage of concrete is
less. Thus, it reduces the cost of
footing in concrete as well as
reinforcement.
Eccentric Footing
- is the half footing cut-out from
the original footing and it has a
shape of shoe. It is provided in
the corner of the plot . Where
there is no provision of setback
area. They are constructed on
property boundary. Column is
provided or loaded at the edges
of footing.
Mat Footing
Consists of one footing usually placed under the
building area. They used when soil bearing
capacity is low, column loads are heavy and
differential settlement for single footings are very
large or must be reduced
Mat Footing
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Truss
Types of Trusses:
1. Bridge Truss
2. Roof Trusses
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
Curing of Concrete
Curing of concrete is defined as
providing adequate moisture,
temperature, and time to allow the
concrete to achieve the desired
properties for its intended use. This
would mean maintaining a relative
humidity in the concrete of greater
than 80 percent, a temperature
greater than 50 degrees Fahrenheit,
and for a time typically ranging from
three to 14 days or even 28 days
depending on the specific
application.
Curing of Concrete
1. Water Spraying/Sprinkling
2. Ponding
3. Wet sand
Continuous moist curing at a temperature range of 15.5oC –

37.5oC gives the best results
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
REFRESHER
(PART 2)
QUESTIONS?
THANK YOU AND

GOODLUCK!!!

SD Refresher GD

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisting) Shearing

Σ of Forces along X axis (Horizontal)

ΣFh = 0 and ΣFv = 0

**Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for

Credits to the owner of the photo

wind forces on a bridge

The length of the lap

to the concrete being cast.

Continuous moist curing at a temperature range of 15.5oC –

THANK YOU AND

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