Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
pregnancy
Ectopic pregnancy
Abortion Hydatidiform mole
Abortion/Miscarriage
1. spontaneous:
occurs without medical or mechanical means.
2. induced abortion
Pathology
Fetal causes:
Chromosome Abnormality:
- 50% of spontaneous losses are associated with fetal chromosome
abnormalities.
- autosomal trisomy (nondisjunction/balanced translocation): is the
single largest category of abnormality and → recurrence.
- monosomy (45, X; turner): occurs in 7% of spontaneous abortions
and it is caused by loss of the paternal sex chromosome.
- triploids: found in 8 to 9% of spontaneous abortions. it is the
consequence of either dispermy or failure of extrusion of the
second polar body,
Causes of miscarriage
Maternal causes:
1. Immunological:
- alloimmune response: failure of a normal immune response in the
mother to accept the fetus for a duration of a normal pregnancy.
- autoimmune disease: antiphospholipid antibodies especially lupus
anticoagulant (LA) and the anticardiolipin antibodies (ACL)
2. uterine abnormality:
- congenital: septate uterus → recurrent abortion.
- fibroids (submucus): → (1) disruption of implantation and
development of the fetal blood supply, (2) rapid growth and
degeneration with release of cytokines, and (3) occupation of space
for the fetus to grow. Also polyp > 2 cm diameter.
- cervical incompetence: → second trimester abortions.
Causes of miscarriage
Maternal causes:
3. Endocrine :
- poorly controlled diabetes (type 1/type 2).
- hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.
- Luteal Phase Defect (LPD): a situation in which the endometrium is
poorly or improperly hormonally prepared for implantation and is
therefore inhospitable for implantation. (questionable).
4. Infections (maternal/fetal): as TORCH infections, Ureaplasma
urealyticum, listeria
Environmental toxins: alcohol, smoking, drug abuse, ionizing
radiation……
Types of abortion
Threatened abortion.
Inevitable abortion.
Incomplete abortion.
Complete abortion.
Missed abortion
Septic abortion: Any type of
abortion, which is complicated by
infection
Recurrent abortion: 3 or more
successive spontaneous abortions
Clinical features/management
Threatened abortion:
- Short period of amenorrhea.
- Corresponding to the duration.
- Mild bleeding (spotting).
- Mild pain.
- P.V.: closed cervical os.
- Pregnancy test (hCG): + ve.
- US: viable intra uterine fetus.
Management
- reassurance.
- Rest.
- Repeated U/S
Inevitable abortion
Feature: Treatment
- gradual disappearance of - Wait 4 weeks for spontaneous
pregnancy Symptoms Signs. expulsion
- evacuate if:
- Brownish vaginal discharge. Spontaneous expulsion does not
- Milk secretion. occur after 4 weeks.
- Pregnancy test: negative but Infection.
it may be + ve for 3-4 weeks DIC.
after the death of the fetus. - Manage according to size of
uterus
- US: absent fetal heart
pulsations. - Uterus < 12 weeks : dilatation
and evacuation.
Complications - Uterus > 12 weeks : try
- Infection (Septic abortion) Oxytocin or PGs.
- DIC
Vaginal Bleeding in
Late Pregnancy
Objectives
Identify major causes of vaginal bleeding in the
second half of pregnancy
Describe a systematic approach to identifying
the cause of bleeding
Describe specific treatment options based on
diagnosis
Causes of Late Pregnancy
Bleeding
Placenta Previa
Abruption
Life-Threatening
Ruptured vasa previa
Uterine scar disruption
Cervical polyp
Bloody show
Cervicitis or cervical ectropion
Vaginal trauma
Cervical cancer
Prevalence of Placenta Previa
Occurs in 1/200 pregnancies that reach 3rd
trimester
Low-lying placenta seen in 50% of ultrasound
scans at 16-20 weeks
90% will have normal implantation when scan
repeated at >30 weeks
No proven benefit to routine screening ultrasound
for this diagnosis
Risk Factors for Placenta Previa
Previous cesarean delivery
Previous uterine instrumentation
High parity
Advanced maternal age
Smoking
Multiple gestation
Morbidity with Placenta Previa
Maternal hemorrhage
Operative delivery complications
Transfusion
Placenta accreta, increta, or percreta
Prematurity
Patient History – Placenta Previa
Painless bleeding
2nd or 3rd trimester, or at term
Often following intercourse
“Sentinel bleed”
Physical Exam – Placenta Previa
Vital signs
Assess fundal height
Fetal lie
Estimated fetal weight (Leopold)
Presence of fetal heart tones
Gentle speculum exam
NO digital vaginal exam unless placental location known
Laboratory – Placenta Previa
Hematocrit or complete blood count
Blood type and Rh
Coagulation tests
Non-reassuring tracing
Mature fetus
Placental Abruption
Premature separation of placenta from uterine
wall
Partial or complete
“Marginal sinus separation” or “marginal sinus
rupture”
Bleeding, but abnormal implantation or abruption
never established
Epidemiology of Abruption
Occurs in 1-2% of pregnancies
Risk factors
Hypertensive diseases of pregnancy
Smoking or substance abuse (e.g. cocaine)
Trauma
Overdistention of the uterus
History of previous abruption
Unexplained elevation of MSAFP
Placental insufficiency
Maternal thrombophilia/metabolic abnormalities
Abruption and Trauma
Can occur with blunt abdominal trauma and
rapid deceleration without direct trauma
Complications include prematurity, growth
restriction, stillbirth
Fetal evaluation after trauma
Increased use of FHR monitoring may decrease
mortality
Bleeding from Abruption
Externalized hemorrhage
Bloody amniotic fluid
Retroplacental clot
20% occult
“uteroplacental apoplexy” or “Couvelaire” uterus
Bleeding
May not reflect amount of blood loss
Trauma
Other risk factors (e.g. hypertension)
Membrane rupture
Physical Exam - Abruption
Location of tenderness
Tetanic contractions
Ultrasound - Abruption
Abruption is a clinical diagnosis!
Placental location and appearance
Retroplacental echolucency
Abnormal thickening of placenta
Fetal lie
Estimated fetal weight
Laboratory - Abruption
Complete blood count
Type and Rh
Coagulation tests + “Clot test”
Kleihauer-Betke not diagnostic, but useful to
determine Rhogam dose
Preeclampsia labs, if indicated
Consider urine drug screen
Sher’s Classification - Abruption
Placenta increta or
percreta
Morbidity with Uterine Rupture
Maternal
Hemorrhage with anemia
Bladder rupture
Hysterectomy
Maternal death
Fetal
Respiratory distress
Hypoxia
Acidemia
Neonatal death
Patient History – Uterine Rupture
Vaginal bleeding
Pain
Cessation of contractions
Absence of FHR
Loss of station
Palpable fetal parts through maternal
abdomen
Profound maternal tachycardia and
hypotension
Uterine Rupture
Sudden deterioration of FHR pattern is most
frequent finding
Placenta may play a role in uterine rupture
Transvaginal ultrasound to evaluate uterine wall
MRI to confirm possible placenta accreta
Treatment
Asymptomatic scar disruption – expectant
management
Symptomatic rupture – emergent cesarean
delivery
Vasa Previa
Rarest cause of hemorrhage
Onset with membrane rupture
Blood loss is fetal, with 50% mortality
Seen with low-lying placenta, velamentous insertion
of the cord or succenturiate lobe
Antepartum diagnosis
Amnioscopy