Advanced Placement Psychology: Unit One Study Guide

History, Perspectives and Research Method

Selected Sections in Units 1 and 2 of ​Myers’ Psychology for AP

Colors:
Stephen
Caroline
Ricardo
nate
Kenneth
Porsch
Owen
Teresa
Lorna

Quiz 1
Unit 1: Psychology’s History and Approaches ​(Pg. pre 1-1)
What sorts of common and uncommon questions do psychologists ask and answer?

Examples:
● To what extent do genes predispose our person-to-person differences in personality? To what extent do
home and community environments shape us?
● In what ways are we alike as members of the human family? How do we differ?
● How often, and why, do we dream?
● What do babies actually perceive and think?
● Are some people just born smarter? And does sheer intelligence explain why some people get richer,
think more creatively, or relate more sensitively?

Prescientific Psychology​ (Pg. 2)

In what ways did the following philosophers consider how and why humans think, act and feel: Buddha,
Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Bacon, and Locke? What is empiricism and how does it help us
understand how we think, act and feel?

Buddha (India) - pondered how sensations and perceptions combine to form ideas.
Confucius (China) - stressed the power of ideas and of an educated mind.
Socrates and Plato (Greece) - concluded that the mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies,
and that the knowledge is born within us.
Aristotle (Greece) - said knowledge is not preexisting, instead it grows from the experiences stored in our
memories.
Descartes (France) - believed Socrates and Plato, concluded from his animal dissections that the fluid in the
brain’s cavities contained “animal spirits”, explained that they flowed from the brain through nerves (which he
thought were hollow) to the muscles, provoking wwmovement.
Bacon (Britain) - believed the human understanding from its peculiar nature maintains better orders and equality
in things than it really finds, also believed superstition was followed by wayward people who only focused on
when it was right rather than when superstition was incorrect.
Locke (Britain) - argued that the mind is a blank slate on which experience writes.

Empiricism - the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on
observation and experimentation
^ This view helps us turn our thoughts, actions, and feelings of experiences (observations) into knowledge

1
Psychological Science is Born​ (Pg. 3)
What was the first psychological experiment and who performed it? What conclusion was drawn?

Wilhelm Wundt and two other young men created a machine that measured the time lag between people’s hearing
a ball hit a platform and their pressing a telegraph key. People responded in about one-tenth of a second when
asked to press the key as soon as the sound occurred - and in about two-tenths of a second when asked to press
the key as soon as they were consciously aware of perceiving the sound.

Perfect

This is from a ​totally not terrible​ video game

Thinking About the Mind’s Structure​ (Pg. 4)

Who is Edward Bradford Titchener and how did he use structuralism and introspection to study thinking? Why
was his methodology ultimately unsuccessful?

Edward Bradford Titchener was Wundt’s student who used ​structuralism (an early school of thought promoted by
Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of human mind) by engaging people in
self-reflective introspection, training them to report elements of their experience as they looked at a rose, listened
to a metronome, smelled a scent, or tasted a substance (i.e immediate sensations, images and feelings). It was

2
ultimately unsuccessful because it required smart and verbal people AND it was unreliable because the results
varied from person to person (experience to experience). On top of all that, we just don’t know why we feel why
we feel or do what we do.

Thinking About the Mind’s Functions​ (Pg. 4)

How did William James’ theories on pragmatism and Darwin’s theories regarding adaptive behavioral responses
contribute to the development of functionalism? How did James contribute to the initial academic pursuit of
psychology? How did Mary Calkins and Margaret Floy Washburn contribute to the study of psychology?

William James’s assumption that thinking (like smelling), developed because it was adaptive and contributed to
our ancestor’s survival as well as his belief that consciousness served as an function, tied along with Darwin’s
theories which James was under the influence of helped kickstart and allow ​functionalism (early school of
thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function -
how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish) to branch out.

James not only contributed his teachings at Harvard, but also his writings to the initial academic pursuit of
psychology. Mary Calkins, the only girl in James’s seminar, scored higher than all the male students who dropped
out upon her arrival for a Harvard Ph.D. (even though the school denied her the degree she had earned) and
became the first female APA president in 1905. Margaret Floy Washburn, however, did receive the Ph.D from
Harvard, and became the first female to get one in psychology. She also wrote a book and became the second
female APA president in 1921.

*Psychological Science Develops​ (Pg. 5)

What other sciences have contributed to the study of psychology? In what ways has psychology globalized?
How is psychology both a study of behavior and mental processes? How is psychology a science?

Interdisciplinary studies such as cognitive neuroscience helped us further our study and understanding of brain
activity underlying mental activity. This study has given us new and progressive ways of looking at psychology
and the behavior behind actions. More groups, such as behaviorist and humanistic psychologists helped globalize
the nature of psychology by expanding the barriers of its limitations. These groups helped people recognize more
of the possibilities - especially regarding how people act from their subconscious desires, consequence
association, and environments.

Psychology is a study of behavior and mental process because it not only researches what organisms ​do,​ and their
physical actions, but also what they ​think​, and how their train of thought leads them to said action. It’s a science
because it’s less of a set group of findings and more of a set of questions with unsure answers,

Wundt and Titchener - inner sensations, images, and feelings.

James - introspective examination of the stream of consciousness and of emotion.
Freud - emphasized how emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes
affect our behavior.

^This is why psychology was defined as “the science of mental life”

Psychology’s Biggest Question​ (Pg. 9)

What is the history and background behind the nature-nurture issue? How do contemporary scientists allow the
issue to “dissolve?”

The issue, or debate is a century-long struggle between Plato - considering that we are born with knowledge, and
some is learned from the environment - and Aristotle countering that we know nothing from birth, that everything
is taught from our existence and our senses. This issue is dissolved by simple reasoning: ​Nuture works on what
3
nature endures. We are exceptionally smart beings, and we have the ability to adapt to the world around us with
ease. It’s not a debate, more as an argument of two sides which go hand in hand.

Nature-nurture issue - the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience
make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. [That goes way back to the ancient Greeks].
Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature to nurture.

”Nurture works on what nature endows.”

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis?​ (Pg. 11)

What 3 influences (or levels of analysis) comprise the biopsychosocial approach? How do psychologists
characterize the seven major psychological perspectives: biological, evolutionary, humanistic, psychodynamic,
behavioral, cognitive, and social-cultural?

The biopsychosocial approach analyzes how biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors fit into the
actions of a human being.

Behavioral is how we learn observable responses - such as what we should or should not fear.

Biological is how the body and brain work together to deliver emotions, sensory responses, and our gene makeup
- how we know what pain is, why some people are prone to depression.

Cognitive is how we encode, store, and process information - reasoning, memory.

Evolutionary is how natural selection has promoted the survival of specific traits or genes - behavior tendencies.

Humanistic is how we meet our needs for love, acceptance, and self-fullfillment - how we can fulfill our
potential, or overcome barriers in our own life.

Psychodynamic is how our behavior springs from unconscious drives or conflicts - how someone’s personality
can be explained with unfulfilled wishes or childhood trauma.

Social-cultural is how our behavior varies across situations and culture - how races differ, how we’re alike our
family.

Levels of analysis - the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for
analyzing any given phenomenon.
Biopsychosocial approach - an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural
levels of analysis

4
Psychology’s Subfields​ (Pg. 13)
What sorts of basic and/or applied research is conducted by the following psychologists: biological,
developmental, cognitive, educational, personality, social, human factors and industrial/organizational? What is
the difference between clinical psychologists and psychiatrists? What is positive and community psychology?
How has psychology connected with other disciplines as well as influenced modern culture?

A. Basic/Applied Research by Psychologists:

a. Biological psychologists​ exploring the links between brain and mind
b. Developmental psychologists​ studying our changing abilities from womb to tomb
c. Cognitive psychologists​ experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems
d. Educational psychologists​ studying influences on teaching and learning.
e. Personality psychologists​ investigating our persistent traits.
f. Social psychologists​ exploring how we view and affect one another.

B. Differences Between Clinical Psychologists and Psychiatrists

a. Clinical Psychologists​ assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavior disorders.
b. Psychiatrists are medical doctors listened to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes
of psychological disorders.

5
 C. Positive v. Community Psychology
a. Positive Psychology scientifically explores positive emotions, positive character traits, and
enabling institutions. [​What can psychology contribute to a “good life” that engages one’s skills,
and a “meaningful” life that points beyond oneself?​]
b. Community Psychology​ works to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all.

D. Psychologists teach in medical schools, law schools, and high schools, and they work in hospitals,
factories, and corporate offices. They engage in interdisciplinary studies such as psychohistory and
psychoceramics. Psychology influences modern culture (because knowledge transforms us) in that its
findings changes people, people are less likely to judge psychological disorders as moral failings or treat
women as men’s mental inferiors. [​Knowledge has modified attitudes, and, through them, behavior.​]

Careers in Psychology: Basic Research​ (Pg. 20)

Briefly describe each psychological profession: cognitive, developmental, educational, experimental,
psychometric, and social psychologists.
● Cognitive Psychologists: Research focuses on the aspects such as intelligence, language, problem solving,
attention, replicating thought processes, and correlating biology and psychology
● Developmental Psychologists: Research focuses on the change of mind throughout the development of a
person. They work with child-care and other social-based psychological studies. They are involved in
education, child development health, and parental relationship.
● Educational Psychologists: The psychological process involved with learning and trying to improve the
education process to be as effective as possible.
● Experimental Psychologists: A group of scientists that are involved in their own respective fields but
work in an academic setting, experimenting with new research, teaching psychology students, and they
can be found in academies, the government, zoos, and businesses.
● Psychometric Psychologists: Focus on how psychological knowledge is obtained. They test to see if
results are reliable, and set up psychological tests for students and research alike.
● Social Psychologists: Research on human interaction and behaviors of people, and how groups are
organized. They can be found in university faculty, market research, and more applied psychology like
hospital work, federal agencies, or human resources in companies.

Careers in Psychology: Applied Research​ (Pg. 22) ​Ricardo

Briefly describe each psychological research profession: forensic, health, industrial-organizational,
neuropsychology, rehabilitation, school and sport.

Forensic Psychologist - apply psychological principles to legal issues. They conduct research on the interface of
law and psychology, help to create public policies related to mental health, help law-enforcement agencies in
criminal investigations, or consult on jury selection and deliberation processes. They also provide assessment to
assist the legal community.

Health Psychologist - researchers and practitioners who are concerned with psychology’s contribution to
promoting health and preventing disease. They may help individuals lead a healthier life by designing,
conducting, and evaluating programs to helps individuals. In public service, health psychologists study and work
to improve government policies and health care systems.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologist - study the relationship between people and their working
environments. They may develop new ways to increase productivity, improve personnel selection, or promote job
satisfaction in an organizational setting. Their interest include organizational structure and change, consumer
behavior, and personnel selection and training.

Careers in Psychology: Helping Professions​ (Pg. 23) ​Kenneth

6
Briefly describe each of the psychological “helping” professions: clinical, community, and counseling.

Clinical psychologists work with psychological health for individuals, groups, and organizations. Engage
in research, teaching, assessment, and consultation(may hold workshops and lectures). They work in a variety of
settings like private practice, mental health service organizations, schools, universities, industries, legal systems,
medical systems, counseling centers, government agencies, and military services. You need a doctorate from a
clinical psychology program to become one. Some specialize in specific disorders and others treat a range of
them.(Deal with more serious issues) (All around for the most part)

Community Psychologists focus on specific individuals/families to deal with more broad mental health
issues. They believe behavior is influenced mostly by the environment(physical, social, political, and economic).
Help in preventive measures and crisis intervention and pay more attention to underserved groups and ethnic
minorities. Some work with public health professionals. They work at federal, state, and local departments of
mental health, corrections, and welfare.

Counseling psychologists help people going through life transitions/lifestyle changes. They conduct
therapy and provide assessments to individuals/groups. Emphasize on clients’ strengths, helping them utilize own
skills, interests, and abilities to cope through changes. They work in academy settings, university counseling
centers, community mental health centers, businesses, and private practices.

*The Need for Psychological Science​ (Pg. 30) K

​ enneth
What do believers in intuitive management believe regarding psychology? How can our intuition lead us astray?

They believe that their intuition is more than enough as a guide. However, our intuition can often lead us
astray as we tend to overestimate are intuition or fool ourselves. The Three phenomena of hindsight bias,
judgmental overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events show why we can’t solely
rely on intuition.

Did We Know It All Along? The Hindsight Bias​ (Pg. 31) ​Ricardo
How does hindsight make after the fact occurrences seem obvious? How do psychologists use the hindsight bias
to demonstrate how two opposing ideas can seem like “common sense?” What are some examples of how casual
observations that seem obvious, have it wrong?

Hindsight bias makes it seem obvious because it is the tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that one
would have foreseen it. They use hindsight bias by telling both groups of people with opposing ideas that their
idea has been proven to be true. After being told that is proven to be true, it becomes easier to accept and seem as
“common sense”. Some examples are that familiarity breeds contempt, dreams predict the future, and that most of
us only use 10 percent of our brain.

Overconfidence​ (Pg. 32) ​Ricardo

What did Goranson and Tetlock demonstrate about predictive confidence? What do these studies demonstrate
about the need for psychological research?

Goranson: asked people to unscramble three anagrams, and the average problem solver spends three minutes on it
(but with us, already seeing the answer, our confident hindsight might estimate 10 seconds).

Tetlock: collected ~27,000 expert predictions of world events, such as the future of South Africa or whether
Quebec would separate from Canada. His repeated finding: These predictions, which experts made with 80
percent confidence on average, were right less than 40 percent of the time.

7
These studies demonstrate that we humans tend to think we know more than we do, and we can only find out
what we didn’t know in the past by continuing our research (and in psychological terms, the more we research,
the better we’ll know about how we function).

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble​ (Pg. 34) ​Stephen
What are some examples of where psychologists demonstrate the ability to be “skeptical but not cynical, open but
not gullible?”

Some examples of where psychologists demonstrate the ability to have ​curious skepticism is when they
persistently ask two questions: “​What do you mean? How do you know?​”

Or rather asking other questions like: ​Do parental behaviors determine children’s sexual orientation? Can
astrologers predict your future based on the position of the planets at your birth? Is electroconvulsive therapy an
effective treatment for severe depression? ​As we will see, putting such claims to the test has led psychological
scientists to answer ​No​ to the first two and ​Yes​ to the third.

“To believe with certainty, we must begin by doubting,” - Polish proverb

*Critical Thinking​ (Pg. 35) ​Caroline

How do scientists define critical thinking and why do they believe it is important? What sorts of findings has
critical inquiry led scientists to prove both true and false?

Critical thinking examines assumptions, assess the source, discerns hidden values, confirms evidence, and
assesses conclusions. It asks that questions and comes up with a reasonable solution. Not blind guessing, but
logical conclusions.

For example, most people don’t suffer from unrealistically low self esteem, and high self esteem isn’t always
great. Opposites don’t usually attract, etc. Beliefs like these have been debunked using critical thinking.

The Scientific Method​ (Pg. 38) ​Caroline

What is a theory and how is it linked to observations? What is a hypothesis and how does it give research a
direction? What are operational definitions and how does it allow us to replicate observations? What are the
most important characteristics of a good theory?

An observation is a discovery of the world around you, and a theory is trying to explain said observation. So for
example: The trees are green. (Observation). The trees are green because of a chemical in the leaves. (Theory)

A hypothesis is an educated guess on an outcome. It helps gives your experiment a direction, something you can
test.

An operational definition

*The Case Study​ (Pg. 40) ​Porsch

What is a case study and what are some examples of famous ones? What are the advantages and possible pitfalls
of conducting scientific case studies?
A case study is a technique in which a subject (group or individual) is studied in-depth in order to reveal a
universal truth. Examples of case studies include those conducted by Jean Piaget in which he observed children
and learned about children’s thinking and realized that chimpanzees have the capacity to understand language.
The pros of case studies can suggest new and unique ideas, but are subject to scrutiny as it studies a specific case,

8
which may contradict the results of several other cases of the same situation, and as humans we are subject to bias
due to being attracted to what is much more memorable.

Naturalistic Observation​ (Pg. 40) ​nate

What is naturalistic observation? How is it similar and different from case studies? What have naturalistic
observations revealed about human and animal behavior?

Naturalistic Observation - observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation

Case Study - A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing
universal principles.

Naturalistic observations have revealed that animals aren’t as much different from humans than we perceive them
to be, and also have found patterns in human behaviors.

Quiz 2
The Survey​ (Pg. 42) ​nate
How are surveys defined? What are some examples of data that has been discerned through surveys?
A survey looks at many cases in less depth. Surveys are done when researchers want to estimate, from a
representative sample of people, the attitude or reported behaviors of a whole population. Some data that has been
discerne from surveys include:
- half of all americans reported experience ing more happiness and enjoyment than stress and worry on the
previous day. (Gallup, 2010)
- Online Canadians reported using new forms of electronic communication and thus receiving 35% fewer
emails in 2010 than 2008 (Ipsos, 2010a).
- 1 in 5 people across 22 countries reported believing that alien beings have come to Earth and now walk
among us as humans (Ipsos, 2010b).
- 68% percent of all humans— some 4.6 billion people— say that religion is important in their daily lives.
(Dinner eat al, 2011).
Wording Effects​ (Pg. 42)
What are some examples of how framing can impact survey results? Why is it important for psychologists to
consider this phenomenon? ​nate
People are much more approving of “aid to the needy” than of “welfare” of “affirmative action” than of
“preferential treatment”, of “not allowing” televised cigarette ads than of “censoring” them, and of “revenue
enhancers” instead of “taxes”. ​basically people don’t like big scary words so use nicer sounding ones instead.​ In
2009 ¾ americans were in favor of giving people “a choice” for a public, government-run, or private health care
insurance. Yet in another survey they were against “creating a public health care plan administered by the federal
government that would compete directly with private health care companies. Because wording is such a delicate
matter, critical thinkers will reflect on how the phrasing of a questions might affect people's expressed opinions.

Random Sampling (​ Pg. 43) ​Stephen

What are some examples of where sampling bias causes us to generalize based on vivid cases? What is a
population and how would you seek a representative sample? What is a representative sample and how do
pollsters and scientists go about achieving it? When is more not better?
9
Sampling bias​ - a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
Ex: Trying to find a percentage of ice cream flavor preference among a group of people in a line to specifically
buy a certain flavor (or among a group of vegans/lactose intolerant people).
Ex: finding the percentage diversity of a school based on one classroom alone instead of the general student and
faculty population

Population - all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn (Note: Except for national
studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
● You could seek a representative sample by finding a ​random sample (a sample that fairly represents a
population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion) within a large population..

Representative sample​ - a small sample meant to represent a bigger whole (usually referring to people).
● Pollsters and scientists use a random amount (usually of a fractional size) of sampled people from all
areas of a country to provide an accurate snapshot of the nation’s opinions.

Correlation​ (Pg. 46) ​Stephen

How do psychologists use correlation coefficients to describe patterns? What is the difference between a negative
and positive correlation? What does it mean to say variables are not correlated? What are some examples of
correlations that can be misleading? Why are correlations important for psychological research?

Correlation coefficient​ - A statistical index of the relationship between two variables.

● Helps psychologists figure how closely two things vary together, and thus how well either one predicts
the other.

Positive correlation​ - if two sets of scores tend to rise and fall together.
Negative correlation​ - if two sets of scores relate inversely to each other.

To say that variables are NOT correlated is to say that neither score relate to each other in any way, the data is
random and has no apparent pattern.

Examples of misleading correlations:

- Face-width to height ratio and adult male height
- Race and body type
- Etc.

Correlations are important for psychological research because sometimes to see what is right in front of them,
they need statistical information (so they don’t miss anything).

Correlation and Causation​ (Pg. 48)

What are some examples where third factors or reverse causes have led to false conclusions regarding cause and
effect relationships? Why it is important to understand that correlation does not necessarily mean causation?
Stephen

Examples of third factors leading to false conclusions w/ cause and effect:

● Assuming low self esteem causes depression because how self esteem correlates negatively with
depression (there can be people with low self esteem who don’t deal with depression)

10
 ● The more teens felt loved by their parents, the less likely they were to behave in healthy ways (teens have
different perceptions of what their parents do, so there could be a teen whose parents loved them to death
- but because they didn’t recognize that love, they stepped out of bounds - survey is flawed).
● Assuming an object has a home where you are and doesn’t move just because every time you enter the so
called “home”, it is also there. (Someone could’ve moved it and put it back in the same spot before you
returned).

It’s important to understand that correlation does not always mean causation (especially in this day in age)
because many studies/surveys can be published claiming causation between two factors that have a coincidental
correlation, but are definitely not related in that way. ​“Don’t believe everything you hear.”

Illusory Correlations​ (Pg. 50)

What are some examples of illusory correlations? How are they often born of superstition and vivid cases?
Illusory correlations are correlations made between two unrelated variables due to the mere belief that the two
variables are related. Examples of illusory correlations are that you can catch the cold from going out into the
cold, sugar makes children hyper, and weather changes trigger arthritis pain. These correlations are born due to
our brains being use to linking events together into a cohesive structure to better interpret it, even if the
occurrences are random. Also, our brains much prefer constantly stated statements and exciting stories.

Experimentation​ (Pg. 50)

What is an experiment? How does it help explain rather than just describe behavior? How did the baby formula
vs. breast milk study help reveal the purpose of an experiment? What is the difference between the control and
experimental conditions and why is random ​assignment an important factor in assuring the success of the
experiment? What is the double blind procedure and the placebo effect and how do they help psychologists
evaluate and control drug studies especially?
An experiment is a research method that involves an investigator manipulating an independent variable and
analyzing its effect on the dependant variable. Experiments can explain behavior by manipulating the variables
multiple times and show specific points of interests rather than trying to find a link with no direction to describe
why something may be the way it is. The baby formula vs. breast milk study revealed that an experiment, if well
done, can show the full effects of a treatment. A control condition is a condition that is avoided by the researcher
to stop it from muddying the results while an experimental condition is an accounted for condition that is part of
the experiment. The random assignment of the babies was an important factor to stop other variables affecting the
outcome of the results, making sure every group is diverse enough to take the average of. The double blind
procedure is a form of experimentation that makes sure the participants and research assistants are made unaware
whether the placebo or treatment was given to the subject and the placebo effect is the effect that when results for
something is caused by the expectation alone. These help psychologists evaluate and control drug studies since it
shows the effectiveness of a drug or therapy.

Independent and Dependent Variables​ (Pg. 52)

Define and provide examples of all of the following: independent variable, dependent variable, confounding
variable, experimental validity.
● Independent Variable: A factor that can be varied, measured, controlled by a researcher.
○ Examples: Memories, intelligence, age
● Dependent Variable: A factor that affected by the independent and any other variables imposed during the
experiment.
○ Examples: Exam performance
● Confounding Variable: Factors that can affect the results of the experiment that aren’t an independent
variable
○ Examples: Amount of sleep, diet
● Experimental Validity: How much an experiment is able to measure/predict what is supposed to happen
○ How much do childhood education programs affect developmental learning?
11
The Need for Statistics​ (Pg. 56)
What are some ways in which the incorrect or misleading use of statistical data (especially big round numbers)
has been used in society today?
Incorrect and misleading use of statistics is exemplified in current society with the statement: “10% of people are
lesbian or gay men” when most other surveys range around 2% to 3%, “We normally use 10% of our brains”
when it’s closer to 100%, and “the human brain has 100 billion nerve cells” when it is closer to 40 billion.

Descriptive Statistics​ (Pg. 57)

How and why do scientists use histograms/bar graphs? Why is it important to note scale labels and their ranges
on bar graphs?
Scientists use histograms and bar graphs to depict frequency distribution in a visually appealing way. It is
important to note labels and their ranges to accurately display results and make sure numbers aren’t distorted.

Measures of Central Tendency​ (Pg. 57)

Define and distinguish between mean, median and mode. What are some examples of how the mean in particular
can inaccurately bias our understandings if the distribution is skewed?
The mean is the mathematical average of a distribution of numbers, the mode is the number that most frequently
occurs, and the median is the number in the middle of the range of a distribution of numbers. The mean can bias
since half of the consumers of Microsoft are billionaires, according to mean statistics, even though the median
may not reflect the same.

Measures of Variation​ (Pg. 58) ​Owen

What kinds of ranges are more reliable and why? What is standard deviation and how can it help us understand if
there are large differences that are throwing off the usefulness of the average? What is a normal curve and how
can it help us understand averages?
Range is a crude measure of central tendency. Standard Deviation is a better way to measure how data deviates
from other data because it takes information from each value.

By taking each value, finding its deviation from the mean, squaring each, adding them all, diving them all by the
number of scores, and finally square rooting the result you are able to find the Standard Deviation of a data set. A
smaller standard deviation means the values are closer to each other while a larger standard deviation means they
are more spread. If a value upsets the mean because there is a huge difference between them, the standard
deviation can expose that. (Pic in mid of 58)

Most data, when graphed by mean, is similar to the normal curve or the “bell curve.” The bell curve has 68% of
its data fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean, 95% fall within 2 standard deviations, and 98.8 fall within 3.
This helps us understand averages because the mean is the center of this typical spread of data and if the mean is
skewed it is usually because it is not a bell curve. (chart on bottom of pg 59)
K
Tbh tho why is stats in psych … umumumumum

Inferential Statistics​ (Pg. 60) ​Owen

What are inferential statistics and why are they important in the analysis of data?
Inferential Statistics is numerical data that allows someone to generalize and can differ easily not because of real
differences but because of chance. It is important because it helps if results can be generalized to a larger
population than the one tested.

When is an Observed Difference Reliable?​ (Pg. 60) ​Owen

What 3 principles make a statistical difference more reliable and why?
12
 1. Representative samples are better than biased samples (vivid, memorable experiences or extreme cases)
2. Less variable (consistent) options are more reliable than more variable options
3. More cases are better than fewer, larger population.

When is a Difference Significant?​ (Pg. 60) ​Owen

What generally gives a statistic statistical significance and why are psychologists conservative when it comes to
judging it? What is the difference between statistical and practical significance?
Though people can find differences between two populations while testing, they may simply be flukes. To test the
difference, make sure the averages of the two different populations are reliable (not skewed) and find the
difference between the averages. Larger differences also are more likely to be true. Psychologists usually only
accept a difference to be true if the odds of it happening by chance are less than 5%.

Samples that are statistically significant are not always practically significant as well. While a result with
statistical significance means the result likely did not happen by chance, it does not necessarily mean that the
result contains any importance to the world, or is practically significant.

Can Laboratory Experiments Illuminate Everyday Life?​ (Pg. 64) ​Ricardo

What are some key reasons why psychologists believe that experimental laboratory behavior under controlled
conditions does mimic real-world behavior?

Some reasons are because a laboratory experiment lets psychologists recreate psychological forces under
controlled conditions.an experiments purpose is not to recreate the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test
theoretical principles. When psychologist apply laboratory research on aggression to actual violence, they are
applying theoretical principles of aggressive behavior, principles they have refined through many experiments.
Similarly, it is the principles of visual system, developed from experiments in artificial settings, that researchers
apply to more complex behaviors. And many investigations show that principles derived in the laboratory do
typically generalize to the everyday world. Psychological science focuses less on particular behavior than on
seeking general principles that help explain behaviors.

Does Behavior Depend on One’s Culture and Gender?​ (Pg. 65) ​Ricardo
What are some examples that demonstrate that human behavior is defined both by being members of a larger
human family as well as of a cultural group? What are some examples that demonstrate that gender differences in
behavior and attitude are both pronounced and highly exaggerated?

Culture is the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group or people and
transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture influences our standards of promptness and frankness, our
attitudes toward premarital sex and varying body shapes, our tendency to be casual or formal, our willingness to
make eye contact, our conversational distance and much more.

Researchers report that gender diversity differences in what we dream, in how we express and detect emotions,
and in our risk for alcohol use disorder, depression, and eating disorders. Psychologically as well as biologically,
women and men are overwhelmingly similar. Whether female or male, we learn to walk at about the same age.
We experience the same sensations of light and sound. We feel pangs of hunger, desire, and fear. We exhibit
similar overall intelligence and well-being.

Why Do Psychologists Study Animals and Is It Ethical to Experiment on Animals?​ (Pg. 66) ​Stephen
Why and to what extent can humans benefit and learn from studying animals? What moral and ethical arguments
do researchers use to demonstrate that it is important to experiment on animals? What precautions have been
taken to ensure the safety and comfort of animals being experimented upon?

13
People study animals because they’re fascinating in how they learn, think, and behave. Humans that study
animals can benefit in learning more about themselves because (to some extent) we ARE animals (and most of
our DNA is similar; ex: diseases and organ, and how we process info).

Some researchers argue that the argument isn’t about good pinned against evil, but their compassion for animals
versus compassion for people. We spare more humans by experimenting on animals, even though some animals
have to get lost in the process. We also wear clothes and make other animals suffer already, so it might not be all
animals BUT we only value those who we perceive as close to us.

Precautions: Some animal protection organizations want to replace experiments on dogs with naturalistic
experimentation. Many people support government regulations protecting primates, dogs, and cats - some
regulations even providing humane care for rats and mise. APA guidelines state that researchers must ensure the
“comfort, health, and humane treatment” of animals and minimize “infection, illness, and pain” (APA 2002).

What Ethical Guidelines Safeguard Human Participants?​ (Pg. 68)

Why is it sometimes necessary to deceive participants in a psychological study? What are the 4 principles
developed by the American Psychological Association regarding ethical experimentation on humans?

Researchers do temporarily stress or deceive people, but only when they believe it is essential to a justifiable end,
such as understanding and controlling violent behavior or studying mood swings. Some experiments not work if
participants know everything beforehand.

Four Principles:
1. Obtain potential participants’ ​informed consent (an ethical principle that research participants be told
enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate).
2. Protect them from physical or emotional harm and discomfort
3. Keep information about the individual participants confidential
4. Fully ​debrief (the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its
participant) people and explain the research afterwards.

Is Psychology Free of Value Judgments?​ (Pg. 68)

In what ways is psychology value-laden? To what extent can psychology help us achieve our life goals? How has
psychology been used to both help and hurt humanity?
nate
Values affect how we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results. They influence their choice of topics.
Values can also color the facts. Our preconceptions can bias our observations and interpretations; sometimes we
see what we want or expect to see. Psychology gives us “professional” guidance on how to live—how to raise
children, how to achieve self-fulfillment, what to do with sexual feelings, how to get ahead at work- you are
accepting value laden advice. Just like all knowledge, it can be used for good and evil. Persuasive power has
been used to educate people— and to deceive them.

14
 Advanced Placement Psychology: Unit One People Guide
History, Perspectives and Research Methods

Quizlet Form: ​https://quizlet.com/314469122/apib-psychology-unit-1-people-guide-flash-cards/

Name Contribution

Mary ● scored higher than all the male students who dropped out upon her arrival for a
Whiton Calkins Harvard Ph.D. (even though the school denied her the degree she had earned)
● became the first female APA president in 1905

Charles ● all animals pass down traits that ensure survival

Darwin ● natural selection chooses the traits that are the best

Dorthea ● nurse during WWII

Dix ● efforts aided mentally ill and prisoners, helped create dozens of new
institutions across the US and Europe and changed people’s perceptions of
these populations. ​[​Source​]

● believed in the unconscious mind

● All behaviors are the actions of three forces (Id, Ego, Superego)
● STAGES:
Sigmund ○ Oral Stage (0 m - 18 m)
Freud ○ Anal Stage (18 m - 36 m)
○ Phallic Stage (3 yrs - 6 yrs)
○ Latency Stage (6 yrs - puberty)
○ Genital Stage (Puberty on)

● assumed thinking (like smelling) developed because it was adaptive

(contributed to ancestor’s survival)
William ● believed consciousness served as a function (functionalism)
James ● explored mental and behavioral processes and how they functioned
● Contributed teachings at Harvard and his writings to the initial academic
pursuit of psychology.

John ● argued that the mind is a blank slate on which experience writes.
Locke

Carl ● developed core techniques of client centered therapy

Rogers ● goal was to help client become their ideal self

B.F. ● believed you could create new behaviors

Skinner ● used rewards & punishments to train subjects (birds)
○ also used “Skinner Boxes” on them

15
 Margaret ● received the Ph.D from Harvard, the first female to get one in psychology
Floy Washburn ● wrote a book
● second female APA president (1921)

John B. ● believed psychology needed to be more scientific

Watson ● tested to see what behavior was genetic, and what was learned

● created first psychological experiment w/ two other young men

Wilhelm ○ created a machine that measured the time lag between people’s hearing
Wundt a ball hit a platform and their pressing a telegraph key.
○ Results: 1/10th second reaction time normal, 2/10th second reaction
with conscious awareness

Perspective(s) Quizlet Review: ​https://quizlet.com/314483189/apib-psychology-unit-1- perspectives-flash-cards/

16