The most widely accepted theory of planetary formation, known as the nebular hypothesis, maintains that 4.

6
billion years ago, the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud which
was light years across. Several stars, including the Sun, formed within the collapsing cloud. The gas that
formed the Solar System was slightly more massive than the Sun itself. Most of the mass collected in the
centre, forming the Sun; the rest of the mass flattened into a protoplanetary disc, out of which the planetsand
other bodies in the Solar System formed.
French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes was the first to propose a model for the origin of the
Solar System in his Le Monde (ou Traité de lumière) which he wrote in 1632 and 1633 and for which he
delayed publication because of the Inquisition and it was published only after his death in 1664. In his view, the
Universe was filled with vortices of swirling particles and the Sun and planets had condensed from a
particularly large vortex that had somehow contracted, which explained the circular motion of the planets and
was on the right track with condensation and contraction. However, this was before Newton's theory of gravity
and we now know matter does not behave in this fashion.

The vortex model of 1944,[3] formulated by German physicist and philosopher Baron Carl Friedrich von
Weizsäcker, which harkens back to the Cartesian model, involved a pattern of turbulence-induced
eddies in a Laplacian nebular disc. In it a suitable combination of clockwise rotation of each vortex
and anti-clockwise rotation of the whole system can lead to individual elements moving around the
central mass in Keplerian orbits so there would be little dissipation of energy due to the overall motion
of the system but material would be colliding at high relative velocity in the inter-vortex boundaries
and in these regions small roller-bearing eddies would coalesce to give annular condensations. It was
much criticized as turbulence is a phenomenon associated with disorder and would not
spontaneously produce the highly ordered structure required by the hypothesis. As well, it does not
provide a solution to the angular momentum problem and does not explain lunar formation nor other
very basic characteristics of the Solar System.[4]
The Weizsäcker model was modified[3] in 1948 by Dutch theoretical physicist Dirk Ter Haar, in that
regular eddies were discarded and replaced by random turbulence which would lead to a very thick
nebula where gravitational instability would not occur. He concluded the planets must have formed by
accretion and explained the compositional difference (solid and liquid planets) as due to the
temperature difference between the inner and outer regions, the former being hotter and the latter
being cooler, so only refractories (non-volatiles) condensed in the inner region. A major difficulty is
that in this supposition turbulent dissipation takes place in a time scale of only about a millennium
which does not give enough time for planets to form.
The nebular hypothesis was first proposed in 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg[5] and later elaborated and
expanded upon by Immanuel Kant in 1755. A similar theory was independently formulated by Pierre-
Simon Laplace in 1796.[6]
In 1749, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon conceived the idea that the planets were formed when
a comet collided with the Sun, sending matter out to form the planets. However, Laplace refuted this
idea in 1796, showing that any planets formed in such a way would eventually crash into the Sun.
Laplace felt that the near-circular orbits of the planets were a necessary consequence of their
formation.[7] Today, comets are known to be far too small to have created the Solar System in this
way.[7]
In 1755, Immanuel Kant speculated that observed nebulae may in fact be regions of star and planet
formation. In 1796, Laplace elaborated by arguing that the nebula collapsed into a star, and, as it did
so, the remaining material gradually spun outward into a flat disc, which then formed the planets.
Alternative theoriiesEdit
However plausible it may appear at first sight, the nebular hypothesis still faces the obstacle of angular
momentum; if the Sun had indeed formed from the collapse of such a cloud, the planets should be
rotating far more slowly. The Sun, though it contains almost 99.9 percent of the system's mass,
contains just 1 percent of its angular momentum.[8] This means that the Sun should be spinning much
more rapidly.
Tidal theoryEdit
Attempts to resolve the angular momentum problem led to the temporary abandonment of the nebular
hypothesis in favour of a return to "two-body" theories.[7] For several decades, many astronomers
preferred the tidal or near-collision hypothesis put forward by James Jeans in 1917, in which the planets
were considered to have been formed due to the approach of some other star to the Sun. This near-
miss would have drawn large amounts of matter out of the Sun and the other star by their mutual tidal
forces, which could have then condensed into planets.[7] However, in 1929 astronomer Harold
Jeffreys countered that such a near-collision was massively unlikely.[7] Objections to the hypothesis
were also raised by the American astronomer Henry Norris Russell, who showed that it ran into
problems with angular momentum for the outer planets, with the planets struggling to avoid being
reabsorbed by the Sun.
The Chamberlin-Moulton modelEdit
Forest Moulton in 1900 had also shown that the nebular hypothesis was inconsistent with
observations because of the angular momentum. Moulton and Chamberlin in 1904 originated the
planetesimal hypothesis[10](see Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis). Along with many
astronomers of the day they came to believe the pictures of "spiral nebulas" from the Lick
Observatory were direct evidence of forming solar systems. These turned out to be galaxies instead
but the Shapley-Curtis debate about these was still 16 years in the future. One of the most
fundamental issues in the history of astronomy was distinguishing between nebulas and galaxies.
Moulton and Chamberlin suggested that a star had passed close to the Sun early in its life to cause
tidal bulges and that this, along with the internal process that leads to solar prominences, resulted in
the ejection of filaments of matter from both stars. While most of the material would have fallen back,
part of it would remain in orbit. The filaments cooled into numerous, tiny, solid fragments,
‘planetesimals’, and a few larger protoplanets. This model received favourable support for about 3
decades but passed out of favour by the late '30s and was discarded in the '40s by the realization it
was incompatible with the angular momentum of Jupiter, but a part of it, planetesimal accretion, was
retained.

The Chamberlin-Moulton modelEdit

Forest Moulton in 1900 had also shown that the nebular hypothesis was inconsistent with
observations because of the angular momentum. Moulton and Chamberlin in 1904 originated the
planetesimal hypothesis[10](see Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis). Along with many
astronomers of the day they came to believe the pictures of "spiral nebulas" from the Lick
Observatory were direct evidence of forming solar systems. These turned out to be galaxies instead
but the Shapley-Curtis debate about these was still 16 years in the future. One of the most
fundamental issues in the history of astronomy was distinguishing between nebulas and galaxies.
Moulton and Chamberlin suggested that a star had passed close to the Sun early in its life to cause
tidal bulges and that this, along with the internal process that leads to solar prominences, resulted in
the ejection of filaments of matter from both stars. While most of the material would have fallen back,
part of it would remain in orbit. The filaments cooled into numerous, tiny, solid fragments,
‘planetesimals’, and a few larger protoplanets. This model received favourable support for about 3
decades but passed out of favour by the late '30s and was discarded in the '40s by the realization it
was incompatible with the angular momentum of Jupiter, but a part of it, planetesimal accretion, was
retained.

Everything in Earth's system can be placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water, living
things, or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically, they are the "lithosphere"
(land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things), and "atmosphere" (air). Each of these four
spheres can be further divided into sub-spheres. To keep things simple in this module, there will be
no distinction among the sub-spheres of any of the four major spheres.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust
(surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the
center of the planet. *The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven (see image
at right). There are high mountain ranges like the Rockies and Andes (shown in
red), huge plains or flat areas like those in Texas, Iowa, and Brazil (shown in green), and
deep valleys along the ocean floor (shown in blue).

The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are physically and
chemically different. If someone were to cut through Earth to its center, these layers would
be revealed like the layers of an onion (see image above). The outermost layer of the
lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer
lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of
oxygen, silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron.
At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of nickel and iron.

*Note: The word "lithosphere" can take on different meanings depending on the speaker
and the audience. For example, many geologists--scientists who study the geologic
formations of Earth--reserve the word "lithosphere" to mean only the cold, hard surface of
Earth, not the entire inside of the planet. For the purpose of this module, however, there
will be no distinction among the various layers of land. The word "lithosphere" will be used
in reference to all land in Earth's system.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the
planet. **It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in thickness. The hydrosphere
extends from Earth's surface downward several kilometers into the lithosphere
and upward about 12 kilometers into the atmosphere.

A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows as
precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along
Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water,
however, is frozen.

Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep valleys
along Earth's surface. These large collections of salty water are referred to as oceans.
The image above depicts the different temperatures one would find on oceans' surfaces.
Water near the poles is very cold (shown in dark purple), while water near the equator is
very warm (shown in light blue). The differences in temperature cause water to change
physical states. Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to
freeze into a solid such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high
temperatures like those found at the equator cause water to evaporate into a gas.
**Note: Some scientists place frozen water--glaciers, icecaps, and icebergs--in its own
sphere called the "cryosphere." For the purpose of this module, however, frozen water will
be included as part of the hydrosphere. The word "hydrosphere" will be used in reference
to all water in Earth's system.

Biosphere
The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. ***This sphere includes all of the
microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth.

Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based on the physical
surroundings of an area. These communities are referred to asbiomes. Deserts,
grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist within the
biosphere.

It is impossible to detect from space each individual organism within the biosphere. However, biomes
can be seen from space. For example, the image above distinguishes between lands covered with
plants (shown in shades of green) and those that are not (shown in brown).

***Note: Some scientists place humans in their own sphere called the "anthrosphere." For the
purpose of this module, however, humans will be included as part of the biosphere. The word
"biosphere" will be used in reference to all living things in Earth's system.

Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. ****It extends from less than 1 m below the
planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper portion of the
atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also
absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather
occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can
be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

MEMBERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM:

The Solar System & Planet

Our solar system came into existence approximately 4.6 billion years ago with a big bang. There are various astronomical
objects in our solar system. The sun is at the centre keeping all the other objects in an elliptical orbit around it. Other than
the eight planets of the solar system there are many other objects in the galaxy that are not so known. Let us explore a few
of these enchanting objects.

Comets
These are also known as the ‘dirty snowballs’. They are cosmic objects of frozen gasses, rocks and dust. These are not the
tiny objects you imagine them to be. They are the size of a small town (at least a few kilometres in area). When these
comets come close to the sun, these comets heat up and spew dust and gasses into the atmosphere. This results in the
comets having a tail which is called a coma. Comets usually have a highly elliptical orbit, which means their revolutions
around the sun are several years long. They tend to make periodical appearances in the earth’s atmosphere. Perhaps the
most famous comet identified by us is the Halley’s Comet which makes an appearance every 74 to 79 years. Its last
sighting was in 1986 and its next expected appearance is predicted to be in 2061.

Asteroids
Asteroids are essentially smaller planets, earning them the name of ‘minor plants’ or even ‘planetoids’. They are rocky
objects that orbit the sun but do not have air (i.e. an atmosphere). These asteroids are located in the vast space occurring
between Mars and Jupiter called the asteroid belt. There are tens of thousands of these ancient space rubble located in this
belt, with sizes ranging from 945 kilometres to about 33 feet. Vesta is the largest asteroid and it has the total area of about
326 miles.

Meteors
Meteors are more commonly known as ‘shooting stars’ or ‘falling stars’, but like we said they aren’t stars at all. The flash
of light that is seen across the sky is called the meteor. When some debris enters the earth’s atmosphere and on doing so
combusts almost immediately it results in the flash. The debris itself is the meteoroid. Meteoroids are formed when two
asteroids clash and a small part breaks loose.

Meteorites

If a part of the debris called meteoroids survives the atmosphere and falls onto the earth’s surface it is called a Meteorite.
The majority of the meteorites that have fallen on earth are very small in size, weighing only a few grams. Early in the
1900’s, a farmer found the largest meteorite ever found on earth in Namibia. It is the Hoba Meteorite and it weighs 66 tons!
These meteorites are generally very rich in rare minerals and have a high market value.

Artificial Satellites
Not all objects found in our solar system are cosmic in nature. There are hundreds of manmade objects that we have sent
into the universe for research and exploration. The famed International Space Station is the largest artificial satellite
in space and it is currently orbiting the earth