MICRO HSB A

Sarah D. Dalisay, MD
CELL Page 1 of 4

CELL SPECIALIZATIONS
• Cells and extracellular material together comprise all the tissues • Junctional Complexes, Invaginations, Microvilli, Flagella, Cilia
that make up the organs of multicellular animals.
• basic structural and functional unit Junctional
Functions Examples
complexes
PARTS OF A CELL: Couples intermediate Stratified epithelia
Macula Adherens filaments to plasma of mouth,
or Desmosomes membrane at regions of esophagus, vagina,
cell-to-cell adhesion skin
Couples actin
cytoskeleton to plasma Intercalated discs
Zonula Adherens
membrane at regions of of cardiac muscles
cell-to-cell adhesion
Epithelium of
Seals adjacent cells
urinary bladder,
Zonula together to inhibit
GIT; Inter-
Occludens / passage of molecules
Tight Junctions
endothelial
between them (control
contacts of brain
of permeability)
capillaries
Creates a conduit
between two adjacent
Epithelial,
Nexus / Gap cells for passage of
muscular, and
Junctions small ions and
nervous tissues
informational
macromolecules
INVAGINATIONS: VESICULAR PITS
• Participates in endocytosis and exocytosis
CELL: PROKARYOTES vs. EUKARYOTES CILIA FLAGELLUM MICROVILLI
Numerous thin
Short numerous
membrane fold
membrane Long, singular membrane
projecting from the
extensions extension supported by
free cell surface:
supported by microtubules
supported by
microtubules
microfilaments
Increase membrane
Move substances
Propels sperm surface area for
over cell surface
greater absorption

CYTOPLASM
• The cytoplasm is the semisolid, semiliquid, gel- like substance that
PLASMA MEMBRANE hold the internal structures of the cell. It also serves as a medium
• Cells and extracellular material together comprise all the tissues of transport. 

that make up the organs of multicellular animals. • It holds all the organelles aka “little organs” of the cell.
• Composed of phospholipid bilayer 

• Selectively permeable 
 Contains:
• Separates cells from other cells • CYTOSOL: part of the cytoplasm that included molecules and small
particles but not organelles 

• CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES 

• CYTOSKELETON: determines shape & motility of eukaryotes
• INCLUSION BODIES 


• Lipid bilayer – Hydrophobic chains; Hydrophilic heads

• Proteins – Integral/ Peripheral membrane proteins
• Carbohydrates – Glycoproteins; Glycolipids
 Discussion on: TOPIC Page 2 of 4

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES MICROFILAMENTS

RIBOSOMES • Actin protein monomers organized into 2 thin intertwined protein
• Protein factories of the cell filaments
• Very small, dot-like structure 
 • Maintain cell shape and Support microvilli
• Made in nucleolus 

 • Separate two cells during cytokinesis (process of cell division)
• Smallest organelle but makes one of the most important molecule • Facilitate change in shape (e.g muscle contraction)
for life, proteins.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM • Structural support and Stabilize junctions between cells
• Manufactures various organic compounds 
 • Strong and stable
• Also serves as a transport membrane across the cell 
 • Provide mechanical strength and resistance to shearing forces
• Two types: SER, RER • Keratins, Vimentin, Neurofilament, Lamins

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

• synthesizes proteins for secretion, incorporation into the
plasma, membrane, and as enzymes within lysosomes.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Lipid biosynthesis
• Detoxification of potentially harmful compounds, 

• Sequestration of Ca++ ions 


GOLGI APPARATUS
• Packaging of the cell
• Series of stacked, flattened, membrane- limited sacs or cisternae
and tubular extensions 

• Functions in transport of molecules made by the ER via transport
vesicles.

MITOCHONDRIA

• Two-membrane system
• Outer membrane and inner membrane arranged in numerous folds
called cristae 

• In steroid-producing cells, inner membrane is in tubular cristae 

• Provides most of the energy to the cell in the form of ATP

CENTROSOME
• Organelle near the nucleus that contains the centrioles and form
which the spindle fibers develop in cell division

LYSOSOME
• Waste disposal of the cell
• Small, spherical- shaped 

• produces hydrolytic enzymes (lysozyme) that digests and destroys
molecules and organelles that are not needed anymore by the cell.
• It protects the cell by destroying foreign substances. 
 INCLUSIONS
• The molecules to be destroyed are carried by the vesicles. 
 • Accumulated metabolites but have little/ no metabolic activity
• AUTOPHAGY: removal of excess or nonfunctional organelles and • Not present in all cells
other cytoplasmic structures 
 • LIPID DROPLETS (Adipocytes)
• GLYCOGEN GRANULES
PEROXISOME • PIGMENTED DEPOSITS: Melanin, Lipofuscin, Hemosiderin
• Microbodies

• Small spherical, membranous organelles NUCLEUS
• Crystalloid inclusion, nucleoid • “Command center of the cell”
• Production and degradation of H2O2; Degradation of fatty acids • Dark, spherical-shaped structure 

• Stores the genetic code DNA
PROTEOSOME • Large structure enclosed within a double membrane; contains
• Very small abundant protein complexes
 chromatin, nucleolus, and nucleoplasm

• Degrade non functional polypeptides

• also remove proteins no longer needed by the cell NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• lipid bilayer (like the plasma membrane) - covers the nucleus
THE CYTOSKELETON
• Determine cell shape and cell defense NUCLEOLUS
• Placement of organelles in the cell • Contains a denser, darker sphere in the center which contains the
• Cell movement RNA that contains the code to make proteins in the ribosomes. 

• Placement for anchoring mRNA and help the translation of mRNA
become polypeptide CHROMATIN
• Important component in cell division • Consists of DNA and all of the associated proteins involved in the
organization and function of DNA 

MICROTUBULES
• Non-branching long, hollow cylinders composed of tubulin protein 2 TYPES:
• Provide network “railroad tracks” for movement of organelles • HETEROCHROMATIN 

within the cell • EUCHROMATIN: Contains regions of DNA undergoing active
• Provide movement for cilia transcription 

• Provide movement for chromosomes during cell division
 Discussion on: TOPIC
CELL CYCLE
4 DISTINCT PHASES: G1, S, G2, MITOSIS
INTERPHASE
G1
• Time gap between mitosis and DNA replication
• Longest and most variable 

• Period of active RNA and protein synthesis
S

• Period of DNA synthesis
G2

• Gap between DNA duplication and the next mitosis
• Preparation for mitosis 

MITOSIS/ CELL DIVISION
• is the only cell cycle phase that can be routinely observed with the
light microscope
• During mitosis, a parent cell divides and each of the two daughter
cells receives a chromosomal set identical to that of the parent cell.
The chromosomes replicated during the preceding S phase are
distributed to the daughter cells.
PROPHASE
• nucleolus disappears and the replicated chromatin condenses into
discrete threadlike chromosomes, each consisting of duplicate
sister chromatids joined by cohesins.
• At the centromere region of each chromosome, the kinetochore
serves as a site for attachment to microtubules.
• The centrosomes with their now-duplicated centrioles separate and
migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
• The microtubules of the mitotic spindle polymerize between the
two centrosomes.
• Late in prophase, lamins and inner nuclear membrane are
phosphorylated, causing the nuclear lamina and nuclear pore
complexes to disassemble and disperse in cytoplasmic membrane
vesicles.
METAPHASE
• chromosomes condense further and attach to the mitotic spindle at
large electron-dense protein complexes called kinetochores at each
centromere. The cell is now more spherical and the chromosomes
are moved to align at its equatorial plane.
ANAPHASE
• sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) separate and move
toward opposite spindle poles by a combination of microtubule
motor proteins and dynamic changes in the lengths of the
microtubules as the spindle poles move farther apart.
TELOPHASE
• The two sets of chromosomes are at the spindle poles and begin
reverting to their decondensed state.
• The spindle depolymerizes and the nuclear envelope begins to
reassemble around each set of daughter chromosomes.
• A belt-like contractile ring of actin filaments associated with
myosins develops in the peripheral cytoplasm at the cell’s equator.
• During cytokinesis at the end of telophase, constriction of this ring
produces a cleavage furrow and progresses until the cytoplasm
and its organelles are divided into two daughter cells, each with
one nucleus
Most tissues undergo cell turnover with slow cell division and cell death.
Nerve tissue and cardiac muscle are exceptions because their
differentiated cells cannot undergo mitosis.
Page 3 of 4
MEIOSIS
• specialized process involving 2 unique and closely associated cell
divisions that occurs only in the cells that will form sperm and egg
cells.
Two key features characterize meiosis:
1. SYNAPSIS
• Early in the process the homologous chromosomes of each pair (one
from the mother, one from the father) come together.
• During synapsis double-stranded breaks and repairs occur in the
DNA, some of which result in reciprocal DNA exchanges called
crossovers between the aligned maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
• Crossing over produces new combinations of genes in the
chromosomes in the germ cells so that few if any chromosomes are
exactly the same as those in the mother and father.
2. HAPLOID CELLS
• The cells produced have just one chromosome from each pair
present in the body’s somatic cells. The union of haploid eggs and
sperm at fertilization forms a new diploid cell (the zygote) that can
develop into a new individual.
• FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION: cell has just completed a typical S
phase and replicated its DNA; each chromosome contains the two
identical DNA molecules called sister chromatids.
• PROPHASE I: the partially condensed chromatin of homologous
chromosomes begins to come together and physically associate
along their lengths during synapsis.
• Because each of the paired chromosomes has two chromatids,
geneticists refer to synaptic chromosomes as tetrads to emphasize
that four copies of each genetic sequence are present.
• During synapsis, recombination / crossing over occurs among the
four chromatids, which mixes up the genes inherited from each
parent and yields a new and different set of genes to be passed
on to the next generation.
• When synapsis and crossing over are completed, the chromosomes
become fully condensed and undergo METAPHASE I, ANAPHASE I,
and TELOPHASE I as the cell divides.
• This first meiotic division separates the homologous chromosomes
that paired during synapsis; each of the separated chromosomes
still contains two chromatids held together at the centromere.
• The two new cells now each divide again, much more rapidly and
without an intervening S phase.
• SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION: the chromatids separate to opposite
poles as individual chromosomes. In each new cell a nuclear
envelope forms around this new haploid set of chromosomes.
 Discussion on: TOPIC Page 4 of 4

In summary, meiosis and mitosis share many aspects of chromatin

condensation and separation, but differ in key ways:

MEIOSIS
• two cell divisions
• produces four haploid cells.
• During meiotic crossing over, new combinations of genes are
produced and every haploid cell is genetically unique

MITOSIS
• one cell division
• produces two diploid cells.
• Lacking synapsis and the opportunity for DNA recombination,
mitosis yields two cells that are the same genetically

CELL RENEWAL
• Somatic cells may be classified according to their mitotic activity
• Cell populations: Static, Stable, Renewing

STATIC CELLS
• Cells no longer divide
• Examples: CNS cells, Cardiac muscles

STABLE CELLS
• Cells that divide episodically and slowly
• Stimulated by injury
• Examples:
o Periosteal cells
o Perichondrial cells
o Smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells of blood vessels
o Fibroblasts

RENEWING CELL POPULATIONS

• Slowly or rapidly renewing
• Display regular mitotic activity

SLOW RENEWING RAPID RENEWING

• Smooth muscle cells of hollow • Blood cells 

organs 
 • Epithelial cells and 
dermal
• Fibroblasts of uterine wall fibroblasts of the 
skin 

• Epithelial cells of lens of the • Epithelial and subepithelial
eye 
 fibroblasts of the mucosal
lining of the alimentary tract

CELL DEATH
NECROSIS
• Accidental cell death
• A pathologic process
• Cells are exposed to unfavorable physical or chemical environment
• Rapid cell swelling and lysis

APOPTOSIS
• Programmed cell death (a physiologic process)
• Activation of an internally encoded suicide program
• Controlled auto digestion
• Loss of mitochondrial function and caspase activity
• Fragmentation of DNA, Shrinkage of nuclear and cell volume, Cell
membrane changes, Formation of phagocytic removal.

SOURCES
• Dra. Dalisay’s presentation (2017)
• Junqueira’s Basic Histology Text and Atlas 13th Ed.