Treading the Hallowed Halls: Women in Higher Education in India

Author(s): Karuna Chanana

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 35, No. 12 (Mar. 18-24, 2000), pp. 1012-1022
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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 Treading the Hallowed Halls
Women in Higher Education in India
Focusing on the disciplinary choices inade by wonen in higher education and their
representation at different levels of learning and teaching, this article goes beyond the is
of women 's entry into higher education and raises questions such as: what happens to the
after they enter the system? Whlat are the chances of their staying on and progressing f
one stage to another? What disciplinary choices do they make? The article also highlig
the societal and institutional factors inhibiting women's access to higher education.

KARUNA CIIANANA

he focus on education during thefor lack of attention to gender because of

groups, namely, the scheduled castes and
which
present century has been because of women have lagged behind in
tribes are provided supports such as res-
ervations in the state-run educational in-
education. Feminists, too, are divided along
its instrumentality in promoting val-
ues for a democratic polity and society stitutions for purposes of admission and
ideological lines although there is consen-
along with inculcation of skills to meet sus for jobs in the employing organisations.
the that education is paramount for pro-
occupational demands of industrialising moting equality between women and men Moreover, religious and linguistic minori-
societies. However, functions of educa- and that lack of focus on women in edu- ties are permitted to establish educational
cational policies and programmes has led
tion have not been so simplistically viewed institutions. Thus, education has been
to educational backwardness among girls
given the variety of ideological and politi- perceived as an important instrument for
cal orientations and intellectual interpre- and women in large parts of the world. the advancement of the deprived and the
tations. Education, for example, has been As we move towards the next century, minorities, on the one hand, while equality
simultaneously labelled as the panacea the for debate on social and human develop- was guaranteed to everyone including
social mobility and equality and as the onlyment has also begun to highlight the in- women.

hope for the downtrodden, on the strumentality

one of education, especially of The development strategy in i
hand, and as an instrument for reproducing female literacy and primary education. It dent India in the 1950s depende
social stratification and for maintaining has sought to establish macro level inter- on planning. The first two Five Y
the hegemony of the dominant classes connections
and between education and indi- referred to the problems of w
the elite, on the other. But what is common cators of development such as basic edu- education and sought to link hig
to both the viewpoints is the instrumen- fessional education and occupati
cation, health, income etc. It is being argued
tality of education as well as the rolethat of equality among human beings across Report of the Committee on the
the state in providing education. However, and within societies can be achieved by of Women, 1959, made extensiv
whether one takes the liberal-functionalist providing opportunities for better health, mendations which led to a more focused
view or the radical-conflict view, the education and living standards especially thrust in the subsequent plans. But dispari-
education-equality interface is central to to girls and women. Thus, education and ties in the education of men and women
both the discourses. While the former is gender equality are at the centre stage of continued. These were amply substanti-
premised on the assumption that education contemporary discourse on development ated by the Report of the Committee on
promotes equality, the latter questions thisand education. While education at the the Status of Women, 1974.1 This led to
premise but goes onto emphasise the primary level is the focus of debatea for broader perspective and the Sixth Plan
education-equality interface under certain those concerned with social and human linked education to the participation of
conditions and structural changes in soci- development, higher education is high- women in the development process.
ety. The issues of class, race and ethnicity lighted for social and occupational mobil- The National Policy of Education 1986
have been central to educational discourse ity, for elite formation and for intellectual
took an even broader view in underscoring
and the major concerns have been toand personal development. Thus, the in- the role of education in empowering women
promote equality through education among strumentality of education for promoting in order to overcome inequalities and
peoples of different classes, races and ethnicequality among women and men is receiv- disparities. The National Perspective Plan,
groups. Studies in the Indian context added ing increasing attention. 1988-2000 AD reiterates this point of view.
the dimension of caste to this debate. In other words, women themselves must
More recently, gender has been identi- overcome their handicaps. Thus, there
Educational Policy and has been a careful articulation of educa-
fied as a crucial category which divides
people and which in addition to race,Women in Higher Educationtion for equality for women. It is amply
ethnicity, class and caste, deserves atten- reflected in the educational policy dis-
tion in the education-equality paradigm.The Indian Constitution provides for course in post-independent India. Has
Feminists have critiqued the mainstream equality to Indians irrespective of caste,
the ground reality changed due to this per-
social science theories and perspectives religion and sex. Further, the deprivedspective? It may be worthwhile to look at

1012 Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000

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the representation of women vis-a-vis men ing from one stage of higher education to 94. Thereafter, it becomes very marginal
in higher education. another stage? What disciplinary choices (Table 2 in appendix).
This article presents a descriptive analy- do they make and how do they compare Looking at the enrolment figures of the
sis of women's representation in higher with men students? 1950s and up to the early 1980s (Table 3),
education system in India. It seeks to Again, while looking at women as stu-the increase in the number and proportion
demonstrate the latest trends in the enrol- dents within the higher education system, of women seems remarkable. While the
ment of women in different faculties and it also compares their representation asproportion of women to total enrolment
disciplines.2 Simultaneously, it also at- teachers and faculty members within thewas 10.9 per cent in 1950-51, it increased
tempts to see if there are any shifts in thesame system. It is possible to see whether to 27.2 per cent in 1980-81. By 1988-89,
disciplinary choices of women during thetheir representation matches with thatit had gone up to 31.7 per cent [Chanana
last 45 years. The trends and shifts re-of their proportion as students. Implicitly, 1993]. Thereafter, the increase in the
flected in the choices of women are com- it tries to extend the issue of gender in- proportion of women in the total enrol-
pared to those of men. In addition, the data equality from admissions and enrolmentment during the 1990s has been marginal.
on the marginal groups such as the dalitsto the recruitment of women as teachers. For instance, it was 32 per cent in 1991-
and tribals are also given. The regional The latter issue takes the discussion in 92 (Table 4) and 34.1 per cent in 1996-
disparities are as crucial as those of thethe direction of the links between dis- 97. Again, there were 52 women per 100
general population and the marginal groups.ciplinary orientations and career choices men in 1996-97 [GOI 1998] which in-
Some attention is also given to this dimen- of women. creased from 46 women per 100 men in
sion mainly to reflect on trends in the Lastly, there is a brief discussion of the 1988-89. Yet the increase is remarkable
different states of India. Thus, the articlemacro and micro factors that inhibit in comparison to the 1950s when only 14
is embedded in a comparative frameworkwomen's access to higher education. On women per 100 men were enrolled in higher
and is focused on practical aspects ofthe one hand, gender and class simulta- education [Chanana 1993].
women's higher education and gender neously reinforce the impact of societal It may be mentioned that the growth and
inequality. factors. On the other, the institutional expansion of education in the first three
The disciplinary choices of women have barriers emanating from gender structures and a half decades was rapid and enrol-
been the focus of debate in the feminist and organisations are highlighted. Not ment of men and women went up phenom-
discourse on education and gender. Much much research has been done on this aspect enally. This implies that increase in
in India. It is imperative to focus on this women's enrolment was part of the in-
has been written on the patriarchal imprint
on the disciplinary choices of women in in order to make higher educational insti- crease in overall enrolment and expansion
higher education and on the feminine and tutions, i e, the delivery systems more of higher education upto the mid-1980s.
masculine dichotomy of disciplines. gendersensitive and less resilient to change. Their gains were a part of the general
While there are varied theoretical frame- This is likely to improve women's access expansion from which both men and
works to explain gender inequality withinand retention thereby increasing gender women gained [Ahmad 1979]. The stag-
equality especially when women, however
education, there is general agreement that nation and very slow expansion thereafter
gender inequality is deep-rooted and uni-small their number, in the metropolitan seems to be due to lack of specific policies
versal. Although the article draws from cities and towns are ready to enlarge their and measures to give a fillip to women's
these perspectives, it does not elaboratedisciplinary options. education, which will be discussed later.
them. However, it also attempts to see the Enrolment by level/stage: While Indian
extent of the influence of the so-called II women have entered the portals of higher
economic liberalisation and the market
Women in Higher Education education, it may be interesting to look at
demand on women's access to higher the extent of their enrolment in the under-
education because one sees a perceptible This section provides the data on enrol- graduate, graduate and doctoral level
change in the choices of women at least ment (a) of women and men in higher courses. In other words, do they leave after
in the metropolitan cities where theyeducation,
are (b) of women across faculties/ completing undergraduate courses or do
flocking to the new 'professional' coursesdisciplines or subjects, (c) across levels/ they proceed further? Table 4 sets out
such as management, fashion designing, stages, viz, undergraduate, graduate/post- details of enrolment for the latest three
computers, human resource management graduate and doctoral/research level. It years. It may be noted that in 1991-92, a
etc. Therefore, the question: how faralso arehighlights the difference in their total of 14,79,231 women had enrolled for
these trends reflected at the macro-level enrolment in general and professional undergraduate, 1,69,267 for graduate
and do we have sufficient data to demon- education. The period covered is 1950-51 courses and 19,894 for research
strate the trends? to 1996-97. The enrolment statistics for programmes such as MPhil and PhD. In
While the disciplinary choices are the the 1990s are the focus of discussion while Table 1: Proportion of Levelwise Women
central focus the representation of women the data for the preceding four decades is Students in Higher Education
at different levels, namely, undergraduate, used to indicate trends and shifts.
Year Undergraduate Graduate Research
post-graduate and research levels has also According to the latest statistics, the
1996-97 34.1 34.0 39.2
been highlighted. Thus, the article goes enrolment of women in 1996-97 was 1995-96 34.1 34.0 39.2
beyond the issue of women's entry into the 2,303,161 out of 6,755,455 total enrol- 1994-95 33.6 35.6 38.5
system of higher education and raises ment in higher education [UGC 1996-
Sources: University Gran
questions such as: what happens to them 97:159-202]. The number of women has
Report, 1996-97, Table 13.2, p 160;
after they enter the system? What are the increased from 1,685,926 in 1991-92. The Annual Report, 1995-96, Table 14.2,
chances of their staying on and progress- rise in numbers is noticeable upto 1993- p 127; Annual Report 1994-95, p 109.

Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 20001013

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1993-94, their numbers had gone up, even one-third of the enrolment. This unifor- enrolled in faculties of education i e, teacher
though marginally, to 1,694,546, 193,907 mity indicates that proportionately thetraining departments. This is the only
and 22,788 respectively. In terms of per- incidence of discontinuance is also equaldiscipline where their proportion is higher
centages the undergraduate level enrol- among men and women in higher educa- than that of men students. Even in 1950-
ment of women increased from 31.8 per tion. Second, the slightly higher propor-51, their proportion was 32.4 per cent, the
cent in 1991-92 to 33 per cent in 1993- tion of women at the research level in highest in any discipline in higher educa-
94; from 34.7 per cent to 35.4 per cent at tion. The other disciplines where they have
comparison to undergraduate and graduate
the graduate level while it decreased from level also indicates that the chances of a sizeable presence are arts (which in-
37.1 per cent to 36.5 per cent at the re- women who acquire the first degree cludes and language, literature, social sciences
search level courses (see Table 4). This complete graduate education continuing etc) where their proportion is 43.2 percent,
indicates that the increase in number of in research increase. It is likely that science
the 34.2 and medicine 34.6 per cent.
women at the research level was propor-flexible time schedule and a longer time Women have been present in these disci-
tionately less than that of men. However, span of 6-7 years for doctoral can be plines ever since the expansion of the
the latest figures for 1996-97 indicate that adjusted with marriage and raising a fam-higher education system since the 1960s
while women's proportion at the under- [Chanana 1993]. For example, in arts, their
ily. It also provides an avenue for getting
graduate and post-graduate levels remain proportion was about a quarter (24.6
back into education and career after a break,
almost unchanged, it has increased at the per cent) in 1960-61 and had reached 37.7
again, due to marriage. Yet, the vast gender
research level to 39.2 per cent as is seen per cent in 1980-81 (Table 8). In science,
gap in enrolment continues to be reflected
in Table 1. here too. the major increase was registered dur-
Until the 1960s, very few women (794 Enrolment in general and professionaling 1970-71 and 1980-81 (from 17.8 to
in 1960-61) were joining research education: Discipline-wise break-up for 28.8 per cent).
programmes (see Table 5) but their enrol- men and women students is available for In medicine, the proportion of women
ment increased substantially after the 1970s 1991-92, 1992-93, 1993-94. Tables 6 andstudents was 16.3 per cent in 1950-51
(8,780 in 1980-81) [Chanana 1993:127]. 7 give the numbers and proportions re- which was the same in arts disciplines. It
Thereafter, there was a rapid increase during spectively of men and women students in increased steadily to 1980-81 (24.4 per
the 1980s (15,018 in 1988-89). However, each discipline/faculty. As may be seen cent), thereafter registering a rapid increase
the proportion of women has now becomefrom Table 7, in 1993-94 women consti- to 31.7 percent in 1988-89 [Chanana 1993].
uniform at all levels constituting almosttuted 52 per cent of students who were Since then the proportion of women in

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1014 Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000

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medical education has stabilised. It may women students, i e, the number of women
cent have changed their options. Again,
be noted that medicine has always been major shift has occurred in favour of com
per 100 women students in each discipline
a masculine as well as a feminine disci- provides another dimension (Table 9).merce
It where in comparison to 1.9 per cent
women in 1970-71, nearly 15 per cent ar
reflects on the priorities of women stu-
pline in India. Here tradition has favoured
dents who enter higher education. For
women since in a society practising female enrolled in 1993-94. The other shifts are
medical seclusion, women patients had example,
to even though in 1993-94 women toward engineering/technology courses. So
be attended to by female doctors [Chanana far as law is concerned, the increase in
students constituted 52 per cent of enrol-
1990]. Therefore, enrolment of womenment in the faculty of education, only numbers
3.7 is not reflected in percentage
distribution. In medicine and education
per cent of women who entered higher
students has been substantial in the depart-
ments of medicine. education enrol in it. The highest per-
the percentage distribution of women has
The shift in discipline choices in profe-centage of women (54.2) joined arts remained
in stagnant. Secondly, the latest
statistics even while reflecting change
ssional education is visible. For example,1993-94 in comparison to 35.4 per cent
commerce (23.1 per cent), law (11.3 perof men students. The other faculties in reinforce the earlier trends, namely, cluster-
order of priority are science and commerce
cent), engineering, agriculture and veteri- ing of women in some disciplines [Chanana
nary science (about 7-8 per cent in eachwhere they are 19.8 per cent and 14.6 per 1993]. However, clustering and dis-
discipline) are disciplines where more cent, respectively. persal are simultaneous trends. It may
women are entering during the last few While a majority of women students are be mentioned that these processes are
common to men students as well; yet,
decades. In commerce, the trend started inconfined to arts, in addition to science and
the 1970s (15.9 per cent in 1980-81 in commerce, men are more dispersed i women e, are affected more by clustering
comparison to 3.7 per cent in 1970-71),only about 35 per cent join arts, humani- than are men.

and their numbers and proportions haveties and social sciences, 19 per cent are The tendency for womlcn lto cluster in
general disciplines which dil not lead to
been increasing steadily. Similarly, law isin science and a little more (24 per cent)
a discipline where women are enrolling inin the faculty of commerce. They are also specialisations and professional occupa-
large numbers. For example, only 290much more in the disciplines of engineer- tions is also reflected at the institutional
women students were enrolled in the law ing/technology (6.9 per cent in compari- level. For example, the National Commis-
faculties in 1950-51. However, in 1980- son to 1.2 percent women) and law (6.8 per sion on Teachers reported that as one pro-
81, 11,948 women (6.9 per cent) were cent in comparison to 1.8 per cent women). ceeds from arts and humanities to natural
enrolled in the law faculties. Now there The data from the 1950s onwards sciences, from colleges of general educa-
are over 30,000 students forming nearly (Table 10) reflects two trends. First, tion
fewer to that of professional education (ex-
11 per cent of total enrolment. women per 100 women in higher cept educa-teachers' training), and to service on
Looking at the 1990s, the increase in tion are opting for courses in general the faculties of institutions of higher edu-
edu-
1994-95 in comparison to 1991-92 and cation, namely, arts and science. For ex-one is likely to find fewer women.
cation,
1993-94 is marginal in terms of numbers ample, in comparison to nearly 70 per This is more applicable to specialisations
cent
and proportions. Even when there is women a students joining arts and within19 perengineering and technology courses.
decrease in their proportions as in the cent enrolling for science, i e, 89 per Parikh
centand Sukhatme (1992) mention that
faculties of agriculture and veterinary enrolling for general education inthere 1950- are fewer women students in IITs and
science from 7.32 and 8.26 per cent in 51,74 percent women joined these courses regional engineering colleges. In addition,
1992-93 to 7.09 and 7.79 per cent in 1993-in 1993-94 (54.2 per cent arts; 19.8 per
electronics is the most preferred special-
cent science) which implies that 15
94 respectively, there is an increase in the isation
per followed by electrical and civil
numbers. It implies that proportionately
more men students joined these faculties. Table 2: Enrolment in Higher Education
The enrolment of women in the under- Year Men Women Total

graduate courses in engineering and tech-

1996-97 4,452,294(65.9) 2,303,161 (34.1) 6,755,455
nology increased marginally from 0.09 per
1995-96 4,234,486 (65.9) 2,191,138(34.1) 6,425,624
cent in 1971 to 0.42 per cent in 1981.
1994-95 4,048,947 (66.2) 2,064,982 (33.8) 6,113,929
1993-94 3,885,922 (66.8) 1,931,327 (33.2) 5,817,249
However, there was a significant increase
1992-93 3,723,851 (67.3) 1,811,115(32.7) 5,534,966
during the next decade to 10.09 per cent
1991-92 3,579,960 (68.9) 1,685,926 (32.0) 5,265,886
in 1991 and 11.14 percent in 1994 [IAMR
Source: i) UGC, Annual Report 1996-97, p 202.
1995]. Discussions with experts suggest
ii) UGC, Annual Report, 1995-96, Appendix VI, p163.
that by now enrolment of women in en- iii) UGC, Annual Report, 1994-95, Appendix VI, p110, 135.
gineering/technology courses has gone up iv) UGC, University Development in India: Consolidated D
to 16 per cent in the polytechnics. A study Information and Statistics Bureau, New Delhi.

on women in engineering courses under-

taken by IIT, Mumbai, estimated that the Table 3: Enrolment of Men and Women in Higher Ed
proportion of women students in a few Year Men Women Total

colleges in some states (such as Tamil

1950-51 353,549 (89.1) 43,126(10.9) 396,675
Nadu) constitute 30 per cent of the enrol-1960-61 879,409 (83.8) 170,455(16.2) 1,049,864
ment in certain specialisations [Parikh and
1970-71 2,345,470 (78.1) 655,822 (21.9) 3,001,292
Sukhatme 1992]. 1980-81 1,968,734 (72.7) 738,589 (27.3) 2,707,323
Percentage distribution by discipline/
Source: i) Chanana(1993).
faculty: The percentage distribution of ii) UGC (1998-99).

Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000 1015

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engineering. Computer science, chemical Social and economic disparities as re-cent) and Punjab (51.1 per cent). Those
and mechanical engineering follow in with low enrolment are Bihar (18.6 per
flected through caste and tribe also affect
that order. disciplinary choices. scheduled castes andcent), Arunachal Pradesh (22.8 per cent),
Scheduled castes and tribes in higher Uttar Pradesh (26.7 per cent) and Madhya
tribes are less represented in higher levels
education: A major concern of educational of education and in professional courses Pradesh (30 per cent). In Delhi (44.6 per
policy has been the fulfilment of Consti- and programmes because these require cent) and Manipur (42.8 per cent) women's
tutional guarantees and the identification longer investment of resources in termsenrolment is above 40 per cent of total
of groups who are eligible for the state- of time and finance and also socialisation enrolment in higher education. In most
sponsored benefits. The major emphasis support and role models at home. Their others, it is between 31-40 per cent [UGC
has been on the provision of reservations proportion in engineering/technology and1996-97:206].
in higher education and its implementation medical courses will be discussed later. The survey of higher education by the
in order to remove disparities between the National Commission on Teachers in
scheduled castes/tribes and non-scheduled Ill Higher Education in India notes wit
castes/tribes. The Report of the Committee Regional Disparities concern that the regions with high enrol
for Review of National Policy of Educa- ment in general (that is, of men and women
tion, 1986, which was submitted in De- The report of the Committee on Women's together) have low enrolment of women
cember 1990 also pleads for enriched Education, 1959, mentions regional im- a majority of whom are in arts faculties
environment in the tribal regions. balance as the major problem in women's Moreover, in most regions, a lesser
The survey on higher education under-education. It noted that the four southern proportion of women are enrolled i
taken by the National Commission onstates had a better profile in terms of femaleuniversities than in the colleges. In addi-
Teachers compares the enrolment of sched-literacy and education than the northerntion, at the college level, their concentra
uled caste students in general courses andHindi-speaking states. The Report of the tion in arts subjects rather than in com-
professional courses from 1964-65 to 1977-Committee on the Status of Women in merce or science is high. For example
78 [NIEPA nd:70-75]. It notes that the India (CSWI), 1974, also mentions that two-thirds of women enrolled in arts are
increase in enrolment of scheduled caste cities and regions with a high proportion concentrated in educationally back-
students has generally been in general of Muslims or scheduled castes and tribes ward states.4
courses. Their proportion in professionalare marked by low literacy rates. At present, it is not possible to reflect
education decreased progressively These trends are continuing and areon some of these dimensions because of
from 32.63 per cent in 1964-65 to 28.5 in present in higher education. For instance, lack of data. However, so far as engineer-
1970-71, 25.38 in 1975-76 and 17.08 in the enrolment of women in higher educa- ing and technology courses are concerned
1977-78 [NIEPA nd:74]. tion varies from state to state and within there is enough data to demonstrate re-
Even now (1996-97) the all India pro- a state from urban to rural areas. The varia- gional disparity in women's enrolment.
portion of SC/ST men students is very low tion is in absolute numbers as well as in The NTMIS5 statistics reinforce the obser-
(8.7 per cent SC, 3.02 per cent ST). Thetheir proportion to total enrolment. For
vation about regional disparities [Parikh
and Sukhatme 1992]. The number of stu-
SC women students constitute only 2.4 per instance in 1988-89, it was 52.1 per cent in
cent while the ST women students form Kerala, the state with the highest male anddents admitted in degree level engineering
female literacy rates, and 16 per cent courses
0.9 per cent of total enrolment [GOI in as per IAMR data in 1983 was
1998:154,156,158].3 Thus, the situation Bihar, a state characterised by a very low 1,420 out of a total of 36,530 students
has changed very marginally [Chanana which increased to 4,419 (out of 70,481)
female literacy rate (13.6 per cent in 1981).
1993]. It affects their presence in profes- In 1996-97, the states with the highest in 1991 (see Table 11). A majority of the
enrolment of women in higher education
sional courses and discipline choices to be women engineers in 1991 were from the
discussed later. southern (1,989)-and western (608) re-
are Goa (51.1 per cent); Kerala (52.4 per

Table 4: Levelwise Distribution of Men and Women Students in Higher Education 1993-94 to1991-92
Year Undergraduate/graduate Graduate/postgraduate Research MPhil/Doctoral
I 1 IlI IV I 11 III IV I 11 III IV

1993-94 5,130,447 1,694,546 66.98 33.02 549,741 193,907 64.73 35.37 62,444 22,788 63.51 36.49
1992-93 4,900,537 1,589,071 67.57 32.43 510,317 181,837 64.37 35.63 55,679 21,370 61.62 38.38
1991-92 4,658,845 1,479,231 68.25 31.75 487,777 169,267 65.30 34.70 53,643 19,984 62.10 37.09

Note: I=Total Enrolment, Il=Enrolment of Women, ll=Men's Proportion to Total Enrolment, IV=Wo
Source: UGC, University Development in India: Consolidated Data Statewise 1988-89 to 1993-94, I

Table 5: Levelwise Distribution of Men and Women Students in Higher E

Year Undergraduate Graduate Research M.Phil/Doctora
I 11 III IV I II III IV I II III IV

1950-51 375,319 40,499 89.2 10.8 19,922 2,425 87.9 12.1 1,434 202 85.9 14.1
1960-61 985,872 159,491 83.8 16.2 58,909 10,170 82.7 17.3 5,083 794 84.4 15.6
1970-71 2,862,799 611,553 78.4 21.6 161,182 41,516 74.2 25.8 13,313 2,753 79.3 20.7
1980-81 2,3401,485 652,808 72.8 27.2 273,667 77,001 71.8 28.2 32,171 8,780 72.7 27.3

Note: I=Total Enrolment, ll=Enrolment of Women, IIl=Men's Proportion to Total Enrolme

Source: Same as in Table 3.

1016 Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000

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gions as compared to 224 from the eastern in addition to the existing facilities
students is very low (3.6 per cent). The
and 267 from the northern region respec- such as colleges.
situation is almost similar in Bengal [cal-
tively. The trends are the same throughout culated from GOI 1996:41]. In 1995-96 in the faculty of medicine,
the period 1983-91. In fact, this trend may In the same year so far as the scheduled
too, there are regional disparities in enrol-
be a reflection of the attitude towards caste and scheduled tribe women students ment of women. Maharashtra has the
women's education in some parts of India are concerned, the trends are the same, i highest enrolment in medical science
and may also be intertwined with the early e, their proportion is higher in states with courses (26,415) and the number of women
introduction of colonial education in south- high enrolment of engineering/technol-is also the highest (11,738) constituting
ern and western India. It is also due to the ogy students in general and of women in44.4 per cent of enrolment. In Tamil Nadu,
establishment of a large number of engi- particular. For instance, scheduled castetheir proportion is 42 percent out of 11,316
neering colleges in these regions even in women constitute 18 per cent of sched-students; in Delhi and Andhra Pradesh
contemporary India. It may also be related uled caste enrolment in Andhra Pradesh, they are 45.2 and 44.9 per cent respec-
to the socio-cultural practices of the region 11.5 per cent in Gujarat, 14.9 per cent intively. In Karnataka and Kerala women are
which encourage engineering education Karnataka; 51 per cent in Kerala,6 12.427 per cent and 37.4 per cent respectively.
among women. Further, disciplinary ori- per cent in Maharashtra and 26.6 per centThus, states with high enrolment of women
entation also continues to be affected by in Tamil Nadu. Similarly, the enrolmentin engineering and technology courses have
the socio-economic context, e g, the sched- of scheduled tribe women is 16 per centalso high enrolment of women in the
uled castes and tribes. They are very in Karnataka, 9.2 per cent in Gujarat, 6.2 medical science courses.8 There are some
marginally present in professional courses per cent in Andhra Pradesh, 13 per centexceptions too. For example, Bihar, which
such as engineering/technology as will be in Maharashtra and 22.7 per cent in Tamilhas the second highest enrolment (14,112)
demonstrated below. Nadu.7 It may be mentioned that the sched-in medical faculties has only 11 per cent
uled tribe enrolment is very small in (1,547) women students while Uttar
As per the MHRD statistics for 1995-
96, the total number of students in BE/numbers and therefore the proportionsPradesh with a low total enrolment (6,910)
BSc (Engg) and B Architecture courses have to be seen accordingly. For instance has 23 per cent (1,592) women students
out of 18 Scheduled Tribe students in
was 317,134 out of which 45,180 (14.25 [GOI 1996:43].
Kerala, 8 are women. Again, the enrol-
per cent) were women students. Interest- These trends in regional variation are a
ment of scheduled caste and schedul-
ingly, the proportion (17.3 per cent) of very important aspect of the growth and
scheduled caste women (3,592) to totaled tribe students has also to be seen in expansion of women's education. Regional
scheduled caste men (21,084) is higherrelation to their population in the statevariation is also reflected in the spread of
than that of women in the total enrolment.
The scheduled tribe students are small in Table 7: Proportion of Men and Women Students to Total Enrolment: Disciplinewise
1993-94 to 1991-92
number (5,650) and the proportion of
1993-94 1992-93 1991-92
scheduled tribe women (575) is 10.18 per
Faculties Women Men Women Men Women Men
cent. Province-wise enrolment shows that
the highest enrolment is in Kerala (23.8 Arts 43.22 56.78 42.67 57.33 41.85 58.25
Science 34.17 65.83 33.62 66.38 32.89 67.11
percent), Tamil Nadu (21 percent), Andhra
Commerce 23.14 76.86 22.59 77.41 22.17 77.83
Pradesh (19.6 per cent) with Maharashtra Education 52.00 48.00 51.28 48.72 50.18 49.82
(12.9 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (14.3 per Engg/Tech 7.84 92.16 7.82 92.18 7.65 92.35
cent) and Karnataka (13 per cent) follow- Medicine 34.56 65.44 33.86 66.14 33.18 66.82
ing these states. In the other states, the Agriculture 7.09 92.91 7.32 92.68 7.09 92.91
Veterinary Science 7.79 92.21 8.26 91.74 7.79 92.04
number of women students is too small
Law 11.32 88.68 11.22 88.78 10.98 89.02
to be mentioned. Moreover, even if the Others 38.90 61.1 39.35 60.65 38.28 61.72

enrolment of men is high as in UttarTotal 33.20 66.8 32.72 67.28 32.01 67.99

Pradesh (14,229) and is comparable to Source: University Grants Commission,

Gujarat ( 15,833), the proportion of women 1988-89 to 1993-94, Information and S

Table 6: Student Enrolment in Higher Ed

1993-94 1992-93 1991-92
Discipline Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men

Arts 2,423,489 1,047,503 1,375,986 2,301,902 982,301 1,319,601 2,190,117 914,402 1,275,715
Science 1,118,177 382,050 736,127 1,065,515 358,270 707,245 1,013,902 333,505 680,397
Commerce 1,222,067 282,804 9,392,623 1,173,767 265,202 908,565 1,115,234 246,870 868,364
Education 138,580 72,058 66,522 131,783 67,575 64,208 125,345 62,904 62,441
Engg/Tech 291,271 22,857 268,414 273,919 21,431 252,488 260,905 19,950 240,955
Medicine 195,001 67,384 127,617 186,602 63,189 123,413 177,288 58,821 118,467
Agriculture 66,856 4,740 62,116 60,739 4,446 56,293 58,339 4,139 54,200
Veterinary Science 14,887 1,159 13,728 13,172 1,088 12,084 12,724 1,013 11,711
Law 305,343 34,595 270,748 289,011 32,441 256,570 275,138 30,199 244,939
Others 41,578 16,177 25,401 38,556 15,172 23,384 36,894 14,123 22,771
Total 5,817,249 1,931,327 3,885,922 5,534,966 1,811,115 3,723,851 5,265,886 1,685,926 3,579,960

Note: Engg: = engineering; tech = technoogy.

Source: University Grants Commission, University Development in India Consolidated Data Statewise 1988-89
New Delhi.

Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000 1017

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professional courses. These trends are
persistent during the last five decades.
However, there is a shift too, of moving
away from the genera! courses to the
professional courses leading to careers and
in numbers and proportion of women IV
teachers in 1992-93 in comparison to 1993-
Shifts in Disciplinary Orientations
94 is reflected more at the university level
than in the colleges. Gender and Class
Thus. there is a clear tendency for

professions. Some of the e.,ev, professional women, ihether as studeints or as teach- However. the disciplinary orientation has
courses, which are not mentioned seia- ors, to. be concent ated in a few faculties enlarged since the mid- 1970s and again i
ratelv in the statistic,;; are the burgcc;i ng and speci, isaioasS. Tie processing. )o clus- he mid.-1990s. As indicated earlier, the
management related c courses, advertising, tering and dtispersal i i.dicate restric ion of first change is reflected in the choice of
media and mass comlnUl)ication and those -choices f.)r worn-n.:, Tni-s restricr:(ion may commerce and laxw, on the one hand, an
relating to business stii-..is and iadmi-is-
be volunf!ilry (becausel of socialisation) engineering, on the other, though to a
tration. The popularirts o vocLatona! arld ,;-!f--imposed or imposed by societal smaller extent. The entry of women stu
cxpectal ons and norms. What i notewr- dents in commerce, which leads to char-
courses at the undergraduate: level is also
tny is a that this trend becomes accentuated t'red accountancy and management at the
notable. The high preference to comi-,merce
(BCom) at the undergraduate level is due s oltne moves fi-omn ihe lundergciraduate to graduat c.e lev el anid 'law is encouraging and
to it being one of the conduits to the the cloctoral Ic ,c and from the general impliies that role stereotyping does not
management courses at the graduate level.
population to the mar-giinalised groups. nece;sai-ily determine the choices of all
Furthe'r, womi'len and me-n tend to take iup -!nome--' students. :ime is the case for
The specialisations offered in tiese courses
are: systems, finance, sales, marketing diff,erient
and di sciplies or differeilt engrined eriig. }Howex c r, their number in the
human resource management/development specialisations wi thin the same disciplines. last discipline is stilt small for general-
(HRM/HRD) etc.10 Indications are that
'The options ex ci sed by vth students areisati.:n. 'These stu1dents belong to urban
women graduates prefer ihe last two based on ccrtain .i taLi i s ti,i the subjectsmidcei anld upper strata of professional
are seen to hold, and these u alities that and -al aried class i the metropolitan cities.
specialisations and that HRID is being
viewed as a feminine area. Even in theare
jobperceived to be connectied to beliefs They are also the ones who belong to small
about masculinity and f ye:n iniity' [Acker fa'ialies wihere the norm of two children
market and in the corporate sector, women
are being preferred for jobs relatingi94:
to 1-1(j. 1lowv far does this observa- has mieant that they nmay be the only daugh-
tion hold t rue in view of the slift in choices ters. These daughters are given the best of
public relations, personlnel manargenlelt,
advertising, marketing especially tele-
and optiors exercised by/ women? education by theii parents. It has also been
marketing. This leads us to the question:
do the aspirations otf wvonnnl students get Table 8: Proportion of Men and Women Students to the Total Enrolment:
transformed into careers, as for example Disciplinewise 1950-51 to 980-81
in the case of teach ni
Faculties 1950--51 1 j90-61 ! 970-71 1980-8i
Women teachers hiJ, /.hi,1h'; edlucatioi. Womenen Men Women Men Wome mn Women Men
Even though women form 52 per cent of
Arts 16., 84.0 24.6 75.4 31.7 68.3 37.7 62.3
enrolment in departments of teacher edu- Science 33.3 66.7 10.5 89 5 17.8 82.2 28.8 71.2
cation, which prepare secondary chool Comrnerce 0.5 99.5 0.9 99.1 03.7 96.3 15 9 84.1

teachers, their proportion is about 35 per- Education 32.4 67.6 32.8 67.2 36.5 63.5 47.3 52.7
E gg/tech 0.2 99.8 0.9 99.1 1.0 99.0 3.8 96.2
cent in the teaching profession at the Medicine 16.3 83.7 21.9 78.1 22.8 77.2 24.4 75.6
secondary level, i e, those who teach classes Law 2.1 97.9 3.0 97.0 3.7 96.3 6.9 93.1
IX-XII in the schools. At the university Agriculture veterinary science
and others 5.8 94.2 7.0 93.0 9.5 90.5 13.6 86.4
level, their representation Coes down. The
A!! faculties 10.9 89.1 16.2 83.8 21.9 78.1 27.2 72.8
higher the level of education, fewer are
the women teachers (see Table 12). UGC Soirces: Srae as in Table 3.

provides a break-up of teachers in the

affiliated colleges and in the university Table 9: Percentage Distribution of Men and Women: Disciplinewise
teaching departments and teicr constitu- 1993-94 to 1991-92
(Per cent)
ent colleges. In 1993-94, their proportion
was 18 per cent in higher education, and 1993-94 1992-93 1991-92
there is no increase over the last three Discio!ine Women Men Women Men Women Men

years. In fact, the decrease from 23.4Arts

per 54.24 35.41 54.24 35.44 54.24 35.63
cent to 18.8 is alarnilng. Is there some-
Science 19.78 18.94 19.78 18.99 19.78 19.00

thing wrong with statistics? Is it likelyCommerce

that 14.64 24.17 14.64 24.40 14.64 24.26
Education 3.73 1.71 3.73 1.72 3.73 1.74
part time, ad hoc teachers ,,ere included
Engg/Tech 1.18 6.91 1.18 6.78 1.18 6.73
in 1992-93? The source does not provide
Medicine 3.49 3.28 3.49 3.31 3.49 3.31

an explanation. Agriculture 0.25 1.60 0.25 1.51 0.25 1.51

Veterinary science 0.06 0.35 0.06 0.32 0.06 0.33
Their proportion in a ffiliati ccoligoes is
Laws 1.79 6.97 1.79 6.89 1.79 6.84
21 per cent as compare toi . 1 i r cent
Others 0. 0.84 6 0.84 0.64 0.84 0.65
in university teaching def-pa-nitens and Tot ai 10 00 100 100 100 100

constituent colleges of unive-sities. it can

Note: The percoentage for
be recalled that a la rge majority o' these
Sourrce: University Develo
will be in women's co!o' l-s. T-e r ....e and Statistics Bureau, New Delhi.

1018 Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000

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found that the fathers of engineering stu- colleges and inadequate delivery system,
Thus, the new disciplinary choices work
dents have been engineers [Parikh and i e, unsuitable infrastructure and absence
both ways, namely, to reinforce tradition
Sukhatme 1992]. Thus, parental aspira- but also to allow new options to thoseof
whobasic physical facilities. Other factors
tions have been very crucial in the new seek it. For example, the availabilityareofqualitative and are rooted in the socio-
orientations of women students in higher new opportunities seems to match withcultural context. But sometimes it is dif-
education. the rising aspirations of a minority of to separate the former from the latter.
ficult
The enlargement of educational choices parents and daughters in metropolitanFor example, in the north-western state of
cities to be independent, to earn and
in the mid- 1990s in the post-liberalisation Rajasthan there may be a co-educational
phase is related to market demand. It has college. Yet, daughters may not be sent
also for professional satisfaction. Along-
there because in this region women are
with this, the parents are also more willing
spread a little more to engineering and law
but also to management-oriented andto accept that their daughters may work
secluded. Although, they may no longer
before marriage even though for a short
computer-oriented courses. These courses observe parda in the cities and may move
period. Therefore, gender and classinare
are being initiated in a large number of public places, yet separate colleges for
private and hastily set up unrecognised crucial in the disciplinary choices women of are considered desirable because
institutes. As mentioned earlier, separate women students. prolonged interaction with men (students
statistics data are not available for these and teachers) is not socially desirable.
courses. Informal discussions with ex- V Thus, physical access also becomes social
perts in the universities have revealed that Barriers to Access access and it has policy implications.
the courses on computer applications and Similarly, the delivery system has a
(software) engineering in the universities There are several factors that inhibit quantitative and a qualitative dimension.
are registering a higher enrolmentaccess of and disciplinary orientations Theofformer relates to gendered provision
women. But computer courses are also women
of in higher education. Factors that
of facilities thereby rendering it unsuit-
varying kinds.1l It will have to be seen inhibit female access to higher educationable for women students. The gender im-
whether women are joining highly are quantitative, viz, non-availability of
plications of an unsuitable delivery sys-
specialised courses leading to upper end
Table 10: Percentage Distribution of Men and Women Disciplinewise
jobs or only train as data entry operators. 1950-51 to 1980-81
Programmes in management studies and
business administration are also quite Discipline 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81
Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men
popular among women especially in the
metropolitan cities. The private sector has Arts 67.9 43.2 70.2 41.7 64.3 38.7 56.2 34.6
Science 21.0 33.4 18.6 10.2 25.7 33.2 20.6 19.0
entered this area of higher education in Commerce 0.4 9.6 0.5 10.2 1.9 14.1 11.8 23.3
a big way because there are immediate Education 3.1 0.8 3.7 1.5 3.2 1.5 4.5 1.9
returns and profits from the exorbitant Engg/Tech 0.0 3.4 0.2 5.1 0.1 3.8 0.7 1.9
Medicine 5.8 3.6 4.5 3.1 3.4 3.2 3.6 4.2
fees charged from the students over which
Law 0.7 3.8 0.5 3.0 0.4 2.9 1.6 8.1
most of the states have removed all re-
Agriculture, veterinary
strictions. In the absence of any statistics
science and others 1.1 2.2 01.8 4.6 0.9 2.5 1.2 2.8

or micro level qualitative studies, I would

All faculties 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

like to give the example of a collegeSources:

for Same as in Table 3.
women in Chennai. This is a self-financ-
ing college affiliated to Madras Univer- Table 11: The Number and Percentage of Women Students Admitted (Inta
sity. Here every student has to pay a Degree Level Engineering Courses between 1983 and 1991
substantial tuition fee in comparison toYear Total Enrolment Women Percentage of Women to Total Men
the fully aided colleges with charge such
1983 36,530 1,420 3.9 35,110
low fee that it amounts to tuition free
1985 42,498 2,717 6.4 39,781
education. In this college, about 60 women
1987 55,508 1,998 4.0 53,510
students are admitted every year to each
1989 62,603 4,210 6.7 58,393
1991 70,481 4,419 6.3 66,062
of the undergraduate and graduate
programmes. Therefore, there are about
Source: Institute of Manpower
250-300 students at one point of time who NTMIS, IAMR, (Unpublished
are enrolled in management courses. In-
formal discussions at the college revealed Table 12: Teachers in
that only about 30 per cent students have UTD/UC AC Total
Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total
career goals. Others join only to get a
degree and now a 'management' degree
1993-94 59,712 7,828 67,540 176,557 46,951 223,508 236,269 54,779 291,048
enhances the marital value of a young (88.4) (11.6) (79.0) (21.0) (81.2) (18.8)
1992-93 55,370 10,472 65,842 160,399 55,551 215,950 215,769 66,023 281,792
woman. This is substantiated by the
(84.1) (15.9) (76.9) (23.1) (76.6) (23.4)
fact that the wedding invitation cards
1991-92 56,746 7,439 64,185 164,685 43,794 208,479 221,431 51,233 272,664
mention the qualifications of the bride (88.4) (11.6) (79.0) (21.0) (81.2) (18.8)
if she has a professional (e g, engineering)
Notes: Percentage in brackets.
or management degree alongwith those
Source: University Grants Commission, University Dev
of the groom. 1988-89 to 1993-94, New Delhi, Tables 4.20, 5.20, 6.20.

Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000 1019

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tem are immense. For example, it has an factors that emanate from cultural prac-tive role receives pre-eminence, lower class
adverse impact on access (e g, women not tices, behaviour patterns and social roleor poor parents, on the other hand, have
being sent to co-educational schools and expectations and the association of womenanother problem. Those, who can afford
colleges), curriculum (e g, introduction of with the private domain of household to, would like their daughters to receive
subjects and disciplines in the educational continue to affect access to higher edu-an education that brings immediate re-
institutions based on the premise that only cation. Some of the notable and well-
turns, i e, an income. Not that they do not
men will be the students); physical facili- known barriers are: lack of economic
perceive the feminine role to be reproduc-
ties, gender-stereotyping in sports facili- resources in the family; the choicetive
be-but in addition, women in these fami-
ties (e g, girl students not allowed to or tween dowry and educational expenses, lies work and earn. Therefore, they per-
discouraged from playing cricket or other education being perceived as consump- form productive and reproductive func-
sports), and career options. This creates tion and being irrelevant for production tions. However, general education which
several problems such as lack of adequate and the absence of role models at home, is not professional or skill and vocation-
facilities for women students, namely, etc. In all these factors there is a close oriented promises no income and also
toilets, common rooms, hostels; non-avail- connection between gender and classrequires as several years of full time
ability of scholarships/fellowships and dis- will become evident when some of the studentship. Therefore, general education
ciplines of their choice, absence of women is viewed as useless since it provides no
barriers to women's education and gender
teachers, or separate schools and colleges immediate returns while professional
inequality are discussed below. These have
for women; absence of counselling for to be understood in a situation where some
education is unaffordable. Here gender
discipline and career options; etc. The parents are allowing new and emerging and class operate against young women.
qualitative aspects will be dealt with later. options to their daughters in education If one adds the expenses to be incurred
The socio-cultural factors may be di- and careers. on dowry,14 the situation becomes more
vided into two sets,viz,those at the macro As per the socialisation norms, parentscomplex.
level and at the micro level. The macro may not use the earnings of their daugh- Entry into higher education occurs at a
level dimensions relate to caste, tribe, ters. Therefore, either they do not want transitional stage of young women's lives.
class and regional variations indicated them to take up jobs or when they do, it Therefore, since there are no immediate
earlier. The micro level factors may be is viewed as a short-term goal. This isreturns from schooling coupled with the
further sub-divided into institutional and because the traditional role expectations heavy expenditure on marriage and dowry,
societal factors. daughters are less likely than sons to be
are such that the future parents-in-law and
Institutional factors that emanate from the husband would decide future career sent to college.
gendered structures and facilities haveoptions of the young women. Thus, evenEven if they take up jobs after higher
been mentioned earlier under the rubric if daughters start working, the reluctanceeducation, dowry demand does not seem
of unsuitable delivery system. Some of the to use daughter's income is quite common to reduce corresponding to her monthly
notable social dimensions of institutional except among the very poor. Thus, forincomea or salary. The groom has to be
arrangements are: gender stereotyping inlarge majority, higher education is not more or equally educated than the bride.
course content and subject choices, dis-linked to careers. These social role ex- The dowry demand goes up as the groom's
criminatory attitudes of teachers and ad- pectations and self expectations affecteducation
the goes up because his occupation
ministrators, absence of role models for aspirations of a large number of women and income are generally dependent on
career options and academic leadership atstudents who go to college 'to enjoy them- his education among the salaried class.
the college and university etc. Even in selves',
a 'to pass the time' and to earn a
Although among the business class and
single sex institution the faculty may re- degree which raises their marital pros- self-employed, the family income and
inforce traditional social roles or not assets etc, are more important, yet gen-
pects of getting a qualified and well placed
encourage women students to emulatehusband. the This may be the reason why a the expectation is that there should
erally
non-traditional role models. Sometimes, be congruence in the education of the
large majority are sent to arts and humani-
the rules and procedures may be too re-courses which are cheaper and softer
ties bride and groom. Thus, if a daughter is
strictive so as to stifle the development and do not require very long-term educa- highly educated, the groom has to be highly
of young women. Such restrictive prac- tional career. educated and the occupation and income
tices in the hostel may lead to the dropping While higher education is socially ac-of such a groom will attract higher dowry.
out of women students.12 In co-educa- cepted and taken for granted among the This depresses the education of girls among
tional institutions, men may hold most upperof and middle strata in urban India, it
those strata who cannot pay huge dowries.
is also viewed more as an investment in
the leadership positions and the restrictive Absence of role models for career op-
practices may be too inhibiting.13 the daughters' distant future rather thantions and academic leadership at home is
These are some of the well known fac- as an immediate goal. In other words,also an inhibiting factor. In addition,
tors that operate within the educationaldaughters are equipped with qualifica-counselling for subject choice and career
institutions to provide constraints to tions which are necessary for employmentoptions is not available in the colleges and
women's entrance in and retention within or work and which may also be neededuniversities. This lack of awareness also
the higher educational system. Thus, they if they are deserted or widowed afterleads to limited choices. It may be men-
have to do with the delivery systems and marriage. This perception of education astioned that several of the women students
the way they are structured and designed deferred investment is quite strong are first generation of women in the fami-
apart from the attitudes and perceptions [Chanana 1998a]. lies who are receiving higher education.
of those who run and manage them. While it is true that among the middleTherefore, there is absence of role models
Societal factors: The push and pull and upper strata the daughter's reproduc-at home. Parents may also discourage

1020 Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000

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daughters from active participation in extra in identifying push and pull factors, the higher education being highly subsidised
and co-curricular activities in co-educa- social groups and regions where women in the public institutions. Therefore, it is
tional institutions because they are gen- are backward in higher education, and anticipated that women's share in higher
erally scheduled beyond the teaching and suggest strategies for improving women's education in general and in professional
classroom activities. Since it entails stay- education in particular is likely to receive
access to higher education. India is a plural
ing late in the afternoon and in the evening society and generalisations about women a setback as the state withdraws from
at college/university and travelling home have to be made with caution. Therefore, higher education and the private cost of
later and may be alone, women students micro-studies may be encouraged to pro- education goes up. Thus, unless a clear
are discouraged from participation in vide an input into policy formulation and policy is enunciated vis-a-vis the role of
these activities. This restriction is exten- implementation. private sector in highereducation in general
ded to laboratory work and therefore to The marginalisation of educated women and in favour of encouraging women
science subjects. in research continues, though to a lesser students in the private professional insti-
extent. This bias has to be removed and
As mentioned earlier teaching is con- tutions through supportive measures
funding agencies may identify this as
sidered the best career option for women. women's
a representation is unlikely to
Yet, the proportion of women teachers to increase. It may even suffer a setback.
priority area within higher education.16
While state policies and strategies areThe question of subject choice and
men teachers is very small. Again, so far
important in neutralising the social role
as academic leadership in the higher edu- disciplinary orientation has been a matter
cational institutions (HEIs) is concerned,
expectations, the latter have also toof
beconcern among feminists. This has been
women still lag behind. Very few women understood to formulate policy, implement more so at the school level than at the
occupy positions of authority and deci- it and to put strategies in place. The higher higher level. Acker has discussed this issue
sion-making in the universities and col- educational institutions have to become taking Physics and English as represen-
leges. However, rotation of headship of pro-women in their structure, culture and tative of masculine and feminine subjects
departments has helped bring women in functioning. in the universities. She argues that 'most
the forefront as academic leaders. Much Apart from infrastructure, behavioural- students develop a subject loyalty, rein-
needs to be done in this context [Chanana and attitudinal changes among the teach- forced by studying the discipline in higher
1998]. ers and staff members of HEIs are impera- education...'( 1994:7). Again, disciplinary
Among the push factors the rising cost tive. The co-educational institutions may orientation is a matter of perception of
of living is crucial because every member ensure that women get a fair share of students as well as the way disciplines are
of the family especially in the urban areas responsibility and leadership opportuni- constructed by teachers. While the disci-
is underpressure to earn. While the middle ties in sports, games, laboratories etc. They pline boundaries limit choices and are
strata women may work to improve the may provide counselling for subject choices socially constructed they are determined
standard of living, the lower and working and post-higher education career options. also by the future options of 'life-chances'
class women have to work for survival. Women's study centres may play a stra- of women and men. If women's partici-
Thus, aspirations for social mobility tegic as role in monitoring the policies and pation in non-traditional disciplines has
practices of universities apart from playing
well as a pragmatic response to the changed to be improved, the first imperative is to
a crucial role in gender sensitisation,
situation are forcing families to allow offer these disciplines in HEIs.17 The
women to work. Since education is con- counselling and in providing role models. second step is to provide counselling for
sidered as an instrument in getting jobs,The goal of full equality of opportunity discipline and career options.
more and more women are seeking higher for women in higher education is unlikely If women have to contribute as full
to be fulfilled without special supports
education. In addition, some parents want members of society, their potential must
designed to encourage their entry into
their daughters to avail the new openings be harnessed especially when they have
and be independent and professionally
institutions of higher education as students demonstrated their capability to succeed
competent. and as teachers. Unless this is done, one in the educational system. It is up to the
VI would not be wholly unjustified in assum- colleges and universities to build their
Concluding Observations ing that women's position in higher edu- self-confidence, to harness their capaci-
cation may even receive a setback. Thus, ties and provide the opportunities and
This paper has relied mainly on enrol- admission, recruitment and promotion choices that they deserve and contribute
ment statistics which is inadequate15 to policies of HEIs may need to be moni- toward gender equality. 13
reflect upon trends and shifts. Therefore, tored.
it is imperative that a database be devel- In the post-liberalisation phase, the Notes
oped in higher education. It involves government has been reducing support to
collection of reliable quantitative and higher education. Moreover, higher edu- [I am grateful to Maithreyi Krishnaraj and
qualitative data and information, its co- cational institutions are being encouraged S Srinivasa Rao for comments on this paper.
ordination, communication to various Their comments provided pertinent insights and
in the private sector and most of these
information. I am grateful to my friend
actors in the field and management of this offer non-traditional disciplines such as Mandakranta Bose, University of British
information. This will help in highlighting engineering, medicine, management, com- Columbia, Vancouver, for suggesting the title.]
all-India trends, regional differences and puter science etc. The cost of education
institutional variations. It will allow for 1 This report was entitled Towards Equality
is very high in these private institutions.
and is better known by that title. This
identification of issues and their prioritis-
If the enrolment statistics presented above committee was appointed by the government
ation. Alongwith this, a qualitative under- are an indication, the proportion.of women of India after the declaration of 1975 as the
standing of the situation will go a long waystudents has remained stagnant in spite of UN Year For Women. The committee

Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000 1021

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 submitted its report in December 1974 and Education', Journal of Higher Education,
School of Computer and Systems Sciences
covered all aspects of the status of women of which 11 were women students. Although 5,1, Monsoon, pp 231-49.
in post-independent India. The report was a Chanana, K (1988): 'Social Change or Social
JNU is a national university and its admission
landmark in that it substantiated a decline in policy attracts SC/ST students (as is evidentReform: The Education of Women in pre-
the overall status of Indian women and shook from their proportion mentioned elsewhere) Independence India', in K Chanana (ed)
the Indian intelligentsia, political leaders and yet very few women join the new professionalSocialisation, Education and Women:
women out of complacency. It would be no courses. For example. of the 97 students in Explorations in Gender Identity, Orient
exaggeration to say that it set the agenda for 1997 in the School of Computer and Systems Longman, New Delhi.
contemporary women's movement in India. Sciences, 28 were SC and 10 ST students. -(1990): 'The Dialectics Between Tradition and
2 It may be noted that the article published by But there were only 3 SC women (of the total Modernity and Women's Education in India',
the University Grants Commission and 11 women students) and not a single ST Sociological Bulletinz, 39 (182), March-
ministry of human resource development is woman student is enrolled. In biotechnology, September, pp 75-91.
based only on enrolment data (which is of of the 70 students, 6 were SC (3 men -and (1998): 'Women, Higher Education and
uneven quality). For instance, the UGC annual 3 women) and one ST student. Again, there Development: Strengthening the Role and
report for 1996-97 merges the enrolment is no ST woman student in biotechnology. Contribution of Women Graduates For The
figures for women in agriculture with those 12 For example, some college hostels censor Developmentthe Process', UNESCO, Bangkok,
of medicine and several other disciplines. I letters received by women residents. (unpublished).
13 For the connection between co-education and
hope that this article will also highlight the - (1998a): 'Family Strategies, Gender Ideology
paucity of statistics on higher education in its impact on girls' access to education, see and Education: The Impact of Partition on
general and on women in particular. Chanana (1988). Punjabi Women of New Delhi', in Carla
3 Yet some universities are able to attract 14 Dowry may consist of cash and in kind. The Risseeuw and Kamala Ganesh (eds),
students from the marginal groups. social For practice varies in different parts of Negotiatiotn and Social Space: A Gendered
example, of the 394 SC students in JNU India.
in But two things are common. First, Analysis of Changing Kin and Security
September 1996, 69 were women. The ST involves a heavy investment and eats Networks in South Asia and Sub-Saharan
dowry
women are better represented, i e. 70 out of the lifetime savings of parents and also Africa, Sage, New Delhi, pp 157-176.
into
185 students [JNU 1996-97]. But this isresults not in indebtedness. Second, the dowry Government of India(GOI) (1996): Selected
an indicator of national trends. Again, the demand
ST is increasing as educational level of Educational Statistics 1995-96, department
women students come mainly from the north- men and women is going up instead of
of education, planning, statistics and
eastern states and not from the central regions unleashing a wave of social reform and
monitoring division, MHRD, New Delhi.
where tribes are very backward [Chanana - (1998): Annual Report 1997-98, department
improving the status of women generally.
1993]. 15 There are several other aspects, e g, how of education, MHRD, New Delhi.
4 Op cit, p 68. many finish schooling and enter higher Institute of Applied Manpower Research (1995):
5 NTMIS or National Technical Management education'? What is the out-turn from each Manpower Profile India, New Delhi.
Information System is a survey conducted by Jawaharlal Nehru University (1996-97): 27th
institution by discipline, by state/province?
the Institute of Applied Manpower Research 16 Funding bodies such as the ICSSR, UGC, or Annual Report, New Delhi.
(IAMR), New Delhi. National Institute of Educational Planning and
the various ministries identify priority areas
6 The total scheduled caste enrolment in Kerala for research from time to time. For example Administration (nd): Highier Education in
is 651 of which 332 are women and 319 men ICSSR sponsored two nationwide surveys of India: A Survey, NIEPA, New Delhi.
students. SC/ST students in higher education withParikh,
a P P and S P Sukhatme (1992): Women
7 The percentages are calculated from India, gap of ten years. Gender was a missing Engineers in India: A Study on the
1995-96. variable. In the same manner, women in higher Participation of VWomen) in Engineering
8 It would be worthwhile to find out the education may be identified as a priority area. Courses and in the Engineering Profession,
difference between enrolment and out-turn. 17 The UGC scheme of vocationalisation of the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai.
But the information on the number of students University Grants Commission (1988-89): Annual
first degree is a major step in this direction.
taking examinations and succeeding in them Report, New Delhi.
is no longer available except for the NTMIS References Vasudevan, Jayshree (1979): 'Women in
data on women engineers [Chanana 1998]. Medicine And Teaching: A Trend Analysis',
9 These two years courses are known as MBAAcker, Sandra ( 1994): Gertdered Education, Open MPhil dissertation, Zakir Husain Centre for
i e, master in business administration when University Press, Buckingham. Educational Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru
offered by a university or a deemed universityAhmad, K (1979): 'Equity and Women's Higher University, New Delhi.
such as the Indian Institutes of Managemrent.
Other institutes offer them as diploma courses
and are referred to as post-graduate diploma
in business administration/management/ REVIEW OF LABOUR
marketing/mass communication etc.
10 Some institutes such as XLRI, Jamshedpur
September 25, 1999
and TISS, Mumbai, offer full fledged courses Employment in Smaller Indian Firms: Choices under
in HRD/HRM.
Liberalisation -Mark Holmstrom
II Computer courses seem to be becoming
Social Security of Labour in New Industrial Towns -G Vijay
popular and women, according to informal
discussions with experts, are enrolling in
large number. The statistics on higher
Organising the Unorganised: Case of Hamal Panchayat -Rajeshwari D
education do not provide separate information Working Class Militancy in Endangered Sugar Industry -Gopal Guru
on these courses. However, as an example
Labour Legislation and Social Justice: Rhetoric and Reality -Debi Saini
and without an attempt to generalise,
information on enrolment in an elite university New Technology and Textile Workers -R C Datta
located in the capital city is provided. In
1996-97, of the 32 students in masters of For copies write to
computer applications in Jawaharlal Nehru Circulation Manager
University (JNU) only 3 were women. At the
MTech/PhD level, there were no women Economic and Political Weekly
among 24 students. On September 1, 1996, Hitkari House, 284, Shahid Bhagatsingh Road, Mumb
there were 97 students on the rolls in the

1022 Economic and Political Weekly March 18, 2000

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