DISTANCE MEASUREMENT BY ULTRASONIC SENSOR

ABSTRACT

The project is designed to measure the distance of any object by using an ultrasonic transducer.

Ultrasonic means of distance measurement is a convenient method compared to traditional one using

measurement scales. This kind of measurement is particularly applicable to inaccessible areas where

traditional means cannot be implemented such as high temperature, pressure zones etc.

This proposed system uses an ultrasonic module interfaced to a microcontroller of PIC family. An

ultrasonic transducer comprising of a transmitter and receiver are used for the project. The transmitted

waves are reflected back from the object and received by the transducer again. The total time taken from

sending the waves to receiving it is calculated by taking into consideration the velocity of sound. Then the

distance is calculated by a program running on the microcontroller and displayed on an LCD screen

interfaced to the microcontroller. The ultrasonic sensor produces 40 kHz sound waves.

Further the project can be enhanced by using high frequency transducers to make is fit for medical

applications like ultrasound machine.

 Block Diagram

Ultrasonic
transmitter Oscillator

object
Ultras A
recei A
l
MICROCONTROLLER

INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER

A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the

processor core (CPU), some memory, and I/O (input/output) lines, all on one chip.

The computer-on-a-chip is called the microcomputer whose proper meaning is a

computer using a (number of) microprocessor(s) as its CPUs, while the concept of

the microcomputer is known to be a microcontroller. A microcontroller can be

viewed as a set of digital logic circuits integrated on a single silicon chip. This chip

is used for only specific applications.

ATMEGA 16
Features
• High-performance, Low-power Atmel® AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller
• Advanced RISC Architecture
– 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
– Fully Static Operation
– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments
– 16 Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory
– 512 Bytes EEPROM
– 1 Kbyte Internal SRAM
– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)
– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
– Programming Lock for Software Security
• JTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface
– Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard
– Extensive On-chip Debug Support
– Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses, and Lock Bits through the JTAG Interface
• Peripheral Features
– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes
– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
– Four PWM Channels
– 8-channel, 10-bit ADC
8 Single-ended Channels
7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x
– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
– Programmable Serial USART
– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
– On-chip Analog Comparator
• Special Microcontroller Features
– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
– External and Internal Interrupt Sources
– Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby
and Extended Standby
• I/O and Packages
– 32 Programmable I/O Lines
– 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF
• Operating Voltages
– 2.7V - 5.5V for ATmega16L
– 4.5V - 5.5V for ATmega16
• Speed Grades
– 0 - 8 MHz for ATmega16L
– 0 - 16 MHz for ATmega16
• Power Consumption @ 1 MHz, 3V, and 25°C for ATmega16L
– Active: 1.1 mA
– Idle Mode: 0.35 mA
– Power-down Mode: < 1 μA

The
ATmega16 is a low-
power CMOS 8-
bit microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful
instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega16 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per
MHz allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speedThe
AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32
registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent
registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting
architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than
conventional CISC microcontrollers. The ATmega16 provides the following features: 16 Kbytes
of In-System Programmable Flash Program memory with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512
bytes EEPROM, 1 Kbyte SRAM, 32 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working
registers, a JTAG interface for Boundaryscan, On-chip Debugging support and programming,
three flexible Timer/Counters with compare
modes, Internal and External Interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented Two-wire
Serial Interface, an 8-channel, 10-bit ADC with optional differential input stage with
programmable gain (TQFP package only), a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal
Oscillator, an SPI serial port, and six software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode
stops the CPU while allowing the USART, Two-wire interface, A/D Converter, SRAM,
Timer/Counters,
SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the register
contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next External
Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the Asynchronous Timer continues to run,
allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise
Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except Asynchronous Timer and ADC, to
minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator
Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up
combined with low-power consumption. In Extended Standby mode, both the main Oscillator and
the Asynchronous Timer continue to run. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density
nonvolatile memory technology. The Onchip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The boot program can use
any interface to download the application
program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the Boot Flash section will continue to run
while the Application Flash section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By
combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmel ATmega16 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective
solution to many embedded control applications. The ATmega16 AVR is supported with a full
suite of program and system development tools including: C compilers, macro assemblers,
program debugger/simulators, in-circuit emulators,
and evaluation kits.
Pin Descriptions
VCC Digital supply voltage.
GND Ground.
Port A (PA7..PA0) Port A serves as the analog inputs to the A/D Converter.
Port A also serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. Port pins
can provide internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port A output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. When pins PA0 to
PA7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current if the internal pull-
up resistors are activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running Port B (PB7..PB0) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with
internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running. Port B also serves the functions of various special features of the
ATmega16 as listed
Port C (PC7..PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors
(selected for each bit). The Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source
current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition
becomes active,
even if the clock is not running. If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pull-up resistors on pins
PC5(TDI), PC3(TMS) and PC2(TCK) will be activated even if a reset occurs. Port C also serves
the functions of the JTAG interface and other special features of the ATmega16 as listed Port D
(PD7..PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for
each bit). The
Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running.
Port D also serves the functions of various special features of the ATmega16 as listed
RESET Reset Input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. The minimum pulse length is given. Shorter
pulses are not guaranteed to generate a reset.
XTAL1 Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2 Output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.
AVCC AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter.
AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a Harvard architecture – with
separate memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the program memory are
executed with a single level pipelining. While one instruction is being executed, the next
instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory. This concept enables instructions to be
executed in every clock cycle. The program memory is In-System Reprogrammable Flash
memory. The fast-access Register File contains 32 × 8-bit general purpose working registers with
a single clock cycle access time. This allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation.
In a typical ALU operation, two operands are output from the Register File, the operation is
executed, and the result is stored back in the Register File – in one clock cycle. Six of the 32
registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address register pointers for Data Space addressing –
enabling efficient address calculations. One of the these address pointers can also be used as an
address pointer for look up tables in Flash Program memory. These added function registers are
the 16-bit X-register, Y-register, and Z-register, described later in
this section. The ALU supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a
constant and a register. Single register operations can also be executed in the ALU. After an
arithmetic operation, the Status Register is updated to reflect information about the result of the
operation Program flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call instructions,
able to directly address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a single 16-bit word
format.
Every program memory address contains a 16-bit or 32-bit instruction.
Program Flash memory space is divided in two sections, the Boot program section and the
Application Program section. Both sections have dedicated Lock bits for write and read/write
protection. The SPM instruction that writes into the Application Flash memory section must
reside in the Boot Program section.
During interrupts and subroutine calls, the return address Program Counter (PC) is stored on the
Stack. The Stack is effectively allocated in the general data SRAM, and consequently the Stack
size is only limited by the total SRAM size and the usage of the SRAM. All user programs must
initialize the SP in the reset routine (before subroutines or interrupts are executed). The Stack
Pointer SP is read/write accessible in the I/O space. The data SRAM can easily be accessed
through the five different addressing modes supported in the AVR architecture. The memory
spaces in the AVR architecture are all linear and regular memory maps.
A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O space with an additional global
interrupt enable bit in the Status Register. All interrupts have a separate interrupt vector in the
interrupt vector table. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their interrupt vector
position. The lower the interrupt vector address, the higher the priority. The I/O memory space
contains 64 addresses for CPU peripheral functions as Control Registers, SPI, and other I/O
functions. The I/O Memory can be accessed directly, or as the Data Space locations following
those of the Register File, $20 - $5F.
ALU – Arithmetic
Logic Unit
The high-performance AVR ALU operates in direct connection with all the 32 general purpose
working registers. Within a single clock cycle, arithmetic operations between general purpose
registers or between a register and an immediate are executed. The ALU operations are divided
into three main categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit-functions. Some implementations of the
architecture also provide a powerful multiplier supporting both signed/unsigned multiplication
and fractional format. See the “Instruction Set” section for a detailed description.

Status Register
The Status Register contains information about the result of the most recently executed arithmetic
instruction. This information can be used for altering program flow in order to perform
conditional operations. Note that the Status Register is updated after all ALU operations, as
specified in the Instruction Set Reference. This will in many cases remove the need for using the
dedicated compare instructions, resulting in faster and more compact code.
The Status Register is not automatically stored when entering an interrupt routine and restored
when returning from an interrupt. This must be handled by software
• Bit 7 – I: Global Interrupt Enable

The Global Interrupt Enable bit must be set for the interrupts to be enabled. The individual
interrupt enable control is then performed in separate control registers. If the Global Interrupt
Enable Register is cleared, none of the interrupts are enabled independent of the individual
interrupt enable settings. The I-bit is cleared by hardware after an interrupt has occurred, and is
set by the RETI instruction to enable subsequent interrupts. The I-bit can also be set and cleared
by the application with the SEI and CLI instructions, as described in the instruction set reference

Bit 6 – T: Bit Copy Storage

The Bit Copy instructions BLD (Bit LoaD) and BST (Bit STore) use the T-bit as source or
destination for the operated bit. A bit from a register in the Register File can be copied into T by
the BST instruction, and a bit in T can be copied into a bit in a register in the Register File by the
BLD instruction.

• Bit 5 – H: Half Carry Flag

The Half Carry Flag H indicates a Half Carry in some arithmetic operations. Half Carry is useful
in BCD arithmetic. See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.

• Bit 4 – S: Sign Bit, S = N ⊕ V

The S-bit is always an exclusive or between the Negative Flag N and the Two’s Complement
Overflow Flag V. See the “Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.

• Bit 3 – V: Two’s Complement Overflow Flag

The Two’s Complement Overflow Flag V supports two’s complement arithmetics. See the
“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.
• Bit 2 – N: Negative Flag
The Negative Flag N indicates a negative result in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the
“Instruction Set Description” for detailed information.

• Bit 1 – Z: Zero Flag

The Zero Flag Z indicates a zero result in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the “Instruction Set
Description” for detailed information.

• Bit 0 – C: Carry Flag

The Carry Flag C indicates a carry in an arithmetic or logic operation. See the “Instruction Set
Description” for detailed information.

APPLICATIONS:

 Cell phones.

 Computers.

 Robots.

 Interfacing to two pc’s.

POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply block consists of following units:
 Step down transformer.
 Bridge rectifier circuit.
 Input filter.
 Voltage regulators.
 Output filter.
 Indicator unit.

Step down transformer:

The step-down transformer is used to step down the supply voltage of 230v
ac from mains to lower values, as the various IC’s used in this project require
reduced voltages. The transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To
reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number
of turns in its secondary core. The outputs from the secondary coil which is center
tapped are the ac values of 0v, 15v and 15v. The conversion of these ac values to dc
values to dc values is done using the full wave rectifier unit.

Rectifier Unit:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit.
That provides the polarity of output voltage of any polarity of the input voltage.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of alternating current
(A.C) input into direct current (D.C) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The
diagram describes a diode-bridge design known as a full wave rectifier. This
design can be used to rectify single phase A.C. when no transformer center tap is
available. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to
achieve full wave rectification. This is a Widely used configuration, both with
individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the
diode bridge is wired internally.

For both positive and negative swings of the transformer, there is a forward path
through the diode bridge. Both conduction paths cause current to flow in the
same direction through the load resister, accomplishing full-wave rectification.
While one set of diodes is forward biased, the other set is reverse biased and
effectively eliminated from the circuit.

Input Filter: -
 Capacitors are used as filters. The ripples from the dc voltages are removed
and pure dc voltage is obtained. The primary action performed by capacitor is
charging and discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the ac voltage and it
will discharge in negative half cycle. So it allows only ac voltage and does not
allow the dc voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Capacitors used here
are of the value 1000uF

Regulator unit: -
Regulator regulates the output voltage to a specific value. The output voltage is
maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input dc voltage. Whenever
there are any ac voltage fluctuations, the dc voltage also changes, and to avoid
this regulators are used.

Regulators can be classified as: -

1. Positive regulator, which regulates the positive voltage(7805,7812)
1. > input pin
2. > ground pin
3. > output pin
2. Negative regulator, which regulates the negative voltage (7912).
1. > ground pin
2. > input pin
3. > output pin

Regulators used in this application are: -

7805 which provides 5v dc
7812 which provides 12v dc
7912 which provides -121v dc

Out put Filter: -

This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found
ripples in the output received finally. Capacitors used here are of value 10F.

Power Supply Circuit Diagram:

ULTRASONIC ACOUSTIC SENSOR:

Specifications:
  Power Voltage: DC 6-12V
 Quiescent Current: less than 2mA

 Output Level: high 5V

 Output Level: Low 0V

 Sensing Angle: no greater than 15°

 Sensing Distance: 2mm-3m

Note: The sensing distance varies by smoothness of different surfaces.

Ultrasonic sensors (also known as tranceivers when they both send and
receive) work on a principle similar to radar or sonar which evaluate attributes of a
target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves respectively. Ultrasonic
sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is
received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate the time interval between sending the
signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object.

This technology can be used for measuring: wind speed and direction
(anemometer), fullness of a tank and speed through air or water. For measuring
speed or direction a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the
relative distances to particulates in the air or water. To measure the amount of liquid
in a tank, the sensor measures the distance to the surface of the fluid. Further
applications include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar alarms
and non-destructive testing.
 Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the
ultrasonic range, above 20,000 hertz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then
upon receiving the echo turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can be
measured and displayed.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY:

A liquid crystal display (lcd) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically
displaying information such as text, images, and moving pictures. Its uses include
monitors for computers, televisions, instrument panels, and other devices ranging
from aircraft cockpit displays, to every-day consumer devices such as video players,
gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. Among its major
features are its lightweight construction, its portability, and its ability to be
produced in much larger screen sizes than are practical for the construction of
cathode ray tube (crt) display technology. Its low electrical power consumption
enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with
liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to
produce images in color or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the
development of lcd technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888.
By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with lcd screens had surpassed the sale of
crt units.

Each pixel of an lcd typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned

between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of
transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With
no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first
filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.

The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal
material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular
direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is
unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal
alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a
transparent conductor called indium tin oxide (ito).
5.1 INTERFACE PIN FUNCTION:

5.2 FUNCTION DESCRIPTION

The LCD display Module is built in a LSI controller, the controller has two 8-bit
registers, an
instruction register (IR) and a data register (DR).
The IR stores instruction codes, such as display clear and cursor shift, and address
information for display data RAM (DDRAM) and character generator (CGRAM).
The IR can only be written from the MPU. The DR temporarily stores data to be
written or read from DDRAM or CGRAM. When address information is written
into the IR, then data is stored into the DR from DDRAM or CGRAM.

By the register selector (RS) signal, these two registers can be selected.

Busy Flag (BF)

When the busy flag is 1, the controller LSI is in the internal operation mode, and the
next instruction will not be accepted. When RS=0 and R/W=1, the busy flag is
output to DB7. The next instruction must be written after ensuring that the busy flag
is 0.

Address Counter (AC)

The address counter (AC) assigns addresses to both DDRAM and CGRAM

Display Data RAM (DDRAM)

This DDRAM is used to store the display data represented in 8-bit character codes.
Its extended
capacity is 80×8 bits or 80 characters. Below figure are the relationships between
DDRAM addresses and positions on the liquid crystal display.

Character Generator ROM (CGROM)

The CGROM generate 5×8 dot or 5×10 dot character patterns from 8-bit character
codes. See Table 2.
Character Generator RAM (CGRAM)
In CGRAM, the user can rewrite character by program. For 5×8 dots, eight
character patterns can be written, and for 5×10 dots, four character patterns can be
written.
Write into DDRAM the character code at the addresses shown as the left column of
table 1. To show the character patterns stored in CGRAM.
5.3 PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF LCD MODULES

(1)Avoid applying excessive shocks to the module or making any alterations or

modifications to it.
(2)Don’t make extra holes on the printed circuit board, modify its shape or change
the components of LCD module.

(3)Don’t disassemble the LCM.

(4)Don’t operate it above the absolute maximum rating.
(5)Don’t drop, bend or twist LCM.
(6)Soldering: only to the I/O terminals.
(7)Storage: please storage in anti-static electricity container and clean environment.
(8). Winstar have the right to change the passive components
(9). Winstar have the right to change the PCB Rev.

5.4 GENERAL SPECIFICATION:

5.5 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

5.6 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

5.7 OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
BUZZER:
The piezo buzzer produces sound based on reverse of the piezoelectric effect.
The generation of pressure variation or strain by the application of electric potential
across a piezoelectric material is the underlying principle. These buzzers can be
used alert a user of an event corresponding to a switching action, counter signal or
sensor input. They are also used in alarm circuits.
The buzzer produces a same noisy sound irrespective of the voltage variation
applied to it. It consists of piezo crystals between two conductors. When a potential
is applied across these crystals, they push on one conductor and pull on the other.
This, push and pull action, results in a sound wave. Most buzzers produce sound in
the range of 2 to 4 kHz. The Red lead is connected to the Input and the Black lead is
connected to Ground.

Pin Diagram:

Fig 2.29: Pin Diagram of Buzzer

Principle of operation:

Depending on how a piezoelectric material is cut, three main modes of

operation can be distinguished: transverse, longitudinal, and shear.

Transverse effect:
A force is applied along a neutral axis (y) and the charges are generated along
the (x) direction, perpendicular to the line of force. The amount of charge depends
on the geometrical dimensions of the respective piezoelectric element. When
dimensions a, b, c apply,
Cx = dxyFyb / a,
Where ‘a’ is the dimension in line with the neutral axis, ‘b’ is in line with the
charge generating axis and‘d’ is the corresponding piezoelectric coefficient.

Longitudinal effect:
The amount of charge produced is strictly proportional to the applied force
and is independent of size and shape of the piezoelectric element. Using several
elements that are mechanically in series and electrically in parallel is the only way
to increase the charge output. The resulting charge is Cx = dxxFxn,
Where ‘dxx’ is the piezoelectric coefficient for a charge in x-direction released
by forces applied along x-direction (in pC/N). ‘Fx’ is the applied Force in x-
direction [N] and ‘n’ corresponds to the number of stacked elements.

Shear effect:
Again, the charges produced are strictly proportional to the applied forces and are
independent of the element’s size and shape. For n elements mechanically in series
and electrically in parallel the charge is Cx = 2dxxFxn.
In contrast to the longitudinal and shear effects, the transverse effect opens
the possibility to fine-tune sensitivity on the force applied and the element
dimension.

Electrical properties:
 Fig 2.30: Schematic symbol and
Electronic Model of a Piezoelectric Sensor.

A piezoelectric transducer has

very high DC output impedance and can be
modeled as a proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at the
source is directly proportional to the applied force, pressure, or strain. The output
signal is then related to this mechanical force as if it had passed through the
equivalent circuit.
A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction
and other non-idealities. The inductance Lm is due to the seismic mass and inertia of
the sensor itself. Ce is inversely proportional to the mechanical elasticity of the
sensor. C0 represents the static capacitance of the transducer, resulting from an
inertial mass of infinite size. Ri is the insulation leakage resistance of the transducer
element. If the sensor is connected to a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with
the insulation resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency.

For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically
used, between the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage
resistance need to be large enough that low frequencies of interest are not lost. A
simplified equivalent circuit model can be used in this region, in which Cs
represents the capacitance of the sensor surface itself, determined by the standard
formula for capacitance of parallel plates. It can also be modeled as a charge source
in parallel with the source capacitance, with the charge directly proportional to the
applied force, as above.
 Fig 2.31: In the flat region, the sensor can be modeled as a voltage source in
series with the sensor's capacitance or a charge source in parallel with the
capacitance

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance

of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a
very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as
in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated
circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most
common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator
circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators".

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz
to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured
annually. Most are small devices for consumer devices such as wristwatches,
clocks, radios, computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test
and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.
 Commonly used crystal frequencies

Crystal oscillator circuits are often designed around relatively few standard
frequencies, such as 3.58 MHz, 10 MHz, 14.318 MHz, 20 MHz, 33.33 MHz, and
40 MHz. The popularity of the 3.58 MHz and 14.318 MHz crystals is due to low
cost since they are used for television color receivers. Using frequency dividers,
frequency multipliers and phase locked loop circuits, it is practical to derive a wide
range of frequencies from one reference frequency.

Crystals can be manufactured for oscillation over a wide range of

frequencies, from a few kilohertz up to several hundred megahertz. Many
applications call for a crystal oscillator frequency conveniently related to some
other desired frequency, so hundreds of standard crystal frequencies are made in
large quantities and stocked by electronics distributors

TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals.

It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals
for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals.
Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling
(input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are
packaged individually but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and
its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.
The transistor is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions of the
twentieth century.[8] The transistor is the key active component in practically all
modern electronics. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass
produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that
achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually-packaged

(known as discrete) transistors every year,[9] the vast majority of transistors now
produced are in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply
chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to
produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty
transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7
billion transistors (MOSFETs).[10] "About 60 million transistors were built this year
[2002] ... for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."[11]

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices
in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a
standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control
function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal
applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another
pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in
proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an amplifier. Or, the transistor can
be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch,
where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.
The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit.
A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small
current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can
control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.
For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a
voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will
flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base.
Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor
diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current
exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made
from, and is referred to as VBE.

ADVANTAGES

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are

 Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized

electronic devices.
 Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.
 Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small,
battery-powered applications.
 No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
 Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
  Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for
more than 30 years.
 Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-
symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
 Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of
microphonics in audio applications.

LIMITATIONS
 Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts
(SiC devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron
tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.
 High power, high frequency operation, such as used in over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron
mobility in a vacuum.
 Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an
electromagnetic pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear
explosion.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be
mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using
both majority and minority carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named
emitter, base, and collector. The BJT consists of two p-n junctions: the base–emitter
junction and the base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of
semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together
without sharing an intervening semi conducting region will not make a transistor).
"The [BJT] is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector
are controllable by the relatively small base current."[14] In an NPN transistor
operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons
and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region.
Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-
biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base-
collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the
electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base
current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number
of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.[14] Collector current is
approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is
typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in
transistors designed for high-power applications.

Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low–input-impedance device. Also, as the base–
emitter voltage (Vbe) is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–
emitter current (Ice) increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model
and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a
higher transconductance than the FET.

Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, since

absorption of photons in the base region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base
current; the collector current is approximately β times the photocurrent. Devices
designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called
phototransistors

RESISTORS:
 The property of a substance, which opposes the flow of an electric current
through it, is called the resistance. It is symbolized by English capital letter R and is
measured in OHMS (Ω).
Each resistor has two main characteristics i.e., its resistance value in ohms and
its power dissipating capacity in watts. Resistors are employed for many purposes
such as electric heaters, telephone equipment, electric and electronic circuit
elements, and current limiting devices. The value of R is selected to have a desired
current I or permissible voltage drop IR. Resistors are made in many forms. But all
belong to either of two groups- fixed or variable.
1 .FIXED RESISTORS
The most common of the low wattage, fixed –typed resistors is the moulded-
carbon composition resistors. The basic material is of carbon- clay composition.
The leads are made of tinned copper. Resistors of this type are readily available in
values ranging from few ohms to about 22 MΩ, having a tolerance range of 5 to 20
%. They are quite inexpensive.
2 . COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS
Some resistors are large enough in size to have their resistance values (in Ω) printed
on the body. However, there are some resistors, which are too small in size to have
their values printed on them. Hence, a system of colour coding is employed for
indicating their values. For the fixed, moulded composition resistor, four colour
bands are printed on one end of the outer casing.

TABLE:

COLOUR NUMERICAL MULTIPLYING TOLERANCE

MEANING FACTOR
Black 0 10^0
Brown 1 10^1
Red 2 10^2
Orange 3 10^3
Yellow 4 10^4
Green 5 10^5
Blue 6 10^6
Violet 7 10^7
Grey 8 10^8
White 9 10^9
Gold - 0.1 +/- 5%
Silver - 0.01 +/- 10%
NO colour - - +/- 20%

The colour bands are always read from left to right from the end that has the bands
closest to it. The first and second bands represent the first and second digits of the
resistance value. The third band indicates the numbers of zeros that follow the first
two digits except that when gold and silver are used. In case the third band is of
gold or silver, it represents a multiplying factor of 0.1, 0.01 respectively. The fourth
band represents the manufacturing tolerance. The absence of this fourth band
indicates that the resistance value is within +/- 20% of the stated value.
For eg: a resistor having colour bands of red, green and yellow means the resistance
of value 2,50,000 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 20%.
We have used here resistors of values 330 Ω, 2.2 kΩ & 3.3 k Ω.
3. VARIABLE RESISTORS
In electronic circuits, sometimes it becomes necessary to adjust the values of
currents and voltages. For example , it is often desired to change the volume of
sound , the brightness of a television picture , etc. Such adjustments can be done by
using variable variable resistors.
Although the variable resistors are usually called rheostats in other application the
smaller variable variable resistors commonly used in electronic circuits are called
potentiometers. The moving contact will determine whether the resistance in the
circuit is minimum (0Ω) or maximum value R.. There are three terminals coming
elements out of a potentiometer. The outer two are the end pointsa of the resistance
element and the middle leads to the rotating contact.
4. SIP – Single -in –line- package resistor
It is a special type of resisior having the value of 10kohm. It is a pull up resistor.
CAPACITORS:
Capacitors of different kinds are found in nearly every electronic circuit. A
capacitor is basically meant to store electrons (or electrical energy), and release
them whenever desired. Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store
charge. It is measured in farads (F).
A capacitor offers low impedance to ac, but very high impedance to dc.So,
capacitors are used when we want to couple alternating voltage from one circuit to
another, while at the same time blocking the dc voltage from reaching the next
circuit. It is also used as a bypass capacitor.
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates, separated by an insulating
material known as a dielectric. Since the two plates of capacitor can be of many
different conducting materials and the dielectric may be of many different
insulating materials, there are many different types of capacitors. Some of the most
commonly used fixed capacitors are mica, ceramic, paper, electrolytic. Variable
capacitors are mostly air gang capacitors.
1. MICA CAPACITORS
Mica capacitors are constructed from plates of aluminium foil separated by
sheets of mica. The plates are connected to two electrodes. The mica capacitors
have excellent characteristics under stress of temperature variations and high
voltage applications. Available capacitances range from 5 to 10,000pf. Mica
capacitors are usually rated at 500V. its leakage current is very small(about
1000Mohm).

2. CERAMIC CAPACITORS
A ceramic disc is coated on two sides with a metal such as copper or silver. These
coatings act as the two plates. During the manufacture of capacitor, tinned wire
leads are also attached to each plate. Then the entire unit is coated with plastic and
marked with its capacitance value- either using numerals or colour code. Their
working voltage ranges from 3V to 6000V. the capacitances ranges from 3pf to
about 2microf. Ceramic capacitors hava a very low leakage currents and can be
used in both dc and ac circuits.
3. PAPER CAPACITORS
The capacitors consists of two metal foils separated by strips of paper. This paper is
impregnated with adielectric material such as wax, plastic or oil.
Paper capacitances ranging from 0.0005microf to several microfarad and are rated
from about 100V to several thousand volts. They can be used for both dc and ac
circuits. It’s leakage resistance is of the order of 100Mohm.
4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
Electrolytic capacitors are extremely varied in their characteristics. The capacitance
value may range from 1microfarad to several thousand microfarads. The voltage
ratings may range from 1V to 500V or more. These capacitors are commonly used
in situations where a large capacitance is required.
The electrolytic capacitors consist of an aluminium foil electrode which has an
aluminium- oxide film covering on one side. The aluminium plate serves as the
positive plate and the oxide as the dielectric.

5. VARIABLE CAPACITORS
In some circuits, such as a tuning circuit, it is desirable to change the value of
capacitance readily. This is done means of a variable capacitors. The most common
is air-gang capacitor. The dielectric for this capacitor is air. By rotating the shaft at
one end, we can change the common area between the movable and fixed set of
plates. The greater the common area, the larger the capacitance.
TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current
applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through
another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more
than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal.
Some transistors are packaged individually but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic

devices, and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.

The transistor is considered by many to be one of the greatest

inventions of the twentieth century.[8] The transistor is the key active component in
practically all modern electronics. Its importance in today's society rests on its
ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor
device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually-

packaged (known as discrete) transistors every year,[9] the vast majority of
transistors now produced are in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC,
microchips or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other
electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate
consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as
of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors (MOSFETs).[10] "About 60
million transistors were built this year [2002] ... for [each] man, woman, and child
on Earth."[11]

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a

ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced
electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier
and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to
carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control
function.
 The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a
small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger
signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can
control its output in proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an amplifier.
Or, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit
elements.

The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are
used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and
emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the
emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and
emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source,
and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.

The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.

Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current
in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a
semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the
base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the
transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

ADVANTAGES

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are

 Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized

electronic devices.
  Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.
 Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small,
battery-powered applications.
 No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
 Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
 Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for
more than 30 years.
 Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-
symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
 Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of
microphonics in audio applications.

LIMITATIONS
 Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts
(SiC devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron
tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.
 High power, high frequency operation, such as used in over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron
mobility in a vacuum.
 Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an
electromagnetic pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear
explosion.
ULN 2003:-
 ULN2003 is high voltage, high current darlington arrays each
containing seven open collector darlington pairs with common emitters. Each
channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression
diodes are included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the
outputs to simplify board layout.
These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads
including solenoids, relays DC motors, LED displays filament lamps, thermal
printheads and high power buffers.

DIODE:-

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts

electric current in only one direction. The most common function of a diode is to
allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward
direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio
receivers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off
action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can
be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. Today most diodes are
made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used.

ADVANTAGES
1. The vehicle can be parked without anyone's help.
2. Avoids damage to the vehicle.
3. The system is reliable.
4. Help's to identify the obstacle easily.
APPLICATION:
1.It is used to car driver