Woden (Wuþ) as the Designer and Author

of the Futhark Alphabet

Joannes Richter

Abstract
According to Jacob Grimm both the Germanic god Wodan and the Greco-Roman deity Hermes
(Mercury) had been considered as the inventors of the alphabet and writing.
In a considerable number of Germanic regions the three initial characters ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) of the
Futharc-alphabet are cognate to Wodan's name “Wut”, respectively “Vut”. Therefore we may
assume that the inventor of this alphabet started the list of characters with his own signature ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ
(“W-u-th”).
The first character ᚠ of the Futharc-alphabet behaves like a digamma (Ϝ, ϝ, ϛ) which regionally
and/or historically may vary between various letters such as /F/, /V/, /W/, nut also /G/, /J/ and /Y/.
The initial character ᚠ in Woden's name indicates a variable character ranging from /G/ for “good”
in the naming variant “Godan” and /W/ for “wild” in “Wodan”.
This transition may be identified in the naming conventions of a river “Gutach”, which in its course
mutates to the furious river “Wutach”. The root “Gut” / “Wut” in the names “Gutach”/”Wutach”
corresponds to the transition of Wodan's character who is described as “Good” as well as “Wild”.
Obviously the runic word ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) also included the variants “w-u-th”, “v-u-th” and “g-u-
th”, which regionally vary in names such as Wuodan, Wodan (in Saxony), Guddan, Gudan (in
Westphalia), Gwydian, Godan, Vut (for the Alamanns or Burgundians), and the Gothic Guþ (O.N.
Goð → God, guð, goð).
This paper documents the special topic of the variants “Gut” / “Wut” for Woden's characteristics /G/
for “Goodness” respectively /W/ for “Fury”.
Thoth, Hermes, Gwydion and Wodan
Hermes Trismegistus is "thrice-greatest Hermes"; Latin: Mercurius ter Maximus) is the
purported author of the Hermetic Corpus, a series of sacred texts that are the basis of
Hermeticism. Hermes Trismegistus may be associated with the Greek god Hermes and the
Egyptian god Thoth.
According to Jacob Grimm both the Germanic god Wodan and the Greco-Roman deity Hermes
(Mercury, cognate to the Egyptian Thoth /Teuth) had been considered as the inventors of the
alphabet and writing.
The Egyptian priests placed Hermes at the head of all inventions (lamblich. de myst.
Aegypt. 8, 1), and Theuth or Thoth is said to have first discovered letters (Plato's
Phaedr. 1, 96, Bekker) , while, ace. to Hygin. Fab. 143, Hermes learnt them by watching
the flight of cranes1.

Usually the relation between the Germanic god Wodan and the Greek deity Hermes (Latin:
Mercury) is considered as a result of the 'Roman interpretation' of other peoples' religion. This is a
simplification which may be replaced by a reference to the fundamental characteristics such as the
planetary velocities.

Wodan's Fury
Mercury however is the planet which is moving at the highest velocity in the planetary system.
Therefore the god with the highest velocity seems to represent the messenger for the upper class of
the deities. The metal mercury symbolizes the activity of this deity, whose Germanic name varied in
the range of “Wod”, “Wut”, “Vut”, “Wuot”, etc....
The fury also refers to the erosion in the name of the river “Wutach” whose “fury” managed to form
a canyon in the Black Forest near the sources of the Danube river. Nearer to the sources the same
river is named “Gutach”, which refers to the “good river” without any traces of furious erosion.
G and W are correlating characters which often switch in neighboring languages. One of the
samples is the German name Wilhelm which is translated in the French version Guillaume.

Gwydion
Another alternative G/W-intermediate name2 may be Gwydion. In Teutonic Mythology Jacob
Grimm describes Gwydion as an inventor of the alphabet:
In the Old British mythology there appears a Gwydion ab Don, G. son of Don, whom Davies
(Celtic researches pp. 168, 174. Brit. myth. p. 118, 204, 263-4, 353, 429, 504, 541) identifies
with Hermes ; he invented writing, practised magic, and built the rainbow; the milky way
was named caer Gwydion, G. scastle (Owen, sub v.). The British antiquaries say nothing of
Woden, yet Gwydion seems near of kin to the above Gwodan = Wodan. So the Irish name
for dies Mercurii, dia Geden, whether modelled on the Engl. Wednesday or not, leads us to
the form Goden, Gwoden (see Suppl.).

The details, which are found in Grimm's Teutonic Mythology may be extended to recent
documentation in the web. The following notes represent a valuable information to the analysis.
Details to Gwydion

1 Grimm, Jacob - Teutonic Mythology Vol 3

2 Gwydion including a G and W is located between G (Guillaume) and W (Wilhelm)
In Wikipedia's Gwydion also has been documented as follows:
Gwydion fab Dôn (Welsh pronunciation: [ˈɡwɨɨ djɔn vaːb ˈdoːn]) is a magician, hero and
trickster of Welsh mythology, appearing most prominently in the Fourth Branch of the
Mabinogi, which focuses largely on his relationship with his young nephew, Lleu Llaw
Gyffes. He also appears prominently in the Welsh Triads, the Book of Taliesin and the
Stanzas of the Graves.3

The correlation between G in Old Welsh Guidgen and F in Old Irish Fidgen may be explained in
the following remark:
The name Gwydion (which should more properly be spelled Gwyddien in Modern
Welsh, as can be adduced from its Old Welsh form Guidgen; cognate with Old Irish
Fidgen) may be interpreted as "Born of Trees".[1] 4

Caer Wydion
Caer Wydion, the castle of Gwydion, was the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way.[4]

The Old Welsh Guidgen

In the 10th century, Old Welsh "Harleian" genealogies (Harleian MS 3859), mention is made of Lou
Hen ("Lou the old") map Guidgen, who most scholars identify with Lleu and Gwydion (who is
implied to be Lleu's father in the Mabinogi of Math, though this relationship isn't explicitly stated).
In the genealogy they are made direct descendants Caratauc son of Cinbelin son of Teuhant (recte
Tehuant), who are to be identified with the historical Catuvellaunian leaders Caratacus, Cunobelinus
and Tasciovanus.

The Legend of Gwydion

The Legend of Gwydion describes the young Gwydion as a fury (“impetuous”):
The story of Gwydion is recorded in the Fourth Branch of the Welsh mythological cycle
called the Mabinogion. Gwydion was the son of Don and the nephew and heir of Math,
king of Gwynedd. Math was a wise and powerful king, and he was preparing Gwydion
to reign after him.

As a young man Gwydion was impetuous and mischievous.

In analogy to Hermes Gwydion also is a tricky sorcerer and druid of the gods:
Gwydion is a powerful sorceror and master of illusion. He delights in trickery and is
thought to have originated April Fools' Day when he conjured the armies to trick
Aranrhod into arming Lleu. He is a lover of poetry and the art of the bards, and is the
druid of the gods. He is persistent in his ventures and learns from experience. He is both
subtle and devious, yet open and honest in his dealings with others. He takes
responsibility in his actions and in the actions of his people5.

3 Gwydion
4 Gwydion – reference [1]: Koch, John, Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 867
5 The Legend of Gwydion
Gwydion Caer Wydion
In the section of the poem Gwydion Caer Wydion narrated here, Gwydion is declaring his magical
lineage and shared spiritual existence with the underlaying forces below and beyond nature, he is a
poetic shaman of the highest order. Here we hear Gwydion recite a verse from the Cad Goddeu - the
Battle of the Trees, found in the The Book of Taliesin which tells the story of a battle fought
between Gwydion and Bran.
The poem contains an illustrative image of the inclusion of the signature ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“W-u-th”) in the
Futharc-alphabet. The line “I have been a word among letters” may also be interpreted as “I have
been a word ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ among letters (Futharc)”.
Also the line “I have been a book originally”clearly describes the interpretation of the Futharc
document as a “book”:
Before I assumed a consistent form,
I have been a sword,
Narrow variegated,
I will believe it when it appears.
I have been a door in the air,
I have been a shinning star,
I have been a word among letters,
I have been a book originally.
I have been the light of lanterns,
A year and a half.

I have been a course,

I have been an eagle,
I have been a corricle in the seas,
I have been compliant in the banquet,
I have been a drop in a shower,
I have been a sword in the grasp of a hand,
I have been a shield in battle,
I have been a string in a harp,
Disguissed for nine years in water -
In foam.
I have been sponge in the fire,
I have been wood, in the covert,
There is nothing in which I have not been.

Neither of mother or father, when I was made,

Was my blood or my body.
Nine formed faculties.,
Of the fruit of fruits, of fruit God made me,
Of primroses and blossoms,
Of thyme hill,
Of the flowers of trees and shrubs,
Of Earth, of an earthly course,
When I was formed.

Of the flower of nettles, Of the water of the ninth wave.

I was enchanted by Math, Before I became Immortal,
I know the star knowledge, Of the stars before the Earth was made6.

6 Gwydion Caer Wydion

The interpretation of the rune ᚠ as the initial letter “gw” in Gwydion
The suggested translations “Gwodan” and “Gwoden” for the name Gwydion suggest to interpret the
rune ᚠ in the initial keyword ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) of the Futharc as “Gw”, which might result in an
equally transliteration into “G” for “Godan” and “W” for “Wodan”.
This interpretation of ᚠ as “Gw” may serve as a common root for all alternative Wodan- and Godan-
names such as Wuodan, Wodan (in Saxony), Guddan, Gudan (in Westphalia), Gwydian, Godan, Vut
(for the Alamanns or Burgundians), and the Gothic Guþ (O.N. Goð → God, guð, goð).
“Vut” at the beginning of the Futharc alphabet
In a considerable number of Germanic regions the three initial characters ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) of
the Futharc-alphabet are cognate to Wodan's name “Wut”, respectively “Vut”. Therefore we
may assume that the inventor of this alphabet started the list of characters with his own
signature ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“W-u-th”).
The first character ᚠ of the Futharc-alphabet behaves like a digamma (Ϝ, ϝ, ϛ) which regionally
and/or historically may vary between various letters such as /F/, /V/, /W/, nut also /G/, /J/ and /Y/.
It would be a standard form of signature to put the author's name ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“W-u-th”) at the beginning
of a document in the form of the runic Futharc-alphabet.

Following the signature the document seems to be followed by the standard ᚨ-ᛇ-ᛟ (a-i-o)-structure
of a normal alphabet:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
Elder Futhark ᚠᚢᚦ ᚨ ᚱ ᚲ ᚷ ᚹ ᚺᚾ ᛁ ᛃᛇᛈᛉᛊ ᛏᛒᛖ ᛗ ᛚ ᛜ ᛟ ᛞ
Transliteration f u þ a r k g w h n i j ï p z s t b e m l ŋ o d
Kylver Stone
concept
i u þa r kgw h n i j ï p z s t b e m l ŋ o d

Table 1: Elder Futhark (documented in: Analysis of the Futhorc-Header)

The standard section ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“F-u-th”) of Germanic alphabets not only is signed by his inventor
“Vuth” or “Wuth”, but also contains the Germanic name of the highest deity in Germanic religion.
In the well-documented Gothic language the Gothic name Guþ7 (O.N. Goð → God, guð, goð)8 is
spelled with a “thorn” letter þ (“th”). This letter is cognate to the ᚦ in the Futharc's signature section
ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“F-u-th”).
In earlier papers I described ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“F-u-th”) as a keyword, but it also may be identified as a
signature and reverence to the sky-god.

7 Balg a Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language (With Especial Reference to English and German, 1887 )
8 The Longobards spelt it Wodan or Guddan, the Old Saxons Wuodan, Wodan, but in Westphalia again with the g
prefixed, Guddan, Gudan, the Anglo-Saxons Woden, the Frisians Weda.
The transition of the root “Gut” to “Wut”
The initial character ᚠ in Woden's name indicates a variable character ranging from /G/ for
“good” in the naming variant “Godan” and /W/ for “wild” in “Wodan”.
This transition “/G” (“good”) → “/W” (“wild”/“fury”) may be identified in the naming conventions
of a river “Gutach”, which in its course mutates to the furious river “Wutach”. The root “Gut” /
“Wut” in the names “Gutach”/”Wutach” corresponds to the transition of Wodan's character who is
described as “Good” as well as “Wild”.
The following map section described the transition of the river names from “Gutach” (“Good
River”) to the “Wutach” (“Furious River”)

1 The Transition from the “Gutach” (“Good River”) to the Wutach (“Furious River”)

In fact these roots “Gut” in “Gutach” (“Good River”) respectively “Wut” in Wutach (“Furious
River”) represent the names of the deity Wuodan, Wodan, who in other regions had been spelled
with a “G” instead of “W”.
A detailed analysis of the Gutach – Wutach river is documented in Is the Core "Wut" in "Wutach"
symbolizing "Wutan" ("Woden").

The “furious” Wuodan = the “good” Guddan (= Guþ / Goð)

Obviously the runic word ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) also included the variants “w-u-th”, “v-u-th” and “g-u-
th”, which regionally vary in names such as Wuodan, Wodan (in Saxony), Guddan, Gudan (in
Westphalia), Gwydian, Godan, Vut (for the Alamanns or Burgundians), and the Gothic Guþ 9 (O.N.
Goð → God, guð, goð)10.
In a footnote in Teutonic Mythology Jacob Grimm quotes Godfrey of Viterbo (and Paul Diac.) the
Gothic Guþ (Goð) is cognate tot the word “God”.
Godfrey of Viterbo11 (in Pistorius, ed. Struve 2, 305) has the legend out of Paul Diac.
with the names corrupted, Godam for Wodan, Feria for Frea. Godam or Votam sets him
thinking of the Germ, word got (deus)12.

9 Balg a Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language (With Especial Reference to English and German, 1887 )
10 The Longobards spelt it Wodan or Guddan, the Old Saxons Wuodan, Wodan, but in Westphalia again with the g
prefixed, Guddan, Gudan, the Anglo-Saxons Woden, the Frisians Weda.
11 (c. 1120 – c. 1196)
12 Grimm, Jacob - Teutonic Mythology Vol 3
Traces of Woden's Sanctuaries
In Teutonic Mythology the author Jacob Grimm lists a great number of Woden's sanctuaries, which
sometimes seem to have been renamed in Goden's sanctuaries13. The following quotation merely
concentrates on Woden's mountains (Yellow: “Wod”, blue “God”, green: Mercury) and skips the
other locations such as towns' names:
Plainer, and more to the purpose, appear the names of certain mountains, which in
heathen times were sacred to the service of the god. At Sigtŷs bergi, Sæm. 248a.
Othensberg, now Onsberg, on the Danish I. of Samsöe , Odensberg in Schonen.
Godesburg near Bonn, in docs, of Mid. Ages Gudenesberg, Giinther 1, 211 (anno 1131),
1, 274 (anno 1143), 2, 345 (anno 1265); and before that, Wôdenesberg, Lacomblet 97.
117, annis 947, 974. So early as in Caesarius heisterb. 8, 46 the two forms are put
together: Gudinsberg vel, Tit alii dicunt, Wudinsberg. Near the holy oak in Hesse, which
Boniface brought down, there stood a Wuodenesberg, still so named in a doc. Of 1154
(Schminke beschr. von Cassel, p. 30, conf. Wenk 3, 79), later Vdenesberg, Gudensberg ;
this hill is not to be confounded with Gudensberg by Erkshausen, district Rotenburg
(Niederhess. wochenbl. 1830, p. 1296), nor with a Gudenberg by Oberelsungen and
Zierenberg (ib. p. 1219. Eommel 2, 64. Gudenburg by Landau, p. 212); so that three
mountains of this name occur in Lower Hesse alone ; conf. montem Vodinberg, cum
silva eidem monti attinente, doc. of 1265 in Wenk II, no. 174. In a different
neighbourhood, a Henricus comes de Wodenesberg is named in a doc. of 1130,
Wedekind s notes 1, 367 ; a curtis Wôdenesberg in a doc. of 973, Falke tradit. corb. 534.
Gotansberg (anno 1275), Langs reg. 3, 471 : vineas duas gotansbcrge vocatas. Mabillon
s acta Bened. sec. 5, p. 208 contain the following : c in loco ubi mons quern dicunt
Wonesberth (1. Wônesberch = Wôdanesberg) a radicibus astra petit, said to be situate in
pagus Gandavensis, but more correctly Mt. Ardenghen between Boulogne and St. Omer.
Comes Wadanimontis, aft. Vaudemont in Lorraine (Don Calmet, tome 2, preuves
XLVIII. L.), seems to be the same, and to mean Wodanimons14. A Wôdnes beorg in the
Sax. Chron. (Ingram pp. 27. 62), later Wodnesborough, Wansborough in Wiltshire ; the
corruption already in Ethelwerd p. 835 : facta ruina magna ex utraque parte in loco qui
dicitur Wodnesbyrg for Wodnesberg ; but Florence, ed. 1592, p. 225, has Wodnesbeorh,
id est mons Wodeni15. A Wôdnesbeorg in Lappenberg's map near the Bearucwudu, conf.
Wodnesbury, Wodnesdyke, Wôdanesfeld in Lappenb. engl. Gesch. 1, 131. 258. 354. To
this we must add, that about the Hessian Gudensberg the story goes that King Charles
lies prisoned in it, that he there won a victory over the Saxons, and opened a well in the
wood for his thirsting army, but he will yet come forth of the mountain, he and his host,
at the appointed -time. The mythus of a victorious army pining for water is already
applied to King Carl by the Frankish annalists (Pertz 1, 150. 348), at the very moment
when they bring out the destruction of the Irminsûl ; but beyond a doubt it is older and
heathen : Saxo Gram. 42 has it of the victorious Balder. The agreement of such legends
with fixed points in the ancient cultus can not but heighten and confirm their
significance. A people whose faith is falling to pieces, will save here and there a
fragment of it, by fixing it on a new and unpersecuted object of veneration. After such
numerous instances of ancient Woden-hills, one need not be afraid to claim a mons
Mercurii when mentioned in Latin annalists, such as Fredegar.

13 12106034 Grimm Teutonic Mythology Vol 1 1882

14 We know of Graisivaudan, a valley near Grenoble in Dauphine, for which the Titurel has Graswaldane ; but there is
no ground for connecting it with the god.
15 Our present -borough, -bury, stands both correctly for burh, byrig, castle, town (Germ, burg), and incorrectly for the
lost beorg, beorh, mountain (Germ, berg). Trans.
Bad Godesberg
One of Woden's typical sanctuaries may be found in Bad Godesberg, a part of the former German
capital Bonn. The Godesberg is also the name of the steep hill, of volcanic origin, on the top of
which are the ruins of the Godesburg, a castle destroyed in 1583 during the Cologne War.
The first official record of the town is dated 722 AD and referred to a nearby mountain, the
Woudenesberg (later Godesberg), a basalt cone where the Ubii, a Germanic tribe, worshipped the
god Wotan.[1].
Strange as it may seem the name Woudenesberg originally was devoted to Woden, but later had to
be transformed to Godesberg. This renaming process may have been initiated by the Archbishop of
Cologne Dietrich I who in 1210 AD (On 15 October) laid the foundation stone of the Godesburg
fortress on the Godesberg mountain16.

The bonnets of the Ubian people

The bonnets of the adult Ubian women living at the Woudenesberg resemble the bonnets I identified
at other locations. The symbolism of these bonnets has been documented in the paper The
Symbolism of Hair Braids and Bonnets in Magical Powers. The long hair probably symbolized
religious authority and power. The following sculpture has been found at Cologne:

2: Ubian woman wearing a bonnet

File:Porträt einer Ubierin.jpg
photograph published by Tobias Paul , licensed as
CC BY-SA 4.

3: Similar bonnets in The Symbolism of Hair Braids and Bonnets in Magical

Powers.

16 Bad Godesberg
Gudensberg (Hesse)
Gudensberg had its first mention in documents in 1121. Nearby villages named Deute, Dissen,
Dorla, Gleichen, Maden and Obervorschütz have become parts of the municipality.
The town's name is presumably derived from an older form, Wotansberg, after the god Wōdanaz,
who was worshiped as the highest god by the Chatti in Old Germanic times.
The following old names are documented as follows17: Wothenesberc (1123), Wuodesnberg (1131)
and Wotensberg (1209) in the records of the 12 th - 13th century. [2] Even in 1672 the name
Wutansberg had been documented.

Utzberg
Utzberg is a former municipality in the Weimarer Land district of Thuringia, Germany, located
between Erfurt and Weimar.
At the early medieval era Utzberg has been documented as a sanctuary for Woden. Around 1170 the
first documentation describes the location as Wuodenesberg and Wutensberc18.
At 1123 a person has been identified as Hermannus of Wothensberg or Wodenesberg.
In the course of time the name transformed itself to Utensberc (1273), respectively Utisberg (15th
Cent.) and Utzberg (from 1790).

17 Mittelalter
18 in einer Urkunde, die Kaiser Friedrich I. für die Reichsabtei Fulda ausfertigte
Conclusion
According to Jacob Grimm both the Germanic god Wodan and the Greco-Roman deity Hermes
(Mercury) had been considered as the inventors of the alphabet and writing.
In a considerable number of Germanic regions the three initial characters ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) of the
Futharc-alphabet are cognate to Wodan's name “Wut”, respectively “Vut”. Therefore we may
assume that the inventor of this alphabet started the list of characters with his own signature ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ
(“W-u-th”).
The initial character ᚠ in Woden's name indicates a variable character ranging from /G/ for “good”
in the naming variant “Godan” and /W/ for “wild” in “Wodan”. This transition “/G” (“good”) →
“/W” (“wild”/“fury”) may be identified in the naming conventions of a river “Gutach”, which in its
course mutates to the furious river “Wutach”. The root “Gut”/“Wut” in the names
“Gutach”/”Wutach” corresponds to the transition of Wodan's character who is described as “Good”
as well as “Wild”.
The standard section ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“F-u-th”) of Germanic alphabets not only is signed by his inventor
“Vuth” or “Wuth”, but also contains the Germanic name of the highest deity in Germanic religion.
Obviously the runic word ᚠ-ᚢ-ᚦ (“f-u-th”) also included the variants “w-u-th”, “v-u-th” and “g-u-
th”, which regionally vary in names such as Wuodan, Wodan (in Saxony), Guddan, Gudan (in
Westphalia), Gwydian, Godan, Vut (for the Alamanns or Burgundians), and the Gothic Guþ (O.N.
Goð → God, guð, goð).
This equivalence between G and F may also have caused the G in Old Welsh Guidgen and F in Old
Irish Fidgen.
The poem Gwydion Caer Wydion contains an illustrative image of the inclusion of the signature ᚠ-
ᚢ-ᚦ (“W-u-th”) in the Futharc-alphabet.
The line “I have been a word among letters” may also be interpreted as “I have been a word ᚠ-ᚢ-
ᚦ among letters (Futharc)”. Also the line “I have been a book originally”clearly describes the
interpretation of the Futharc document as a “book”.
Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................1
Thoth, Hermes, Gwydion and Wodan..................................................................................................2
Wodan's Fury ..................................................................................................................................2
Gwydion...........................................................................................................................................2
Details to Gwydion ....................................................................................................................2
Caer Wydion...........................................................................................................................3
The Old Welsh Guidgen.........................................................................................................3
The Legend of Gwydion.............................................................................................................3
Gwydion Caer Wydion...........................................................................................................4
The interpretation of the rune ᚠ as the initial letter “gw” in Gwydion ......................................5
“Vut” at the beginning of the Futharc alphabet....................................................................................6
The transition of the root “Gut” to “Wut” ...........................................................................................7
The “furious” Wuodan = the “good” Guddan (= Guþ / Goð).........................................................7
Traces of Woden's Sanctuaries.............................................................................................................8
Bad Godesberg ................................................................................................................................9
The bonnets of the Ubian people................................................................................................9
Gudensberg (Hesse).......................................................................................................................10
Utzberg...........................................................................................................................................10
Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................11