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1. Introduction
2. Filtration
2.2. Classification
2.3. Parameters
3. Centrifugation
4. Case Study
4.2. Filtration
4.3. Centrifugation
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion
References
1. Introduction
With the increase in standard of living and the increase in consumption, there has
been an increase in pressure on industries that produce consumables, such as food,
water and pharmaceuticals to produce cleaner products. This requires the industries
to focus on separation techniques, such as filtration and centrifugation. However,
these two methods are already being widely used in these industries to ensure
cleaner products. Hence, there is an increase in emphasis on industries to develop
more cost effective and yet, efficient separation techniques to ensure cleaner
products for consumers, as well as maintaining reasonable prices.
2. Filtration
Filtration is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter
medium that allows the fluid but not the solid to pass through, and it is one of the
most common methods for the downstream processing of products.
(2) Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration membrane filtration (UF) is a low pressure membrane process for
water treatment that is designed to remove turbidity causing particles including
those comprised of suspended solids, bacteria, colloidal matter and proteins.
The main separation mechanism of UF membrane filtration is size exclusion or
sieving and the graphic illustrates that UF effectively removes particles in the size
range of less than 0.01 to 0.1 mm. Effective removal of these contaminants in a
source water results in a filtrate well suited for further treatment by downstream
reverse osmosis (RO).
The UF process is used in a wide variety of applications and industries and typical
feed sources include seawater, surface, well and waste waters.
2.3. Parameters
The rate of flow of filtration process is given by the following equation:
3. Centrifugation
Centrifugation is one of the most important and widely applied separation
techniques used in biochemistry, cellular and molecular biology as well as in
medicine. Currently, it is widely used from laboratory scale to large-scale industrial
in applications such as isolation of cells, subcellular organelles and macromolecules.
A Centrifuge utilizes centrifugal force (g-force) to isolate particles from their
surrounding media or to separate immiscible liquids from each other. [Majekodunmi S.
2015] In general bioprocesses it is used in the primary and intermediate recovery
stages as was presented in figure 1, where high throughput and low resolution
separation is needed. [Petrides D. et al. 1989]
The basic concept behind centrifugation can be described in four different physical
laws. Direction of the forces and a schematic picture of the particle in centrifugal
field is shown in figure 1. Buouancy force (F b) and Frictional force Ff are opposite
forces in relation to Centrifugal force Fc. In consequence, the forces that apply to a
particle, that is denser than the solution, can be expressed with two forces F c and
gravitational force Fg as shown in equation 1 and 2.
𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹 (1)
𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹2 𝐹 (2)
𝐹 (𝐹2 𝐹) 𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹 = = 1.118 ∗ 𝐹(1000)2 (3)
𝐹 𝐹
Small scale centrifuges can be generally divided according to their rotor type. As
stated before the rotor size is a variable in the RCF value. It also varies depending
on the type of centrifuge used. These centrifuges can be divided to three general
mechanisms: Fixed angle rotor, vertical tube rotor and swinging bucket rotor, as
shown in figure 2. Each of these have their advantages in specific applications.
In swinging bucket rotor the distance rmax to rmin is greatest, which may allow
higher resolution in density gradient centrifugation, as expressed in figure by the
blue lines. Also, with swinging bucket rotor the supernatant is easier to remove
without disturbing the pellet. Fixed angle rotor have intermediate running time
and are excellent for pelleting applications. Vertical tube rotors have shortest
running time due to the shortest distance from rmax to rmin. They are
exceptionally good in isopycnic separation, due to the short pathlength.
Commonly these centrifuges are used in small volumes for separating small
particle from liquid. As shown in figure 3. The small cells, organellas and their
building materials can be separated to the smallest particle using density
gradient centrifugation. This centrifugation technique uses several steps where
the supernatant, after pellet formation, is removed and centrifugation is
continued.
Figure 3 Differentiation of cells, organellas and their constitution substances [Siggard, R. 2008]
While small scale centrifuges can be divided depending on their rotor type, there
are still wide variety of other properties that differentiate these from each other.
The general differences between centrifuges are features such as: rotor speed,
presence or absence of vacuum, general manipulation of temperature, maximum
sample volume and fed type, continuous or batch. However, Industrial
centrifuges can be divided into two categories depending on their general
operation principle: termed sedimentation centrifuges and filter centrifuges.
[Koolman J. et al. 2005]
Filter centrifuges utilize the help of filter material together with centrifugal
forces. The particles are drifted towards the surface of the filter due to
centrifugal force gradient. Filter traps the solids and allows the liquid to run
through. [Beveridge T. 2000] Optimal process would utilize the advantages of
centrifugation and filtration for cost effective product manufacturing.
4. Case Study
4.2. Filtration
Industrial filtration systems are not as simple as those found in laboratory usage;
filtration systems in these industries are usually more complex and makes use of
more than one filtration to obtain the desired product. This is done so to ensure
a step by step process of removing contaminants, usually starting from the
contaminants of the largest size. This is to prevent the fouling of the membrane
of subsequent filtration systems, as the smaller the contaminant to remove, the
more expensive the membrane would cost to maintain and replace. [Filtration in
Pharmaceutical Production, http://www.criticalprocess.com/LifeSciences/pharmaceutical-
filters.php]
4.3. Centrifugation
Advantages of using centrifuges include short harvesting times and reduced labor
required. Also, as compared to other types of separation methods, centrifugation
tends to provide a more reliable recovery of the product and can allow a larger
volume of slurry to be separated at a given time. However, limitations include
high operating costs to maintain the speed of the centrifuge, and the subsequent
maintenance costs. [Grima, E. M., Belarbi, E., Fernández, F. A., Medina, A. R., & Chisti, Y.
2003]
For filtration, cellulose is first used in filter presses operating under pressure or
vacuum, to obtain a precoat layer. Biomass slurry is then subsequently filtered
through this precoat layer and the settled biomass is then obtained by scraping
off the precoat layer. For centrifugation, a decanter bowl centrifuge is normally
used, and is found to have a 90% to 100% efficiency in recovering the micro-
algae biomass. [Grima, E. M., Belarbi, E., Fernández, F. A., Medina, A. R., & Chisti, Y. 2003]
5. Discussion
5.1. Challenge and solution
Challenge
A filter cake is formed by the substances that are retained on a filter. The filter cake
grows in the course of filtration, becomes "thicker" as particulate matter is being
retained. With increasing layer thickness, the flow resistance of the filter cake increases,
which would decrease the rate of flow of filtration process, leading to inefficient
clarification of products.
Solution
The objective of the filter aid is to prevent the medium from becoming blocked and to
form an open, porous cake, hence reducing the resistance to flow of the filtrate. The
particles must be inert, insoluble, incompressible, and irregular shaped.
Filter aids may be used in either or both two ways:
(1) Pre-coating technique: by forming a pre-coat over the filter medium by filtering a
suspension of the filter aid.
(2) Body- mix technique: A small proportion of the filter aid (0.1-0.5 %) is added to
the slurry to be filtered. This slurry is recirculated through the filter until a clear
filtrate is obtained, filtration then proceeds to completion.
6. Conclusions
Based on what we have researched, our group believes that filtration and
centrifugation methods are important pieces of technology that should be
invested in. However, instead of focusing on the technology itself, we believe
that there should be more focus on the economic aspects of these separation
methods. In addition to creating more resilient and strong membranes, there
should also be more focus on firstly, making the systems more cost-effective.
This will help companies reduce the cost of separation and hence, be able to
provide consumers with more affordable consumables. Secondly, there should
also be more focus on making the systems more scalable. Hence, these
separation systems will be able to be used in a cost effective manner for small
scale processes as well.
References
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design. In Chemical Engineering Problems in Biotechnology, vol. 1, M. L. Shuler, ed.,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, p. 351.
BEVERIDGE, T., 2000. Large-Scale Centrifugation. In: J. KOOLMAN, ed, Handbook of Methods
and Instrumentation in Separation Science, . Volume 1 edn. Academic Press, pp. 357-367.
[Beveridge T. 2000]
HOLDICH, R., 2002. Centrifugal separations. In: MIDLAND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND
PUBLISHING, ISBN: 0954388100, ed, Fundamental of Particle Technology. volume 1 edn.
Midland Information Technology and Publishing, pp. 77-90.
KOOLMAN, J. and ROEHM, K.H., 2005. Cell fractioning. Color Atlas of Biochemistry. 2 edn.
flexibook, pp. 199-205.
MAJEKODUNMI, S., 2015. A Review on Centrifugation in the Pharmaceutical
Industry. American Journal of Biomedical Engineering, 5(2), pp. 67-78.
TAULBEE, D. and MERCEDES MAROTO-VALER, M., 2009. Centrifugation. In: C. POOLE,
ed, Handbook of Methods and Instrumentation in Separation Science, . Volume 1 edn.
Academic Press, pp. 50-71.
Industrial Centrifuges. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2017, from
http://centritechinc.com/08-industrial-centrifuges.html
Filtration in Pharmaceutical Production. (n.d.). Retrieved December 04, 2017, from
http://www.criticalprocess.com/LifeSciences/pharmaceutical-filters.php
Cheprasov, A. (n.d.). Sterilization by Filtration: Advantages & Disadvantages. Retrieved
November 29, 2017, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/sterilization-by-filtration-
advantages-disadvantages.html
Bux, F. (2013). Biotechnological Applications of Microalgae. Harvesting of Microalgal
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Decanter Centrifuges by Flottweg. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2017, from
https://www.flottweg.com/product-lines/decanter/
Grima, E. M., Belarbi, E., Fernández, F. A., Medina, A. R., & Chisti, Y. (2003). Recovery of
microalgal biomass and metabolites: process options and economics. Biotechnology
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