E:385

PARAMETRIC EVALUATION OF A
NH3/CO2 CASCADE SYSTEM FOR
SUPERMARKET REFRIGERATION
IN LABORATORY ENVIRONMENT

by

Carlos Perales Cabrejas

Master of Science Thesis in Refrigeration

Division of Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration
2006

Department of Energy Technology

Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
ABSTRACT
A refrigeration NH3/CO2 cascade system has been built in IUC laboratory in
Katrineholm (Sweden). The system is equipped with extensive instrumentation
in order to collect data and perform online diagnosis under laboratory controlled
environment.

The system solution under investigation replicates a medium size supermarket

in Sweden. The natural and environmental friendly refrigerant CO2 is used in
the low stage with several possibilities of system variations and parametric
analysis. The CO2 stage is divided into two different levels, one medium-
temperature or cooling side at around -8ºC and another low-temperature or
freezing side at -36ºC approximately.

Overall energy balance has been examined. Cooling and freezing product
temperature has been investigated. Several arrangement solutions have been
tested for the cascade condenser evaluation in the medium and low
temperature sides. Different defrost methods performance has been deep
focused.

2
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The ‘CO2 in Supermarket Refrigeration’ project was initiated as an agreement
between Installatörernas Utbildingscentrum (IUC) and KTH/Applied
Thermodynamics and Refrigeration Division. The project is managed by IUC
and financially supported from the companies Ahlsell, Huurre, AGA, WICA and
ICA. This project is also financed by Energimyndigheten (STEM). This thesis
work is involved in this project.

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Samer

Sawalha since this thesis was only possible due to your help, support and
advices, from as technical and as the moral side. Nobody knows all the hours
you have dedicated to me and I appreciate it really much.

Secondly, I would like to thank the professors from the Applied

Thermodynamics Department in the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (UPV),
José Miguel Corberán and José Gonzálvez, and also professor Björn Palm from
Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration Division of Energy Technology
Department in Kungl Tekniska Högskolan (KTH), for giving me the opportunity
to take this Erasmus scholarship between both departments and all the help
received to fix it. In addition, one part of this gratitude is for my international
coordinator in KTH, Rebecca Ljungqvist for her great help in my scholarship
procedure.

Furthermore, I would like to extend my gratitude to Jörgen Rogstam and Per-

Olof Nilsson from Installatörernas Utbildingscentrum (IUC) in Katrineholm,
where is placed the NH3/CO2 cascade facility, for all their useful comments and
help to manage the installation.

And I also would like to thank you Arash Soleimani Karimabad, for being my
support, company and friend during the months we spent in the laboratory
working together. That is also for you, Laia, for all the chats we had in the
department concerning our thesis.

On the other hand, I am very grateful to the people from Flemingsberg –Alex,
Benny, Emmanuel, Fabian, Felix, Jordi, Menchu and Xavi- and from Lappis –
Aina and Marta- for all the marvellous moments we have shared during this
Erasmus period here in Sweden. I will never forget.

Finally, this thesis is dedicated specially to my parents, Pablo and Lupe, and the
rest of my family and friends that, in spite of not having their company here in
Stockholm, are always with me wherever I am.

Carlos Perales Cabrejas

July 2006
Stockholm, Sweden

4
NOMENCLATURE

COP: Coefficient of performance

MC1, MC2: Coolers, medium-temperature or cooling cabinets 1, 2
MTS: Medium-temperature or cooling simulator
FC1, FC2: Freezers, low-temperature or freezing cabinets 1, 2
FTS: Low-temperature or freezing simulator
Q& : Cooling capacity (kW)
m& : Refrigerant mass flow rate (kg/s)
Cp : Specific heat (kJ/kgK)
dT : Temperature difference (ºC)
dh : Enthalpy difference (kJ/kg)
η v : Volumetric efficiency of the compressor (-)
V& : Swept volume flow (m3/h)
s

ρ in : Density of the refrigerant at the inlet to the compressor (kg/m3)

V&sr : Compressor displacement volume
n : Compressor speed (rpm)
nr : Compressor rated speed (rpm)
Poutlet : Discharge pressure (bar)
Pinlet : Suction pressure (bar)
η losses : Compressor thermal efficiency (-)
E&
comp ,elec : Compressor electrical power (kW)
E& comp , shaft : Compressor mechanical power (kW)
dhcomp : Compressor enthalpy difference (kJ/kg)
E&pump: Pump power (kW)
Pr: Product through the cabinets
X : Vapour fraction or quality
HTC: Heat transfer coefficient
HGD: Hot gas defrost
EHD: Electric heaters defrost
HG: Hot gas
dTair : Air temperature difference (ºC)
COP : Coefficient of performance
η is : Isentropic efficiency (-)
ΔTSuperheat : Superheat value between evaporator outlet and suction line
t : Time

Subscripts

W: Water side
cond: Condensation
Pierre: Based on Pierre’s correlation
ce: Complete evaporation

5
comp: Compressor
shaft: Mechanical shaft work
CO2,LT: Carbon dioxide in the low-temperature side
evap: evaporator
losses: Efficiency losses in the compressor
NOP: Refrigeration period or normal operation
DOP: Defrosting operation
sim: Simulator
is: isentropic
in: Inlet
out: Outlet
DC: Defrosting cabinet
NDC: Non-defrosting cabinet
Non-Defrosting or ND: Simulator and freezer that are not defrosting
HG: Hot gas
def: Defrost

6
DEFINITIONS

Overlap Temperature or Temperature Difference Across the Cascade

Condenser – Difference of temperature between the working fluids used in both
low and high stage in the cascade system.

Taken from the Danfoss ‘EKC 414A1 Controller’ Manual [1]:

Defrost Stop Temperature – If a defrost sensor has been mounted on the

evaporator, the defrost can be stopped at a given temperature. The temperature
value is set. If a defrost sensor has not been mounted, the defrost will be
stopped based on time.

Maximum Defrost Time – If it has been chosen defrost based on temperature,

this will constitute a safety period where the defrost will be stopped if no stop
based on temperature has taken place by then. If it has selected defrost stop
based on time, this setting will be the defrost time.

Drip-off Time – Time which is to elapse from the end of a defrost until
compressor is to be resumed. It is the time when water is dripping off the
evaporator

Fan start delay after defrost or fan’s delay – Time which is to elapse from when
the compressor is started after a defrost and until the fan may resume
operation. It is the time where the water is ‘bound’ to the evaporator

Taken from Wikipedia.org:

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) [2] – The ODP of a chemical compound is the
relative amount of degradation to the ozone layer it can cause, with
trichlorofluoromethane (R-11) being fixed at an ODP of 1.0.

Global Warming Potential (GWP) [3] – The GWP is a measure of how much a
given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. It is
a relative scale which compares the gas in question to that of the same mass of
carbon dioxide (whose GWP is by definition 1). A GWP is calculated over a
specific time interval and the value of this must be stated whenever a GWP is
quoted or else the value is meaningless.

7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………4

NOMENCLATURE……………………………………………………………………5

DEFINITIONS………………………………………………………………………….7

TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………...8

1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………….10
1.1. Historical use of CO2 as refrigerant……………………………………...10
1.1.1. NH3/CO2 cascade systems……………………………………………...12
1.2. The revival of CO2 as a refrigerant……………………………………….12
1.2.1. Characteristics of CO2………………………………………………….…13

2. BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………………...17

3. OBJECTIVES……………………………………………………………………...19

4. CASE OF STUDY…………………………………………………………………20
4.1. System Requirements and Boundaries………………………………….20
4.2. The system solution…………………………………………………………20

5. THE EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY……………………………………………….23

6. OVERALL SYSTEM ANALYSIS………………………………………………..28

6.1. Volumetric Efficiency for the Ammonia Compressor…………………28
6.2. Load Calculations and Energy Balance………………………………….30
6.3. Overall System Efficiency…………………………………………………..33
6.3.1. Low-Temperature Level COP…………………………………………….33
6.3.2. High-Temperature Level COP…………………………………………....33
6.3.3. Total System COP………………………………………………………....34

7. PRODUCT TEMPERATURE INVESTIGATION……………………………….36

7.1. Freezing cabinets…………………………………………………………….36
7.2. Cooling cabinets…………………………………………………………......39
7.3. Effect of Roof Fans…………………………………………………………..40

8. OPTIMIZATION OF THE CASCADE CONDENSER…………………………47

8.1. Indirect System Arrangements…………………………………………….47
8.1.1. Thermosyphon Loop Arrangement………………………………………50
8.1.2. Forced Condensation Loop Arrangement………………………………50
8.1.3. Comparison between both Indirect System Arrangements……………51
8.2. Cascade Condenser Arrangements………………………………………53

9. DEFROST………………………………………………………………………….60
9.1. Methods of Defrosting Under Investigation………………………….….60

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 9.1.1. Hot Gas Defrost Method…………………………………………………..60
9.1.2. Electric Heaters Defrost Method………………………………………....61
9.2. Defrost Tests……………………………………………………………….…62
9.3. Freezing Cabinets……………………………………………………………63
9.3.1. Defrost Sensor Location……………………………………..……………63
9.3.2. Defrosting Intervals…………………………………………..……………69
9.3.3. Effect of Fans during Defrost……………………………………….…….70
9.3.3.1 Electric Heaters Defrost Method……………………………………..……….71
9.3.3.2. Hot Gas Defrost Method………………………………………...…………….74
9.3.3.3. Comparison between HGD and EHD………………………………………..78
9.3.4. Energy Consumption during Defrost……………………….……………78
9.3.4.1. Electric Heaters Defrost Method…………………………………..…………78
9.3.4.2. Hot Gas Defrost Method………………………………………………………79
9.3.4.3. Comparison between Hot Gas and Electric Heaters Defrost in Energy
Consumption…………………………………………………….……………..83
9.3.4.4. Hot Gas Mass Flow during HGD………………………………..……………83
9.4. Cooling Cabinets………………………………………………………..……86
9.4.1. Results and comments………………………………………...………….86

10. CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………………89

11. REFERENCES……………………………………………………….………….92

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………..………….94

9
1. INTRODUCTION
CO2 has been used as a refrigerant in vapor compression systems for over 130
years. But only in the last decade new interests appeared to exploit its
beneficial properties due to restrictions on other refrigerants. The HFCs were
once expected to be acceptable refrigerant fluids are now being phased out
because of their impact on the environment.

Along with trying to find new good chemical compounds, the refrigeration
industry had an increasing interest in technologies based on ecologically safe
‘natural’ refrigerants, i.e. fluids like water, air, noble gases, hydrocarbons, NH3
and CO2. Among these, CO2 is the only non-flammable and non-toxic fluid that
can also operate in a vapor compression cycle below 0ºC, having the potential
to offer environmental and personal safety in a refrigerating system.

The HFC refrigerants that were the main cause of the retirement of the CO2 are
now paradoxically being partly displaced by this ‘natural’ substance.

1.1. Historical use of CO2 as refrigerant

A brief historical overview of using CO2 as refrigerant was described by

Donaldson and Nagengast [4], in the following paragraph:

CO2 was first proposed as a refrigerant for vapour-compression systems by

Alexander Twining, who mentioned it in his 1850 British patent. Thaddeus S.C.
Lowe experimented with CO2 for military balloons in the 1860s and recognized
the possibilities of using it as a refrigerant. He went on to build refrigerating
equipment obtaining British Patent 952 in 1867 and erected an ice machine
about 1869 at Jackson, Miss. He also constructed a machine on board a ship
for the transport of frozen meat in the Gulf of Mexico. Lowe did not develop his
ideas further. Carl Linde also experimented with CO2 when he designed a
machine for F. Krupp at Essen, Germany, in 1882. W. Raydt received British
Patent 15475 in 1884 for a compression ice-making system using CO2. British
Patent 1890 was granted to J. Harrison in 1884 for a device for manufacturing
CO2 for refrigerant use. Still, the use of CO2 really did not advance until Franz
Windhausen of Germany designed a CO2 compressor, receiving British Patent
2864 in 1886. Windhausen’s patent was purchased by J&E Hall of Great Britain,
who improved it, commencing manufacture about 1890. Hall’s CO2 machine
saw widespread application on ships, replacing the compressed air machines
theretofore used. CO2 machines were used universally on British ships into the
1940s.

As it was commented in the previous paragraph, after the first steps of applying
CO2 in refrigeration systems, mainly in marine systems but also in air
conditioning and stationary refrigeration –[5], [6]–, a peak was reached in CO2
systems production during the 1920s and the early ‘30s, with the advent of fin
coils, many small comfort cooling systems were installed in restaurants, hotel,
public spaces, nightclubs, hospital operating rooms, etc [6].

10
 Figure 1 - Percentage use of main primary refrigerants in existing marine cargo
installations [6]

With the arrival of the CFC refrigerants by DuPont in the 1930s-1940s (Figs. 1
and 2), these, by then called ‘safety refrigerants’, displaced the NH3, sulphur
dioxide and CO2 the ‘old working fluids’ in most refrigeration applications. Kim
et alt [6] listed the major factors that contributed to this replacement. In case of
NH3 and SO2, they were the well known safety reasons due to toxicity and
flammability, but it seems that main reasons of the CO2 displacement was the
high-pressure handling problems, capacity and efficiency loss at high
temperature (aggravated by the need to use air cooling instead of water).
Aggressive marketing of the new CFC products, low-cost tube assembly in
competing system and a failure of CO2 system manufacturers to improve and
modernize the design of systems and machinery also help to this substitution.

Figure 2 - Timeline or refrigeration development [5]

These new products were marketing-announced as the refrigerants able to

provide the efficiency and flexibility of NH3 but within the safety and reliability of
CO2. With this promotion, the freons quickly took over a large part of the
refrigeration market [7]. Although some systems solutions, such as cascade
systems, appeared in order to bypass the disadvantages accompanying the
high pressure of CO2 were not sufficient to keep the CO2 in the refrigerating
field.

11
With all these factors, the CFCs almost completely replaced CO2 in marine
market and seriously limited NH3’s usage in land market since 1950s.

1.1.1. NH3/CO2 cascade systems

As Pearson [5] commented, the Flick Company in 1932 installed a hybrid ‘spit-
stage’ system which utilized CO2 in the low-temperature stage. Figure 3 shows
the diagram of the Flick’s NH3/CO2 ‘spit-stage’. With this device, it was
possible to reduce the NH3 charge in the plant providing the necessary
refrigeration to condense the CO2 within moderate temperature and pressure
ranges.

Figure 3 - Flick’s ‘split-stage’ NH3/CO2 system [5]

The Frick’s ‘split-stage’ system faced with the problem that most of the
operators seems to be willing to accept the hazards associated with running a
large NH3 plant, so there was no need to spend the extra expense of installing
a cascade heat exchanger and the idea was not further developed.

1.2. The revival of CO2 as a refrigerant

After the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols in the late 1990s, the necessity to phase
out and eventually eliminate the usage of several groups of halogenated
hydrocarbons has renewed the interest in the ‘natural refrigerants’ such as: air,
water vapour, NH3, CO2 and hydrocarbons.

The first two refrigerants, that is, air and water vapour, have some restrictions
on their use in low-temperatures. On the other hand, despite a generally

12
excellent safety record, there is a strict limit on allowable charge of
hydrocarbons in a plant, which makes them inappropriate for use in large water
chillers and industrial systems unless pertinent safety standards could be
applied. In many ways, NH3 is ideal for large industrial systems where its soft
flammability, pungent smell and low threshold limit value do not present
problems. But NH3 is, however, unsuited for domestic, automotive and small
commercial refrigeration and heat pump systems. In addition, the evaporating
pressure of an NH3 system is below atmospheric pressure when the
evaporating temperature is below -35ºC, causing probable air leak into the
refrigeration system, leading to short-term inefficiency and the long-term
unreliability of the system [8]. These reasons leave CO2 as the only natural
refrigerant to be used across these systems [5]. Moreover, CO2 gas that is
used in refrigeration is a by-product of the chemical industry and its use in the
refrigeration system can be considered as a delayed step before its unavoidable
release to the environment [9].

1.2.1. Characteristics of CO2

Table A provides several characteristics and properties of CO2 and compares

them with other conventional refrigerants. As can be observed in the table, CO2
(R-744) is non-flammable natural refrigerant with no ozone depletion potential
and negligible global warming potential. Its reduced pressure is much higher
and its volumetric refrigeration capacity is 3-10 times larger than CFC, HCFC,
HFC and HC refrigerants. The critical pressure and temperature of CO2 are
73.8 bar and 31.1ºC, respectively.

Table A - Characteristics of selected refrigerants [6]

As can be seen in Figure 4, the pressure and temperature of the triple point of
CO2 are -56.6ºC and 5.2 bar, respectively. Furthermore, it can be seen from the
figure that the saturation pressure at 0ºC is of around 35 bars.

13
 Figure 4 - Phase and pressure-enthalpy diagrams of CO2 [6]

Figures 5a and 5b illustrate the saturation pressure and the slope of the
saturation temperature of CO2 compared to other refrigerants. The CO2
saturation pressure is much higher than other conventional refrigerants, and its
higher steepness produces a smaller decrease in the temperature associated
with a given pressure drop in the evaporator.

(a) (b)
Figure 5 - Saturated pressure (a) and its slope (b) for selected refrigerants [6]

Furthermore, an important characteristic present in CO2 is its low density ratio

(Figure 6a) which is defined as division of the liquid and vapour density. This
parameter takes part in an important role in an evaporator because it
determines the flow pattern and, therefore, the heat transfer coefficient [6]. The
higher vapour density of CO2 results in high volumetric refrigeration capacity.
As can be seen in Figure 6b, it increases with the temperature until a maximum
value at 22ºC is reached, then it decreases again. By definition, it is zero at the
critical point. High volumetric refrigeration capacity results in system designs
with smaller volumes.

14
 (a) (b)
Figure 6 - Density ratio and volumetric refrigeration capacity for some selected
refrigerants [6]

Nowadays, hydrofluorocarbons are being used only in restricted amounts and

high taxes are enforced. On the contrary, natural refrigerants such as CO2 and
hydrocarbons are tax free [10].

Lorentzen [7] exhibits some further advantages of CO2,

- complete compatibility with normal lubricants and common machine

construction materials
- easy availability everywhere, independent of any supply monopoly
- simple operation and service, no ‘recycling’ required, very low price

On the other hand, CO2 is not exempt from disadvantages. Firstly, using CO2
in refrigeration means that the system will operate with high working pressure.
In order to solve this problem, hybrids systems were applied in which CO2 is
used in the low stage; this limits the pressure to a level where the requirements
for components like compressors, controls and valves can be fulfilled with
conventional components [11]. In other case, newer components technology
should be investigated. Other problem derived from the high pressure level in
CO2 systems is the high off-cycle pressure. In order to avoid this condition, [11]
suggest several ways:

• A small, independent refrigeration system can be used to keep the liquid

temperature at levels where saturated pressure is less than design
pressure
• The volume of the expansion vessel can be of the order to prevent the
pressure from exceeding the design pressure
• The system can be design to resist the saturated pressure at the design
temperature (approximately 83.56 bar)
• Or, in the simplest way, to release the CO2 to the atmosphere which
reduces the system’s pressure

Though CO2 systems work with high pressures, it presents low compression
ratio (around 3 or 4 to 1, against approximately 8 to 1 in current HFC

15
compressors) which is a major factor contributing to compressor performance
[12]

Other important characteristic of CO2 which is important to have in mind is that

although CO2 is not toxic and non-flammable, on the contrary of NH3, it does
not have distinctive smell for detection. Furthermore, CO2 is denser than air
and it can displace the oxygen in the space. Both characteristics can be
dangerous in case of leakage, especially in reduced spaces. Symptoms
associated with the inhalation of air containing CO2 are presented in [11].
Detection and good ventilation systems should be placed in a plant which uses
CO2 as refrigerant.

If any liquid CO2 leakage happens in the system, it will pass through its triple
point (-56.6ºC at 5.2 bar), ‘dry ice’ will appear and the leakage may be sealed
by itself. In spite of being a good factor from safety point of view, it represents a
risk in case of the need to release CO2 liquid through a relief valve [13].

16
2. BACKGROUND1
In the early stages after the revival of CO2 as a refrigerant it was applied in low
temperature applications in supermarkets as a secondary refrigerant in indirect
systems. The usage of CO2 in cascade and transcritical systems for this
application has been suggested along with the indirect system, but the
limitations for the application of the cascade and transcritical systems have
been related to the scarcity of components that can efficiently handle CO2. Also
there have been many unanswered questions related to how to handle the
highly pressurized system and how safe it is to deal with CO2 in this application.
In the indirect system it was possible to use conventional components to handle
CO2; this is mainly due to the low operating pressure in the indirect loop at low
temperature applications, 12 bars at -35°C.

The pumping power needed for CO2 in the indirect system is very small
compared to conventional brine systems due to the small volume flow rate and
pressure drop of CO2 in the circuit. The small volume flow rate is a result of the
phase changing process on the CO2 side, which also contributes to having
small pressure drop in the pipes and heat exchangers.

Gaining experience and confidence in working with CO2 in indirect systems

combined with the knowledge that is gained through extensive research work
on CO2 in mobile air conditioning and hot water heat pumps brought the
attention of the industry for the necessity of producing components which are
specially designed, or modified, to handle CO2. As a result, cascade and trans-
critical systems became reasonably applicable.

In supermarket applications the difference between evaporating and

condensing temperatures is large, therefore, the cascade or other two-stage
systems become favorable and they are well adaptable for the two-temperature
level requirement for chilled and frozen products in the supermarket. The
indirect system requires an additional heat exchanger (primary refrigerant
evaporator/CO2 condenser), which implies that there is an additional
temperature difference across the heat exchanger and the resulting evaporating
temperature will be lower than if a direct expansion had been performed. In
cascade or multi-stage CO2 systems, CO2 evaporates directly in the
evaporators of the display cases, which minimizes the required temperature lift
and reduces the energy consumption.

In the direct expansion solution, the CO2 pump is not required; despite the fact
that the power consumption of the pump in the CO2 indirect solution is generally
very small compared to conventional brine pumps and relative to the total power
consumption of the entire system, still the elimination of the pump is
advantageous to reduce the installation cost. Practically the pumping power
usually is higher than necessary as it is difficult to find CO2 pumps to match
medium capacity systems and as the pumps usually are larger than needed a
bypass line is introduced to obtain the required CO2 flow rate in the
evaporators.

1
Based on ‘CO2 in Supermarket Refrigeration’. 1st phase report [7]

17
The low critical point for CO2 of 31ºC implies that it will operate with better
theoretical COP between low temperature ranges further below the critical point
compared to high stage conditions. Therefore, the application of CO2 in the low
stage of a cascade system yields a reasonable theoretical COP compared to
other refrigerants, see Figures 7a and 7b. In Figure 7b, the COP values above
the critical point are obtained at optimum pressure on the high pressure side.

Figure 7- COP of CO2 compared to other main refrigerants in low stage (a) and in high
stage (b) operations [9]

Several factors contribute to improve the COP of CO2. The favorable

thermophysical properties of CO2 results in low pressure and temperature drops
in the system. From the heat transfer point of view, the low surface tension will
make boiling easier and therefore will improve the heat transfer. Also, due to the
low pressure drop [14], the components of the system will be smaller while the
mass flow rate of the refrigerant will be comparable to R404A, R22, R502 and
R134a refrigerants, which will result in high mass flux of CO2 in the heat
exchangers. Another improvement to the COP comes from the improved
volumetric efficiency of the CO2 compressor compared to conventional
refrigerants; this is due to the lower pressure ratio across the CO2 compressor.

18
3. OBJECTIVES

This thesis work is part of a project that aims to develop, test, and evaluate an
energy efficient medium size supermarket system working with CO2 as the
refrigerant, emphasize is on using environmentally friendly refrigerants,
therefore, an NH3/CO2 cascade system is chosen.

A laboratory environment allows controlling over the boundary conditions of the

system and provides flexibility for modifications. Investigations will focus in first
place on overall system evaluation. Secondly, product temperature through both
two temperature level cabinets will be examined. Comparison between different
cascade condenser modifications will allow optimizing the system for the most
efficient solution arrangement. Detailed cabinet defrost analysis will be
performed for both medium and low-temperature levels’ cabinets. Performance
of electric and hot gas defrost methods in the freezers will be compared. Fans
effect, energy spent and time needed for defrost will be the criteria of evaluating
the two defrost methods.
This thesis is a continuation of the work in the CO2 in Supermarket
Refrigeration project [9].

19
4. CASE OF STUDY

4.1. System Requirements and Boundaries

The system solution under investigation has been chosen to be applicable to a

medium size supermarket installation in Sweden. The refrigeration system in
the supermarkets in Sweden usually operates to satisfy the evaporating
temperatures to maintain products at two temperature levels, around +2ºC for
cold food and -18ºC for frozen products. Despite the low ambient temperature in
Sweden, the condensing temperature is usually kept constant around the year
at a value of about 40 ºC. The cooling capacities of medium size supermarkets
are typically around 50 kW for freezing and 150 kW for cooling at the medium-
temperature level. This estimation is based on contacts with major installers of
supermarket systems in Sweden.

Accordingly, the system has been designed to operate between the

temperature boundaries mentioned above and to provide a cooling capacity
which is scaled down while trying to keep a load ratio of about 3. The low-
temperature side has a rated capacity of 7.4 kW and the medium-temperature
side was designed to have a capacity of 20 kW.

4.2. The System Solution

The absolute ideal refrigerant in every field of application does not exist. All
available refrigerant compounds have their own weak points, which must be
taken into account in the design and operation of the system. The difficulty of
finding one refrigerant which ideally suits both the high and low temperatures
and pressure ranges of a system operating with a large temperature lift leads to
the concept of a cascade system, that is, two separate refrigerant circuits are
connected thermally through a cascade condenser. The cascade condenser
heat exchanger is the condenser of the low-temperature stage and the
evaporator of the high-temperature stage. Introducing the cascade heat
exchange gives a loss in the system’s efficiency due to the necessity of having
a temperature difference between both fluids (overlap temperature); however,
compressors running with CO2 have greater efficiency and good heat transfer is
expected in the heat exchangers. The overall efficiency, therefore, for example,
of a NH3/CO2 cascade system is not lower than a traditional NH3 system [11].

In the system under investigation, a cascade system with NH3 at the high-
temperature stage and CO2 at the low-temperature stage was chosen,
meanwhile at the medium-temperature level; CO2 is pumped to provide the
required cooling load. Figure 8 is a schematic diagram of the CO2 circuits in the
system.

20
 Figure 8 - Schematic diagram of NH3/CO2 cascade system with CO2 at the medium and
low temperature level [9]

Using NH3 in the high-temperature stage means that it will be easy to deal with
a leakage accident as NH3 can only leak into the machine room which should
be equipped with proper safety devices. Using CO2 in the low-temperature
stage, results in reasonable operating pressure levels in the CO2 circuit (28
bars at -8°C), reduces the risk of water and air penetration (since NH3 pressure
will be higher than atmospheric pressure) and minimizes the NH3 charge in the
plant. In the chosen system, the NH3 always works above atmosphere pressure
and, therefore, this risk does not take place.

The high pressure difference between the NH3 and CO2 sides in the cascade
condenser is an important practical issue that has to be taken into account.
Since the CO2 pressure is higher than that of the NH3, the leakage would occur
in the NH3 side. In this case, ammonium carbonate, a solid corrosive
substance, would form immediately. To avoid this, good isolation between both
fluids must be ensured by proper design of the heat exchanger [15].

The favorable pressure drop characteristics of CO2 suits this application where
long distribution lines are usually needed. Also this implies that the size of the
distribution lines is also smaller than for other refrigerants, which reduces the
cost of the piping system.

21
The evaporators at the medium-temperature level are flooded with CO2 which
is circulated via a pump; this is expected to produce better performance due to
the good heat transfer characteristics of the completely wetted evaporator and,
therefore, the evaporator temperature will be higher than if a direct expansion
concept has been used.

22
5. THE EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY
The experimental facility was designed and built for ‘CO2 in Supermarket
Refrigeration’ project. This was initiated as an agreement between
Installatörernas Utbildingscentrum (IUC) and KTH/Applied Thermodynamics
and Refrigeration Division.

The 20 kW design cooling capacity at the medium-temperature level is divided

over two display cabinets with around 5 kW each (Figure 9) and the rest of the
capacity is supplied by an electric heater (Figure 10) in what is referred to as a
load simulator. The installed electric heater at the medium-temperature level
managed to provide three load steps of 2.2, 4.4 and 6.6 KW. Therefore, that
makes the rated total load at the cooling level to around 16.6 kW.

Figure 9 - Pictures of the medium-temperature cabinets (MC). Cabinet MC1 is on the right
and MC2 is on the left.

Figure 10 - Picture of the medium-temperature level simulator (MTS). The arrow indicates
the load steps buttons location in the simulator.

On the low-temperature side, the load is divided over two freezers (Figure 11)
with around 2.5 kW each and an electric heater (Figure 12) which can provide a
maximum load of 3 kW (also three steps of 1 kW each). Moreover, the freezers
are equipped with electronic expansion valves.

23
 Figure 11 - Picture of the freezing cabinets (FC). Cabinet FC1 is on the right and FC2 is
on the left.

Figure 12 - Picture of the low-temperature level simulator (FTS). The arrow indicates the
load steps buttons location in the simulator.

The compressor is a Copeland scroll type (Figure 13a) with operating

temperatures between -37°C and -8°C and a displacement of 4.1 m3/h. The
maximum cooling capacity of the compressor is 7.4 kW. The accumulation tank
(Figure 13b) has a capacity to contain 180 L of CO2 and is equipped with an
electronic level indicator. It can stand a pressure up to 40 bars which
corresponds to an operating temperature of about 6 °C. The system is equipped
with a safety release valve which is triggered when the pressure in the system
reaches 38 bars. To avoid the opening of the release valve and the loss of
significant charge from the system, a bleed valve is installed which opens for
periodical release of CO2 at lower pressure than the set value for the release
valve, 35 bars, so the pressure in the system will be reduced. If the pressure
increase in the system is higher than the rate that the bleed valve can handle,
then the release valve will open and release the system charge.

24
 (a) (b)
Figure 13 - Picture of the (a) CO2 Copeland Scroll compressor and the (b) CO2
accumulation tank used in the installation

The CO2 pump (Figure 14a) is a hermitic one with capacity higher than the
highest circulation rate desired; therefore, a
by-pass is used to reduce the flow rate
pumped into the medium temperature circuit.
About 1.5 meters head over the pump is
respected to prevent cavitation (Figure 14b).

(a) (b)
Figure 14 - Pictures of the (a) CO2 pump and a detail for the (b) safety head of 1.5 m
added.

The NH3 unit uses a Bock reciprocating compressor (Figure 15a) with
displacement of 40.5 m3/h; it can run at 50% reduced capacity by unloading half
of its cylinders. Heat is removed from the NH3 evaporator via a thermosyphon
loop which required a certain height of the unit. The capacity control of both
compressors is achieved by a frequency converter.

25
The cascade condenser (Figure 15b) is a plate type heat exchanger that is
specially selected to handle the pressure difference that will exist between CO2
and NH3, at -8 °C CO2 will have about 28 bars while NH3 will have a pressure
of about 2.7 bars at -12 °C.

(a) (b)
Figure 15 - Pictures of the (a) NH3 Bock Reciprocating compressor and the (b) cascade
condenser heat exchanger installed in the facility

The medium-temperature display cabinets have the conventional electric

defrost method installed. The freezing cabinets, in their part, can be defrosted
either by using hot gas defrost –where the evaporators are heated by passing
the hot gas through the evaporator tubes-, or by electric heaters.

Figure 16 is a detailed schematic diagram of the facility with most of the

measuring points indicated. As can be seen in the schematic diagram, several
by-pass lines and the high number of valves indicate possible variations in the
system which will be used for testing, modifications and parametric analysis.
The load simulators with the electric heaters can be seen in the diagram in the
medium and low- temperature circuits. The electric heaters provide heat to a
brine loop which exchanges the heat with the refrigerant in a plate heat
exchanger.

Although the schematic plot shows that one of the freezers is electrically
defrosted while the other is based on hot gas defrost, both freezers have the
option to run either electric or hot gas defrost methods.

26
Figure 16 - Detailed schematic diagram of the NH3/CO2 cascade system facility [9]

27
6. OVERALL SYSTEM ANALYSIS
The system under investigation is a scaled down real installation where the
main discussion is weather or not this system is a suitable replacement for
traditional technologies. In order to provide answers about the current system
solution, it is important to perform the overall analysis of the system where the
capacities are properly measured and the energy balance is verified.

The mass flow rate of the NH3 is used to calculate the cooling capacity and the
COP of the system. Using all the sensors and devices installed in the facility it is
possible to measure the mass flow rate of the NH3 and by knowing the
geometry of the compressor the volumetric efficiency can be calculated.

6.1. Volumetric Efficiency for the NH3 Compressor

A mass flow meter was installed in the water side and two thermocouples in the
water/NH3 heat exchanger to know the inlet and outlet temperatures of the
water. The water mass flow meter does not give an online measurement to the
data capturing system and is not permanently installed on the rig. This requires
calculating the NH3 mass flow from the compressor side using the volumetric
efficiency, compressor speed and density in the suction line.

By running energy balance on the NH3 condenser the mass flow rate of NH3
can be obtained using the following formula:

Q&W / NH 3 = m
& W ⋅ CpW ⋅ dTW = m
& NH3 ⋅ dhNH 3,cond (1)

Using the NH3 mass flow that is passing through the cascade condenser, the
actual volumetric efficiency is calculated using the refrigerant mass flow of the
compressor:

m& NH 3
m& NH 3 = η v ⋅ V&s ⋅ ρ in Æ ηv = (2)
V&s ⋅ ρ in

The compressor has a displacement V sr of 40.5 m3/h in full capacity mode and
20.25 m3/hr for reduced capacity (half capacity) mode both at rated speed n r of
1450 rpm. Swept volume flow in m3/s at a given speed can then be calculated
using the relation:

n 1
V&s = Vsr ⋅ ⋅ (3)
n r 3600

In order to calculate the volumetric efficiency at different pressure ratios a

correlation, equation 4, was suggested by Pierre [16] for “good” NH3
reciprocating compressor:

28
 Poutlet
η v ,Pierre = 1.02 ⋅ exp(−0.063 ⋅ ) (4)
Pinlet

Comparing the results obtained from both actual (‘nu_actual’ line in Figure 17)
and Pierre’s (’nu_Pierre’ line in Figure 17) methods, it can be seen that the
actual value of the volumetric efficiency is 7% higher than the Pierre’s. As can
be seen in the figure, the actual value of the volumetric efficiency presents a
fluctuation since it is based on the NH3 mass flow rate that is passing through
the NH3 condenser according to equations 1 and 2. This, on the other hand, is
calculated by the NH3 high pressure and as can be verified in Figure 18
(‘P_NH3_L’ line) the high pressure of the NH3 shows that fluctuation.

1,2

1,1

0,9

0,8
Volumetric efficiency (-)

0,7

0,6

0,5

0,4 nu_actual

0,3 nu_Pierre

0,2 nu_corrected

0,1

0
12:18:06
12:25:37
12:33:10
12:40:40
12:48:13
12:55:43
13:03:14
13:10:48
13:18:18
13:25:50
13:33:23
13:41:01
13:48:32
13:56:10
14:03:40
14:11:15
14:18:45
14:26:17
14:33:51
14:41:21
14:48:53
14:56:24
15:03:57
15:11:29
15:18:59
15:26:33
15:34:06
15:41:36
15:49:09
15:56:41
16:04:11
16:11:45
16:19:18
16:26:48
16:34:22
16:41:55
16:49:29
16:56:59
17:04:35
17:12:05
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 17 - Plot of different methods of calculating the volumetric efficiency of the NH3
compressor

29
 32

30

28

26

24
P_NH3_L
22
P_NH3_H
20
P_CO2_L
Pressure (bar)

18
P_CO2_H
16

14

12

10

0
12:18:06
12:25:37
12:33:10
12:40:40
12:48:13
12:55:43
13:03:14
13:10:48
13:18:18
13:25:50
13:33:23
13:41:01
13:48:32
13:56:10
14:03:40
14:11:15
14:18:45
14:26:17
14:33:51
14:41:21
14:48:53
14:56:24
15:03:57
15:11:29
15:18:59
15:26:33
15:34:06
15:41:36
15:49:09
15:56:41
16:04:11
16:11:45
16:19:18
16:26:48
16:34:22
16:41:55
16:49:29
16:56:59
17:04:35
17:12:05
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 18 - Pressures for the NH3 and CO2 during the test

In order to have online calculating of the cooling capacity based on the

compressor data, Pierre’s correlation have been adjusted to account for the 7%
difference in volumetric efficiency (‘nu_corrected’ line in Figure 18). Using the
average of the actual volumetric efficiency, the following formula is produced:

Poutlet
η v ,corrected = 1.094 ⋅ exp(−0.063 ⋅ ) (5)
Pinlet

6.2. Load Calculations and Energy Balance

The NH3 compressor is used to determine the mass flow rate of the refrigerant
which will then be used to calculate the cooling capacity of the system. The
compressor manufacturer data have been used as guidelines for the
calculations which are based on knowing the geometry and the efficiencies of
the compressors at certain operating conditions. Measuring the rotational speed
of the compressor, and the temperatures and pressures around it gives all the
data needed to calculate the mass flow of the refrigerant. Consequently, it will
be possible to calculate the energy consumption of the compressor and the
cooling capacities of the evaporators/cabinets.

On the CO2 side, the energy balance around the compressor is also used to
obtain the total mass flow in the low-temperature side. The power consumption
of the CO2 compressor was measured by an electric meter. In this test, the
compressor was running at a constant rate and the power consumption was
measured to be around 2.02 kW during the test.

30
At the return line of the medium-temperature level the flow is a two phase one,
therefore it is not possible to calculate the load at the medium temperature by
measuring the mass flow of the refrigerant. By calculating the cooling capacity
at the cascade condenser and for the low-stage cabinets it will be possible to
calculate the total load at the medium temperature level.

The simulators at the medium- and low-temperature levels provide a fixed

known cooling capacity via the electric heaters which can be used to verify the
method of calculating the cooling capacity at the medium- and low-temperature
levels using the compressors manufacturers’ data. The medium-temperature
simulator provides a maximum of 6.6 kW, and the low-temperature simulator
provides a maximum of 3 kW. The two simulators can also be switched to 1/3
and 2/3 of its capacity.

The system is run with the cabinets and the simulators on. The electric power
consumption of the CO2 pump is measured and it varied around the average
value of 0.85 kW.

The system runs at around 34.4ºC for condensing NH3, -36ºC for freezers, and
a medium temperature of about -9ºC. A plot for the temperatures of the
boundary conditions of the system during the test period is presented in Figure
19.

45

40

35

30

25

20
T_NH3_cond T_NH3_evap
15

10 T_CO2_cond T_CO2_evap
Temperature (ºC)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30

-35

-40

-45
12:18:06
12:24:07
12:30:07
12:36:10
12:42:10
12:48:13
12:54:13
13:00:14
13:06:14
13:12:18
13:18:18
13:24:20
13:30:23
13:36:23
13:42:31
13:48:32
13:54:32
14:00:40
14:06:42
14:12:45
14:18:45
14:24:47
14:30:47
14:36:51
14:42:51
14:48:53
14:54:54
15:00:57
15:06:57
15:12:59
15:18:59
15:25:03
15:31:03
15:37:06
15:43:09
15:49:09
15:55:09
16:01:11
16:07:15
16:13:15
16:19:18
16:25:18
16:31:22
16:37:22
16:43:29
16:49:29
16:55:29
17:01:35
17:07:35
17:13:38

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 19- Boundary temperatures during energy balance test

In the beginning of the test, the system is run with the whole capacity of the
medium-temperature simulator (6.6 kW) and the load needed in the low
temperature side to run the CO2 compressor constant (region 1 in Figure 20). In
this region, the NH3 compressor was running at full capacity mode since the

31
load added was too high to run at reduced capacity. Then, the load in medium-
temperature side was reduced by switching off 1/3 of its simulator’s capacity
(region 2 in Figure 20). It was decided to put in reduced capacity mode for the
NH3 compressor since the compressor did not maintain continuous operation
as can be verified in Figure 20. Another button was removed in region 3, only
running with 2.2 kW in the medium-temperature simulator. After that, the whole
capacity from the medium-temperature side was removed except of the CO2
pump as can be seen in region 4 in the figure.

23
22
21
20 Q_dot_3/3MTS+LTS Q_dot_2/3MTS+LTS
19
18 Q_dot_1/3MTS+LTS Q_dot_LTS
17
16 Input Load_CO2s Q_dot_CC_av
15
14
Capacity (kW)

13
12
11
10
1
9
8 2
7 3
6
4
5
4
3
2
1
0
12:18:06
12:24:17
12:30:28
12:36:40
12:42:50
12:49:03
12:55:13
13:01:24
13:07:34
13:13:48
13:19:58
13:26:10
13:32:23
13:38:41
13:44:52
13:51:02
13:57:20
14:03:30
14:09:45
14:15:55
14:22:07
14:28:17
14:34:31
14:40:41
14:46:53
14:53:04
14:59:17
15:05:27
15:11:39
15:17:49
15:24:03
15:30:13
15:36:26
15:42:36
15:48:49
15:54:59
16:01:11
16:07:25
16:13:35
16:19:48
16:25:58
16:32:12
16:38:22
16:44:39
16:50:49
16:56:59
17:03:15
17:09:25
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 20 - Load input and adjusted cooling capacity through the cascade condenser

In order to calculate the low-temperature cooling capacity the CO2 compressor

power consumption can be used to obtain the CO2 mass flow though the
compressor. That is,

E& comp , shaft = η losses ⋅ E& comp ,el = m& CO 2, LT ⋅ dhcomp (6)

Where the E& CO 2 comp ,el is the electrical power consumption measured and dhCO 2comp
the enthalpy difference between inlet and outlet of the CO2 compressor.
Furthermore, it was assumed 7% losses in the compressor power due to heat
losses to the environment.

On the other hand, in the region 4, the cooling capacity at the low stage can be
calculated as follows:

Q& LT = m& CO 2, LT ⋅ dhevap (7)

32
Therefore, adding the capacity from the CO2 compressor and pump using
equation 7 yields the total load given in the region 4 to the system.

Q& LT + CO 2 comp& pump = Q& LT + η losses ⋅ E& CO 2 comp ,el + E& CO 2 pump (8)

By adding the known capacity from the medium-temperature simulator to the

total load from the low-temperature stage, it will be possible to know the entire
load added in the whole the test.

As is shown in Figure 20, the adjusted formula for the volumetric efficiency
correlation fits quite well with the supplied capacity during the whole test. The
region which has less accuracy –with the highest deviation from the input load-
is the second one; this is due to the fact that in this period the NH3 compressor
was running at full speed and it could not remove the load added, gradually
increasing the tank pressure.

6.3. Overall System Efficiency

The overall system efficiency is evaluated using the COP which compares the
useful refrigerating effect to the work supplied to provide it.

The total COP and the COP of each temperature level is calculated in order to
compare the efficiency of each stage during the test.

6.3.1. Low-Temperature Level COP

In this case, both freezers and simulator were running to maintain constant
speed in the CO2 compressor. The freezing side COP can be calculated by the
expression:

Q& LT
COPLT = (9)
E& CO 2,comp

The cooling capacity from the low-temperature side was obtained using the
CO2 mass flow rate and the conditions before and after the evaporator as was
expressed in equation 7.

6.3.2. High-Temperature Level COP

The cooling load of the cascade condenser is considered as the ‘useful’ load
which includes the refrigerating effects from the medium- and low-temperature
level and the capacities from the CO2 compressor and pump. Therefore, the
COP of the NH3 side can be obtained by the following equation:

33
 Q& CC
COPNH 3 = (10)
E& NH 3,comp

where the power consumption of the NH3 compressor, shaft power, was
calculated using the NH3 mass flow rate and the inlet and outlet conditions of
the compressor.

6.3.3. Total System COP

The COP of the overall system is evaluated using the useful refrigerating
capacities from both medium- and low-temperature levels divided by the sum of
the CO2 compressor and pump power consumption plus the NH3 compressor’s
as follows:

Q& MT + Q& LT
COPCO 2 = (11)
E& CO 2, pump + E& CO 2,comp + E& NH 3,comp

Figure 21 illustrates the COP of the high and low-temperature levels and of the
total system.

4,5

3,5
Coefficient of Performance (-)

3
COP_LT
2,5
COP_NH3

COP_total
2

1,5

0,5

0
12:18:06
12:25:37
12:33:10
12:40:40
12:48:13
12:55:43
13:03:14
13:10:48
13:18:18
13:25:50
13:33:23
13:41:41
13:49:12
13:56:50
14:04:20
14:11:55
14:19:25
14:26:57
14:34:31
14:42:01
14:49:33
14:57:07
15:04:37
15:12:09
15:19:39
15:27:13
15:34:46
15:42:16
15:49:49
15:57:21
16:04:51
16:12:25
16:19:58
16:27:28
16:35:02
16:42:35
16:50:09
16:57:39
17:05:15
17:12:48

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 21 - Coefficients of performance for the system

As Figure 21 shows, the COP of the CO2’s low-temperature level (‘COP_LT’

line) is almost constant during the whole test, being approximately 3.4. This is
due to the fact that the freezing load was almost constant in order to maintain
the CO2 compressor at stable speed as was commented before.

34
As can be observed in the figure, the COP of the high stage (‘CO2_NH3’ line)
increases when the load from the medium-temperature simulator decreases,
having a value between 3.7 and 3.9.

It has been noticed that the medium-temperature level has an important

influence in the overall system COP (‘COP_total’ in the plot). The total system
COP is around 2.8 when the simulator’s entire load is added and approximately
1.4 when the simulator is turned off.

Therefore, although the high stage performance worsens when medium-

temperature loads are supplied; however, their positive effect on the overall
system performance is higher.

35
7. PRODUCT TEMPERATURE INVESTIGATION

One of the main objectives of this thesis work is to know the optimum cabinet
operating conditions to obtain good product temperature between 0 and 4ºC in
the cooling cabinets and under –18ºC in the freezing cabinets.

7.1. Freezing Cabinets

Figure 22 illustrates product temperature measurements in both freezing

cabinets. For the measurement, thermocouples were inserted between two
product dummies. The selected measuring point positions were chosen based
on the assumption that these points will have the warmest product temperature
due to the fact that they are close to the warm inlet air side, and therefore will
have relatively fast response to the changes in air temperature. Additionally,
they are at the top of the products package where it will be exposed to radiation
from the surroundings.

(a) (b)
Figure 22 - Product temperature measurement distribution through the freezers – Freezer
2 (a) and Freezer 1 (b)-

Figures 23 and 24 show product temperature measuring points in both freezers.

Positions of air inlet and outlet to the evaporator are indicated.

36
 18
15
12 Air,in FC1
9 Air,out FC1
6
Pr1,FC1
3
Pr2,FC1
0
Pr3,FC1
-3
Temperature (ºC)

-6 Pr4,FC1

-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
-24
-27
-30
-33
-36
-39
20:47:04
20:59:28
21:11:46
21:24:02
21:36:20
21:48:36
22:00:54
22:13:11
22:25:29
22:37:46
22:50:05
23:02:22
23:14:40
23:26:57
23:39:15
23:51:31
0:03:49
0:16:06
0:28:32
0:40:50
0:53:07
1:05:26
1:17:43
1:30:01
1:42:20
1:54:39
2:06:55
2:19:13
2:31:30
2:43:48
2:56:05
3:08:23
3:20:39
3:32:58
3:45:15
3:57:40
4:09:58
4:22:15
4:34:33
4:46:52
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 23 - Air and product temperatures in freezer 1 (FC1)

21
18
15
12 Air,in FC2
9
Air,out FC2
6
Pr1,FC2
3
0 Pr2,FC2
Temperature (ºC)

-3 Pr3,FC2
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
-24
-27
-30
-33
-36
-39
17:08:00
17:20:17
17:32:33
17:44:50
17:57:05
18:09:23
18:21:39
18:33:56
18:46:12
18:58:30
19:10:46
19:23:03
19:35:19
19:47:37
19:59:53
20:12:11
20:24:36
20:36:54
20:49:12
21:01:28
21:13:46
21:26:02
21:38:20
21:50:36
22:02:54
22:15:11
22:27:29
22:39:46
22:52:05
23:04:22
23:16:40
23:28:57
23:41:15
23:53:39
0:05:56
0:18:15
0:30:32
0:42:50
0:55:07
1:07:26

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 24 - Air and product temperatures in freezer 2 (FC2)

As can be extracted from the Figure 22, there is different product temperature
distribution. The coldest product line (blue line in Figure 22) is the closest to the
cold air entering the cabinet after passing across the evaporator. The warmest
product line (pink line in Figure 22) is the furthest to the air outlet and is near the
air inlet to the freezer’s evaporator. This is due to the fact that the air in that
region has taken heat from the products and mixes with the room’s warm air.
The temperature difference between the coldest and hottest product line was
around 5ºC.

37
Furthermore, on the warm products line up to 2ºC temperature difference was
observed in the first freezer (FC1). This maximum temperature difference is
insignificant. As could be extracted from the results of FC1, the point in the
middle of the cabinet is colder than the other points at the same line (Pr1, in
Figure 23). On the other hand, the environment conditions in each side of the
cabinet have important influence in their product temperature. That is, the
products placed close to the wall (Pr2 in Figures 22b and 23) and near the
humidifier (Pr3) sides have higher temperature than in the middle.

In the second freezer (FC2) the product temperature distribution on the warmest
side was different. In this case, the coldest product place was near the wall
(Pr2, Figure 22a), meanwhile the central product points (Pr1) was the warmest.
In this case, 2ºC temperature difference on average was observed. The reason
of that has to do with the air movement in the room and around the cabinets.
Depending also on how long is the distance between the wall and each
measuring point. However, the difference is considered to be insignificant
especially at steady state conditions.

The controlling parameter of the cabinet was the air inlet in order to maintain the
product temperature below -18ºC. Figure 25 illustrates the temperature profiles
across the low-temperature evaporator and on the air side. As can be seen in
the plot, air enters to the evaporator frontal inlet at approximately -23ºC, then,
by passing through the evaporator tubes and fins cools down to around -34.5ºC
at the evaporator outlet at least 8ºC is obtained for the superheat and around
2ºC for the approach temperature.
-15
-16
-17
-18
-19
Warmest
-20
product
-21
temperature
-22
-23
-24
Temperature (ºC)

-25
Air
-26
temperature
Approach
-27
temperature
-28
(2ºC)
-29
-30
Superheat
-31
(At least 8ºC)
-32
-33
-34
-35
Refrigerant
-36
temperature
-37
-38
Freezing Evaporator Length

Figure 25 - Different temperature parameters through the freezers

38
 7.2. Cooling Cabinets

On the medium-temperature level, only one cabinet (MC1) had product

temperature measurements installed. Figure 26 shows the temperature
measurement points in the cabinet, the points are indicated by the red arrows.

Figure 26 - Product temperature measurement distribution through the cooling cabinet

In this case, the aim is to keep the chilled products in the range 0 to +4ºC. The
same criteria as in the case of the freezers, described above, are used in
distributing the temperature measurement point in the medium-temperature
cabinets.

Figure 27 shows air, product and evaporating temperatures in the cooling

cabinets. The controlling parameter of the cooling cabinets was the air inlet
temperature in the same way as in the freezers. In order to reach the desired
product temperature the setting temperature value for the entering air was
changed until the optimal performance was achieved. In this particular case, the
sensitive part was to have the coldest point which is at the rear end of the
bottom of the cabinet higher than 0 so the product will not freeze.

39
 10
Air,in Air,out T_Pr1 T_Pr2 T_Pr3 T_Pr4 Tevap
8

4
Temperature (ºC)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
10:00:03
10:05:13
10:10:28
10:15:38
10:20:48
10:26:01
10:31:11
10:36:25
10:41:35
10:46:48
10:51:58
10:57:11
11:02:21
11:07:31
11:12:44
11:17:54
11:23:08
11:28:18
11:33:30
11:38:40
11:43:54
11:49:04
11:54:17
11:59:27
12:04:37
12:09:52
12:15:02
12:20:15
12:25:25
12:30:39
12:35:49
12:41:02
12:46:12
12:51:22
12:56:36
13:01:46
13:06:59
13:12:09
13:17:23
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 27 – Air, product and evaporating temperatures in MC1

The way the test was done was as follows:

1. A certain temperature value was set in the display of the cabinet’s

controller for the entering air
2. After the steady-state conditions had been reached, the product
temperature range was observed. Then, the setting value was increased
or decreased depending on whether any product temperature was equal
or below 0ºC or above +4ºC, respectively.
3. The test was finished when every measured product temperature was
within the desired temperature range

Looking at the results from the figure, all products measuring points were within
the expected temperature range. Around 1.5ºC insignificant difference between
the maximum and minimum temperature products in the measured points has
been observed.

7.3. Effect of the Roof Fans

When open display cabinets are used there is a difference in temperature

between the cold environment of the cabinet and the warm exterior. Then, there
is a natural exchange of air between the two regions (infiltration).

Figure 28 illustrates the effect of infiltration between a refrigerated room and a

warm exterior.

40
Figure 28 – Infiltration due to the exchange of air between the cold refrigerated room and
the warm environment [17]

As can be seen in the figure, the air pressure of the both cold and warm spaces
equalize at the neutral elevation. Above and below this elevation, the air
pressures differ due to the static force of the column of air as function of the
density. Then, this air pressure difference will cause the cold air to flow out from
the refrigerated room at the bottom of the opening and the warm air to flow into
the cold room at the top of the opening [17]. The effect of this infiltration
produces a loss of energy due to the loss of cold air and the access of the warm
air from the surroundings.

In order to avoid the infiltration fans were placed in the roof of the cooling
cabinets. These fans create an air layer which protects the cold product
environment.

Figure 29 shows a schematic diagram of an opened vertical display cabinet [18]

when an air curtain is used.

41
 Figure 29 – Plot of the cooling cabinet with air curtain installed [19]

As is shown in the figure, the warm air enters to the cabinet in the return air
grille where the air inlet measurement is placed. Then it passes through the
fans that send the entering air to the evaporator to be cooled down. Once the
cold air has passed across the evaporator (where the air outlet measurement is
located), it goes up by the back-panel which is perforated and allows diffusing
the cooled air through the product shelves. The remaining air arrives to the
ceiling of the cabinet being discharged downwards to the air inlet grille in order
to close the air cycle. When the roof fans are on there is an air jet protection (air
curtain) which prevents infiltration.

Therefore, the effect of the air curtain on the performance of the cooling
cabinets was tested. To compare this, the roof fans from the medium-
temperature cabinets were disconnected for a sufficient period to get steady-
state conditions.

Figures 30 and 31 show air inlet and outlet temperatures in the cabinet
respectively for both roof fans switched-on and off cases. The defrost period
was, in both cases, 12 hours. The air temperatures in the cabinet have an
important influence on the performance. That is, when the air inlet temperature
reaches a certain maximum value the solenoid valve opens allowing the
refrigerant entering to the evaporator then cooling down the air. When the air
inlet reaches the minimum setting value, the valve closes stopping the cooling.

42
In case of having high air temperatures that means that the valve has to open
more frequently in order to cool the air to achieve the settings.

As can be seen in both figures, although the air frequency is slightly shorter in
first half period of the test for the roof fans-on case, later it becomes longer;
while, the air cycle frequency in roof fans-off case remains almost constant
during the test period, being on average approximately the same value in both
cases. Although there is not curtain circulating the air across the cooling cabinet
in the switched-off case, observing Figures 31 and 32, there is almost no
difference in the air temperature in the cabinet.

Figures 32 and 33 illustrate the product and room temperatures when the roof
fans were on and off, respectively. Table B summarizes the maximum and
minimum product temperature values comparing both cases.

As can be seen in those figures, although the air temperatures in the cabinet
have almost the same value in both cases, the product temperatures when the
roof fans were disconnected are higher than when the air curtain was
connected in about 0.7ºC. This may indicate that there is an infiltration of warm
exterior in the upper part of the opening as was commented above which
increases the product temperatures.

Looking at the room temperature in Figure 33 (‘Room_Temp_OFF’ line), when

the tests were run, the roof fans off had a room temperature between 17 and
19ºC. In the case when the air curtain was connected (‘Room_Temp_ON’ line in
Figure 32), the room temperature was between around 19 and 21ºC. Therefore,
in spite having even lower room temperature when the air curtain was
disconnected, the roof fans off method had higher product temperatures

43
 Air Outlet Temperature (ºC) Air Inlet Temperature (ºC)

-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

14:07:59 14:07:59
14:26:20 14:26:20
14:44:34 14:44:34
15:02:55 15:02:55
15:21:12 15:21:12
15:39:33 15:39:33
15:57:47 15:57:47
16:16:08 16:16:08
16:34:28 16:34:28
16:52:44 16:52:44
17:11:04 17:11:04
17:29:19 17:29:19
17:47:39 17:47:39
18:05:59 18:05:59
18:24:15 18:24:15
18:42:35 18:42:35
19:00:50 19:00:50
19:19:10 19:19:10
19:37:26 19:37:26
19:55:47 19:55:47
20:14:10 20:14:10
20:32:25 20:32:25

off methods
Time (hh:mm:ss)
20:50:46 Time (hh:mm:ss) 20:50:46

and off methods

21:09:01 21:09:01
21:27:23 21:27:23
21:45:38 21:45:38
22:04:00 22:04:00
22:22:21 22:22:21
22:40:37 22:40:37
22:58:59 22:58:59

Air,out_ON
Air,out_OFF
23:17:14 23:17:14
23:35:36 23:35:36
23:53:58 23:53:58
Air,in_ON
Air,in_OFF

0:12:14 0:12:14
0:30:37 0:30:37
0:48:52 0:48:52
1:07:14 1:07:14
1:25:30 1:25:30
1:43:53 1:43:53
2:02:15 2:02:15

Figure 31 - Air outlet in the medium-temperature cabinets depending on switch-on and

Figure 30 - Air inlet in the medium-temperature cabinets depending on the switched-on

44
 Product Temperature (ºC) Product Temperature (ºC)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
14:07:59 14:04:58
14:27:00 14:23:42
14:45:54 14:42:29
15:04:55 15:01:17
15:23:57 15:20:03

(ºC)
15:42:53 15:38:50
16:01:53 15:57:38

Parameter
16:20:48 16:16:21
16:39:48 16:35:11

Method
16:58:48 16:53:55

Max. product temp.

17:17:44 17:12:43
17:36:45 17:31:32
17:55:45 17:50:15
18:14:39 18:09:05
18:33:40 18:27:55
18:52:40 18:46:40
19:11:36 19:05:30
19:24:15

T_Pr3_OFF
T_Pr1_OFF
19:30:36
19:49:31 19:43:06

Room_Temp_OFF
20:08:32 20:01:56

3.6
20:27:35 20:20:42
T_Pr3_ON
T_Pr1_ON

20:46:30 20:39:31

Time (hh:mm:ss)
Time (hh:mm:ss)
21:05:31 20:58:20
Room_Temp_ON

21:17:06

Roof fans ON
21:24:33
21:43:28 21:35:56
22:02:30 21:54:41
22:21:31 22:13:32

T_Pr4_OFF
T_Pr2_OFF
22:40:27 22:32:22
22:59:29 22:51:07
23:18:24 23:09:58
T_Pr4_ON
T_Pr2_ON

23:37:26 23:28:48
23:56:28 23:47:33
0:15:24 0:06:24
0:34:27 0:25:10
0:53:28 0:44:01
1:12:24 1:02:52

4.4
1:31:26 1:21:38

1:50:28 1:40:30

2:09:25 1:59:22

Roof fans OFF

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Figure 32 – Product and room temperatures when the roof fans were connected

13,5
14,5
15,5
16,5
17,5
18,5
19,5
20,5
15,5
16,5
17,5
18,5
19,5
20,5
21,5
22,5

Figure 33 – Product and room temperatures when the roof fans were disconnected
Room Temperature (ºC) Room Temperature (ºC)

45
Min. product temp. (ºC) 1.9 2.6
Product glide2 (ºC) 1.7 1.8
Table B - Comparison between product temperatures depending on roof-fans method
used

As a recommendation, the usage of the air curtain will have a positive influence
on the product temperature. The cooling capacity of the cabinet should be
improved; this has not been measured in the test but the increase in the product
temperature is an indication for it.

2
Temperature difference between maximum and minimum product temperatures in the cabinet

46
8. OPTIMIZATION OF THE CASCADE CONDENSER
The usage of the cascade condenser heat exchanger produces a penalty in
comparison to a two-stage system using one refrigerant. In a cascade system
there must be an overlap of temperatures between the condensing temperature
of the low temperature stage and the evaporating temperature of the high
temperature stage. This will result in lower evaporating temperature in the
cascade system and higher power consumption at the high stage.

Condensation of the CO2 can take place in different arrangements. There is a

need to evaluate and compare the performance of each arrangement and
condition in order to optimise the system.

8.1. Indirect System Arrangements

Figure 34 shows the two different arrangements tested for the medium-
temperature loop solution, arrangement in figure (a) is called ‘thermosyphon’
(Th) and (b) is ‘forced condensation’ (Fc).

(a) (b)
Figure 34 - Schematic diagrams for the cascade condenser arrangements at medium
loop: (a) Thermosyphon, (b) Forced condensation [9]

The thermosyphon arrangement operates by connecting the return line from the
medium-temperature evaporator to the accumulation vessel and, then, a loop
delivers the saturated vapour from the vessel to the cascade condenser so that
it condenses and returns back to the vessel.

The forced condensation arrangement passes directly the two-phase return

refrigerant from the cooling evaporator through the cascade condenser and
then it accumulates in the vessel.

In the thermosyphon arrangement the refrigerant entering the cascade

condenser will be saturated vapour which indicates good heat transfer
conditions. In case of the forced condensation arrangement, the quality of CO2
at the entrance of the cascade condenser will be lower than 1 and the heat
transfer is expected to be worse than the thermosyphon case. However, the
refrigerant mass flow will be higher which may improve the heat transfer over

47
the thermosyphon case. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate both
arrangements in order to conclude which solution yields better performance
from heat transfer and stability points of view.

The test consists of estimating the vapour quality at the exit of the medium-
temperature cabinet’s evaporators. Depending on the load, the mass flow of
refrigerant was calculated in order to obtain the desired circulation ratio. That is,
4 kW cooling capacity of each medium-temperature cabinet was assumed.
Then, the known medium temperature simulator load was provided in steps in
order to increase the cooling capacity.

Using the complete evaporation enthalpy difference ( dhce ) at the cooling

evaporator conditions (-8ºC and 28 bar), this yields,

dhce = h fg (−8º C ,28bar ) = 253,42kJ / kg (12)

Hereby, the mass flow for complete evaporation process was obtained as
follows:

Q& cabinets + Q& simulator

m& ce = (13)
dhce

Therefore, depending on the desired vapor fraction to have at the evaporator

outlet (cascade condenser inlet), the following formula was used to adjust the
mass flow of refrigerant in the medium-temperature loop:

m& ce
m& actual = (14)
X

Furthermore, equation 15 expresses the relation between the vapour fraction

and the circulation ratio:

1
CR = (15)
X

During the tests both medium-temperature loop arrangements were studied

were investigated for two vapor quality values, X=0.145 (low) and X=0.33
(high), and with different simulator loads.

Figure 35 illustrates the pressure in both CO2 and NH3 sides inside the
cascade condenser throughout both Th and FC loops tests. As can be seen in
the plot, the pressure that was changing during the test was the NH3’s because
the NH3 unit controls the pressure in the CO2 tank.

48
 29 4

P_CO2_Th P_CO2_FC 3,8

28,5
3,6
P_NH3_Th P_NH3_FC

3,4
28
CO2 Pressure (bar)

NH3 Pressure (bar)

3,2

27,5 3

2,8

27
2,6

2,4
26,5

2,2

26 2
12:01:31
12:21:24
12:41:21
13:01:13
13:21:05
13:40:57
14:00:53
14:20:46
14:40:37
15:00:28
15:20:27
15:40:24
16:00:15
16:21:08
16:41:05
17:00:58
17:20:50
17:40:48
18:00:40
12:27:31
12:47:23
13:07:18
13:27:14
13:47:08
14:07:03
14:26:56
14:46:55
15:06:49
15:26:49
15:46:42
16:06:36
16:26:37
16:46:32
17:06:29
17:26:27
17:46:23
18:06:23
18:26:18
Time (hh:mm)

Figure 35 - Pressure for both CO2 and NH3 sides in the cascade condenser for the
thermosyphon and forced condensation arrangements

Figure 36 presents the CO2 mass flow circulated in the medium-temperature

level loop for both thermosyphon and forced condensation arrangement tests.
Each estimated mass flow circulation was obtained by opening and closing
valves until the desired valued was reached. The room temperature remained
almost constant.

0,45 27
0,425 ForcedCondensation_MCsMassFlow 26,5
Low vapor quality in both arrangements
0,4
Thermosyphon_MCsMassFlow 26
0,375
ForcedCondensation_Room Temp 25,5
0,35
Thermosyphon_Room Temp 25
0,325
24,5
MCs CO2 Mass Flow (kg/s)

0,3
Room Temperature (ºC)

0,275 24

0,25 23,5

0,225 23
0,2 22,5
0,175
22
0,15
21,5
0,125
21
0,1
High vapor quality in both arrangements 20,5
0,075
0,05 20
Higher simulator's load for low X
0,025 19,5
Higher simulator's load for high X
0 19
12:01:31
12:21:34
12:41:41
13:01:43
13:21:45
13:41:47
14:01:53
14:21:56
14:41:57
15:01:59
15:22:07
15:42:14
16:02:46
16:23:23
16:43:25
17:03:28
17:23:30
17:43:39
18:03:48
12:30:41
12:50:47
13:10:48
13:30:54
13:50:59
14:11:03
14:31:06
14:51:15
15:11:21
15:31:29
15:51:32
16:11:36
16:31:47
16:51:56
17:11:59
17:32:09
17:52:13
18:12:23
18:32:30

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 36 - Refrigerant mass flow rate in the medium-temperature level and room
temperature during both thermosyphon and forced condensation arrangements tests

49
 8.1.1. Thermosyphon Loop Arrangement

The test for the thermosyphon arrangement was repeated in order to verify that
there is no difference between low and high quality cases in the refrigerant
through the cooling evaporator, as can be seen in Figure 37 with reasonable
accuracy. That is logical since the indirect loop is only delivering saturated
vapour towards the cascade condenser from the accumulating tank whichever
is the vapor fraction at the outlet of the medium-temperature evaporator.
Therefore, in spite of having different vapor quality at the return line of the
evaporator, actually there is quality equals to 1 at the cascade condenser
entrance in any case.

3,5
Temperature Difference Across the Cascade Condenser (ºC)

2,5

1,5

Thermosyphon_Low_X
1
Thermosyphon_High_X

0,5

0
13,5 14 14,5 15 15,5 16 16,5 17 17,5 18 18,5 19 19,5 20 20,5 21 21,5 22
Cooling Capacity (kW)

Figure 37 - Temperature difference across the cascade condenser for different cooling
capacities for thermosyphon arrangement

As can be seen in Figures 36 and 37, the mass flow increases by about 30%
with the high capacity which should improve the HTC. This improvement seems
to be very small since the temperature difference increase with higher capacity.
Furthermore, it has been noted that this arrangement was quite stable within the
whole test.

8.1.2. Forced Condensation Loop Arrangement

On the contrary of the thermosyphon loop, at the forced condensation

arrangement, it was found important differences between the low and high
qualities as Figure 38 illustrates. The biggest differences are at lower
capacities.

50
 5,5

5
Temperature Difference Across the Cascade Condenser (ºC)

4,5

3,5

2,5

1,5
ForcedCondensation_Low_X

1 ForcedCondensation_High_X

0,5

0
15,5 16 16,5 17 17,5 18 18,5 19 19,5 20 20,5 21 21,5 22 22,5 23 23,5
Cooling Capacity (kW)

Figure 38 - Temperature difference across the cascade condenser for different cooling
capacities for forced condensation arrangement

Looking at Figures 36 and 38, the high quality case increases the HTC with high
capacity; the improvement may be due to the increase of mass flow rate.
Regarding to the low vapor fraction, in this case happens the same as was
commented before for the thermosyphon loop.

Moreover, it has noticed that when this arrangement is used, the system
presents certain instability which implies longer time to get steady-state
conditions. This instability was higher with high vapor qualities.

8.1.3. Comparison between both Indirect System Arrangements

Figure 39 illustrates a comparison between both Th and Fc arrangements at

two different qualities and cooling capacities. The figure shows that both the
thermosyphon and forced condensation arrangements present approximately
the same heat transfer through the cascade condenser at low vapor fraction
values as was pointed out above. On the other hand, when higher vapour
qualities are reached at the exit of the evaporator, the forced condensation
arrangement’s heat transfer is worse than the thermosyphon’s.. This can be
explained by looking at Figure 40. Figure 40 shows local HTC value based on
Shaw’s correlation [20] at different circulation ratios for both arrangements. In
the figure, the entering conditions to the cascade condenser (or evaporator’s
outlet conditions) in both forced condensation’s cases are indicated with an
ellipse.

51
 5
CR=1.8
4,5 X=0.55
Temperature Difference across the Cascade Condenser (ºC)

4
CR=1.9
X=0.52
CR=2.1
X=0.47
3,5

3 CR=1
X=1
CR=4.4
2,5 X=0.22
CR=4.4
X=0.22
2 CR=4
X=0.24

1,5

Thermosyphon
1
ForcedCondensation_Low_X

0,5 ForcedCondensation_High_X

0
14 14,5 15 15,5 16 16,5 17 17,5 18 18,5 19 19,5 20 20,5 21 21,5 22 22,5
Cooling Capacity (kW)

Figure 39 - Comparison between both direct and indirect medium-temperature loop

arrangements at different cooling capacities

Figure 40 – Local HTC based on Shaw’s correlation [20] with different CR for the
arrangements under investigation

One important aspect to have into account about Figure 40 is that the HTC
values from Shaw’s correlation are overpredicted twice as high as the
experimental values observed by Jang and Hrnjak [21]. This means that the

52
actual lines would be closer to the vapor quality axis. Furthermore,
experimentally has been observed that mass flow does not improve the HTC as
much as the correlation predicts. This indicates that the actual mass flux lines
for each CR are closer to each other.

Shaw’s correlation also fail to capture the effect of heat flux since Jang and
Hrnjak’s results showed strong influence on heat transfer. Anyhow, Shaw’s
correlation can be used as tend line for the current evaluation.

Considering the comments from above, the HTC of the case of Fc with low CR
(high quality) might be higher with high capacities than the other Fc’s case due
to the steepness of the slope of each curve. This would explain the high
improvement of the HTC and the decrease in the overlap temperature.

Therefore, similar heat transfer performance has been noticed between Fc with
high CR and thermosyphon. Moreover, high capacity values the difference
among all the investigated arrangement seems to decrease. But, from the
stability point of view, thermosyphon has been observed more stable. Then,
thermosyphon loop should be applied.

8.2. Cascade Condenser Arrangements

Further arrangements were consequently performed to evaluate and compare

variations in the low-temperature level.

In the first arrangement (Figure 41a), called thermosyphon, the hot gas
discharge from the CO2 compressor passes though the liquid accumulated in
the tank, allowing the hot gas to be de-superheated by boiling off some of this
liquid. Meanwhile, the two-phase returning from the medium-temperature
evaporators goes directly to the tank. The saturated vapor in the tank circulates
in a thermosyphon loop where the condensate returns back to the accumulation
tank.

In the second arrangement (Figure 41b), the return line from the cooling
evaporators is mixed with the hot discharge gas from the freezing side just
before entering directly to the cascade condenser.

And, finally, in the third arrangement, called forced condensation, (Figure 41c),
the medium-temperature side is connected in the same way as in the
thermosyphon arrangement. But, in this case, the hot discharge gas from the
low-temperature level passes directly to the cascade condenser after mixing
with the saturated vapor from the accumulation tank.

53
 (c)
Figure 41 - Different diagrams for the cascade condenser arrangements at low-
temperature level: (a) Thermosyphon (b) Second arrangement and (c) Forced
condensation [9]

The second arrangement will result in quality at the inlet of the cascade
condenser but, in this case, the mass flow will be higher and the heat transfer
would be better as it was shown in some cases in the indirect system
arrangements. Since this arrangement is quite similar to the forced
condensation arrangement in the indirect system loop (Figure 34b), which was
previously evaluated, priority was given to the forced condensation
arrangement. The thermosyphon arrangement is the base arrangement that the
system is run with.

Test for both thermosyphon and forced condensation arrangements are done
by maintaining the low-temperature level at a specific capacity which keeps the
CO2 compressor running at constant speed. Then load is being added from the
medium-temperature simulator and only the first medium-temperature cabinet
was running all the time during the test.

Figure 42 shows the pressure boundaries of each refrigerant (NH3 and CO2)
and the room temperature during both tests. As can be seen in the plot, the
pressures were almost constant during the whole test. Condensing pressures
were around 13 bars and 27.5 bars for NH3 and CO2 respectively. Evaporating

54
pressures were 11.4 bar and 2.8 bar for CO2 and NH3 respectively. There was
only around 2ºC temperature difference in the room due to running activities in
the laboratory.
30 25

28 24,5

26 24

24
23,5
22
P_NH3_H P_NH3_L 23
20 P_CO2_H P_CO2_L

Room Temperature (ºC)

22,5
18 Room Temp
Pressure (bar)

22
16
21,5
14
21
12
20,5
10
20
8
Forced Condensation Loop Thermosyphon Loop
6 19,5

4 19

2 18,5

0 18
9:57:10
10:06:05
10:14:57
10:23:47
10:32:42
10:41:33
10:50:28
10:59:18
11:08:09
11:17:00
11:26:00
11:34:52
11:43:42
11:52:36
12:01:30
12:10:20
12:19:55
12:29:14
12:38:10
12:47:03
12:55:53
13:04:48
13:13:42
13:22:32
13:31:32
13:40:22
13:49:14
13:58:09
14:07:01
14:15:56
14:24:46
14:33:38
14:42:33
14:51:26
15:00:16
15:09:11
15:18:03
15:26:58
15:35:48
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 42 - Evaporating and condensing pressures from both NH3 and CO2 side and
room temperature during the test

Figure 43 illustrates the CO2 and NH3 compressors’ speeds. As can be

observed in the figure, the CO2 compressor maintained stable speed since the
load from the low-temperature level was constant during the whole test.
However, the compressor speed of the NH3 (pink line in Figure C) had different
speeds based on its frequency control according to the load added during the
test.

55
 4000

3500

3000

RPM_CO2
Compressor Speed (rpm)

2500
RPM_NH3

2000

Forced Condensation Loop Thermosyphon Loop

1500

1000

500

Lower cooling capacity Lower cooling capacity

0
9:57:10
10:06:25
10:15:37
10:24:47
10:34:02
10:43:13
10:52:28
11:01:39
11:10:49
11:20:00
11:29:20
11:38:32
11:47:46
11:56:56
12:06:10
12:16:05
12:25:44
12:35:00
12:44:10
12:53:23
13:02:38
13:11:52
13:21:02
13:30:22
13:39:32
13:48:44
13:57:59
14:07:11
14:16:26
14:25:36
14:34:48
14:44:03
14:53:16
15:02:26
15:11:41
15:20:53
15:30:08
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 43 - NH3 and CO2 compressors’ speeds during the test

Figure 44 presents the temperatures of two important points in the cascade

condenser in the forced condensation arrangements. One measures the
temperature of the compressor discharge after the junction which separates
each loop arrangement (point 1 in Figure 44). The other shows the temperature
at the inlet of the cascade condenser in the CO2 side (point 2 in Figure 44). The
latter indicates the temperature after mixing the refrigerant in both medium-
temperature loop and hot gas discharge in the direct arrangement.

56
 Figure 44 - Schematic diagram where measurements before the cascade condenser are
indicated

Figure 45 shows the measurements before the cascade condenser obtained

from the tests. These measurements are the temperature of the indicated points
in Figure 44. As can be observed in the ’Point 1 Temperature’ line in the figure
with Fc loop running, when higher load is supplied from the medium-
temperature simulator lower temperature is reached at the inlet of the cascade
condenser in the CO2 side. This is logical since when higher simulator’s load is
added, higher mass flow is provided to the medium-temperature level. The
higher saturated vapor mass flow is delivered from the CO2 tank to the cascade
condenser which is mixed with the hot discharge gas.

The results from the plot indicate a 28.7ºC at the inlet of the cascade condenser
when no simulator’s load is added. 22.2ºC temperature was reached when one
simulator’s step was supplied. The next step provided from the simulator
resulted in about 17ºC

The hot discharge gas was stable during the whole test for this arrangement at
a value around 100ºC as can be seen in Figure 45.

Once the arrangement was changed to the thermosyphon’s, ’Point 1

Temperature’ line indicates the saturating temperature of the vapor delivered
from the accumulation tank.

57
 110

100

90 Point 2 Temperature

80 Point 1 Temperature

70

60
Temperature (ºC)

50
Lower cooling capacity
40

30
Lower cooling capacity
20
28.7ºC
10
22.2ºC 17ºC -7.3ºC
0

-10
Forced Condensation Loop Thermosyphon Loop
-20
9:57:10
10:05:55
10:14:37
10:23:17
10:32:02
10:40:43
10:49:28
10:58:08
11:06:49
11:15:30
11:24:20
11:33:02
11:41:42
11:50:26
11:59:10
12:07:50
12:17:15
12:26:24
12:35:10
12:43:50
12:52:33
13:01:18
13:10:02
13:18:42
13:27:22
13:36:12
13:44:54
13:53:39
14:02:19
14:11:01
14:19:46
14:28:28
14:37:08
14:45:53
14:54:36
15:03:21
15:12:01
15:20:43
15:29:28
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 45 - Temperatures before the cascade condenser from the low-temperature side

The CO2 mass flow rate through the cascade condenser can be seen in Figure
46.

0,1
0,095
Forced Condensation Loop Thermosyphon Loop
0,09
0,085
0,08
0,075
0,07
CO2 Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0,065
0,06
0,055
0,05
0,045
m_dot_CC_CO2_Fc
0,04
0,035
m_dot_CC_CO2_Th
0,03
0,025
0,02
Lower cooling capacity Lower cooling capacity
0,015
0,01
0,005
0
9:57:10
10:06:05
10:14:57
10:23:47
10:32:42
10:41:33
10:50:28
10:59:18
11:08:09
11:17:00
11:26:00
11:34:52
11:43:42
11:52:36
12:01:30
12:10:20
12:19:55
12:29:14
12:38:10
12:47:03
12:55:53
13:04:48
13:13:42
13:22:32
13:31:32
13:40:22
13:49:14
13:58:09
14:07:01
14:15:56
14:24:46
14:33:38
14:42:33
14:51:26
15:00:16
15:09:11
15:18:03
15:26:58
15:35:48

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 46 - CO2 mass flow rate through the cascade condenser during both
arrangements

Looking at the figure it can be observed that the CO2 mass flow rate in the
thermosyphon arrangement was between 14-6.5% higher than the forced
condensation arrangement’s during the whole test.

58
Figure 47 illustrates the temperature difference across the cascade condenser
for different cooling capacities. The points in the plot were taken using the
average in the stable conditions.

3,25

3
Temperature Difference Across the Cascade Condenser (ºC)

2,75

2,5

2,25

1,75

1,5 Forced Condensation

1,25 Thermosyphon

0,75

0,5

0,25

0
14 14,5 15 15,5 16 16,5 17 17,5 18 18,5 19 19,5 20 20,5 21 21,5 22 22,5 23
Cooling Capacity (kW)

Figure 47- Comparison between different arrangements for the cascade condenser at
low-temperature side

The results extracted from the test in the thermosyphon arrangement confirm
earlier results as can be verified comparing the ’thermosyphon’ line in Figure 47
with Figure 39.

As can be seen in Figure 47, there is a temperature difference between both

arrangements of 0.2ºC all along the range. This temperature difference is
considered to be insignificant and negligible from the overall system
perspective. Moreover, it has been noticed that both arrangements presented
good stability within the whole range of study.

Consequently, both arrangements have similar heat transfer performance and

no optimum arrangement has been found.

59
9. DEFROST
There is a necessity for periodically defrosting air-cooled evaporators that
operate at sub-zero temperatures which will cause frost to collect on the
evaporator’s surface, obstructing the air flow through the evaporator and
degrading the heat transfer.

The period the evaporator should be defrosted depends on the nature of the
installation and the method of defrosting. In general, the length of the defrost
period is determined by the degree of frost accumulation on the evaporator and
by the rate at which heat can be applied to melt off the frost. Generally, the
degree of frost accumulation will depend on the humidity in the air, the season
of the year and the frequency of defrosting. As a general rule, the more
frequently the evaporator is defrosted, the smaller is the frost accumulation and
the shorter is the defrost period required [22]; but in that case, higher energy is
needed and higher increase in product temperature results. There must be an
optimum value which is one of the points of this test.

9.1. Methods of Defrosting Under Investigation

In the experimental rig, there are two different ways of defrosting installed in the
freezing cabinets: hot gas and electric heaters defrost; while the cooling
cabinets are equipped with conventional electric defrost method.

9.1.1. Hot Gas Defrost Method

Figures 48a and 48b is a schematic diagram illustrating the active lines and
components in the low-temperature level loop in normal and hot gas defrost
operations, respectively.

60
 (a) (b)
Figure 48 - Schematic diagram of the active lines and components at the low-
temperature level in (a) normal operation and (b) hot gas defrost operation

Hot gas defrost (HGD) utilizes the hot gas directly discharged from the
compressor as a source of heat to defrost the evaporator. The HGD consists of
a bypass equipped with a solenoid valve installed between the compressor
discharge and the evaporator (point 2 in Figure 48). Just before the defrost
period starts, the refrigeration is stopped closing the valve from the refrigerant
inlet line of the cabinet (point 1 in Figure 48). When the solenoid valve is
opened, a fraction of the hot gas from the compressor discharge bypasses the
condenser and enters the evaporator at a point just beyond the refrigerant
control. This method uses the sensible heat of the hot gas and no condensation
occurs.

9.1.2. Electric Heaters Defrost Method

Electric heaters defrost (EHD) uses electric resistance heaters along the
evaporator to melt the frost accumulated on its surface. The EHD cycle is
initiated by closing a solenoid valve in the liquid line causing the evaporator to
be evacuated. At the same time, the heating elements in the evaporator are
energized. After the evaporator is defrosted, the heaters are de-energized and
the system put back in operation by opening the liquid line solenoid.

61
Both methods are automatically operated and a timer is used to shut down the
freezing unit for a fixed period of time at regular intervals. Both the number and
the length of the defrost periods can be adjusted to suit the individual
installation. Since it is undesirable to keep the system out of service for any
longer than is necessary, the length of the defrost period should be carefully
adjusted so that the cabinets are properly defrosted and the system is back in
service as soon as possible. There are two ways to stop the defrost process: by
using the maximum defrost time or by a temperature signal placed in the
coldest part of the evaporator which indicates that defrost is completed.

9.2. Defrost Tests

To know the optimum defrost procedures, different periods and frequency of

defrost have been tested. The settings to stop defrosting have been
investigated and the position of the defrost sensor has been examined.

In the beginning, different defrost periods were tested and an optimum

preliminary interval was obtained for each defrost method, but the humidity in
the laboratory was lower than the real one in supermarket operation
approximately 18%. Humidity was removed from the room by frost forming on
the evaporator’s cold surfaces.
Therefore, in order to have
conditions similar to a real
supermarket case, a humidifier
(Figure 49) was placed in the
laboratory in order to maintain a
good level of humidity of about
30%3.

Figure 49 - Pictures of the humidifier and the pipe extension installed in the laboratory

3
Based in personal contacts in refrigerating companies such as WICA for a humidity value in real
supermarket case

62
An extension pipe, pointed out in Figure 49 to diffuse the humidity in the
laboratory was used to obtain a more homogeneous distribution in the room
environment.

9.3. Freezing Cabinets

The criteria for optimization of the defrost interval and method were to evaluate
the success of removing the accumulated frost and the increase of product
temperature after defrost.

9.3.1. Defrost Sensor Location

One important aspect related to defrost is the location of the defrost sensor.
This sensor stops the defrost operation when a temperature value is reached
and, therefore, its location inside the cabinet has crucial importance. The
defrost sensor is an indicator that the accumulated frost has been completely
removed and the evaporator is being heated up.

In the beginning 6ºC defrost stop temperature was set according to provider’s
data; but it was changed to 12ºC in order to be totally sure that the entire
evaporator was clean of frost. Figure 50 shows an example of how the defrost
sensor stops defrosting in the cabinet when the 12ºC setting value is reached
and the cabinet, after 10 minutes of drip off, is put back to refrigeration.

18
15
Inlet Evaporator Temperature
Defrost
12
starts
9 Outlet Evaporator Temperature

6
Defrost Sensor Temperature
3
0
-3
Temperature (ºC)

Defrost
-6
finishes
-9
-12
-15
Drip-off
-18
time
-21
-24
-27
-30 Refrigeration
starts
-33
-36
-39
2:40:02
2:42:32
2:45:02
2:47:32
2:50:02
2:52:43
2:55:13
2:57:43
3:00:13
3:02:52
3:05:22
3:07:52
3:10:22
3:12:52
3:15:33
3:18:03
3:20:33
3:23:03
3:25:33
3:28:11
3:30:41
3:33:11
3:35:41
3:38:22
3:40:52
3:43:22
3:45:52
3:48:22
3:51:00
3:53:31
3:56:01
3:58:31
4:01:12
4:03:42
4:06:12
4:08:42
4:11:13
4:13:50

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 50 - Example of how the defrost sensor acts in stopping defrosting at 12ºC

As can be seen in the plot, when the defrost sensor temperature reaches 0ºC it
remains at that temperature around 10 minutes (green line in the figure),
indicating that the melting process of the frost is taking place. After that, the

63
steepness of the defrost sensor temperature changes radically and reaches
quite fast the setting value of the defrost stop temperature.

Since the way of defrosting is different for the methods investigated, different
optimal places for the defrost sensor has been found.

In the beginning, the defrost sensor was placed in the upper side of the fins of
the refrigerant outlet according to the provider suggestions, as indicated in
Figure 51. This preliminary place for the defrost sensor was due to the fact that
the cabinets were designed for defrosting by electric heaters. The heaters are
placed in the frontal area of the evaporator and it was assumed that this area
would be heated up first meanwhile the rear area would be the colder. Then, the
sensor was kept in a relatively cold place.

Figure 51 - First place of the defrost sensor. The red-blue arrow indicates the flow of
the air across the evaporator

After early tests, it was found that the frontal side of the evaporator was the
area where the frost accumulation accumulates most. Figure 52 shows how
under normal operation the frost is accumulating on the frontal area of the
evaporator while the rear area remains clean after defrosting.

64
 Figure 52 - Picture of the evaporator after defrosting when the defrost sensor was
placed on the rear area

Therefore, the defrost sensor was moved from the original place to the frontal
side as can be seen in Figure 53.

Figure 53 - Second place of the defrost sensor and final for EHD

Figures 54a and 54b illustrate before and after electric heaters defrosting when
the defrost sensor is placed on the frontal area of the evaporator, respectively.
As can be observed in the plots, the frost has been melted letting clean the
frontal area of the evaporator. Only some frozen droplets remain on the
evaporator’s surface after refrigeration starts. In this case, it was the optimum
place for electrical heaters defrost method.

65
 (a) (b)
Figure 54 - Pictures of (a) before and (b) after defrosting when the defrost sensor is
placed on the frontal side of the evaporator

For the HGD method when the sensor is located in the upper side of the frontal
area was not sufficient to remove the frost from the evaporator. Figures 55a,
55b and 56 illustrate with detail the blockage of the frontal side of the
evaporator and the temperature profile of the defrost sensor in hot gas
defrosting, concluding that this area is the most important part to take care of in
defrosting. When the frontal side is blocked, then, there is less air flowing
though the evaporator and there will be loss in cooling capacity. If the frost
continues accumulating throughout the evaporator, considerable frost thickness
is reached. Therefore, it takes more time to remove the frost or even not to melt
it at all. Once the frontal side is totally blocked, the humid air accumulates more
and more frost as can be observed in Figure 57.

(a) (b)
Figure 55 - Pictures of the evaporator in HGD method when the defrost sensor is placed
in the upper side of the frontal area

66
 9
Defrost
6
finishes
3
Evaporator Inlet Temperature
0

-3 Evaporator Outlet Temperature

-6
Defrost Sensor Temperature
-9
Temperature (ºC)

Defrost
-12
starts
-15

-18
Refrigeration Refrigeration
-21

-24

-27

-30

-33

-36

-39
0:08:00
0:11:10
0:14:20
0:17:30
0:20:43
0:23:53
0:27:03
0:30:13
0:33:25
0:36:35
0:39:45
0:42:59
0:46:09
0:49:19
0:52:29
0:55:41
0:58:51
1:02:01
1:05:11
1:08:24
1:11:34
1:14:44
1:17:56
1:21:06
1:24:16
1:27:26
1:30:39
1:33:49
1:36:59
1:40:12
1:43:22
1:46:32
1:49:42
1:52:55
1:56:05
1:59:15
2:02:25
2:05:37
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 56 - Evaporator and defrost sensor temperatures for hot gas defrosting with 6ºC
stop temperature when the defrost sensor is placed in the upper side of the frontal area

Figure 57 - Frontal area of the freezing evaporator totally blocked of frost after several
cycles of hot gas defrost

Since there was an accumulation of frost on the cabinet’s floor, the defrost
sensor was placed in lower place as Figure 58 illustrates in order to be sure that
this frost melts during defrost. But it was not enough and the frontal area of the
evaporator was totally blocked again after several defrost cycles. So the defrost
sensor was lowered even further closer to the cabinet’s floor, as Figure 59
indicates.

67
Figure 58 - Detail of the third place for the hot gas defrost sensor and the beginning of
the process of the frost accumulation from the drain pan

As can be seen in Figure 58, the melted frost is accumulated in the drain pan
and starts the process of partly blocking the lower side of the evaporator’s
frontal area. The reason of why the liquid frost is not drained is due to two
possible reasons: the used drip-off time is not longer enough or the slope of the
drain pan is not high enough. To increase the drip-off long time enough would
imply more delay to put the system back to refrigeration mode, increasing the
product temperature and it may not assure complete removal of the liquid. To
increase the steepness of the drain pan would be a redesign problem which
would imply space limitations.

68
 Figure 59 - View of the freezing cabinet’s evaporator after hot gas defrosting and the
optimum place for hot gas defrost sensor

As a conclusion, the evaporator’s area where the frost accumulates the most
has been identified. So the defrost sensor measures the temperatures of the
coldest area where frost melts last, which should be a proper indication to
terminate defrosting. Furthermore, due to the different nature of defrosting it has
found different sensor location for the defrost methods under investigation.
Figures 53 and 59 show the optimum places for the defrost sensor in the frontal
area for both EHD and HGD, respectively.

9.3.2. Defrost Intervals

Once the defrost sensor was fixed in its optimal place for defrost, the optimum
defrost interval was tested.

As was pointed out in the introduction of the defrost section, the defrost period
of an evaporator should have an optimum length which achieves the aim of
removing completely the accumulated frost in the evaporator’s surface with the
lowest energy consumption required.

The criteria used to obtain the optimum defrost period for defrosting was to set
a defrost interval and after several cycles of defrost to observe if the setting
value was enough to clean the evaporator from frost. The cabinets were opened
before and after defrost in order to see the state of the evaporator and some
photos were taken. If the defrost period could not remove the accumulated frost
from the evaporator, a shorter defrost interval was set.

The test started with a setting value of 12 hours but it could not fulfil the aim of
clean the evaporator of frost. The following tests were made in the way
explained in the previous paragraph. Then, reducing the defrost period it was

69
found a good setting value of 8 hours for both hot gas and electric heaters
defrost methods.

Figure 60 illustrates the insufficiency of the defrost interval value since as can
be seen in the figure the frontal side of the evaporator is completely covered
with frost after several cycles of defrost.

Figure 60 - Frost accumulation in the evaporator due to the insufficiency of the defrost
period

Figures 61a and 61b show the conditions before and after defrost takes place
for the optimum interval respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 61 - Photos of the freezing evaporator (a) before and (b) after defrost for the
optimal defrost interval

9.3.3. Effect of Fans during Defrost

As Dossat [22] suggests in the explanation of the EHD, it should have switched-
off the fans during defrost operation. But, the current freezers were designed to

70
have connected the fans then. Therefore, a test was suggested in order to
evaluate the effect of the fans when EHD is taking place on the performance of
the freezing cabinets. Moreover, the study went further investigating also their
influence of the HGD.

In order to obtain the optimum behaviour of each defrost method and to know
their effect, both EHD and HGD methods were tested with and without fans
running during defrost operation.

9.3.3.1. Electric Heaters Defrost Method

Figure 62 illustrates the electric heater distribution in the freezing evaporator.

The first heater is placed at the inlet air channel in order to warm the air
entering the cabinet mainly warming the frontal area of the evaporator. The
second and third heaters warm the evaporator’s body and the air flowing
through it for proper distribution of the heat. Therefore, the electric heater
system was designed to have the air circulating through the cabinet.

Figure 62 - Electric heater distribution in the freezers

Figures 63 and 64 illustrate the temperature profiles in the freezers during both
electric heaters defrost with and without fans operation. Both figures show the
air, evaporator and defrost sensor temperatures. These temperature
measurements indicate how the cabinet performs during defrost. Furthermore,
Table C adds the information of the increase of the product temperature and
summarizes the temperature parameters from the plots.

Observing both figures and table, it can be observed that to have the fans
running during defrost slightly increases the defrost length and increases the
product temperature by about 1.5-2ºC. This is due to the fact that when the fans
are off the uneven heat distribution makes the area around the heaters heats up

71
faster, especially that it is situated close to the electric heaters. When the fans
are on the heat is removed from the area around the sensor and more even
distribution is achieved. Furthermore, with the fans on, the circulated air is
heated up across the electrical heaters then cooled down when it passes
through the refrigerated space, heating the products. This can be confirmed by
looking at the air inlet and outlet temperature difference in Table C.

30

25
Defrost Drip-off
Air,in_ON EHD
20 starts time
Air,out_ON EHD
15 Tevap,in_ON EHD
Tevap,out_ON EHD
10
Defsensor_ON EHD
5
Temperature (ºC)

-5
Refrigeration
-10

-15

-20
Defrost
finishes
-25

-30

-35

-40
2:40:02
2:44:32
2:49:02
2:53:43
2:58:13
3:02:52
3:07:22
3:11:52
3:16:33
3:21:03
3:25:33
3:30:11
3:34:41
3:39:22
3:43:52
3:48:22
3:53:00
3:57:31
4:02:12
4:06:42
4:11:13
4:15:50
4:20:20
4:25:02
4:29:32
4:34:02
4:38:40
4:43:10
4:47:52
4:52:22
4:56:53
5:01:31
5:06:01
5:10:31
5:15:11
5:19:41
5:24:20
5:28:50
5:33:20
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 63 - Electric Heaters defrost with fans running during defrosting (12ºC stop
temperature, 10 min. drip-off time)

In figure 63 where the fans are on, it can be clearly seen that all the
temperatures, except the exit air temperature, are following the same trend
which indicates a good distribution of heat along the evaporator. This is due to
the fact that the heaters are placed in the frontal area of the evaporator and
there is an additional heater in the air supply channel which heats up the
entering air as was commented above. It can be seen in the plot that the defrost
sensor has a constant value of 0ºC for a period of time which is due to the
melting frost around the sensor; this indicates that the sensor is in a good
position.

72
 30
Dripp-off
25
time
Air,in_OFF EHD
20
Fans
Defrost delay Air,out_OFF EHD
15
starts
Tevap,in_OFF EHD
10

Tevap,out_OFF EHD
5
Temperature (ºC)

0 Defsensor_OFF EHD

-5

-10
Refrigeration
-15

-20

-25
Defrost
-30
finishes

-35

-40
15:25:58
15:29:48
15:33:38
15:37:31
15:41:21
15:45:11
15:49:07
15:52:57
15:56:47
16:00:37
16:04:29
16:08:19
16:12:09
16:16:03
16:19:54
16:23:44
16:27:35
16:31:25
16:35:15
16:39:09
16:42:59
16:46:49
16:50:44
16:54:34
16:58:24
17:02:19
17:06:09
17:09:59
17:13:52
17:17:42
17:21:32
17:25:36
17:29:26
17:33:16
17:37:13
17:41:03
17:44:53
17:48:55
17:52:45
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 64 - Electric Heaters defrost without fans running during defrosting (12ºC stop
temperature, 10 min. drip-off time, 5 min. fan delay)

In figure 64, it can be seen that when the fans are off the temperatures in the
frontal side of the evaporator are much higher than on the rear part, about 25°C
difference when defrost finishes. This indicates a bad temperature distribution
and with time it may have frost accumulating in the rear part of the evaporator,
this can be seen by looking at the temperature of the evaporator exit
(Tevap_out). The defrost sensor temperature reaches higher value than the set
point, when the heaters are switched off the temperature of the sensor keeps
rising. With the fans off , the heater located in the inlet air channel does not
have the effect that it is installed for; it does not properly contribute to heating
the evaporator.

EHD Fans method

ON OFF
Parameter
Increase in prod. temp. (ºC) 3.99 2.31
Defrost time (min) 34.2 31.9
Max. air inlet T (ºC) 12.06 13.74
Max. air outlet T (ºC) 22.98 7.5
Table C - Different values for the cabinet parameters during EHD fan method

It has been noticed that after the fans turned-off method, there was some frost
remaining in the rear area of the evaporator mainly due to the fact that the
heater distribution in the cabinet was not designed to have the fans
disconnected during defrost. Otherwise, as can be seen in the figures, the fans
switched-off method would be a good way to melt the accumulated frost since it
separates the evaporator from the refrigerated space.

73
Therefore, to have the fans running during defrost contributes to achieve a good
homogeneous warming of the evaporator but it has the penalty of increase the
product temperature more than needed. On the contrary, with fans on the
increase of product temperature is smaller and the energy consumption of the
fans is saved but uneven heat distribution in the evaporator is reached. Then, a
good solution would be to have the fans off during defrost but heaters
distribution redesign is needed. Furthermore, a still better solution would be to
delay the fans start after defrost is finished and the system is put back to
refrigeration; by this way, it is possible to cool the warm air which surrounds the
evaporator and to avoid rejecting it into the refrigerated space.

9.3.3.2. Hot Gas Defrost Method

Figures 66 and 67 show the air, evaporator, defrost sensor and evaporator’s hot
gas inlet temperatures profiles in the freezers in hot gas defrosting when fans
are on and off, respectively. Moreover, Table D adds the information of the
increase of the product temperature and summarizes the temperature
parameters from the plots. It has been noticed that the hot gas mass flow (valve
opening) was also a sensitive parameter for defrost and its opening was critical
for the operation. Low mass flow resulted in bad defrost which stopped by time
not temperature and large opening will cause the evaporating temperature to
increase which affects the other cabinet’s cooling. Then a compromise solution
was taken.

Figure 65 shows a schematic diagram indicating the temperature

measurements in the evaporator in the HGD. The hot gas line is located just
after the expansion valve as was commented above when the hot gas defrost
method was introduced. One thermocouple (point 1 in the figure) measures the
hot gas temperature when entering the evaporator. The second measurement
(point 2) indicates the temperature of the first bend in the evaporator’s tube as
Figure 65 indicates. Finally, there is another thermocouple (point 3 in Figure 65)
which measures the evaporator’s outlet temperature.

74
 Figure 65 - Temperature measurements in the freezing evaporator

When the hot gas valve (HGV in Figure 65) is opened the hot gas is entering
the evaporator’s inlet tube at around 54ºC (‘Tdef_evap_in’ line in Figures 66
and 67). The hot gas starts to heat the evaporator’s first tube and then cools
down quickly. The heat is transferring from the hot gas to the tube’s surface of
the evaporator by convection. Then it gradually warms up the fins by
conduction. Moreover, there is heat conduction along the tube which helps in
the longitudinal heating of the tube. Observing the difference among the hot gas
inlet temperature and the evaporator’s inlet and outlet can have an idea of how
the hot gas is heating the evaporator and, then, the melt of the frost is achieved.
This process is quite slow as can be seen in the plots and table, especially
compared with the defrost process in EHD method (Figures 63 and 64, and
Table C).

As a result from the figures and table, the defrost length and increase in product
temperature are higher having connected the fans during defrost. It does not
reach the defrost stop temperature and cuts by maximum time.

75
 18 70
Drip-off
15
time 60
12
9 Defrost
50
starts Fans
6
delay
3 40

HG Evaporator inlet Temperature (ºC)

0
30
-3
Temperature (ºC)

-6 20
Defrost Refrigeration
-9
finishes 10
-12
-15 Air,in_OFF HGD 0
-18
Air,out_OFF HGD -10
-21
-24 Tevap,in_OFF HGD
-20
-27 Tevap,out_OFF HGD
-30 -30
Defsensor_OFF HGD
-33
-40
Tdefr_evap,in_OFF HGD
-36
-39 -50
6:29:59
6:35:16
6:40:26
6:45:42
6:50:52
6:56:09
7:01:19
7:06:29
7:11:46
7:16:56
7:22:13
7:27:23
7:32:40
7:37:50
7:43:07
7:48:17
7:53:27
7:58:43
8:03:53
8:09:10
8:14:20
8:19:36
8:24:46
8:30:03
8:35:13
8:40:29
8:45:39
8:50:49
8:56:06
9:01:16
9:06:32
9:11:42
9:16:59
9:22:09
9:27:25
9:32:35
9:37:45
9:43:03
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 66 - Hot Gas defrost without fans running during defrosting (12ºC stop
temperature, 10 min. drip-off time, 5 min. fans start delay)

Looking at figure 66 can be seen that with the fans off the difference between
the air and the coldest area of the evaporator –which the defrost sensor is
located- is approximately 10ºC when defrost finishes. Moreover, even the air
temperatures are below 0ºC during defrosting period. These indicate a good
separation between evaporator and air.

As can be observed in the figure, around 3ºC temperature difference along

defrost is found between the defrost sensor and evaporator tube’s surface. This
illustrates how is the heat transfer by conduction from the evaporator’s tubes
until the extreme of the fins where the defrost sensor is placed.

76
 18 70
15
Drip-off 60
12
Defrost time
9
starts 50
6
3

HG Evaporator Inlet Temperature (ºC)

40
0
-3 30
Refrigeration
Temperature (ºC)

-6
20
-9
Air,in_ON HGD
-12
10
-15 Air,out_ON HGD
Defrost
-18 0
Tevap,in_ON HGD finishes
-21
-24 Tevap,out_ON HGD -10

-27
Defsensor_ON HGD -20
-30
-33 Tdefr_evap,in_ON HGD -30
-36
-39 -40
15:05:06
15:13:36
15:22:07
15:30:42
15:39:13
15:47:43
15:56:18
16:04:50
16:13:24
16:21:54
16:30:25
16:38:59
16:47:30
16:56:00
17:04:35
17:13:06
17:21:36
17:30:11
17:38:42
17:47:16
17:55:46
18:04:17
18:12:52
18:21:24
18:29:54
18:38:28
18:47:00
18:55:35
19:04:05
19:12:38
19:21:14
19:29:44
19:38:16
19:46:52
19:55:23
20:04:00
20:12:30
20:21:06
20:29:38
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 67 - Hot Gas defrost with fans running during defrosting (12ºC stop temperature,
10 min. drip-off time, 5 min. fans start delay)

The temperature profile for the hot gas defrosting with fans on, similar to Figure
66, is shown in Figure 67. As a result from the plot and table, the defrost length
and increase in product temperature are higher having connected the fans
during defrost. It does not reach the defrost stop temperature and cuts by
maximum time.

As can be observed in the plot, the temperature difference between the air and
evaporator in the freezer is smaller when the fans are off during defrost, being
around 3ºC in this case. This indicates that the air instead of helping to melt the
frost is being opposed to the hot gas effect. The hot gas acts from inside the
evaporator’s tubes and its heat reach the tips of the fins by conduction, at the
same time heating the air around the evaporator and between the fins.
Therefore, the hot gas melts the frost off the evaporator’s surface. With the fans
on, the air passes through the products heating them up and then passes
across the evaporator cooling it down which delays the defrost process.

HGD Fans method

ON OFF
Parameter
Increase in prod. temp. (ºC) 14.12 8.45
Defrost time (min) 180 (max.) 94.5
Max. evaporator outlet T (ºC) 12.01 14.95
Max. air inlet T (ºC) 8.86 3.22
Max. air outlet T (ºC) 9.78 0.62
Table D - Fan effects in the parameters around freezing cabinets.

77
Comparing figures and table above, it is concluded that there are really
significant differences in time and performance between the HGD’s cases with
fans on and off. Having the fans off during HGD gives good defrost results and
abolishes the need to separating the evaporator from the refrigerated space not
to heat up the products.

9.3.3.3. Comparison between HGD and ELD

Since the main point of the earlier tests was to optimise both systems of EH and
HG defrosts depending on the fans’ effect, this section compares the two
defrost methods optimised based on the above analysis. This is, to compare
EHD running fans (EHwF) with HGD without fans (HGwoF) during defrost.
Defrost sensors are in appropriate locations in both cases. Comparing Figures
63 and 66, and Tables C and D can extract that the EHwF is more efficient
method than the HGwoF because EHwF can remove the frost from the
evaporator in shorter defrost time. The HGwoF defrost time is almost three
times the EHwF’s. Furthermore, in spite of separating the evaporator from the
refrigerated space during defrost in HGwoF case, its increase in product
temperature is higher (around twice) than EHwF’s due to the longer defrost
time.

Therefore, it has been noticed that the optimum defrosting method for this
installation, based on increase in product temperatures and defrost length, is
EHD with the fans running during defrost. Possible improvement would be to
isolate the evaporator from the products’ space during defrost. This would allow
circulating the hot air across the evaporator increasing the efficiency of defrost
and it would avoid to reject the warm air to the refrigerated space. Then, after
defrost is finished the refrigeration would start cooling the warm air until it is cold
enough to be circulated again across the products.

9.3.4. Energy Consumption During Defrost

In the previous section the discussion was about comparing the performance of
both defrost methods, however, it is important to complete this analysis by
evaluating the energy consumption during defrost in both cases.

9.3.4.1. Electric Heaters Defrost Method

The electric energy consumed by the heaters is calculated by measuring the

electric current and voltage during defrost period. The energy consumption of
the fans, which are required to run this method, is not included in this analysis.

The electrical intensity and voltage per line in the heaters are around 2.42 and
226 amperes and volts, respectively. Therefore, an electrical power of around
0.9473 kW is supplied during electrical defrost by the heaters. Since the defrost
time is 34.2 minutes, then, it yields an energy consumption of 0.54 kWh each
defrost period.

78
 9.3.4.2. Hot Gas Defrost Method

In order to calculate the energy added to the system during the hot gas defrost,
there are two different ways. In both methods, the low-temperature total mass
flow is obtained from the conditions before and after the CO2 compressor, as
the following formula shows:

η losses ⋅ E& comp ,elec = m& CO 2,comp ⋅ dhcomp (16)

Where the compressor heat losses (ηlosses ) are assumed as 7%.

The energy balance in the freezers and the freezing simulator during normal
operation (NOP) yields:

Q& Total , NOP = Q& sim , NOP + Q& FC1, NOP + Q& FC 2, NOP (17)

where Q& Total , NOP is the cooling capacity from the low-temperature side during the
refrigerating period.

Assuming that both freezers have the same cooling capacity and the capacity
from the simulator was fixed to 2 kW,

Q& Total , NOP ≅ Q& sim , NOP + 2 ⋅ Q& freezer , NOP (18)

Clearing the cooling capacity from the freezer from the above equation,

Q& − Q& sim , NOP

Q& freezer , NOP = Total , NOP (19)
2

Furthermore, the cooling capacity from the freezer cabinet can be calculated
using the air side as follows:

Q& freezer , NOP = m& air ⋅ Cp air ⋅ dTair , NOP (20)

It is possible to obtain the air mass flow from the fans through the freezing
evaporators:

Q& freezer , NOP

m& air = (21)
Cp air ⋅ dTair , NOP

which can be considered as constant.

In addiction, the isentropic efficiency of the CO2 compressor is calculated

during normal operation case:

79
 dhis h −h
η is = = is in (22)
dhcomp hout − hin

Method 1

In the first method, the low-temperature total mass flow from the conditions of
the CO2 compressor is utilized to calculate the total cooling capacity from the
low-temperature side during defrosting operation (DOP):

η losses ⋅ E& comp,elec,DOP = m& CO 2, LT , DOP ⋅ dhcomp,DOP (23)

Q& Total , DOP = Q& sim, DOP + Q& DC ,DOP + Q& NDC , DOP (24)

Then, the capacity from the defrosting cabinet ( Q& DC , DOP ) is obtained from the
total cooling capacity reducing it by the cooling capacity from the simulator and
from the non-defrosting cabinet ( Q& NDC , DOP ):

Q& DC , DOP = Q& Total ,DOP − (Q& sim,DOP + Q& NDC ,DOP ) = Q& Total , DOP − Q& Non− Defrosting , DOP (25)

where the latter is the cooling capacity from the freezing simulator and the non-
defrosting cabinet.

On the other hand, the COP during defrost period is the total capacity from the
low-temperature side divided by the CO2 compressor power supply,

Q& Total , DOP

COPDOP = (26)
E& comp , DOP

This can be used to calculate the part of the compressor power consumption
from the non-defrosting side as follows:

Q& Non− Defrosting , DOP

E& Non− Defrosting , DOP = (27)
COPDOP

In order to calculate the defrost power consumption, it has to reduce the total
compressor power by the non-defrosting part,

E& HGD = E& comp ,DOP − E& Non − Defrosting , DOP (28)

Using this method, the CO2 compressor power required to add for defrosting is
around 1.32 kW and since the defrost time was 94.5 minutes, 2.08 kWh is
obtained for the energy consumption in the hot gas defrost.

80
Method 2

On the other hand, in the second method, the non-defrosting mass flow during
defrost (DOP) is extracted from the air side,

Q& freezer ,DOP = m& air ⋅ Cp air ⋅ dTair , DOP = m& ND , DOP ⋅ dhevap , ND , DOP (29)

Using the conditions before and after the freezing simulator, can also be
calculated the simulator mass flow, because the cooling capacity from the
simulator is known.

Q& sim ,DOP = m& sim,DOP ⋅ dhsim ,DOP (30)

Then, the non-defrosting mass flow is the sum of both parameters,

m& Non− Defrosting , DOP = m& ND , DOP + m& sim,DOP (31)

Hereby, the hot gas flow through the defrosting cabinet can be obtained as the
subtraction of the non-defrosting mass flow from the total one:

m& HG = m& Total , DOP − m& Non− Defrosting , DOP (32)

From then, it is estimated the compressor conditions working only with the non-
defrosting side in normal operation or refrigeration period without the influence
of the defrosting cabinet. For this, it is assumed an external superheat value
( ΔText , SH ) of around 7ºC and a suction temperature using the following formula:

m& NDC , DOP ⋅ TNDC ,out + m& sim, DOP ⋅ Tsim ,out
TC ,in ,estimated = + ΔText , SH (33)
m& Non − Defrosting , DOP

The enthalpy difference between the inlet and the isentropic outlet ( dhis ,estimated ) is
calculated by this temperature ( TC ,in ,estimated ) and the inlet and outlet conditions of
the compressor. So, using the isentropic efficiency obtained from the normal
operation period (equation 22), it is possible to extract the enthalpy difference in
the compressor.

dhis ,estimated
dhcomp,estimated = (34)
η is

Thus, the non-defrosting side from the compressor power consumption follows,

E& Non− Defrosting , DOP = m& Non− Defrosting , DOP ⋅ dhcomp,estimated (35)

81
This can be used to get the defrosting power consumption by subtracting it from
the total measured power consumption during the defrost period, in the same
way as in equation 22.

Utilizing this second method to calculate the energy supplied for the hot gas
yields similar energy consumption as for the first method, which can be verified
in Figure 68.

2,2

1,8

1,6
HGD Power Supply Required (kW)

1,4

1,2

1
E_dot_Hot_Gas_Defr_FC1_M1
0,8
E_dot_Hot_Gas_Defr_FC1_M2
0,6

0,4

0,2

0
7 : :19
7 : :56
7 : :26
7 : :56
7 : :26
7 : :03
7 : :33
7 : :03
7 : :33
7 : :50
7 : :20
7 : :50
7 : :20
7 : :50
7 : :27
7 : :57
7 : :27
7 : :57
7 : :03
7 : :13
8 : :43
8 : :13
8 : :43
8 : :20
8 : :50
8 : :20
8 : :50
8 : :46
8 : :16
8 : :46
8 : :16
8 : :46
8 : :23
8 : :53
8 : :23
8 : :53
9
:4
07
09
12
14
17
20
22
25
27
30
33
35
38
40
43
45
48
50
54
57
59
02
04
07
09
12
14
17
20
22
25
27
30
32
35
37
41
7:

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 68 – Comparison between the methods used to calculate de CO2 power

consumption required for HGD

Figure 69 shows the defrost capacity of the hot gas. Around 4.6 kW is
observed in the figure.

82
 8

7,5

6,5

5,5
Defrost Capacity (kW)

4,5

3,5

2,5

1,5

0,5

0
7:07:09
7:09:46
7:12:16
7:14:46
7:17:16
7:19:53
7:22:23
7:24:53
7:27:23
7:29:53
7:32:30
7:35:00
7:37:30
7:40:00
7:42:37
7:45:07
7:47:37
7:50:07
7:52:37
7:55:13
7:57:43
8:00:13
8:02:43
8:05:13
8:07:50
8:10:20
8:12:50
8:15:20
8:17:56
8:20:26
8:22:56
8:25:26
8:27:56
8:30:33
8:33:03
8:35:33
8:38:03
8:40:39
8:43:09
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 69 – Defrost capacity of the hot gas

9.3.4.3. Comparison between Hot Gas and Electric Heaters in Energy

Consumption

Comparing the results obtained from the calculations of the energy consumption
during defrost, the energy supplied in the HGD method is greater than that for
the EHD by:

2.07 − 0.54
× 100 = 73.91%
2.07

Otherwise, EHD consumes around four times less energy than HGD during
defrost. Therefore, it can be concluded that the EHD method is better in this
facility than the HGD method from the energy consumed for defrosting point of
view.

9.3.4.4. Hot Gas Mass Flow during HGD

An important parameter in order to complete the energy analysis and to know

the performance of the hot gas defrost method in the freezing cabinets is the
hot gas mass flow provided from the CO2 compressor to the defrosting cabinet.
This parameter can be used to calculate how much percentage of the total
mass flow through the compressor is required to clean of frost one freezing
cabinet when it is placed in a real size installation (50 kW).

The way to calculate the hot gas mass flow was introduced above in the second
method to calculate the energy consumption. This results in approximately

83
0.017 kg/s on average during steady-state conditions, as can be seen in Figure
70.

0,03

0,0275

0,025

0,0225
Hot Gas Defrost Mass Flow (kg/s)

0,02

0,0175

0,015

0,0125

0,01

0,0075

0,005

0,0025

0
7:07:19
7:09:56
7:12:26
7:14:56
7:17:26
7:20:03
7:22:33
7:25:03
7:27:33
7:30:50
7:33:20
7:35:50
7:38:20
7:40:50
7:43:27
7:45:57
7:48:27
7:50:57
7:54:03
7:57:13
7:59:43
8:02:13
8:04:43
8:07:20
8:09:50
8:12:20
8:14:50
8:17:46
8:20:16
8:22:46
8:25:16
8:27:46
8:30:23
8:32:53
8:35:23
8:37:53
8:41:49
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 70 – Hot gas mass flow through defrosting cabinet during HGD

Figure 71 shows the total mass flow rate through the CO2 compressor during
HGD. As can be seen in the figure, it gives around 0.0295 kg/s on average. This
means that the mass flow rate for HGD is approximately 57.63% from the total
supplied.

0,045

0,04

0,035
CO2 Total Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0,03

0,025

0,02

0,015

0,01

0,005

0
7:07:09
7:09:56
7:12:36
7:15:16
7:17:56
7:20:43
7:23:23
7:26:03
7:28:43
7:31:30
7:34:10
7:36:50
7:39:30
7:42:10
7:44:57
7:47:37
7:50:17
7:52:57
7:55:43
7:58:23
8:01:03
8:03:43
8:06:30
8:09:10
8:11:50
8:14:30
8:17:16
8:19:56
8:22:36
8:25:16
8:27:56
8:30:43
8:33:23
8:36:03
8:38:43
8:41:29
8:44:09

Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 71 – Total mass flow rate through the CO2 compressor during HGD

84
Furthermore, other important parameter to know is the hot gas defrost mass
flow required to complete defrosting in the same time as electric heaters defrost
method; that is in about 30 minutes. The process to calculate that is as follows:

The energy required to melt the accumulated frost throughout the evaporator
with the current hot gas mass flow is,

E HGD = Q& def ,current ⋅ t current (36)

Which should be the same energy spent but, in this case, in only 30 minutes
( t required ),

E HGD = Q& def ,required ⋅ t required (37)

Then, equalling both formulas and knowing that,

Q& def ,current = m& HG ,current ⋅ dhHG ,current (38)

This can be able to reach the following equation,

m& HG ,current ⋅ dhHG ,current ⋅ t current = m& HG ,required ⋅ dhHG ,required ⋅ t required (39)

Now, assuming that the enthalpy difference is not changing, this gives,

t current 94.5
m& HG ,required = m& HG ,current ⋅
= ⋅ m& HG ,current ≅ 3.15 ⋅ 0.017 = 0.05355(kg / s ) (40)
t required 30
where, in the last step, the current hot gas mass flow average was taken.

Now, how much mass flow rate of HG required for a normal medium size
installation with 50 kW in the low-temperature level is evaluated.

Figure 72 shows the total mass flow required for refrigeration operation of both
freezers and two steps of the freezing simulator (about 6.4 kW). As can be
observed in the plot, this results 0,021 kg/s on average.

85
 0,03

0,0275

0,025

0,0225

0,02
CO2 Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0,0175

0,015

0,0125

0,01

0,0075

0,005

0,0025

0
7:07:09
7:09:16
7:11:16
7:13:16
7:15:16
7:17:16
7:19:23
7:21:23
7:23:23
7:25:23
7:27:23
7:29:23
7:31:30
7:33:30
7:35:30
7:37:30
7:39:30
7:41:30
7:43:37
7:45:37
7:47:37
7:49:37
7:51:37
7:53:37
7:55:43
7:57:43
7:59:43
8:01:43
8:03:43
8:05:50
8:07:50
8:09:50
8:11:50
8:13:50
8:15:50
8:17:56
8:19:56
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Figure 72 – Total mass flow required for normal operation when two simulator’s steps
and both freezers are supplied in the low-temperature level

Therefore, the required mass flow in normal operation for a medium size low-
temperature level yields,

50kW
m& 50 kW = m6.4 kW = 0.164kg / s (41)
6.4kW

Then, the required HG mass flow to melt the frost in 30 minutes (equation 40)
represents the 32.65% of the total during refrigeration operation.

9.4. Cooling Cabinets

In the same way as with the freezing cabinets, the optimum defrost interval was
investigated for the medium temperature cabinets. In this case, although both
cabinets are equipped with conventional electric defrost, instead, a simple
method of defrosting is used. This consists of stopping refrigeration at the
medium-temperature cabinet until the evaporator warms up enough to melt
down the frost, after which refrigeration resumes. This process can also be
referred to as drip off instead of defrost.

9.4.1. Results and comments

After the humidifier was placed in the laboratory, it was found that both cabinets
had different defrost needs. For example, the cabinet number 1 (MC1) did not
need any defrost period to avoid the frost accumulation. But, on the contrary,
the other cabinet (MC2) needed at least 8-hour interval to remove the frost
owing to maybe its position near to the humidifier.

86
Figure 73 confirms the effect of frost blockage in the second medium-
temperature level cabinet (MC2) when no-defrost period is used.

Figure 73 - Detail of MC2’s evaporator totally covered with frost

Figures 74a and 74b shows the evaporators of the medium-temperature

cabinets, MC1 and MC2, when no- and 8-hour defrost period is used in MC1
and MC2, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 74 - Cooling evaporators in their optimal defrost periods: a) MC1, no-defrost
period; b) MC2, 8-hour defrost
Figure 75 represents the air, evaporating, product and room temperatures when
8-hour defrost was set in the controller of the cooling cabinets.

87
 13
24

11 22
20
9
18
16
7
14

Room Temperature (ºC)

5 12
Temperature (ºC)

10
3
8
1 6
4
-1
2

-3 0
-2
-5 -4
-6
-7
-8
-9 -10
12:00:07
12:06:32
12:12:52
12:19:15
12:25:35
12:31:59
12:38:19
12:44:42
12:51:02
12:57:26
13:03:49
13:10:09
13:16:33
13:22:53
13:29:16
13:35:36
13:42:01
13:48:21
13:54:44
14:01:04
14:07:28
14:13:52
14:20:12
14:26:36
14:32:56
14:39:19
14:45:39
14:52:04
14:58:24
15:04:47
15:11:13
15:17:33
15:23:56
15:30:16
15:36:40
15:43:00
15:49:23
15:55:43
Time (hh:mm:ss)

Air,in Air,out T_Pr1 T_Pr2 T_Pr3 T_Pr4 Tevap Room_Temp

Figure 75 - Temperature measurements in the medium-temperature cabinet when 8-hour

defrost is used

The room temperature (‘Room_Temp’ line in the figure) was between 19.7 and
21.5ºC during the whole test as Figure C shows. The evaporating temperature
(‘Tevap’ line) has a fluctuation according to the tank pressure, being around -
6.3ºC. When defrost stars (approximately at 13:23) the valve closes stopping
the refrigeration. This allows removing the accumulated frost in the evaporator’s
surface by the entering warm air. This can be seen in the plot looking at both
air’s inlet and outlet temperatures. Defrost terminates when the defrost sensor
reaches 6ºC starting the refrigeration again.

The way how cooling is controlled in these cabinets has to do with the fact that
they do not need to be defrosted when they are running under normal
conditions. When the set point for the controller is reached then the valve closes
and the fans keeps working providing warm air to the evaporator which melts
any frost that was formed while the valve was open. If the cooling load is high
and the valve does not close as often as it does under normal operation (at start
up for example or when new products are added as in a real supermarket) then
the valve will be opened for longer period of time and frost will be accumulating
on the cold evaporator.

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10. CONCLUSIONS
The NH3/CO2 cascade system which replicates a real supermarket refrigeration
installation has been tested in a laboratory environment.

Tests have been run for overall evaluation of the system. Good correlation for
the volumetric efficiency of the NH3 compressor has been found in order to
have an accurate calculation of the NH3 mass flow rate. This is used to
calculate the cooling capacities and the COP of the system.

The calculated COP of the low stage gives a value around 3.4 meanwhile the
high stage COP is approximately 3.8. The temperatures during the test were
34.4ºC for condensing NH3, -36ºC for evaporating CO2 and about -9ºC for the
intermediate temperature.

Product temperatures in both medium and low-temperature level have been

investigated. Tests have been made in order to maintain a product temperature
between 0 and 4ºC in the cooling cabinets and below –18ºC in the freezers.

The experiments showed success to keep the product within the desired range
of temperatures in both medium- and low-temperature levels. In the freezers
case, different product temperature distribution has been observed. On the
medium-temperature side, good product temperature distribution has been
noted. Air curtain effect on the performance of the cooling cabinets has been
evaluated. It was observed that the air curtain has an influence on product
temperature but not inlet air temperature.

The circulation ratio in the medium-temperature simulator and cooling cabinets

has been changed in different indirect system arrangements for the cascade
condenser in order to know its influence on heat transfer. In thermosyphon
arrangement, the two-phase return line from the evaporator is connected to the
CO2 tank, from which saturated vapor is sent to the cascade condenser in order
to condense, after that the condensate returns back to the tank. In forced
condensation arrangement, the return line is directly delivered to the cascade
condenser, after which the condensate goes back to the tank. Circulation ratio
highly influences the heat transfer performance in forced condensation
arrangement. The differences in performance of the different indirect systems
investigated are reduced when high capacity is added. Furthermore, it has been
noticed that the thermosyphon arrangement has better stability. In the forced
condensation arrangement high instability was observed when low circulation
ratios are used.

No significant difference in heat exchanging performances has been observed

between different arrangements for the cascade condenser with the low
temperature circuit connected. In thermosyphon arrangement the hot discharge
gas from the compressor is delivered to the CO2 accumulation tank boiling
some liquid refrigerant and then by using a loop the CO2 enters to the cascade
condenser as saturated vapor and the NH3 boils off along the heat exchanger
from saturated conditions at the inlet. In case of forced condensation

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arrangement the hot discharge gas mixes with the saturated vapor from the
CO2 tank at the inlet of the cascade condenser.

Hot gas and electric heaters defrost methods have been investigated. A
procedure has been applied to find the optimum defrost performance.

The defrost sensor location in the freezers has been fixed in the optimum place
for each investigated defrost method. It has been noticed that the frontal area of
the evaporator is the place where frost accumulates the most. Upper and lower
sides of the frontal evaporator’s area have been found as the optimum locations
for the electric heaters and hot gas defrost methods, respectively. It is also
found that the steepness of the drain pan has high influence in the blockage of
the frontal area of the evaporator. Higher slope should be used to improve the
drainage of the melted frost and to avoid blocking the evaporator.

A systematic procedure has been followed to obtain the optimum defrost

interval in the current freezers. A certain value for the defrost period was set in
the controller. After several defrost cycles the evaporator’s surface was
observed. If the chosen defrost interval is found to be insufficient to melt the
frost then the interval is decreased. 8-hour defrost has been found as optimum
interval for both hot gas and electric heaters defrost methods.

The effect of fans during freezers defrost operation has been evaluated. Tests
have been run connecting and disconnecting the fans in both investigated
defrost methods.

It has been noticed that to connect the fans during EHD reaches good
temperature distribution along the evaporator. The uneven temperature
distribution observed when switching off the fans was mainly due to the fact that
the heaters distribution was designed so air will carry the heat to be distributed
along the evaporator. Then, if EHD with fans off method is used, redesign that
takes into account redistributing the heaters in the evaporator should be
considered. Higher increase in product temperature during fans on case has
been observed since the warm rejected from the defrost operation heats up the
products; meanwhile in case of having fans off, it results in good separation
between the evaporator and the refrigerated space.

Concerning the HGD method, important differences have been observed. To

have connected the fans during defrost is not good solution for this method
since it has been noticed that due to the nature of the HGD method the cold
external air supplied by the fans has a negative effect by cooling down the
evaporator.

Comparing both optimum performance for each defrost method, it has been
noticed that HGD takes around three times longer time than EHD. HGD has
higher increase of product temperature (about twice EHD’s) mainly due to its
longer defrost period. It has been also noticed that from the energy
consumption point of view EHD consumes around four times less energy than
HGD. Therefore, EHD with fans connected has been found to be the optimum
defrost method for the current system and conditions.

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Evaluation of defrosting of the cooling cabinets has been performed. The results
from the tests showed that both medium-temperature cabinets have different
defrost needs due to different operating and surrounding conditions. 8-hour
defrost/drip-off interval was found to be good setting for the cooling cabinets.

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