Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Dr. G. P. Chandradhara
Professor of Civil Engineering
S. J. College of Engineering
Mysore
Response spectrum has found vital importance in structural engineering since its inception
Response spectrum method of analysis finds advantage due to following reasons:
Unlike pseudo-static analysis it considers the frequency effects.
Unlike thorough dynamic analysis, it provides a single suitable horizontal force for
the design of structure.
The idealization of treating the system as a single degree freedom system is
acceptable in structural engineering problems where the complexities involved in
terms of geometry, material property and boundary condition are relatively less.
A single degree of freedom system of zero natural period (infinite natural frequency)
would be rigid, and its spectral acceleration would be equal to the peak ground
acceleration.
The maximum response motions and the spectral acceleration, velocity, and
displacement can be approximately related to each other by the following simple
expressions:
Since the peak ground acceleration, velocity and displacement for various
earthquake records differ, the computed responses cannot be averaged on an absolute
basis. Normalization is carried out by dividing the spectral ordinates by the peak
ground acceleration, velocity and displacement for the corresponding region of the
spectrum.
Earthquake parameters such as soil condition, epi-central distance, and magnitude of
earthquake, duration and source characteristics influence the shape and amplitude of
response spectra. While the effects of some parameters may be studied
independently, the influences of several factors are interrelated and it is difficult to
consider individually.
In order to explain the procedure for the development of the design spectrum chart,
a typical time history of acceleration of with 2% damping shall be considered.
For different natural periods Tn of the system, the peak displacements were
.
Fig.2.5: Combined D-V-A Spectrum with different damping normalised with
ground acceleration, velocity and displacement
The design spectrum should satisfy certain requirements as it is intended for the
design of new structures.
The response spectrum for a ground motion recorded during a past earthquake is
inappropriate.
The RS for all different motions is also uneven or jagged.
Thus the design spectrum should consist of smooth curves or series of straight lines
with one curve for each damping.
Generally as a compromise, different ground motions are considered and Rs is
developed.
The design RS is based on statistical analysis of the Response spectra for the
ensemble of ground motions.
Each ground motion is normalised (scaled up or down) so that all ground motions
have the same peak ground acceleration.
The Rs for each normalised ground motions is constructed.
The mean values of the spectral ordinates for each period are obtained.
Statistical analysis of these data provides the probability distribution for the spectral
ordinates.
Obtain the coefficient of variation = standard Deviation + Mean.
Connecting all the points gives Mean RS and (Mean + SD) RS. These are smoother.
The idealised series of straight lines leads to the EDRS.
Fig. 2.6: Mean and ( Mean + 1SD) spectra with dashed line showing an Idealised
Design Spectrum
Fig. 2.7: The design response spectrum of IS : 1893 :2002
3. EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS
3.1 Direct effects.
The following are the direct seismic effects:
Tsunamis, seiches, landslides, floods and fires are the indirect effects of earthquakes. These
may occur either alone or in combinations to add to the damages during an earthquake
4. SEISMIC EFFECTS ON STRUCTURE
4.1 Inertia Forces in Structures
Earthquake causes shaking of the ground. So a building resting on it will experience
motion at its base. From Newton‟s First Law of Motion, even though the base of the
building moves with the ground, the roof has a tendency to stay in its original position. But
since the walls and columns are connected to it, they drag the roof along with them. This is
much like the situation that you are faced with when the bus you are standing in
suddenly starts; your feet move with the bus, but your upper body tends to stay back
making you fall backwards!! This tendency to continue to remain in the previous position is
known as inertia. In the building, since the walls or columns are flexible, the motion of the
roof is different from that of the ground. Consider a building whose roof is supported on
columns (Fig. 4.1). Coming back to the analogy of yourself on the bus: when the bus
suddenly starts, you are thrown backwards as if someone has applied a force on the upper
body. Similarly, when the ground moves, even the building is thrown backwards, and the
roof experiences a force, called inertia force. If the roof has a mass M and experiences an
acceleration a, then from Newton‟s Second Law of Motion, the inertia force FI is mass
M times acceleration a, and its direction is opposite to that of the acceleration. Clearly, more
mass means higher inertia force. Therefore, lighter buildings sustain the earthquake shaking
better.
Fig. 4.1: Effect of Inertia in a Building when Fig. 4.2: Inertia force and relative motion
shaken at its base within a building.
Fig. 4.3: Principal directions of Shaking Fig. 4.4: Flow of seismic Inertia forces through
all structural components.
4.4 Flow of Inertia Forces to Foundations
Under horizontal shaking of the ground, horizontal inertia forces are generated at level of
the mass of the structure (usually situated at the floor levels). These lateral inertia forces
are transferred by the floor slab to the walls or columns, to the foundations, and finally to
the soil system underneath (Fig. 4.4). So, each of these structural elements (floor slabs,
walls, columns, and foundations) and the connections between them must be designed to
safely transfer these inertia forces through them. Walls or columns are the most critical
elements in transferring the inertia forces. But, in traditional construction, floor slabs and
beams receive more care and attention during design and construction, than walls and
columns. Walls are relatively thin and often made of brittle material like masonry. They are
poor in carrying horizontal earthquake inertia forces along the direction of their thickness.
Failures of masonry walls. The failure of the ground storey columns resulted in
numerous building collapses during previous earthquakes.
5. RESPONSE OF STRUCTURES
When the response to earthquake induced forces is of concern, the aspects of structural
configuration, symmetry, mass distribution and vertical regularity must be considered and
the importance of strength, stiffness and ductility in relation to acceptable response
appreciated. Irregularities, often unavoidable, contribute to the structural complexity of
structural behaviour. When not recognized they may result in unexpected damage and even
collapse. There are many sources of structural irregularities. Drastic changes in geometry,
interruptions in load paths, discontinuities in strength and stiffness, disruptions in critical
regions by openings, unusual proportions of members, reentrant corners, lack of redundancy
and interference with induced or assumed structural deformations are only a few of the
possibilities. The recognition of many of these irregularities and of conceptions for remedial
measures for the avoidance or mitigation of their undesired effects relies on sound
understanding of structural behaviour. So, the structural response characteristics and gross
seismic response of the buildings are important to understand the basic structural behaviour.
The important response characteristics are;
1. Stiffness
2. Strength
3. Ductility
4. Damping
5.1 Stiffness
Stiffness defines the relationship between actions and deformations of a structure and its
components.
Fig. 5.1 shows a plot of the structural response of a system subjected to lateral loads; the
response curve is represented by base shear V versus top horizontal displacement δ. The
initial slope K0 is the elastic stiffness of the structure, while the secant stiffness is the slope
Ks of the line corresponding to a given level of load. For reinforced concrete (RC) and
masonry structures, the stiffness can be taken as the secant to the yield point or to any other
selected point on the response curve. Variations in stiffness in the inelastic range are often
expressed by the tangent stiffness Kt, which is the slope of the tangent to the response curve
for a given V - δ pair. A decrease in the values of Kt indicates that softening of the structure
is taking place. In analysis of inelastic structures, use is often made of secant stiffness to
avoid dealing with negative tangent stiffness beyond the peak action resistance.
5.2 Strength
Strength defines the capacity of a member or an assembly of members to resist actions. This
capacity is related to a limit state expressed by the stakeholder. It is therefore not a single
number and varies as a function of the use of the structure. For example, if the interested
party decides that the limit of use of a structural member corresponds to a target sectional
strain, then the strength of the member is defined as its load resistance at the attainment of
the target strain. This may be higher or lower than the peak of the load – displacement curve,
which is the conventional definition of strength. Target strains may assume different values
depending on the use of structural systems. For instance, strains utilized in multi - storey
frames for power plants may be lower than those employed in residential or commercial
buildings. Target strains can be correlated to the risk of failure, which in turn depends on the
use of the structure.
5.3 Ductility
5.4 Damping
Damping is utilized to characterize the ability of structures to dissipate energy during
dynamic response. Unlike the mass and stiffness of a structure, damping does not relate to a
unique physical process but rather to a number of possible processes. Damping values
depend on several factors; among these are vibration amplitude, material of construction,
fundamental periods of vibration, mode shapes and structural configurations.
Seismic energy transmitted to structures can be dissipated through different damping
mechanisms. Primary sources of damping are, however, as follows:
i. Structural damping: due to energy dissipation in materials of construction, structural
components and their connections;
ii. Supplemental damping: due to energy dissipation of devices added to structural
systems to increase their damping;
iii. Foundation damping: due to the transfer of energy from the vibrating structure to the
soil, through the foundations;
iv. Radiation damping: due to radiation of seismic waves away from foundations.
External damping may be aerodynamic and hydrodynamic caused by interaction between
structure and surrounding air and water, respectively. The latter mechanisms are generally
negligible compared to other types of damping in earthquake response of structures. Inelastic
deformations of the ground in the vicinity of foundations, caused by soil hysteresis, and
seismic wave propagation or radiation result in two fundamentally different damping
mechanisms associated with soils, namely foundation and radiation damping. Soil - structure
interaction may significantly contribute towards the overall damping. This depends on
several site and structural characteristics. When the soil is infinitely rigid, then the
foundation damping may be neglected. Supplemental damping can be added to structures to
enhance their dissipation capacity and hence reduce actions and deformations.
Structural damping is a measure of energy dissipation in a vibrating system that results in
bringing the structure back to a quiescent state. It is associated with absorption of seismic
energy in structural components. It also accounts for material viscosity and friction at
connections and supports. In structural components, the energy imparted by earthquakes is
dissipated mainly through hysteretic damping characterized by action – deformation loops.
Such loops express action – deformation relationships of materials, sections, members,
connections or systems under alternating loads. For hysteretic damping, the dissipation
varies with the level of displacement, but it is constant with the velocity. The amount and
mechanisms of material hysteretic damping vary significantly depending on whether the
material is brittle, such as concrete and masonry, or ductile, e.g. metals. For reinforced
concrete (RC), energy dissipation is due to opening and closing of cracks but the material
remains held together by the steel. In masonry, there is also sliding along the cracks; hence
the hysteretic damping of masonry is lower than that of reinforced concrete (RC). Whereas
hysteretic damping is complex and cannot be expressed in simple forms, it is almost always
represented in dynamic analysis as equivalent viscous damping, which is proportional to the
velocity. This form of damping conveniently allocates a parameter to the velocity term in the
dynamic equilibrium equations that matches the mass and stiffness terms associated with
acceleration and displacement, respectively.
Friction or Coulomb damping results from interfacial mechanisms between members and
connections of a structural system, and between structural and non - structural components
such as infills and partitions. It is independent of velocity and displacement; its values
significantly depend on the material and type of construction. For example, in steel
structures, the contribution of friction damping in bolted connections is higher than welded
connections. In infilled masonry walls, friction damping is generated when cracks open and
close. In other materials, e.g. for concrete and masonry, this type of damping cannot be
relied upon because of the degradation of stiffness and strength under cyclic load reversals.
IS: 1893 – 2002 suggests that the value of damping for buildings may be taken as 2 and 5
percent of the critical for the purposes of dynamic analysis of steel and reinforced concrete
(RC) buildings, respectively.
6. STRUCTURAL MODELLING
Structural models are idealizations of the prototype and are intended to simulate the response
characteristics of systems. Three levels of modelling are generally used for earthquake
response analysis. These are summarized below in the order of complexity and accuracy:
Substitute and detailed models used to discretize structural systems may be described as
macro and micro models. Stick models constitute an intermediate group and employ member
level representations. Hybrid models, e.g. combining detailed and stick elements, can also be
used especially for the seismic analysis of large structures. For example, the upper deck of
multi-span bridges, which is expected to remain elastic, is often discretized using beam
elements, while fine FE meshes are utilized for the piers, where inelasticity is expected. For
buildings, detailed models are often used to idealize the frame of the superstructure, while
stick models are used for foundations. Where walls and cores exist, there are possibilities of
modelling them using 2D or even 3D continuum elements to detect the spread of inelasticity.
In 3D Modelling the displacement at each node and can simulate any type of behavior. 3D
frame models which are especially useful to simulate the responses of three dimensional
effects Buildings with irregular geometric configuration Torsional response in the structures
with eccentric distributions of stiffness/mass. Earthquake motion in two directions or in
skew direction etc. 2 D Modelling. is used for buildings having symmetric plan and where
torsional responses are expected to be small. The model connects all the plane frames in one
principal direction by assuming the identical horizontal displacement in a floor. In 2D plane
frame modelling, the number of degrees of freedom can be reduced to about one-fourth as
compared to the 3D frame models.
Many buildings consist of mixtures of the basic types of the lateral resistive systems. Walls
existing with a frame structure, although possibly not used for gravity loads, can still be used
to brace the frame for lateral loads. Shear walls may be used to brace a building in one
direction whereas a braced frame or rigid frame is used in the perpendicular direction.
Multistory buildings occasionally have one type of system, such as rigid frame, for the upper
stories and a different system, such as a box system or braced frame, for the lower stories to
reduce deformation and take the greater loads in the lower portion of the structure. In many
cases it is neither necessary nor desirable to use every wall as a shear wall or to brace every
bay of the building frame. This procedure does require that there be some load-distributing
elements, such as the roof and floor diaphragms, horizontal struts, and so on, that serve to tie
the unstabilized portions of the building to the lateral resistive elements.
There is a possibility that some of the elements of the building construction that are not
intended to function as bracing elements may actually end up taking some of the lateral load.
In frame construction, surfacing materials, plaster, dry wall, wood paneling, masonry veneer,
and so on may take some lateral load even though the frame is braced by other means. This
is essentially a matter of relative stiffness, although connection for load transfer is also a
consideration. The choice of the type of lateral resistive system must be related to the
loading conditions and to the behavior characteristics required. It must also, however, be
coordinated with the design for gravity loads and with the architectural planning
considerations. Many design situations allow for alternatives, although the choice may be
limited by the size of the building, by code restrictions, by the magnitude of lateral loads, by
the desire for limited deformation, and so on. Different types of lateral load resisting systems
are shown in Fig. 8.1.
The seismic forces exerted on a building are not externally developed forces like
wind instead they are the response of cyclic motions at the base of a building causing
accelerations and hence inertia force.
The response is therefore essentially dynamic in nature.
The dynamic properties of the structure such as natural period, damping and mode shape
play a crucial role in determining the response of the building.
Besides other characteristics of the building system also affect the seismic response such
as ductility, building foundation, response of non-structural elements etc.
9.3 Damping
The degree of structural amplification of the ground motion at the base of the building is
limited by structural damping.
Damping is the ability of the structural system to dissipate the energy of the earthquake
ground shaking.
Since the building response in inversely proportional to damping, the more damping in a
building possesses, the sooner it will stop vibrating--which of course is highly desirable
from the standpoint of earthquake performance.
In a structure, damping is due to internal friction and the absorption of energy by the
building's structural and non-structural elements.
There is no numerical method available for determining the damping. It is only obtained
by experiments.
9.4 Ductility
Ductility is defined as the capacity of the building materials, systems, or
structures to absorb energy by deforming in the inelastic range.
The safety of building from collapse is on the basis of energy, which must be
imparted to the structure in order to make it fail. In such instance, consideration must be
given to structure‟s capacity to absorb energy rather than to its resistance.
Therefore ductility of a structure in fact is one of the most important factors affecting its
earthquake performance.
The primary task of an engineer designing a building to be earthquake resistant is to
ensure that the building will possess enough ductility
The ductility of a structure depends on the type of material used and also the structural
characteristics of the assembly.
It is possible to build ductile structures with reinforced concrete if care is taken in the
design to provide the joints with sufficient abutments that can adequately confine the
concrete, thus permitting it to deform plastically without breaking.
The principles of earthquake resistance design are to evolve safe and economical design of
structures to withstand possible future earthquakes. This can be achieved by (a) reducing the
earthquake forces and (b) withstanding it by increasing the resistance of the structure. c)
Planning consideration.
When the centre of mass and centre of rigidity does not coincide, torsional shear force will be
induced on the structure in addition to the direct shear force. The horizontal load PX (i.e.
seismic force) will be acting at the centre of mass along X-direction, thus a torsional moment
Mt is induced, that is equal to PX × ey (Fig. 12.1). The term „ey‟ equals, the distance between
line of seismic force PX (i.e. centre of mass, CM) and the line of resistive force V (i.e. centre
of rigidity, CR) in Y-direction.
Even in symmetrical structure, where the eccentricity (e) between mass centre and stiffness
centre is zero, a minimum eccentricity amounting to 5% of the building dimension is
assumed which is called „accidental eccentricity‟ (ea). The accidental eccentricity accounts
for factors such as rotational component of ground motion about the vertical axis, the
difference between computed and actual values of the mass, stiffness or yield strength and an
unfavourable distribution of live load mass. When lateral forces are applied concurrently in
two orthogonal directions, the accidental torsion should be applied only in the direction
producing the greater effect.
Whenever there is significant torsion in a building, the concern is for additional seismic
demands and lateral drifts imposed on the vertical elements by rotation of the diaphragm.
Buildings can be designed to meet codal forces including torsion, but buildings with severe
torsion are less likely to perform well in earthquakes. It is best to provide a balanced system
at the start rather than design torsion into the system. As a consequence, two important
concepts must be defined. These will enable the effects of building configuration on the
response of structural systems to lateral forces to be better appreciated. In order to have a
clear understanding about the seismic induced torsion, it is necessary to have a clear
understanding of the following terms.
Centre of Mass (CM)
Centre of mass (CM) is a point through which the resultant of the masses of a system acts.
This point corresponds to the centre of gravity of masses of the system. Hence the location of
a force at a particular level will be determined by the centre of the accelerated mass at that
level. During an earthquake, acceleration-induced inertia forces will be generated at each
floor level and it will act at a point, where the mass of an entire story may be assumed to be
concentrated. In buildings having symmetrical distribution of mass, the positions of the
centres of floor masses will not differ from floor to floor. However, irregular mass
distribution over the height of a building may result in variations in centres of masses at
various floors. Depending on the direction of an earthquake-induced acceleration at any
instant, the resultant force passing through centre of mass may act in any direction.
An aspect of seismic design of equal if not greater importance than structural analysis is the
choice of building configuration. By observing the following fundamental principles,
relevant to seismic response, more suitable structural systems may be adopted.
1. Simple, regular plans are preferable. Building with articulated plans such as T and L
shapes should be avoided or be subdivided into simpler forms (Fig. 13.1).
2. Symmetry in plan should be provided where possible. Gross lack of symmetry may
lead to significant torsional response, the reliable prediction of which is often difficult.
Much greater damage due to earthquakes has been observed in buildings situated at
street corners, where structural symmetry is more difficult to achieve, than in those
along streets, where a more simple rectangular and often symmetrical structural plan
could be utilized.
3. An integrated foundation system should tie together all vertical structural elements in
both principal directions. Foundations resting partly on rock and partly on soils should
preferably be avoided.
4. Lateral-force-resisting systems within one building, with significantly different
stiffnesses such as structural walls and frames, should be arranged in such a way that
at every level symmetry in lateral stiffness is not grossly violated. Thereby undesirable
torsional effects will be minimized.
5. Regularity should prevail in elevation, in both the geometry and the variation of
storey stiffnesses.
The principles described above are examined in more detail in the following sections.
The lateral force resisting elements should be well-balanced system that is not subjected to
significant torsion. Significant torsion will be taken as the condition where the distance
between the storey‟s center of rigidity and storey‟s center of mass is greater than 20% of the
width of the structure in either major plan dimension. Torsion or excessive lateral deflection
is generated in asymmetrical buildings, or eccentric and asymmetrical layout of the bracing
system that may result in permanent set or even partial collapse. Torsion is most effectively
resisted at point farthest away from the center of twist, such as at the corners and perimeter of
the buildings.
A Soft Story is defined as one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in the
story above or less than 80% of the average stiffness of the three stories above ( Fig. ). In
Extreme Soft Story the lateral stiffness is less than 60% of that in the story above or less than
70% of the average stiffness of the three stories above. A weak storey is defined as one in
which the storey lateral strength is less than 80% of that in the storey above. The storey
lateral strength is the total strength of all seismic resisting elements sharing the storey shear
for the direction under consideration.
References
Murty C. V. R., (2005), Earthquake Tips, Learning Earthquake Design and Construction,
IIT, Kanpur.