11P 14 Heat Transfer PDF

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14. H E AT T R A N S F E R
1. INTRODUCTION
Heat can be transformed from one place to another place by the three processes - conduction, convection and
radiation. In conduction, the heat flows from a place of higher temperature to a place of lower temperature through
a stationary medium. The molecules of the medium oscillate about their equilibrium positions more violently at
a place of higher temperature and collide with the molecules of adjacent position, thus transferring a part of
their energy to these molecules which now vibrate more violently. Thus heat can be transmitted by collision of
molecules. In metals, the conduction of heat takes place by the movement of free electrons. In the cases of liquids
and gases, the heat is transferred not only by collision but also by motion of heated molecules which carry the heat
in such media. This process is called convection. When a liquid in a vessel is heated, the lighter molecules present
in the lower layer of the liquid get heated which rise to the surface of the liquid and cold molecules at the surface
go towards the bottom of vessel. These are convection currents and are the major means of heat transport in fluids.
Radiation is mode of transfer of heat in which the heat travels directly from one place to another without the role
of any intervening medium. The heat from the sun propagates mostly through vacuum to reach the earth by the
process of radiation.
2. CONDUCTION
The figure shows a rod whose ends are in thermal contact with a hot reservoir at T1 > T2
temperature T1 and a cold reservoir at temperatureT2 . The sides of the rod are insulated, T1 T2
hence heat transfer is only along the rod and not through its sides. The molecules at the 0
hot reservoir have greater vibrational energy. This energy is transferred by collisions to
the atoms at the end face of the rod. These atoms in turn transfer the energy to their
neighbors further along the rod. Such transfer of heat through a substance in which (Hot) (Cold)
heat is transported without direct mass transport is called conduction.
Figure 14.1
The quantity of heat conducted Q in time t across a slab of length L, area of cross-
section A and steady state temperature θ1 and θ2 at respective hot and cold ends is
kA(θ1 − θ1 )t
given by Q = , where k is the coefficient of thermal conductivity which is equal to the quantity of heat
L
flowing per unit time through unit area of cross-section of a material per unit length along the direction of flow of
heat.
Units of k are kilocalorie/meter second degree centigrade or J.m-1sec-1 K-1. In C.G.S. units,
k is expressed in calcm-1 (℃)-1 sec-1 1 2
dθ L
The temperature Gradient ⁄ (unit distance) = −
dx Figure 14.2
1 4 . 2 | Heat Transfer
 dθ  ∆Q dT
∴ Q = −kA   t ; = − kA
dx
  ∆ t dx
The quantity dT/dx is called the temperature gradient. The minus sign indicates that dT/dx is negative along the
direction of the heat flow, i.e., heat flows from a higher temperature to a lower one.
dT ∆t ∆T
= H= =
dx L / kA R
L
Here ∆T = temperature difference (TD) and R= = Thermal resistance of the rod.
kA
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
This relation is mathematically equivalent to Ohm’s Law and can be used very effectively in solving
problems effectively by considering temperature analogous to potential and heat transferred per unit
time as current.
Nivvedan (JEE 2009, AIR 113)
Heat flow through a conducting rod Current flow through a resistance
dQ dq
Heat current H =
=Rate of heat flow = Rate of charge flow
Electric current i =
dt dt
∆T T(temp diff) ∆V PD(potential diff) i
H =
= =i = ; R=
R R R R σA
L
where R= and k = Thermal conductivity σ = Electrical conductivity.
kA
3. GROWTH OF ICE ON PONDS

When temperature of the atmosphere falls below 0°C, the water in the pond starts freezing. Let at time t thickness
of ice in the pond is y and atmospheric temperature is -T°C. The temperature of water in contact with the lower
surface of ice will be 0°C.
dQ  dm  TD d
Using = L  ; = L {Aρy} (A = Area of pond)
dt  dt  R dt
00−−((−−TT)) dy
dy dy kT 1
∴
∴  =
LA
=LAρρ.. ∴− = . where L -> Latent heat of fusion
((yy kA
kA)) dt
dt dt ρ Ly
ρL y 1 ρL 2
And hence time taken by ice to grow a thickness y t =
kT ∫0
ydy or t = y
2 kT
Time does not depend on the area of pond.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Time taken by ice to grow on ponds is independent of area of the pond and it is only dependent only
the thickness of ice sheet.
Vaibhav Krishnan (JEE 2009, AIR 22)
P hysi cs | 14.3
4. SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RODS
4.1 Series Connection

Consider two rods of thermal resistances R1 R2
R1 and R2 joined one after the other as T1 A B T2
shown in figure. The free ends are kept T
at temperatures T1 and T2 with T1>T2. In
Figure 14.3
steady state, any heat that goes through
the first rod also goes through the second
rod. Thus, the same heat current passes through the two rods. Such a connection of rods is called a series connection.
Suppose, the temperature of the junction is T, the heat current through the first rod is,
∆Q T1 − T
=i = or T1 − T =
R1i ... (i)
∆t R1
∆Q T − T2
and that through the second rod =
is i = or T − T2 =
R 2i … (ii)
∆t R2
T −T
Adding (i) and (ii) T1 − T2 = (R1 + R 2 ) i or i = 1 2
R1 + R 2
Thus, the two rods together is equivalent to a single rod of thermal resistance R1+R2.
If more than two rods are joined in series, the equivalent thermal resistance is given by, R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ...
4.2 Parallel Connection

Now, suppose the two rods are joined at their ends as shown in figure. R1
The left end of both the rods are kept at temperature T1 and the right A
ends are kept at temperature T2.
T1 T2
So the same temperature difference is maintained between the ends of
B
each rod. Such a connection of rods is called a parallel connection. The
∆Q1 T1 − T2 R2
heat current going through the first rod =
is i1 =
∆t R1 Figure 14.4
∆Q 2 T1 − T2
and that through the second rod =is i2 =
∆t R2
 1 1 
The total heat current going through the left end is i = i1 + i2 = (T1 − T2 )  + 
 R1 R 2 
T −T
or i = 1 2
R
1 1 1
Where = + … (i)
R R1 R 2
5. RADIAL FLOW OF HEAT THROUGH A CYLINDRICAL TUBE

Consider a cylindrical tube of length l and respective inner and outer radii as r1 and r2. If the heat flows radially i.e.,
perpendicular to the axis of the tube from the steady state temperatures θ1 at the inner surface to the temperature
θ2 at the outer surface, then the rate of heat flowing through an element of shell lying between radius r and r+ dr
dθ
is given by ∆Q = −k ( 2πr ) where dθ is temperature difference across the shell.
dr
It can be integrated for total heat flow per second.
2
r
r1 r+dr
1
2
Figure 14.5
∴ Total heat flowing per second,
2πk ( θ1 − θ2 ) 2πk ( θ1 − θ2 )
Q= ; Q =
r2 r 
dr ln  2 
∫ r  r1 
r1
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
No mass movement of matter occurs in conduction. Solids are better

conductors than liquids, liquids are better conductors than gases. Q1 Q2
Consider a section ab of a rod as shown in figure. Suppose Q1 heat a b

enters into the section at ‘a’ and Q2 leaves at ‘b’, then Q2 < Q1. Figure 14.6
Part of the energy Q2 - Q1 is utilized in raising the temperature of
section ab and the remaining is lost to the atmosphere through ab. If heat is continuously supplied from
the left end of the rod, a stage comes when temperature of the section becomes constant. In that case
Q1=Q2 if rod is insulated from the surroundings (or loss through ab is zero). This is called the steady state
condition. Thus, in steady state temperature of different sections of the rod becomes constant (but not
same).
Nitin Chandrol (JEE 2012, AIR 134)
Illustration 1: One face of a copper cube of edge 10 cm is maintained at 100℃ and the opposite face is maintained
at 0℃. All other surfaces are covered with an insulating material. Find the amount of heat flowing per second
through the cube. Thermal conductivity of copper is 385 Wm-1 ℃-1. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Always consider the A which perpendicular to the flow of heat.

The heat flows from the hotter face towards the colder face. The area of cross section perpendicular to the heat
flow is A = (10cm)
2
T − T2 (100°C − 0°C )
The amount of heat flowing per second is
∆Q
∆t
= KA 1 =
X
(385Wm−1
)
°C−1 × ( 0.1m) ×
2
0.1m
= 3850W.
Illustration 2: A cylindrical block of length 0.4 m and area of cross-section 0.04m2 is placed coaxially on a thin
metallic disc of mass 0.4 kg and of the same cross-section. The upper face of the cylinder is maintained at the
constant temperature of 400 K and initial temperature of the disc is 300 K. If the thermal conductivity of the
material of the cylinder is 100 watt/m-K and the specific heat of the material of the disc is 600 J/kg-K, how long
will it take for the temperature of the disc to increase to 350 K? Assume, for the purpose of calculation, the thermal
P hysi cs | 14.5
conductivity of the disc to be very high and the system to be thermally insulated except for the upper face of the
cylinder.
(JEE ADVANCED)
400 K
0.4n
300 K
Figure 14.7
Sol: Write the equation rate of heat transfer at any temperature ‘T’ for the disc. Rate of heat transfer proportional
to rate of change in temperature.
As heat is conducted from the cylinder to the disc, the temperature of the disc increases. If the temperature of the
dQ KA ( 400 − T )
disc at some instant is T, then rate of flow of heat through the cylinder at that instant is = … (i)
dt L
If dT is the further increase in the temperature of the disc in the infinitesimal time interval dt,
dQ dT
then = ms … (ii)
dt dt
Where m is the mass of the disc and c is its specific heat.
From equations (i) and (ii)
KA ( 400 − T ) dT msL  dT 
= ms ; dt =  
L dt KA  400 − T 
350
msL dT msL  400 − 300 
Integrating we get, =t ∫ = × 2.303log10  
KA 300 400 − T KA  400 − 350 
0.4 × 600 × 0.4

= × 2.303 × =
0.3010 166s.
10 × 0.04
6. CONVECTION
In this process, actual motion of heated material results in transfer of heat from one place to another. For example,
in a hot air blower, air is heated by a heating element and is blown by a fan. The air carries the heat wherever it
goes. When water is kept in a vessel and heated on a stove, the water at the bottom gets heated due to conduction
through the vessel’s bottom. Its density decreases and consequently it rises. Thus, the heat is carried from bottom
to the top by the actual movement of the parts of the water. If the heated material is forced to move, say by
a blower or by a pump, the process of heat transfer is called forced convection. If the material moves due to
difference in density, it is called natural or free convection.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
The convection currents created in a room by a radiator means that the warm air is circulated around and
the warming is more uniform than just being the air around the radiator. When heating water on a stove,
the convection currents created by the rising hot water means that all the water gets heated instead of
just the water at the very bottom of the pan. Some rainfall is also caused by moist air being heated and
rising, then cooling quickly and allowing the water vapor to condense into rain.
Anand K (JEE 2011, AIR 47)
7. RADIATION
The third means of energy transfer is radiation which does not require a medium. The best known example of this
process is the radiation from Sun. All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves.
The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This is
known as the Stefan’s law and is expressed in equation form as P = σAeT 4
Here P is the power in watts(J/s) radiated by object, A is the surface area in m2 ,e lies between 0 and 1 and
is called emissivity of the object and σ is universal constant called Stefan’s constant, which has the value,
=σ 5.67 × 10−8 W / m2 − K 4 .
8. PERFECTLY BLACK BODY

A body that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it and has as emissivity equal
to 1 is called a perfectly black body. A black body is also an ideal radiator. It implies
that if a black body and an identical another body is kept at the same temperature,
then the black body will radiate maximum power as is obvious from equation
P = σAeT 4
This is also because e=1 for a perfectly black body while for any other body,
e<1.
Figure 14.8
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Always remember that black body is a perfect absorber and emitter of light. At temperatures higher than
the surrounding, it is the most shining thing and at lower temperatures it is the darkest thing.
There is no perfect black body. Materials like black velvet or lamp black come close to being ideal black
bodies, but the best practical realization of an ideal black body is a small hole leading into a cavity, as
this absorbs 98% of the radiation incident on them.
GV Abhinav (JEE 2012, AIR 329)
Illustration 3: A solid copper sphere of density ρ, specific heat c and radius r is at temperature T1. It is suspended
inside a chamber whose walls are at temperature 0K. What is the time required for the temperature of sphere to
drop to T2? Take the emissivity of the sphere to be equal to e. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Heat lost by radiation cause temperature to fall.

P hysi cs | 14.7
dT dT
The rate of loss of energy due to radiation, P = σAeT 4 . This rate must be equal to mc Hence, −mc σAeT 4
=
dt dt
Negative sign is used as temperature decreases with time. In this equation,
T
ρcr  1 1 
1
4 3 2 dT 3eσ 4 ρcr 2 dT
m =  πr  ρ and A= 4 πr ∴ − = T or − ∫ dt = ∫= ; t  − 
3  dt ρcr 3eσ T T 4 9eσ  T3 T3 
0 1  2 1 
9. ABSORPTIVE POWER ‘a’

“It is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by a body in a given time to the total radiant energy
incident on it in the same interval of time.”
Energy absorbed
a=
Energy incident
As a perfectly black body absorbs all radiations incident on it, the absorptive power of perfectly black body is
maximum and unity.
10. SPECTRAL ABSORPTIVE ‘aλ’

This absorptive power ‘a’ refers to radiations of all wavelengths (or the total energy) while the spectral absorptive
power is the ratio of radiant energy absorbed by a surface to the radiant energy incident on it for a particular
wavelength λ. It may have different values for different wavelengths for a given surface. Let us take an example,
suppose a = 0.6, aλ = 0.4 for 1000 Å and aλ = 0.7 for 2000 Å for a given surface. Then it means that this surface
will absorb only 60% of the total radiant energy incident on it. Similarly it absorbs 40% of the energy incident
on it corresponding to 1000 Å and 70% corresponding to 2000 Å. The spectral absorptive power aλ is related to
∞
absorptive power a through the relation
= a ∫0 aλ dλ
11. EMISSIVE POWER ‘e’

(Don’t confuse it with the emissivity e which is different from it, although both have the same symbols e).
“For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy emitted per second per unit area of the surface.” It has the
units of W / m2 or J/s-m2 , for a black body e = σT 4
Note: Absorptive power is dimensionless quantity where emissive power is not.
12. SPECTRAL EMISSIVE POWER

Similar to the definition of the spectral absorptive power, it is emissive power for a particular wavelength λ.
∞
Thus,
= e ∫0 eλ dλ
13. KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

The ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is the same for all bodies at a given temperature and is equal to
the emissive power E of a blackbody at that temperature. Thus,
E(body)
= E(blackbody)
a(body)
Kirchhoff’s law tells that if a body has high emissive power, it should also have high absorptive power to have the
ratio e/a same. Similarly, a body having low emissive power should have low absorptive power. Kirchhoff’s law may
be easily proved by a simple argument as described below.
Consider two bodies A and B of similar geometrical shapes placed in an enclosure. Suppose A is any random body
and B is a blackbody. In thermal equilibrium, both the bodies will have the same temperature as the temperature
of the enclosure. Suppose an amount ∆U of radiation falls on the body A in a given time ∆t. As A and B have the
same geometrical shapes, the radiation falling on the blackbody B is also ∆U. The blackbody absorbs all of this ∆U.
As the temperature of the blackbody remains constant, it also emits an amount ∆U of radiation in that time. If the
emissive power of the blackbody is e0, we have ∆U ∝ E0 or ∆U = kE0 ... (i)
where k is constant.
Let the absorptive power of A be a. Thus, it absorbs an energy of a ∆U of the radiation falling on it in time ∆t. As
its temperature remains constant, it must also emit the same energy a ∆U in that time. If the emissive power of the
body A is e, we have a ∆U=ke ... (ii)
The same proportionality constant k is used in (i) and (ii) because the two bodies have identical geometrical shapes
and radiation emitted in the same time ∆t is considered.
From ( i ) and ( ii ),
E E E(body)
a= or = E0 or = E(blackbody)
E0 a a(body)
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
It can be thought like, good absorber is a good emitter because at some point of time, it might have
stored energy because it is a good absorber. Now as soon as the temperature of the surrounding
becomes low than that of the body, this energy starts decreasing until the steady state is reached. Hence,
it must be a good emitter too.
Good absorbers for a particular wavelength are also good emitters of the same wavelength.
Anurag Saraf (JEE 2011, AIR 226)
14. STEFANS-BOLTZMANN LAW

The energy of thermal radiation emitted per unit time by a blackbody of surface area A is given by u = σAT 4 … (i)
Where is a universal constant known as Stefan Boltzmann constant and T is its temperature on absolute scale.
The measured value of σ is 5.67×1-8 Wm-2 K-4. Equation (i) itself is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Stefan had
suggested this law based on his experimental data on radiation and Boltzmann derived it from thermo dynamical
analysis. The law is also quoted as Stefan’s law and the constant σ as Stefan constant.
A body which is not a blackbody, emits less radiation than given by equation (i). It is, however, proportional to T 4 .
The energy emitted by such a body per unit time is written as u= eσAT 4 … (ii)
Where e is a constant for the given surface having a value between 0 and 1. This constant is called the emissivity
of the surface. It is zero for completely reflecting surface and is unity for a blackbody.
E(body)
Using Kirchhoff’s law =a … (i)
E(blackbody)
Where a is the absorptive power of the body. The emissive power E is proportional to the energy radiated per unit
eσAT 4
time, that is, proportional to u. Using above equations, = a or e=a.
σAT 4
P hysi cs | 14.9
Thus, emissivity and absorptive power have the same value.

Consider a body of emissivity e kept in thermal equilibrium in a room at temperature T0 .
The energy of radiation absorbed by it per unit time should be equal to the energy emitted by it per unit time. This
is because the temperature remains constant. Thus, the energy of the radiation absorbed per unit time is u= eσAT04 .
Now suppose the temperature of the body is changed to T but room temperature remains T0 . The energy of the
thermal radiation emitted by the body per unit time is u= eσAT 4 .
The energy absorbed per unit time by the body is u0 = eσAT04 .

Thus, the net loss of thermal energy per unit time is ∆u = u − u0 = eσA(T 4 − T0 4 ) … (iii)
Illustration 4: A blackbody of surface area 10cm2 is heated to 127℃ and is suspended in a room at temperature
27℃. Calculate the initial rate of loss of heat from the body to the room. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Heat lost by radiation and gained by absorption.

For a blackbody at temperature T, the rate of emission is u = σAT 4 . When it is kept in a room at temperature T0 ,
the rate of absorption is u0 = σAT04 .
σA(T 4 − T0 4 )
The net rate of loss of heat is u − u0 =
= 10 × 10−4 m2 T = 400K T0 = 300K

Here A
Thus, u − u0= (5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2K −4 )(10 × 10−4 m2 )(400 4 − 300 4 )K 4 = 0.99W
Illustration 5: Energy falling on 1.0 area placed at right angles to a sun beam just outside the earth’s atmosphere
is 1.35 K joule in one second. Find sun’s surface temperature. Mean distance of earth from sun is 1.50 × 108 km ,
mean distance of sun= 1.39 × 106 km and Stefan’s constant= 5.67 × 10−8 watt m−2K −4 . (JEE MAIN)
Sol: σ Asun T 4 =
S × Aearth
The temperature of the sun is given by
2
4 S R 
T =  
σ r 
S 1.35kJ m2 − sec 135 × 103 watt m2

= = = 2.38 × 1010 K 4
8 2 2
σ 5.67 × 10 watt m − K
−
5.67 × 10 watt m − K 4
−8 2
R 1.50 × 108 km
= = 215.8
r 0.695 × 106 km
∴ T 4= (2.38 × 1010 K 4 )(215.8)

= 2
1108 × 1012 K 4
=T 5.770 × 103 K or T = 5770K
15. NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

The rate of cooling of a body is directly proportional to the difference of temperature of the body over its
surroundings.
If a body at temperature θ1 is placed in surroundings at lower temperature θ2, the rate of cooling is given by
dQ
∝ ( θ1 − θ2 ) where dQ is the quantity of heat lost in time dt.
dt
1 4 . 1 0 | Heat Transfer
dQ
Newton’s law of cooling gives = −k ( θ1 − θ2 ) where k is constant.
dt
dQ dθ
If a body of mass m and specific heat s loses a temperature dθ in time dt, then = ms = −k(θ1 − θ2 )
dt dt
Illustration 6: A liquid cools from 70℃ to 60℃ in 5 minutes. Calculate the time taken by the liquid to cool from
60℃ to 50℃, if the temperature of the surrounding is constant at 30℃. (JEE MAIN)
Sol: Use newton’s law cooling and taking temperature of the body is average of initial and final value.
70°C + 60°C
The average temperature of the liquid in the first case is θ1 = = 65°C
2
The average temperature difference from the surrounding is θ1 − θ0= 65°C − 30°C= 35°C .
dθ1 70°C − 60°C
The rate of fall of temperature is − = 2°Cmin−1 .
=
dt 5mins
2
From Newton’s law of cooling, 2°Cmin−1 =bA(35°C) Or bA = … (i)
35min
60°C + 50°C
In the second case, the average temperature of the liquid is θ2 = = 55°C
2
So that, θ2 − θ0= 55°C − 30°C= 25°C
dθ 60°C − 50°C 10°C
If it takes a time t to cool down from 60℃ to 50℃, the rate of fall in temperature is =
− 2 = .
dt t t
10°C 2
From Newton’s law of cooling and (i), = × 25°C Or t = 7min.
t 35min
Illustration 7: At midnight, with the temperature inside your house at 70℉ and the temperature outside at 20℉,
your furnace breaks down. Two hours later, the temperature in your house has fallen to 50℉. Assume that the
outside temperature remains constant at 20℉. At what time will the inside temperature of your house reach 40℉?
(JEE ADVANCED)
Sol: Newton’s law of cooling, follow logarithm curve in cooling.

The boundary value problem that models this situation is
dT T(0) = 70
= k(20 − T)
dt T(2) = 50
t2
3
Where time 0 is midnight. The solution of this boundary value problem is=
T 20 + 50  
5
This is obtained by solving above differential equation.
Note (for the purpose of a reasonableness check) that this formula given us
02 22
3 3
T(0) =
20 + 50   70. and T(2) =
= 20 + 50   50.
=
5 5
t 2
3
To find when the temperature in the house will reach 40℉, we must solve equation 20 + 50   40
=
5
 ln(2 5) 
The solution of this equation
= is t 2   ≈ 3.6
 ln(3 5) 
Thus, the temperature in the house will reach 40℉ a little after 3.30 a.m.
P hysi cs | 14.11
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Newton’s law of cooling can also be thought in the context of Stefan-Boltzmann law by considering
the temperature difference between the body and the surroundings very close to zero, i.e. it can be
considered as a special case of the latter.
Vijay Senapathi (JEE 2011, AIR 71)
16. WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

At ordinary temperatures (below about 600℃), the thermal radiation emitted by bodies is invisible, most of them
lie in wavelengths longer than visible light. The figure shows how the energy of a black body radiation varies
with temperature and wavelength. As the temperature of the black body increases, two different behaviors are
observed. The first effect is that the peak of the distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths. This shift is found to
satisfy the following relationship called Wien’s displacement law.
λmaxT=b . Here b is a constant called Wien’s constant. The value of this constant in SI unit is 2.898 × 10−3 m-K. Thus,
λmax α1/ T
Here λmax is the wavelength corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power eλ.
The second effect is that the total amount of energy the black body emits per unit area per unit time (=σT4)
increases with fourth power of absolute temperature T.
This is also known as emissive power. We know
∞
=e ∫0 e=
λ dλ Area under graph, eλ Vs λ = σT 4
Area ∝ T 4 =
A2 (2)
= 4
16A1
Thus, if the temperature of the black body is made two fold, λmax remains half while the area becomes 16 times.
PLANCESS CONCEPTS
Have you ever wondered how do scientists calculate the temperature of sun and other stars? It is through
this law.
Ankit Rathore (JEE Advanced 2013, AIR 158)
Illustration 8: The light from the sun is found to have a maximum intensity near the wavelength of 470 nm.
Assuming that the surface of the sun emits as a blackbody, calculate the temperature of the surface of the sun.
(JEE MAIN)
Sol: Formula of Wien’s displacement law.
0.288 cmK
For a blackbody, λm T=0.288 cmK. =
Thus, T = 6130K
470nm
Illustration 9: What is the wavelength of the brightest part of the light from our next closest star, Proxima Centauri?
Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf star about 4.2 light years away from us with an average surface temperature of
3,042 Kelvin? (JEE MAIN)
Sol: λmax T =
b
We don’t really need the distance to solve this. All we need is the surface temperature to plug into our Wien’s law
equation
0.0029meters − K
Wavelength λmax in meters = which is 0.000000953 meters.
3.042K
We can convert this to nanometers and we get a peak wavelength of 953 nm.
Illustration 10: Two bodies A and B have thermal emissivity of 0.1 and 0.81 respectively. The outer surface areas
of the two bodies are identical. These two bodies emit total radiative power at the same rate. The wavelength λB
corresponding to the maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from B is 1.0 µm larger than the wavelength λ A
corresponding to the maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from A. If the temperature of body A is 5802 K,
find (a) temperature of (B) and (b) λB . (JEE MAIN)
e e
A2
T 2T
A1

m m
2
Figure 14.9
Sol: By equating their emissive power, ratio of temperatures (a) could be calculated.
(a) Power radiated from A= PA= EA A= eA σTA4 A
= PB= EA A= eB σTB4 A
Power radiated from B
Where A is surface area of both the bodies as P1 = P2 , eA TA4 = eB TB4
4
T   0.01  1  TB  1  1 1
∴ 0.01TA4 = 0.81TB4 ∴ B  =   =  ; =   or TB = × TA = × 5802 =1934K
 TA   0.81  81 TA  3  3 3
(b) λm T = constant as per Wien’s law

λB TA λ λB 2λB
∴ λ A TA = λB TB or = = 3 ; λ A =B ; λB − λ A =1µm, λB − = =1µm
λ A TB 3 3 3
1× 3
∴ λB= = 1.5µm
2
17. SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE OF SUN

Solar constant is defined as the amount of radiation received from the sun at the earth per minute per cm2 of a
surface placed at right angle to the solar radiation at a mean distance of the earth from the sun. Assuming that the
absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere near the earth is negligible, the value of solar constant, S, is equal
to 1.94 cal.cm−2 min−1 .
2
S R 
The temperature of the sun, T, is given as follows T 4 =  
σ r 
Where S is solar constant, σ is Stefan’s constant, R is mean distance of earth from sun and r is radius of sun.
P hysi cs | 14.13
PROBLEM-SOLVING TACTICS
1. Problems of conduction can be easily solved by making analogy with current electricity (Problems like
calculation of net conductance of series and parallel connection. Actually, the way in which steady state is
achieved in heat transfer and current electricity is very similar. At steady state considering a cylindrical rod,
potential at each point becomes constant in current electricity and so does temperature in heat transfer.
The amount of charge transferred per unit time is related in same way to potential as that of heat energy
transferred relates to temperature difference and the constant of proportionality have similar properties.)
2. Most of the problems involve concepts of integration, so be careful with infinitesimal elements. Basically, try
to be physically involved in the problem and understand it event by event so that you learn more. Toughness
in most of the questions is involved only in its mathematical analysis.
3. Problems from radiation and law of cooling also generally involve integration which becomes necessary to
do at times. However an approximate approach is also available in case of law of cooling useful in solving
problems without involving integration.
4. Laws must be carefully known because many questions directly focus on understanding of laws rather than
involving calculations (Example - If temperature of a body is doubled, find the ratio of maximum wavelength
for final and initial state.)
5. Noting down the known and asked quantities and thinking of a link between them will always prove to be a
good way.
6. Questions from this topic usually come in a hybrid involving concepts of other topics like thermodynamics,
gaseous state and calorimetry. So one must be strong in their concepts too!!
FORMULAE SHEET
S. No. Term Descriptions

1. Conduction Due to vibration and collision of medium particles.
2. Steady state In this state heat absorption stops and temperature gradient throughout the rod becomes
dT
constant i.e. = const ant.
dx
3. Before steady state Temp of rod at any point changes.
Note: If specific heat of any substance is zero, it can be considered always to be in steady
state.
4. Ohm’s law for thermal Let the two ends of rod of length L is maintained T1 T2
Conduction in Steady
state (
At temp T1 and T2 T1 > T2 ) L
dQ T1 − T2 L
Thermal Current = . Where R Th =
dT R Th KA
(L is length of material, K is coefficient of thermal conductivity, A is area of cross- section)
5. Differential form of T T-dT
dQ dT
Ohm’s law = KA
dT dx
dT
= Temperature gradient
dx dx
6. Convection Heat transfer due to movement of medium particles.
7. Radiation Every body radiates electromagnetic radiation of all possible wavelength at all temp>0 K
8. Stefan’s Law
Rate of heat emitted by a body at temp T K from per unit area E = σT 4 J / sec/ m2
dQ
Radiation power = P = σAT 4 watt
dT dQ
If body is placed in a surrounding of temperature Ts σA(T 4 − Ts 4 ) valid only for
=
black body
dT
heat from general body
Emissivity or emmisive power e =
heat from black body
If temp of body falls by dT in time dt
=
dT eAσ 4
dt ms
( )
T − Ts 4 (dT/dt=Rate of cooling)
9. Newton’s law of If temp difference of body with surrounding is small i.e.

cooling
T = Ts Then,
=
dT 4eAσ 3
dt
T T − Ts
ms s
( ) So dT
dt
(
∝ T − Ts )
10. Average form of
If a body cools from T1 to T2 in time δt
Newton’s law of
cooling T1 − T2 K  T1 + T2  dT K
=  − TS  (Used generally in objective questions)= (T − TS )
δt mS  2  dt mS
(For better results use this generally in subjective )
11. Wien’s black body At every temperature (>0K) a body radiates energy radiations of all wavelengths.
radiation According to Wien’s displacement law if the wavelength I
corresponding to maximum energy is λm then λm T=b T3
> >
T2 T3 T2 T1
where b= is a constant( Wien’s Constant )
T=Temperature of body T2
m3
m2
m3
Solved Examples
JEE Main/Boards Sol: Recall the formula of heat transfer.

(a) Thermal resistance
Example 1: A copper rod 2 m long has a circular
1 1 2
cross section of radius 1 cm. One end is kept at 100℃ R
= == or R = 15.9K / W
and other at 0℃, and the surface is insulated so that kA k( π r )
2
(401)( π)(10−2 )2
negligible heat is lost through the surface. Find ∆T ∆θ 100
(b) Thermal current,=
H = = or
(a) The thermal resistance of bar R R 15.9
(b) The thermal current H H = 6.3W
dT (c) Temperature gradient
(c) The temperature gradient
dx
(d) The temperature 25 cm from hot end. Thermal 0 − 100
= =−50K / m =−50°C / m
conductivity of copper is 401 W/m-K 2
P hysi cs | 14.15
(d) Let be θ°C the temperature at 25 cm from hot end conductivity of copper is 401 W/m-K and that of
then aluminium is 237 W/m-K
o
100 C oC 0oC
o o
100 C 20 C
0.25 m
2.0 m
(θ – 100)=(Temperature gradient) × (Distance)
θ − 100 = ( −50)(0.25) Sol: This is parallel combination and thermal current
θ 87.5°C
= would be sum of both cubes.
(a) Thermal resistance of aluminum cube
Example 2: In a murder investigation, a corpse was 1 (3 × 10 −2 )
found by a detective at exactly 8 P.M. Being alert, the = R1 = or R1 = 0.14K / W
kA (237)(3 × 10−2 )2
detective also measured the body temperature and
found it to be 70℉. Two hours later, the detective and Thermal resistance of aluminum cube
measured the body temperature again and it found to
be 60℉. If the room temperature is 50℉, and assuming (3 × 10 −2 )
= R2 = 0.08K / W
that the body temperature of the person before death (401)(3 × 10 −2 )2
was 98.6℉, at what time did the murder occur?
As these two resistances are in parallel, their equivalent
resistance will be
Sol: Newton’s law of cooling is used.
With time 0 taken to be 8 P.M., we have the boundary= R1R 2 (0.14)(0.08)
R = = 0.05K / W
value problem R1 + R 2 (0.14) + (0.08)
Temperature difference
T(0) = 70 Thermal Current H =
dT Thermal resistance
= k(50 − T);
dt T(2) = 60
(100 − 20)
t2 = = 1.6 × 103 W
 1 0.05
Whose solution is = T 50 + 20  
2 (b) In parallel thermal current distributes in the inverse
ratio of resistance.
We would like to find the value of t for which T(t)=98.6.
Solving the equation H R Al R1 0.14
Hence, Cu = = = = 1.75
t 2 HAl R Cu R 2 0.08
 1
50 + 20   = 98.6
2 Example 4: One end of a copper rod of length 1 m
 ln(48.6 20)  and area of cross section 4.0 × 10−4 m2 is maintained at
Given us t 2 
=  ≈ −2.56. 100℃. At the end of rod ice is kept at 0℃. Neglecting
 ln(1 2) 
the loss of heat from the surroundings, find the mass
It appears that this person was murdered at about 530 of ice melted in 1 h. Given= k cu 401W m − K and
P.M. or so. 5
L f 3.35 × 10 J kg .
=
t2
 1
From the function =
T 50 + 20   Sol: Find total heat transfer in 1 hr time through rod
2
and hence, melted ice can be found.
Over the time interval −2.56. ≤ t ≤ 2.56.
Thermal resistance of the rod,
Example 3: Two metal cubes with 3 cm edges of copper o
100 C 0oC
and aluminium are arranged as shown in fig. find H
(a) The total thermal current from one reservoir to the 1 1.0
R
= = = 6.23K W
other kA (401)(4 × 10−4 )
(b) The ratio of the thermal current carried by the Temperature difference
copper cube to that of the aluminium cube. Thermal Heat Current H =
Thermal resistance
(100 − 0) Substituting the values

= = 16W
6.23 1
 0.01  4
=TB =  (5802) 1934K
Heat transferred in 1 h,  0.81 
 Q
= 57600 J  H = 
Q = Ht (16)(3600)
= (b) According to Wein’s displacement law,
 T
λ A TA =
λB TB
Now, let m mass of ice melts in 1 h, then
 5802 
Q ∴ λB =   λ A or λB = 3λ A
m= (Q=mL)  1934 
L
 1
57600 Also, λB − λ A = 1µm or λB −   λB =1µm
= = 0.172kg or 172g
3.35 × 105 3
Or λB = 1.5µm
Example 5: A body cools in 10 minutes from 60℃
to 40℃. What will be its temperature after next 10
Example 7: Two plates each of area A, thickness L1
minutes? The temperature of the surrounding is 10℃
and L2 thermal conductivities K1 and K2 respectively are
Sol: Think of Newton’s law of cooling. joined to form a single plate of thickness L1 + L2. If the
temperatures of the free surfaces are T1 and T2, calculate
According to Newton’s law of cooling
 θ1 − θ2   θ1 + θ2  
  = α   − θ0 
 t   2   Heat
Flow
For the given conditions, K1 K2 T2
T1
60 − 40  60 + 40 
=
α − 10  … (i) L1 L2
10  2 
(a) Rate of flow of heat
Let be the temperature after next 10 minutes.
40 − θ  40 + θ  (b) Temperature of interface
Then =
α − 10  … (ii)
10  2  (c) Equivalent thermal conductivity
Solving Eqs. ( i ) and ( ii ), we get θ= 28°C Sol: Consider as thermal current where thermal resistors
in series.
Example 6: Two bodies A and B have thermal emissivity
(a) If the thermal resistances of the two plates are R1
of 0.01 and 0.81 respectively. The outer surface areas
and R2 respectively then as plates are in series.
of the two bodies are same. The two bodies emit
total radiant power at the same rate. The wavelength L1 L2
RS = R1 + R 2 = +
corresponding to maximum spectral radiancy from AK1 AK 2
B is shifted from the wavelength corresponding to L
maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from A by As R = and so
AK
1.0 µm. If the temperature of A is 5802 K. calculate (a)
The temperature of B, dQ ∆Q (T1 − T2 ) A(T1 − T2 )
H
= = = =
(b) Wavelength λB dt R (R1 + R 2 )  L1 L2 
 + 
 K1 K 2 
Sol: Compare the emissive power of both and then
temperature and λm of B can be calculated, Use (b) If T is the common temperature of interface then
λB − λ A = 1µm . as in series, rate of flow of heat remains same. i.e.
H H=
= 1 ( H2 )
(a) PA = PB ∴ eA σA A TA4 = eB σAB TB4
T1 − T2 T1 − T T1R 2 + T2R1
1 = i.e. T =
 eA 4 R1 + R 2 R1 (R1 + R 2 )
∴ TB =
  TA … (A A = AB )
 eB 
P hysi cs | 14.17
 L1 L2  Example 9: The lower surface of a slab of stone of

 T2 + T1  face-area 3600 cm and thickness 10 cm is exposed to
K1 K2 
or T= steam at 100℃. A block of ice at 0℃ rests on the upper
 L1 L2 
 +  surface of slab. 4.8 g of ice melts in one hour. Calculate
 K1 K 2  the thermal conductivity of the stone. Latent heat of
fusion of ice = 3.36 × 105 Jkg−1 .
(c) If K is the equivalent conductivity of composite slab
i.e. slab of thickness L1 + L2 and cross sectional area A, Sol: Amount of heat transfer per second would be used
then as in series to melt the mass of ice per second.
R= R1 + R 2 or
(L1 + L2=) R1 + R 2 The amount of heat transferred through the slab to the
S
AK eq ice in one hour is
=K eq =
(L1 + L2 ) L1 + L2 As R = L Q =(4.8 × 10−3 kg) × (3.36 × 105 Jkg−1 )
A(R1 + R 2 )  L1 L2  AK = 4.8 × 336J.
 + 
 K1 K 2  Using the equation Q =
KA(θ1 − θ2 )t
x
Example 8: One end of a rod of length 20cm is 2
K(3600 cm) (100° C)(3600 s)
inserted in a furnace at 800K. The sides of the rod are 4.8 × 336J =
10cm
covered with an insulating material and the other end
emits radiation like a black body. The temperature of 1.24 × 10−3 Wm−1° C−1
or K =
this end is 750K in the steady state. The temperature
of the surrounding air is 300K. Assuming radiation is
Example 10: An icebox made of 1.5 cm thick
the only important mode of energy transfer between
Styrofoam has dimensions 60cm × 60cm × 30cm . It
the surrounding and the open end of the rod. Find the
contains ice at 0℃ and kept in a room at 40℃. Find
thermal conductivity of the rod. Stefan constant
the rate at which ice is melting. Latent heat of fusion of
= 6.0 × 10−3 W / m2 − K 4
σ ice = 3.36 × 105 Jkg−1 and thermal conductivity of
Styrofoam = 0.04Wm−1°C−1 .
750 K
Furnace
air temp Sol: Heat transfer through Styrofoam will melt the ice.
800 K
20 cm 300 K The total surface area of the walls
= 2(60cm × 60cm + 60cm × 30cm + 60cm × 30cm)
Sol: Rate of heat through radiation would be equal to = 1.44m2
rate of heat transfer through rod. The rate of heat flow into the box is
Quantity of heat flowing though the rod per second in ∆Q KA(θ1 − θ2 )
steady state =
∆t x
dQ K.A.dθ
= … (i) (0.04 Wm−1 ° C−1 )(1.44m2 )(40° C)
dt x = = 154W
0.015m
Quantity of heat radiated from the end of the rod per
The rate at which the ice melts is
second in steady state
154W
dQ = = 0.46gs−1
=Aσ(T 4 − T04 ) … (ii) 3.36 × 105 Jkg−1
dt
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
K.dθ
=σ(T 4 − T04 )
x JEE Advanced/Boards
K × 50
=6.0 × 10−8 (7.5)4 − (3)4  × 108
0.2   Example 1: Three rods of the material x and three rods
K = 74 W mK of material y are connected as shown in figure. All the
rods are of identical length and cross sectional area. If
the end A is maintained at 60℃ and the junction E is
at 10℃ Calculate temperature of junction B, C, D. the (30 − T)

Or 15 = (30 − T) +
thermal conductivity of x is 0.92 cal/cm-s℃ and that of 2
y is 0.46 cal/cm-s℃. Solving this we get T
= 20°C or TC= TD= 20°C
C
x x Example 2: A cylinder of radius R made of a thermal
o
y 10oC
60 C
x E conductivity K1 is surrounded by cylindrical shell of inner
B radius R and another radius 2R made of a material of
y y thermal conductivity K2. The two ends of the combined
D system are maintained at two different temperatures.
There is no loss of heat across the cylindrical surface
Sol: Think of temperature drop across BCE and across
and system is in steady state. What is the effective
BDE, temperature of C and D would be same as similar
thermal conductivity of system?
drop across BC and CE,
Sol: Assume this to parallel combination of thermal
K2
resistors. As both have same temperature across their
Heat flow R 2R ends.
K1 In this situation a rod of length L and area of cross

section πR 2 and another of same length L and area
of cross-section π (2R)2 − R 2  =
3πR 2 will conduct heat
1 2  
simultaneously so total heat flowing per second will be,
1
also across BD and DE.Thermal resistance R = dQ dQ1 dQ 2
kA = +
Rx ky dt dt dt
∴ = (as lx = ly and A x = A y )
Ry kx K1πR 2 (θ1 − θ 2 ) K 2 3πR 2 (θ1 − θ 2 )
= + ...(i)
Rx L L
0.46 1
∴ = = Now, if the equivalent conductivity is K then,
R y 0.92 2
So, if R x = R then R y = 2R dQ 4 πR 2 (θ1 − θ 2 )

=K [ As A = π(2R)2 ]…(ii)
dt L
CEDB forms a balanced Wheatstone bridge i.e.
TC = TD and no heat flows through CD So, from Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
1 1 1 4 (K1 + 3K 2 )
∴
∴ = + or RBE = R = K1 + 3K 2 i.e. K =
4K
RBE R + R 2R + 2R 3 4
The total resistance between A and E will be, Example 3: A point source of heat of power P is
4 10 placed at the center of a spherical shell of mean radius
R AE =R AB + RBE =2R + R= R R. the material of the shell has thermal conductivity
3 3
k. calculate the thickness of the shell if temperature
∴ Heat current between A and E is difference between the outer and inner surfaces of the
shell in steady state is T.
( ∆ T) (60 − 10) 15
=H = =
R AE (10 3)R R
Now, if TB is the temperature at B, d
15 60 − TB
( ∆ T)AB r1 P
HAB = or
= or TB= 30°C
R AB R 2R
d
15 30 − Tc 30 − TD
Further, H=AB or
HBC + HBD = + r
R R 2R
r2
(Say T=
C T=
D T)
P hysi cs | 14.19
dr  l  1 7×10−2 m dr 1 7
Sol: Total thermal resistance ∫ k 4 π r2  . Power
2πk ∫5×10 m r
= = −2 = ln  
 KA  2πk  5 
of source equal to rate of heat transfer at steady state.
1
= ln (1.4 ) = 0.765K / W
Consider a concentric spherical shell of radius r and 2π(0.07)
thickness dr as shown in figure. In steady state, the rate
Temperature difference
of heat flow (heat current) through this shell will be, Heat current H =
Thermal resis tance
∆T ( − d θ)  1 
H
= = R =  (100 − 20)
R dr  kA  = = 104.6W
0.765
(k)(4 π r 2 )
∴ Heat lost in one hour =
Heat current × time
dθ
or H =−(4 π kr 2 ) =
= (104.6)(3600) J 3.76 × 105 J
dr
Here, negative sign is used because with increase in r,
decreases. Example 5: A closed cubical box is made of perfectly
insulating material and the only way for heat to enter
r2 dr 4 πk θ2
∴ ∫r1 = − ∫θ1 dθ or leave the box is through two solid cylindrical metal
r 2 H plugs, each of cross sectional area 12 cm2 and length
4 πkr1r2 (θ1 − θ2 ) 8 cm fixed in the opposite walls of the box. The outer
This equation gives, H =
(r2 − r1 ) surface of the plug is kept at a temperature of 100℃
while the outer surface of the other plug is maintained
In steady state,
= H P,r
= 1r2 R2 and θ2 T
θ1 −= at a temperature of 4℃. The thermal conductivity of the
4 πkR 2 T material of the plug is 2.0Wm-1 ℃-1. A source of energy
∴Thickness of shell, r2 − r1 = generating 13 W is enclosed inside the box. Find the
P
equilibrium temperature of the inner surface of the box
assuming that it is the same at all points on the inner
Example 4: A steam pipe of radius 5cm carries steam
surface.
at 100℃. The pipe is covered by a jacket of insulating
material 2cm thick having a thermal conductivity 0.07
Sol: At steady state, rate of heat transfer through both
W/m-K. If the temperature at the outer wall of the pipe
plugs would be same.
jacket is 20℃, how much heat is lost through the jacket
per meter length in an hour?
1= 100oC 2= 4oC

Sol: Heat lost through curved surface of the pipe.
S
dr
R thermal = ∫ for pipe of length l.
K 2 π rl
Thermal resistance per meter length of an element at The situation is shown in figure. Let the temperature
distance r of thickness dr is inside the box be θ. The rate at which heat enters the
∆Q1 KA(θ1 − θ)
box through the left plug is =
k=0.07W/m-k ∆t x
The rate of heat generation in the box=13 W. The rate
at which heat flows out of the box through the right
7cm plug is
r dr
∆Q 2 KA(θ − θ2 )
=
5cm ∆t x
∆Q1 ∆Q 2
In the steady state + 13W =
∆t ∆t
dr 1 KA KA
dR = (R = ) or, (θ − θ) + 13 =
W (θ − θ2 )
k(2π r) kA x 1 x
2 r =7cm
∫
∴ Total resistance R = dR
r1=5cm
KA KA 2 cm. calculate the time required for the thickness to be

or, 2 KA=θ KA (θ1 + θ2 ) + 13 W doubled. Thermal conductivity ice = 0.004cal/cm/s/℃,
or, 2 x =θ x (θ + θ2 ) + 13 W
x θ + θx 1 density of ice = 0.92 g/cm3 and latent heat of ice
(13 W) x
or,
= θ θ11 + θ22 + (13 W) x = 80cal/g.
or,
= θ 2 + 2KA
2 2KA
Sol: Amount of Heat transfer through ice at any time
100°C + 4°C (13 W) × 0.08m would result in freezing the water of lake. Proceed with
= +
2 2 × (2.0 Wm−1 °C−1 )(12 × 10−4 m2 ) assuming Area of lake = A, eventually it will cancel out.
As the temperature of air is below 0℃, water begins to
= 52°C + 216.67°C = 269°C freeze to form a layer of ice. The thickness of the layer
gradually increases.
Example 6: Two thin metallic spherical shells of radii r1 Consider that a layer of thickness x has already been
and r2 (r1 < r2) are placed with their centres coinciding. formed on a lake at 0℃. Let A be the area of the layer,
A material of thermal conductivity K is filled in the L the latent heat of ice and ρ its density. The amount
space between the shells. The inner shell is maintained of heat required when the thickness of ice increases by
at temperature and the outer shell at temperature θ1 dx is
(θ1< θ2). Calculate the rate at which heat flows radially -
through the material.
x
2 x+dx
o
0C
1 X
Q mL
= = (Adx ρ)L
r1
This quantity of heat is conducted upwards through the
r2 layer in time dt when the temperature of air is −θ .
KA(0 − ( −θ)) dx Kθ ρLxdx
∴ A ρLdx = dt; = ; dt =
Sol: Heat flowing radially outward through spherical x dt ρLx Kθ
shells. Both connected in series. Time taken t for the thickness to increase from x1 and x2
to is obtained by integrating
Let us draw two spherical shells of radii x and x+dx
concentric with the given system. Let the temperatures t x
ρL 2
at these shells be θ and θ + dθ respectively. The amount =t ∫=
dt
Kθ x∫
xdx Or
of heat flowing radially inward through the material 0 1
between x and x+dx is ρL 0.92 × 80
= t (x22 − x12 ) ∴ t
= (42 − 22 )
2Kθ 2 × 0.004 × 10
∆Q K4 πx2 = 11040
= s 3.07hr
= . dQ
∆t dx
Thus, Example 8: A liquid placed in a container open to

θ r atmosphere takes 5 minutes to cool from 80℃ to 50℃.
2
∆Q 2 dx How much time will it take to cool from 60℃ to 30℃?
K4 π ∫ dθ =
θ
∆t r∫ x2 The temperature of the surroundings is 20℃.
1 1
∆Q  1 1  Sol: Newton’s law of cooling.

− θ1 ) ∆Q  1 − 1 
or, K4 π(θ2=
or, K4 π(θ2=
− θ1 ) ∆t  r − r 
∆t  r11 r22  The rate of cooling of a body at temperature T is given
∆Q K4 πr r (θ − θ ) dT
or, ∆Q = K4 πr11r22 (θ22 − θ11 ) by Newton’s law of cooling as =−K(T − T0 )
or, ∆t = r2 − r1 dt
∆t r2 − r1
Where K is a constant for the body and T0 is the
temperature of the surroundings.
Example 7: The temperature of air above a lake is
-10℃. At some instant, the thickness of ice in the lake is T − T0
= −Kdt
dT
P hysi cs | 14.21
The negative sign indicates that the temperature is  dT  2.8  6 4 − 34 

falling.   =  =  9.72°C / minute
T2 t
 dt 327°C 2  4 4 − 34 
dT
Integrating, we get ∫ T − T0
= −K ∫ dt
T1 0 Example 10: A 2m long wire of resistance 4 ohm and
 T − T0  diameter 0.64 mm is coated with plastic insulation of
loge  2  = −Kt thickness 0.06 mm. When a current of 5 ampere flows
 T −T
 1 0 
through the wire, find the temperature difference
As t =5, T1 =80°C, T2 =50°C, T0 =20°C across insulation in steady state if
1  80 − 20  K 0.16 × 10−2 cal / cm − °Cs 

=
∴ 5 = loge    
K  50 − 20 
Sol: Tricky one! Rate of heat generation in the wire due
or 5K = loge (2) … (i) to flow of current must be same as rate of heat transfer
If t is time taken when through plastic insulation.
Considering a concentric cylindrical shell of radius r and
T1 =
60°CandT2 =
30°C
thickness dr as shown in figure. The radial rate of flow
 60 − 20  of heat through this shell in steady state will be
Kt = loge   … (ii)
2
 30 − 20 
dr
or Kt = loge (4) 1
r a b
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i)
t loge 4 1.386
= = = 2 or t = 10 minutes
5 loge 2 0.693
dQ dθ
Example 9: A solid copper sphere cools at the rate of H= = −KA
dt dr
2.8℃ per minute, when its temperature is 127℃. Find
the rate at which another copper sphere of twice the Negative sign is used as with increase in r, θ decrases
radius will lose its temperature at 327℃, if in both the
Now as for cylindrical shell A = 2πrL
cases, the room temperature is maintained at 27℃.
dθ
Sol: Get the rate of heat loss through radiations. H =−2πrLK
dr
dQ dT b θ
The rate of loss of heat
= = ms dr −2πrLK 2
dt dt or ∫r = −
H θ∫
dθ
a 1
dT σA 4
σA(T 4 − T04 ) or
= = (T − T04 )
dt ms Which on integration and simplification gives
4 3
If r is radius of sphere is r, then m= πr × ρ
3
dQ 2πLK(θ1 − θ2 )
Where ρ is density and s is specific heat H= … (i)
= − .......(i)
dt ln( b )
dT σ × 4 πr 2 4 4 3σ a
= (T − T=
0 ) (T 4 − T04 )
dt 4 3 rρ× s I2R (5)2 × 4 cal
πr ρ× s Here,=
H = = 24
3 4.2 4.2 s
 dT  3σ
  = 2.8 = (400 4 − 300 4 )......(i)
…(i) =
L 2m= 200cm
 dt 127°C rρ× s
= r1 (0.64
= 2) 0.032cm
For the second sphere of radius 2r and R 2 = r1 + d = 0.032 + 0.006 = 0.038
 dT 
=
 
3σ
(600 4 − 300 4 )......(ii)
…(ii) So (θ1 − θ2 ) = 32 (
24 × ln 38 )
 dt 327°C (2r)ρ× s
2 × 2.3026 log10 38 − log10 32
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we get
24 × 2.3026 log10 38 − log10 32

=
3.14 × 0.64
55 × 1.57 − 1.50  L
1
or (θ1 − θ2 ) = = 2°C. 0
2
Example 11: A rod CD of thermal resistance 5.0KW-1 is Sol: Rate of heat transfer is variable as temperature of
joined at the middle of an identical rod AB as shown in small vessel will be changing.
figure. The ends A, B and D are maintained at 100℃, Suppose, the temperature of the water in the smaller
0℃, and 25℃ respectively. Find the heat current in CD. vessel is at time t. In the next time interval dt, a heat dQ
is transferred to it where
A o o
B
100 C C 0C KA
Q
∆= (θ − θ)dt. … (i)
L 0
25 C
o This heat increases the temperature of the water of
D
mass m to θ + dθ where
Sol: At point C, total thermal current inflow equal to
∆ Q= msdθ … (ii)
total thermal current out flow.
From (i) and (ii),
The thermal resistance of AC is equal to that of CB and
is equal to 2.5KW-1. Suppose, the temperature at C is θ. KA
(θ − θ)dt
= msdθ
The heat current through AC, CB, and CD are L 0
T θ
Lms dθ Lms 2 dθ
∆Q1
=
100°C − θ
;
or, dt =
KA θ0 − θ
or, ∫ dt =
KA θ∫ θ0 − θ
0
∆t 2.5KW −1 1
Where T is the time required for the temperature of the

∆Q 2 θ − 0°C ∆Q 3 θ − 25°C water to become.
= = and
∆t 2.5KW −1 ∆t 5.0KW −1
Lms θ0 − θ1
Thus, T = ln
We also have KA θ0 − θ2
∆Q1 ∆Q 2 ∆Q 3
= + Example 13: The earth receives solar radiation at a rate
∆t ∆t ∆t of. 8.2 J cm−2 min−1 . Assuming that the sun radiates
like a blackbody, calculate surface temperature of the
100°C − θ θ − 0°C θ − 25°C
or, = + sun. The angle subtended by the sun on the earth is
2.5 2.5 5.0 0.530 and Stefan constant=σ 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−3K −4 .
or, 225°C = 5θ
Sol: Think of intensity of thermal heat out a distance R
or, θ= 45°C from the source.
∆Q 3 45°C − 25°C 20K Let the diameter of the sun be D and its distance from
Thus,
= = = 4.0W. the earth be R. From the question,
∆t 5.0KW −1
5.0KW −1
D π
= 0.53 × = 9.25 × 10−3 ...(i)
R 180
Example 12: Figure shows a large tank of water at a
constant temperature θ0 and a small vessel containing The radiation emitted by the surface of the sun per unit
a mass m of water at an initial temperature θ1 (<θ0). A time is
metal rod of length L, area cross section A and thermal
conductivity K connects the two vessels. Find the time
taken for the temperature of the water in the smaller D
vessel become θ2 (θ1<θ2 <θ0). Specific heat capacity of
water is s and all other heat capacities are negligible.
R
Sun
2
D 
4 π   σT 4 =πD2 σT 4
2
P hysi cs | 14.23
At distance R, this radiation falls on an area of 4πR2 in Example 15: A thermometer is taken from a room that
unit time. The radiation received at the earth’s surface is 20℃ to the outdoors where the temperature is 5℃.
per unit time per unit area is, therefore, After one minute, the thermometer reads 12℃. Use
2
Newton’s law of cooling to answer following questions.
πD2 σT 4 σT 4  D  (a) What will the reading on the thermometer be after
=  
4 πR 2 4 R  one more minute?
2 (b)When will the thermometer read 6℃.?
σT 4  D  −2 −1
Thus,   = 8.2Jcm min
4 R  Sol: Get the ‘k’ for Newton’s law of cooling by given
1 condition, then the all desired value.
or, 1 × (5.67 × 10−−88 Wm−−22K −−44 ) T 44 ×
or, 4 × (5.67 × 10 Wm K ) T × If T is the thermometer temperature, then Newton’s law
4
(9.25 × 10−−33 )22 x T 44 of cooling tells us that
(9.25 × 10 ) x T
dT
= k(5 − T) ; T(0) = 20.
8.2 −2 dt
= Wm
10−4 × 60 The solution of this initial value problem is
or, =T 5794K ≈ 5800K T= 5 + 15e−kt .
We still need to find the value of k. We can do this by
Example 14: On a cold winter day, the atmospheric using the given information that T(1)=12. In fact, let us
temperature is θ (on Celsius scale) which is below 0℃. pause here to consider the general problem of finding
A cylindrical drum of height h made of a bad conductor the value of k. We will obtain some facts that can be
is completely filled with water at 0℃ and is kept outside used in the rest of the problems involving Newton’s law
without any lid. Calculate the time taken for the whole of cooling.
mass of water to freeze. Thermal conductivity of ice is K -
and its latent heat of fusion is L. Neglect expansion of
water on freezing. x
Sol: Rate of heat transfer would be dependent on h o

dx
thickness of layer of ice. Write equation of heat transfer 0C
at any time ‘t’ when thickness of ice is ‘x’.
Suppose, the ice starts forming at time t=0 and a
thickness x is formed at time t. The amount of heat Suppose that we have the model
flown from the water to the surrounding in the time
interval t to t+dt is dT T(0) = T0
= k(Ts − T) ;
KAθ dt T(t1 ) = T1
∆Q = dt.
x Where t1 is some time other than O. then the first two
The mass of the ice formed due to the loss of this equations in the model, we obtain T =Ts + (T0 − Ts )e−kt
amount of heat is and from the third equation we obtain
−kt1
∆Q KAθ Ts + (T0 − Ts )e T1
=
dm
= = dt.
L xL −kt1
The thickness dx of ice formed in time dt is Thus, (T0 − Ts )e T1 − Ts
=
dm KAθ ρL which gives us

dx
= = dt or, dt = xdx.
Aρ ρxL Kθ −kt T1 − Ts kt T0 − Ts
= e 1 = or e 1
T0 − Ts T1 − Ts
Thus, the time T taken for the whole mass of water to
freeze is given by 1  T −T 
or k = ln  0 s 
t1  T1 − Ts 
T h
ρL ρLh2
∫ dt = Kθ ∫ xdx or, T=
2Kθ The latter equations give us the value of k. However,
0 0
note that, in most problems that we deal with, it is not
really necessary to find the value of k. Since the term
e−kt that appears in the solution of Newton’s Law of To find what the thermometer will read two minutes
−kt − kt t t after being taken outside, we compute
cooling can be written as e = (e 1 ) 1
2
We really just need (in most situations) to know the  7 
T(2) =
5 + 15   ≈ 8.3.
− kt
value of e 1 , and this value has been obtained in the  15 
work done above. In particular, the solution of Newton’s This tells us that the thermometer will read about 8.3℃
Law of Cooling, two minutes after being taken outside.
T = Ts + (T0 − TS )e−kt , Finally, to determine when the thermometer will read
6℃, we solve the equation
Can be written as t
− kt1 t t1  7 
T = Ts + (T0 − TS )(e ) 5 + 15   = 6
 15 
t t1
T −T  The step-by-step solution of this equation is
or as T = Ts + (T0 − TS )  1 s 
T −T
 0 s  t t
 7   7  1
t t1 15   = 1   =
T −T   15   15  15
T = Ts + (T0 − TS )  1 s 
T −T
 0 s    7 t   1 7  1
ln     = ln   ; tln   = ln  
Returning now to the problem at hand (with the   15    15   15   15 
thermometer), we see that temperature function for  
t ln(1 15)
 7  = t ≈ 3.5.
the thermometer is T= 5 + 15   . ln(7 15)
 15 
Note that this makes sense because this formula gives Thus, the thermometer will reach 6℃ after being
0 outside for about 3.5 minutes.
 7 
us T(0) =5 + 15   = 20.
 15 
1
 7 
And T(1) =
5 + 15   = 12.
 15 
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1 Q.6 What are the thermal radiations? From where do

you obtain them? How do they transfer from one place
to another?
Q.1 Which metal is the best conductor of heat?
Q.7 Discuss the variation of temperature of the hot

Q.2 Which mode of transfer of heat is quickest? body with time during cooling process. What do you
conclude from this?
Q.3 What is temperature gradient?
Q.8 What is meant by thermal conductivity and its
Q.4 How can heat be transferred from one place to coefficient? What are its SI units and CGS units?
other?
Q.9 Explain Newton’s law of cooling and discuss its
Q.5 What are the basic differences between conduction, experimental verification.
convection and radiation?
Q.10 Thickness of ice on a lake is 5 cm. and the
temperature of air is -20℃. If the rate of cooling of
P hysi cs | 14.25
water inside the lake be 20000 cal min-1 through each the temperature and distance are doubled, the power
square meter surface, find K of ice? received by the foil will be
(A) 16 P (B) 4 P (C) 2 P (D) P
Q.11 A metal plate 4 mm thick has a temp difference of
32℃ between its faces. It transmits 200kcal h-1 through
Q.4 The rate of emission of radiation of a black body at
an area of 5 cm2. Calculate thermal conductivity of the
273℃ is E, then the rate of emission of radiation of this
material of the plate.
body at 0℃ will be
E E E
Q.12 Estimate the rate at which ice would melt in a (A) (B) (C) (D)0
wooden box 2.5 cm thick and of inside measurements 16 4 8
100×60×40 cm, assuming that the external temperature
is 32℃ and coefficient of thermal conductivity of wood Q.5 The power radiated by a black body is P and it
is 0.168 Wm-1 K-1. Given L=80cal/g. radiates maximum energy around the wavelength λ0 .
If the temperature of the black body is now changed
so that it radiates maximum energy around wavelength
Q.13 A pan filled with hot food cools from 94℃ to
3/4 λ0 , the power radiated by it will increase by a factor
86℃ in 2 minutes when the room temperature is at
of
20℃. How long will it take to cool from 71℃ to 69℃?
Here cooling takes place according to Newton’s law of (A) 4/3 (B) 16/9 (C) 64/27 (D) 256/81
cooling.
Q.6 Star S1 emits maximum radiation of wavelength
Q.14 A liquid initially at 70℃ cools to 55℃ in 5 minutes 420 nm and the star S2 emits maximum radiation of
and 45℃ in 10 minutes. What is the temperature of the wavelength 560 nm, what is the ratio of the temperature
surroundings? of S1 and S2
(B) ( 4 3) (D) ( 3 4 )
1/ 4 1/2
(A) 4 3 (C)3 4
Exercise 2
Q.7 Spheres P and Q are uniformly constructed from
the same material which is a good conductor of heat
Single Correct Choice Type
and the radius of Q is thrice the radius of P. the rate of
fall of temperature of P is x times that of Q when both
Q.1 Four rods of same material with different radii r and are at the same surface temperature. The value of x is
length l are used to connect two reservoirs of heat at
different temperatures. Which one will conduct most (A) 1/4 (B) 1/3 (C) 3 (D) 4
heat?
Q.8 A black body calorimeter filled with hot water cools
(A) r=2cm, l=0.5 cm (B) r=2cm, l=2m
from 60℃ to 50℃ in 4 min and 40℃ to 30℃ in 8 min.
(C) r=0.5cm,l=0.5m (D)r=1cm, l=1m The approximate temperature of surrounding is
(A) 10℃ (B) 15℃ (C) 20℃ (D) 25℃
Q.2 A wall has two layers A and B each made of different
materials, both the layers have same thickness. The
Q.9 A system S receives heat continuously from an
thermal conductivity of the material A is twice of that
electrical heater of power 10W. The temperature of
of B. Under thermal equilibrium, the temperature
S becomes constant at 50℃. When the surrounding
difference across the wall B is 36℃. The temperature
temperature is 20℃. After the heater is switched off,
difference across wall A is
S cools from 35.1℃ to 34.9℃ in 1 minute. The heat
(A) 6℃ (B) 12℃ (C) 18℃ (D) 72℃ capacity of S is
(A) 100 J/℃ (B) 300 J/℃
Q.3 A black metal foil is warmed by radiation from a
small sphere at temperature ‘T’ and at a distance‘d’. It (C) 750 J/℃ (D) 1500 J/℃
is found that the power received by the foil is P. If both
Previous Years’ Questions outer surfaces. The wavelengths corresponding to

maximum intensity are 300 nm, 400 nm and 500 nm
respectively. The power radiated by them are QA, QB and
Q.1 A cylinder of radius R made of a material of thermal QC respectively. Which is the maximum power radiated?
conductivity K1 is surrounded by a cylindrical shell of (2004)
inner radius R and outer radius 2R made of a material of
thermal conductivity K2. The two ends of the combined
Q.8 A long metallic bar is carrying heat from one of its
system are maintained at two different temperatures.
ends to the other end under steady-state. The variation
There is loss of heat across the cylindrical surface and
of temperature θ along the length x of the bar from
the system is in steady state. The effective thermal
its hot end is best described by which of the following
conductivity of the system is_________. (1988)
figure. (2009)

Q. 2 Two metallic spheres S1 and S2 are made of the
same material and have got identical surface finish. The (A) (B)
mass of S1 is thrice that of S2 . Both the spheres are
heated to the same high temperature and placed in the x x
same room having lower temperature but are thermally
insulated from each other. The ratio of the initial rate of
cooling of S1 to that S2 is________. (1995)
(C) (D)
Q.3 The intensity of radiation emitted by the sun has x x

its maximum value at a wavelength of 510 nm and that
emitted by the North Star has the maximum value at
Q.9. 100g of water is heated from 30°C to 50°C.
350 nm. If these stars behave like blackbodies, then
Ignoring the slight expansion of the water, the change
the ratio of the surface temperature of the North Star
in its internal energy is (specific heat of water is 4148 J/
is______. (1997)
kg/K): (2011)
Q. 4 A spherical black body with radius of 12 cm radiates

(A) 8.4 kJ (B) 84 kJ
450 W power at 500 K. If the radius were halved and
the temperature doubled, the power radiated would (C) 2.1 kJ (D) 4.2 kJ
be____________. (1997)
Q.10. A liquid in a beaker has temperature θ(t) at time t
Q.5 A black body is at temperature of 2880 K. The energy and θ0 is temperature of surroundings, then according
of radiation emitted by this body with wavelength to Newton’s law of cooling the correct graph between
between 499 nm and 500 nm is U1, between 999 nm loge (θ – θ0) and t is (2012)
and 1000 nm is U2 and between 1499 nm and 1500
loge (-0)
loge (-0)
nm is U3. The Wien constant, b = 2.88 × 106 nm − K. Then,

what can be inferred about the relation between the
energies? (1998) (A) (B)
Q.6 Two identical conducting rods are first connected 0 t 0 t

independently to two vessels, one containing water at
100℃ and the other containing ice at 0℃. In the second
case, rods are joined end to end and connected to the
loge (-0)
loge (-0)
same vessels. Let q1 and q2 gram per second be the

rate of melting of ice in the two cases respectively. The
(C) (D)
q
ratio 1 is ______. (2004)
q2
0 t 0 t
Q.7 Three discs, A, B and C having radii 2m, 4m and
6m respectively are coated with carbon black on their
(A) (B)
o
O t O t
P hysi cs | 14.27
Q.11. If a piece of metal is heated to temperature θ and

then allowed to cool in a room which is at temperature
θ0, the graph between the temperature T of the metal T T
(C) (D)
and time t will be closest to: (2013) o o
O t O t
T T
(A) (B)
o
O t O t
(C)
T
(D)
JEE Advanced/Boards
T
o o
Exercise
O
1 t O t
B
L
C
Q.1 A thin walled metal tank of surface area 5 m2 is L L

filled with water and contains an immersion heater
dissipating 1kW. The tank is covered with 4 cm thick A D
layer of insulation whose thermal conductivity is 0.2 L
W/m/K. The outer face of the insulation is 25℃. Find
Q.5 One end of copper rod of uniform cross-section
the temperature of the tank in the steady state.
and of length 1.5 meters is in contact with melting ice
and the other end with boiling water. At what point
Q.2 The figure shows the face and interface temperature along the length should a temperature of 200℃ be
of a composite slab containing of four layers of two maintained, so that in steady state, the mass of ice
materials having identical thickness. Under stady state melting is equal to that of steam produced in the same
condition, find the value of temperature θ interval of time? Assume that the whole system is
insulated from the surroundings.
20 C 10 C -5 C -10 C
o o o o
k 2k k 2k
Q.6 An empty pressure cooker of Whistle
volume 10 liters contains air at
k=thermal conductivity atmospheric pressure 105 Pa and
temperature of 27℃. It contains a
Q.3 Three conducting rods of same material and cross- whistle which has area of 0.1 cm2 and weight of 100 gm.
section are shown in figure. Temperature of A,D and C What should be temperature of air inside so that the
are maintained at 20℃, 90℃ and 0℃. Find the ratio of whistle is just lifted up?
length BD and BC if there is no heat flow in AB
A B C
o
20 C
o
0C Exercise 2
o
90 C D Multiple Correct Choice Type
Q.4 In the square frame of side L of metallic rods, the Q.1 Two metallic spheres A and B are made of same
corners A and C are maintained at T1 and T2 respectively. material and have got identical surface finish. The mass
The rate of heat flow from A to C is W. If A and D are of sphere A is four times that of B. Both the spheres are
instead maintained at T1 and T2 respectively, find the heated to the same temperature and placed in a room
total rate of heat flow.
having lower temperature but thermally insulated from (B) The maximum intensity occurs at a shorter
each other. wavelength
(A) The ratio of heat loss of A to that of B is 24/3 (C) The area under the graph increases
2/3
(B) The ratio of heat loss of A to that of B is 2 (D) The area under the graph is proportional to the
fourth power of temperature
(C) The ratio of the initial rate of cooling of A to that of
B is 2−2/3
Paragraph 2:
(D) The ratio of the initial rate of cooling of A to that of
B is 2−4/3 Two rods A and B of same cross-sectional area A
and length l connected in series between a source
Q.2 Two bodies A and B have thermal emissivity of 0.01
(T1 = 100 °C) and a sink (T2 = 0 °C) as shown in figure.
and 0.81 respectively. The outer surface areas of the two
bodies are the same. The two bodies radiate energy at The rod is laterally insulated
the same rate. The wavelength λB , corresponding to
the maximum special radiancy in the radiation from B,
is shifted from the wavelength corresponding to the T1
3K K
T2
maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from A by o
100 C
o
0C
1.00 µm. If the temperature of A is 5802 K,
L L
(A) The temperature of B is 1934 K
(B) λB= 1.5 µm Q.5 The ratio of the thermal resistance of the rod is
(C) The temperature of B is 11604 K R 1 R R 3 4
(A) A
= = (B) A 3=
(C) A (D)
(D) The temperature of B is 2901 K RB 3 RB RB 4 3
Q.6 If TA and TB are the temperature drops across the

Comprehension Type
rod A and B, then
Paragraph 1: T 3 T 1 T 3 T 4
(A) A =
= (B) A = (C) A = (D) A
TB 1 TB 3 TB 4 TB 3
dE T
d Q.7 If GA and GB are the temperature gradients across
the rod A and B, then
G 3 G 1 G 3 G 4
O m (A) A
= = (B) A = (C) A = (D) A
GB 1 GB 3 GB 4 GB 3
Q.3 The figure shows a radiant energy spectrum graph
for a black body at a temperature T.
Paragraph 3:
Choose the correct statement(s)
In fluids heat transfer takes place and molecules of
(A) The radiant energy is not equally distributed among the medium take very active part. The molecules
all the possible wavelengths take energy from high temperature zone and move
(B) For a particular wavelength the spectral intensity is towards low temperature zone. This method is known
maximum as convection, when we require heat transfer with fast
phase, we use some mechanism to make the flow
(C) The area under the curve is equal to the rate at of fluid on the body fast. The rate of loss of heat is
which heat is radiated by the body at that temperature proportional to velocity of fluid (v), and temperature
(D) None of these difference (∆T) between the body and fluid, of course
more surface area of body , more rate of loss of heat.
We can write the rate of loss of heat as
Q.4 If the temperature of the body is raised to higher
temperature T’, then choose the correct statement(s) dQ
= KAv∆T where K is Positive constant.
dt
(A) The intensity of radiation for every wavelength
increases Now answer the following questions:-
P hysi cs | 14.29
Q.8 A body is being cooled with fluid. When we Q.4 A double-pane window used for insulating a room
increase the velocity of fluid 4 times and decrease the thermally from outside consists of two glass sheets
temperature difference ½ time, the rate of loss of heat each of area 1 m2 and thickness 0.01 m separated
increases by a 0.05 m thick stagnant air space. In the steady
state, the room glass interface and glass-outdoor
(A) Four times (B) Two times
interface are at constant temperatures of 27℃ and 0℃
(C) Six times (D) No change respectively. Calculate the rate of heat of flow through
window pane. Also find the temperatures of other
Q.9 In the above question, if mass of the body interfaces. Given thermal conductivities of glass and air
increased two times, without change in any of the other as 0.8 and 0.08 Wm−1K −1 respectively. (1997)
parameters, the rate of cooling
(A) Decreases Q.5 A solid body X of heat capacity C is kept in an
(B) Increases atmosphere whose temperature is TA = 300 K. At
(C) No effect of change of mass time t=0, the temperature of X is T0 = 400 K. It cools
(D) None of these according to Newton’s law of cooling. At time t1 its
temperature is found to be 350 K.
At this time (t1), the body X is connected to a large body
Previous Years’ Questions Y at atmospheric temperature TA through a conducting
rod of length L, cross-sectional area A and thermal
conductivity K. The heat capacity of Y is so large that
Q.1 A solid sphere of copper of radius R and a hollow
any variation in its temperature may be neglected. The
sphere of the same material of inner radius r and outer
cross-sectional area A of the connecting rod is small
radius R are heated to the same temperature and
compared to the surface area of X. Find the temperature
allowed to cool in the same environment. Which of
of X at time t = 3t1 . (1998)
them cools faster? (1982)
Q.6 The top of an insulated cylindrical container is

covered by a disc having emissivity 0.6 and conductivity
Q.2 An electric heater is used in a room of total wall
0.167 W/Km and thickness 1 cm. The temperature is
area 137 m2 to maintain a temperature of +20℃ inside
maintained by circulating oil as shown
it, when the outside temperature is -10℃. The walls
have three different layers. The innermost layer is of
wood of thickness 2.5 cm, the middle layer is of cement
of thickness 1.0 cm and the outer most layer is of brick Oil out
of thickness 25.0 cm. Find the power of the electrical
heater. Assume that there is no heat loss through the
floor and the ceiling. The thermal conductivities of
wood, cement and brick are 0.125, 1.5 and 1.0 W/m/℃
respectively. (1986)
Oil in
Q.3 A cylindrical block of length 0.4 m and area of
cross-section 0.04 m2 is placed coaxially on a thin metal
disc of mass 0.4 kg and of the same cross-section. The
upper face of the cylinder is maintained at a constant (a) Find the radiation loss to the surroundings in W/m2
temperature of 400K and initial temperature of the disc if temperature of the upper surface of the disc is 127℃
is 300K. If the thermal conductivity of the material of and temperature of surroundings is 27℃.
the cylinder is 10W/mK and specific heat capacity of
(b) Also find the temperature of the circulating oil.
the material of the disc is 600 J/kg-K, how long will
Neglect the heat loss due to convection (2003)
it take for the temperature of the disc to increase to
350 K? Assume, for purpose of calculation, the thermal
conductivity of the disc to be very high and the system Q.7 One end of a rod of length L and cross-sectional
to be thermally insulated except for the upper face of area A is kept in a furnace of temperature T1. The other
the cylinder. (1992) end of the rod is kept at temperature T2. The thermal
conductivity of the material of the rod is K and emissivity of the middle (i.e. second) plate under steady state
of the rod is e. condition is (2012)
TS 1/ 4 1/ 4
 65   97 
(A)   T (B)   T
Insulated  2   4 
Furnace 1/ 4
 97 
(D) ( 97 )
Rod 1/ 4
T1 T2 (C)   T T
L  2 
Insulated
Q.11 Two rectangular blocks, having identical
dimensions, can be arranged either in configuration I
It is given that T2= TS + ∆T , where ∆T<< TS , TS being or in configuration II as shown in the figure. One of the
the temperature of the surroundings. If ∆T ∝ ( T1 − TS ) , blocks has thermal conductivity κ and the other 2 κ .
find he proportionality constant. Consider that heat is The temperature difference between the ends along the
lost only by radiation at the end where the temperature x-axis is the same in both the configurations. It takes 9
of the rod is T2 . (2004)
s to transport a certain amount of heat from the hot
end to the cold end in the configuration I. The time to
Q.8 Two spherical bodies A (radius 6 cm) and B (radius transport the same amount of heat in the configuration
18 cm) are at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively. The II is (2013)
maximum intensity in the emission spectrum of A is at
Configuration II
500 nm and in that of B is at 1500 nm. Considering Configuration I
them to be black bodies, what will be the ratio of the
rate of total energy radiated by A to that of B? (2010) 2
2
Q.9 A composite block is made of slabs A, B, C, D and x
E of different thermal conductivities (given in terms of
a constant K) and sizes (given in terms of length, L) as (A) 2.0 s (B) 3.0 s (C) 4.5 s (D) 6.0
shown in the figure. All slabs are of same width. Heat
‘Q’ flows only from left to right through the blocks. Q.12 Two spherical stars A and B emit blackbody
Then in steady state radiation. The radius of A is 400 times that of B and A
emits 104 times the power emitted from B. The ratio
0 1L 5L 6L
(λ A / λB ) of their wavelengths λ A and λB at which
Heat A B 3K E the peaks occur in their respective radiation curves is
1L (2015)
6K
2K C 4K Q.13. A metal is heated in a furnace where a sensor
3L is kept above the metal surface to read the power
radiated (P) by the metal. The sensor has scale that
D 5K displays log2(P/P0), whre P0 is a constant. When the
4L
metal surface is at a temperature of 487°C, the sensor
(A) Heat flow through A and E slabs are same. shows a value 1. Assume that the emissivity of the
metallic surface remains constant. What is the value
(B) Heat flow through slab E is maximum. displayed by the sensor when the temperature of the
(C) Temperature difference across slab E is smallest. metal surface is raised to 2767°C? (2016)
(D) Heat flow through C = heat flow through B + heat

flow through D. (2011) Q.14 Two moles of ideal helium gas are in a rubber
balloon at 30°C. The balloon is fully expandable and can
be assumed to require no energy in its expansion. The
Q.10 Three very large plates of same area are kept temperature of the gas in the balloon is slowly changed
parallel and close to each other. They are considered to 35°C. The amount of heat required in raising the
as ideal black surfaces and have very high thermal temperature is nearly (take R =8.31 J/mol.K) (2012)
conductivity. The first and third plates are maintained at
temperatures 2T and 3T respectively. The temperature (A) 62 J (B) 104 J (C) 124 J (D) 208 J
P hysi cs | 14.31
Q.15 One mole of mono-atomic ideal gas is taken allowing no heat transfer between outside and inside
along two cyclic processes E → F → G → E and E → F → the container. The container is divided into two
H → E as shown in the PV diagram. compartments by a rigid partition made of a thermally
conducting material that allows slow transfer of heat.
The processes involved are purely isochoric, isobaric,
The lower compartment of the container is filled with
isothermal or adiabatic.
2 moles of an ideal monatomic gas at 700 K and the
Match the paths in list I with the magnitudes of the upper compartment is filled with 2 moles of an ideal
work done in list II and select the correct answer using diatomic gas at 400 K. The heat capacities per mole
the codes given below the lists. (2013) 3 5
of an ideal monatomic gas are= CV =R,CP R , and
2 2
List I List II 5 7
those for an ideal diatomic gas are
= CV = R,CP R.
2 2
P. G→ E 1. 160 P0V0 ln2
Q. G→ H 2. 36P0 V0
R. F→ H 3. 24P0 V0
S. F→ G 4. 31P0 V0
Codes:
Q.16 Consider the partition to be rigidly fixed so that it
P Q R S
does not move. When equilibrium is achieved, the final
(A) 4 3 2 1 temperature of the gases will be (2014)
(B) 4 3 1 2
(A) 550 K (B) 525 K (C) 513K (D) 490 K
(C) 3 1 2 4
(D) 1 3 2 4
Q.17 Now consider the partition to be free to move
without friction so that the pressure of gases in both
Paragraph 1: compartments is the same. Then total work done by
In the figure a container is shown to have a movable the gases till the time they achieve equilibrium will be
(without friction) piston on top. The container and the (2014)
piston are all made of perfectly insulating material (A) 250 R (B) 200 R (C) 100 R (D) –100 R
PlancEssential Questions
JEE Main/Boards JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1 Exercise 1
Q.10 Q.11 Q.12 Q.13 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 Q.6
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
Q.1 Q.2 Q.5 Q.6 Q. 1 Q.2 Q.5 Q.6
Q.9 Q.7 Q.12 Q.15
Answer Key
JEE Main/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 Silver is the best conductor of heat
Q.2 Radiation is the quickest mode of transfer of heat.
Q.3 The fall in temperature in a body per unit distance is called temperature gradient.
Q.10 3.5 Wm−1°C−1 Q.11 58.33 Wm−1°C−1

Q.12 1.587 gms−1 Q.13 42 s
Q.14 25℃
Exercise 2
Single Correct Choice Type
Q.1 A Q.2 C Q.3 B Q.4 A Q.5 D Q.6 A

Q.7 C Q.8 B Q.9 D
Previous Years’ Questions

Q.2 (1/3)1/3 Q.3 0.69 Q.4 1800 W Q.5 U2>U1 Q. 6 4/1 Q.7 QB
Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 A Q.11 C
JEE Advanced/Boards
Exercise 1
Q.1 65℃ Q.2 5℃ Q.3 7/2 Q.4 (4/3) W Q.5 10.34 cm Q.6 327 oC
Exercise 2
Multiple Correct Choice Type
Q.1 A, C Q.2 A, B
Comprehension Type
Paragraph 1: Q.3 A, B Q.4 A, B, C, D
Paragraph 2: Q.5 A Q.6 B Q.7 B
Paragraph 3: Q.8 B Q.9 A

P hysi cs | 14.33

Q.1 Hollow Sphere Q.2 9091 W Q.3 T=166.32 s
 −2AKt1 
Q.4 41.6 W, 26.48 °C, 0.52 °C T2  300 + 12.5e
Q.5= CL  Q.6 (a) 595 W/m2, (b) 162.6℃
 
 
K
Q.7 Q.8 9 Q 9: A, C, D or A, B, C, D
4eσLTS3 + K
Q.10 C Q.11 A Q.12 2

Q.13 9 Q.14 D Q.15 A
Q.16 D Q.17 D
Solutions
JEE Main/Boards Convection: When a fluid in a vessel is heated, lighter

molecules present in the lower layer of the fluid get
heated, which rise and cold molecules go to the bottom
Exercise 1 of the vessel. i.e. by movement of the molecules of fluid.
E.g. A gas vessel filled with fluid being heated from
Sol 1: Silver is the best conductor of heat
bottom.
Sol 2: Radiation Heated

fluid
Sol 3: Temperature gradient → Fall in temperature rises
in a body per unit distance is called the temperature
gradient.
Cold fluid
replaces
Sol 4: Three Methods:
Radiation:- Heat travels directly from one place to
(i) Conduction
another without any intervening medium.
(ii) Convection E.g. Heat from the sun to the earth.
(iii) Radiation – fastest one because heat travels without
any intervening medium. Sol 6: Thermal radiations are electromagnetic waves
which are invisible. These are radiated from a heated
Sol 5: Conduction:- Heat flows from a place of higher surface in all directions. These travel with velocity
temperature to a place of lower temperature with the of light in a straight line and does not require an
medium remaining stationary. intervening medium to carry it.
Eg. A metal rod heated from one end
Sol 7: If a body at temperature q1 is placed in
surroundings at lower temperature q2, then it is
observed that magnitude of temperature gradient
decreases with time
dθ
i.e. – ∝ + (θ – q2) [Newton’s law of cooling]
dt
dθ
⇒ = – k (θ – q2) k → a constant
dt
Sol 11:  = 4mm = 4 × 10-3 m

DT = 32° C
dQ
= 200 k cal h -1 _ 233.33 J/sec
dt
t 4mm
Sol 8: Thermal conductivity is the property of a material
to conduct heat.
T2
Coefficient of thermal conductivity (k) is the measure T1
of thermal conductivity which is equal to the quantity
of heat flowing per unit time through area of cross-
section of a material per unit length along the direction Area = 5cm
2
of flow of heat.
KA∆T
S.I. Units: - J.m-1 sec-1 K-1 ⇒ = 233.33 J/sec

C.G.S. Units: - cal. cm-1 (°C)-1 233.33 × 4 × 10−3
⇒K= = 58.33 J/m °C sec
32 × 5 × 10 −4
Sol 9: The rate of cooling of a body is directly
proportional to the difference of temperature of the Sol 12: Area of surface perpendicular to direction of
body over its surrounding. flow of heat _ surface area of inner rectangle
Body temperature at any time ’t’ → θ Text=32 C
o
Body initial temperature → q1

Surrounding temperature → q2 T=0 C
o 2.5cm
-1 -1
−dQ inner k=0.168Wm K
∴ Rate of cooling i.e. ∝ (θ – q2)
dt
dQ
∴ = -k (θ – q2)
dt _ [2 [100 × 60]+2 [60 × 40]+2 [100×40]×10-4
dθ = 2.48 m2
⇒ ms = – k (θ – q2)
dt
dQ −kA
dθ  k  ∴ = (Text – Tinner)
⇒ =–   (θ – q2) dt 
dt  ms 
0.168 × 2.48 × 32
=- = -533.29 J/sec
dQ 2.5 × 10−2
Sol 10: = 20000 cal min-1
dt Therefore, rate at which ice melts
20000 × 4.2 533.29
= J sec-1 = gm/sec =1.587 gm/sec
60 80 × 4.2
Tair=-20oC
Sol 13: T = Tsurrounding + (Tinitial-Tsurrounding) e-kt
5cm Ice o
T=0 C
Water  T − Tsurrounding 
⇒ ln   = -kt
 Tinitial − Tsurrounding 
Ice-water  
juctionm
Let when t = 0, Tinitial = 94oC, Tsurrounding = 20oC
−K∆θ 20000 × 4.2
⇒ =
∆x 60  86 − 20 
∴ -k × 2 = ln  
−K[( −20) − (0)]  94 − 20 
⇒ = 1400 ⇒ K = 3.5 Wm-1 °C-1
5 / 100  66  −0.114
⇒ -2k = ln   ⇒ -k =
74
  2
P hysi cs | 14.35
and let t = 0 when, Tinitial = 71 oC A

(D) =π
L
 69 − 20   49 
∴ -kt = ln   = ln   Therefore (A) will conduct more heat.
 71 − 20   51 
⇒ t _ 0.70 min = 42 sec
 dQ   dQ 
Sol 2: (C)   =  
 dt acr os s A  dt acrossB
Sol 14: Ti = 70°C
Tf = 55°C → t = 5 min −(2k) × A −(k) × A
⇒ DTA = × 36
 
T’f = 45° C → t’ = 10 min
⇒ DTA = 18°C
T0 → Temperature of surrounding
∴ From Newton’s law A B
T – T0 = (Ti – T0) e -kt
2k k
We have following equation.
⇒ 55 – T0 = (70 – T0) e -5k
…(i)
And 45 – T0 = (70 – T0) e-10k …(ii) Sol 3: (B) P = Area of foil× Intensity (Afoil)
Dividing equations (ii)/(i)
45 − T0
⇒ = e-5k
55 − T0 d
T
Substitute value of e-5k in (i)
Area A
 45 − T0 
⇒ (55 – T0) = (70 – T0)  
 55 − T0 
Power emitted eAσT 4
Intensity = =
55 − T0 45 − T0 Area of sphere 4 πd2
⇒ -1 = -1
70 − T0 55 − T0 eAσT 4
∴ P = Afoil ×
−15 −10 4 πd2
⇒ =
70 − T0 55 − T0 When temperature and distance are double
⇒ T0 = 25° C eAσ(2T)4
∴ P’ = Afoil × = 4P
4 π(2d)2
Sol 4: (A) At T = 273°C = (273 + 273) K

Exercise 2
E = eAσ (273 + 273)4 = 16eAσ (273)4
Single Correct Choice Type E
At T = 273 K; E’ = eAσ (273)4 =
16
dQ kA
Sol 1: (A) =- DT E
dt L ∴ E’ =
16
A
The greater the value of , more the heat will be
conducted. L
Sol 5: (D) lm T = const. = 2.93 × 10-3 mK
A π(2)2 P = eA σ T4
(A) = = 8π
L 0.5 Given: l0 T= const. = c (say)
A 3 3
(B) = 2π When lm = l0 then l0 × T’ = c
L 4 4
A π 4
(C) = ⇒ T’ = T
L 2 3
4 
4 On substituting value of e-4k from (i) into (iii) we get:
∴ P’ = eAσ  T 
3  30 − Ta 40 − Ta  50 − Ta 
= ×  
256
⇒ P’ = P 50 − Ta 60 − Ta  60 − Ta 
81
⇒ (30 – Ta) (60 – Ta)2 = (40 – Ta) (50 – Ta)2
Sol 6: (A) By Wien’s displacement law:- ⇒ (Ta - 60) (Ta – 60) (Ta – 30)
lm T = constant = C = (Ta – 50) (Ta – 50) (Ta – 40)
∴ lm1 T1 =lm2 T2
⇒ Ta3 – [60 + 60 + 30] Ta2 + [60 × 60 + 60 × 30 + 60 ×
⇒ 420 T1 = 560 T2 30] Ta - 60× 60× 30 = Ta3 – [50 + 50 +40] Ta2+ [50 × 50
T1 560 4
+ 50 × 40 + 50 × 40]Ta –50 × 50 × 40
⇒ = =
T2 420 3 ⇒ – 10T a2+700 Ta – 8000 = 0
⇒ Ta2 – 70 Ta + 800 = 0
Sol 7: (C) rθ = 3rp
⇒ Ta = 55.61 or 14.38
P = eAσ T4
dT dQ dθ
⇒ mc = eAsT4 Sol 9: (D) P = = S× = k(θ1 − θ0 )
dt dt dt
(c: specific heat, m: mass of sphere) 10W

10 W =
k(50 − 20) k=
30 o C
dT −eAσT 4 −eAσT 4 −e4 πr 2 σT 4
⇒ = = = dθ
dt mc (ρV)c 4 3 S× = k(θ − θ0 )
πr c dt
3
(V: volume of sphere)
∆θ 35.1 + 34.9
⇒ S = k(θ − θ0 ) θ= = 35
dT 1  −3eσT  4 ∆t 2
⇒ = ×  
dt r  c   0.2  10
S =  (35 − 20)
[Quantity in parenthesis is Constant for both spheres]  60 sec  30
 dT  1 S = 1500 J / o C
 
 dt P r
∴ = P =3=x
 dT  1
  rQ
 dt Q
Sol 8: (B) By Newton’s law of cooling:- Sol 1: Let R1 and R2 be the thermal resistances of inner
(T – Ta) = (T0 – Ta) e -kt and outer portions. Since, temperature difference at
both ends is same, the resistances are in parallel. Hence,
Ta : Surrounding temperature
1 1 1
T0 : Initial temperature = +
R R1 R2
When T0 = 60° C, T = 50° C, t = 4 min
K(4 πR 2 ) K ( πR 2 ) K (3πR 2 )
∵ = 1 + 2
∴ (50 – Ta) = (60- Ta) e -4k
....(i)   
When T0 = 40, T = 30 then t = 8 min 3K 2 + K1
∴K=
∴ (30 – Ta) = (40 – Ta) e-8k ......(ii) 4
Dividing (ii)/(i) gives

30 − Ta 40 − Ta
= e-4k ......(iii) R 2R
50 − Ta 60 − Ta
P hysi cs | 14.37
Sol 2: The rate at which energy radiates from the object is Energy distribution with wavelength will be as follows:
∆Q
= eσAT4 E
∆t
Since, DQ = mcDT, we get
∆T eσAT 4
=
∆t mc U1 U2 U3
(nm)
4
499
500
999
1000
1499
1500
Also, since m = pr3ρ for a sphere, we get
3
2/3 m=1000
 3m 
A = 4pr = 4π 
2
 From the graph it is clear that
 4 πρ 
U2 > U1 (In fact U2 is maximum)
eσT 4   3m  
2/3 1/3
∆T 1
Hence, = 4π   = K 
∆t mc   4 πρ   m
  dm 1
Sol 6: q = ∝
For the given two bodies dt Thermal Resis tance
1/3 1/3 In the first case rods are in parallel and thermal
( ∆T / ∆t)1 m   1
=  2  =   R
resistance is while in second case rods are in series
( ∆T / ∆t)2  m1  3 2
and thermal resistance is 2R.
Sol 3: From Wien’s displacement law q1 2R 4
= =
lmT = constant q2 R/2 1
1
or T=
λm Sol 7: Q ∝ AT4 and lmT = constant.
Tsun (λm )north star 350 A r2
∴ = = ≈ 0.69 Hence, Q ∝ or Q ∝
Tnorthstar (λm )sun 510 ( λm ) 4 ( λm ) 4
(2)2 (4)2 (6)2

Sol 4: Power radiated ∝ (surface area)(T) . The radius 4 QA: QB: QC = : :
(3)4 (4)4 (5)4
1
is halved, hence, surface area will become times.
4 4 1 36
= : :
Temperature is doubled, therefore, T4 becomes 16 81 16 625
times.
= 0.05 : 0.0625 : 0.0576
 1
New power = (450)   (16) = 1800 W. i.e., QB is maximum.
4
Sol 5: Wien’s displacement law is dQ dθ

So 8: (B) We know that = kA
dt dx
lmT = b (b = Wien’s constant)
In steady state flow of heat
b 2.88 × 106 nm – K
∴ lm = = dQ 1
T 2880 K dθ = . dx
dt kA
∴ λ = 1000 nm
⇒ θH - θ = k x ′ ⇒ θ = θ H - k x ′
Equation θ = θH - k′ x represents a straight line.
Sol 9: (A) ΔQ = ΔU+ ΔW (ignoring expansion)

ΔU = msΔT = 0.1× 4.184× 20 = 8.368kJ
Sol 10: (A) According to Newtons law of cooling. kA(TB − TD ) −kA (TC − TB )
⇒– =
DB BC
dθ
∝ (θ − θ0 )
dx 
(20 − 90) (0 − 20) −70
⇒ = ; ⇒ BD = = 3.5
dθ DB BC BC −20
⇒ dθ = −k(θ − θ0 )
⇒d dtθ = −k(θ − θ0 )
⇒ dtd=θ −k(θ − θ0 )
∫∫dtθ dd−θθθ == ∫∫ −−kdt
kdt Sol 4:
θ − θ00 = −kdt
∫
⇒ ln( ∫
θ θ− −θ θ ) = −kt + c T2
⇒ ln(θ − 0θ00 ) = −kt + c B C
⇒ ln(θ − θ0 ) = −kt + c 2L
T1 B T2
Hence the plot of ln(θ – θ0) vs t should be a straight line A C
with negative slope. 2L
T1 A D
Sol 11: (C) According to Newtons cooling law, option C
is the correct option.  dQ   dQ   dQ 
∴   =   +  
 dt AC  dt ABC  dt ADC
JEE Advanced/Boards ⇒ W=
−kA(T2 − T1 )
+
−kA(T2 − T1 )
2L 2L
Exercise 1 −kA(T2 − T1 )
⇒ W=
L
Sol 1: Continuously 1 kW of heat is being dissipated
from 25°C tank. B C
3L
dQ −KA[25 − T]
∴ = 103 = B C
dt  T2
T1 D
A L
dQ −0.2 × 5 × [25 − T] A D
⇒ = 103 =
dt 4 × 10−2
T1 T2
⇒ 25 – T = –40 ; ⇒ T = 65°C
 dQ  −kA(T2 − T1 ) −kA(T2 − T1 )
∴   = +
Sol 2: For 1st layer  dt AD 3L L
dQ −KA∆T −KA(10 − 20) +KA × 10 −4kA(T2 − T1 )

= = = 4
dt    = = W
L 3
For 2nd layer
dQ −(2k) A (θ − 10) −2AK Sol 5:
= = [θ–10]
dt   T2=200 C
o
o
Rate for both layers must be equal
o
T1=0 C I II T=100 C
kA × 10 −2kA x 1.5x
∴ = (θ – 10) ; ⇒ θ = 5°C
  1.5m
 dQ  Mass of ice melting per second = mass of steam

Sol 3: If   =0
 dt AB produced per sec
Then rate of heat flow from D to B must be equal to rate −kA(0 − 200) −kA(100 − 200)
of heat flow from B to C. ⇒ x = 1.5 − x
80 540
 dQ   dQ 
i.e.   =  
 dt DB  dt BC
P hysi cs | 14.39
1.5 − x 1 80 and Area of sphere (A) ∝ r2

⇒ = ×
x 2 540 ∴ A ∝ (m)2/3
27 × 1.5 AA
⇒x= _ 1.3966 m ∴ = (4)2/3 = (2)4/3
29 AB
∴ 1.5 – x = 0.1034 m = 10.34 cm eA A σ(T − T0 )4 AA

∴ Ratio of heat loss = = = (2)4/3
eAB σ(T − T0 ) 4 AB
Sol 6: Mass of whistle = 100 gm = 0.1 kg By Newton’s law of cooling:
∴ Weight of whistle = 1 N dQ dT
= ms = -k (T – T0)
To just lift the whistle, pressure in pressure cooker must dt dt
be equal to = Atmospheric pressure + Pressure due to dT −k
weight of whistle ⇒ = (T – T0)
dt ms
1N where k = 4e A σ T03
= 105 + = 2 × 105 Pa
0.1 × 10−4 m2 dT A
∴ ∝
Free-body diagram of whistle Patm A dt m
 dT  AA
 
dt
 A m (2)4/3
Weight ∴ = A = = 2-2/3
Pcooker xA  dT  AB 4
of  
 dt B mB
whistle
Sol 2: (A, B) eA = 0.01 and eB = 0.81

By Force-balance
AA = AB
Patm × A + weight of whistle = Pcooker×A
EA = EB
weight of whistle ⇒ eAσ AA TA4 = eB σ AB TB4
⇒ Pcooker = Patm +
A
⇒ 0.01 TA4 = 0.81 TB4
Initially, it is given P = 10 Pa, V = 10 L, T = 300K
5
1
⇒ TB = ×T
10 × 10 5
3 A
∴ P.V. = n RT ; ⇒ nR = Pa.L/K ….(i)
300 1
⇒ TB = × 5802 = 1934 K
Finally, we require P = 2 × 10 Pa, V = 10 L ,T =?
5 3
∴ By gas equation:- PV = nRT By Wien’s displacement law

lm T = const. = 2.93 × 10-3 mK
10 × 105
⇒ 2×10 ×10=
5
× T [using (i)] ∴ λm = 0.5 mm
300 A
Since, it is given in the question that
⇒ T = 600 K = 327 °C
λm = 1 mm + λm
B A
∴ λm = 1.5 mm
B
Exercise 2
Comprehension Type
Multiple Correct Choice Type
Paragraph 1
m
Sol 1: (A, C) ρ =
V Sol 3: (A, B) Area under the curve gives the rate at
4 3 which heat per unit surface is radiated by the body i.e.
⇒ρ× pr = m ; ⇒ r ∝ (m)1/3 total rate of heat radiation = (Area under the curve) ×
3
(surface area of the body)
Sol 4: (A, B, C, D) lm T = const. [By Wien’s displacement Sol 9: (A) If all the parameters are kept constant then
law]
dQ dT
= ms = kA v DT
Area under graph = Eλ = e σ T ∝ T 4 4
dt dt
dT kAv∆T
T1 ∴ =
dt ms
dE T1 > T2 > T3
T2
d
T3
m1 m m x
2 3  dQ 
Sol 1: Net rate of heat radiation   will be same in
 dt 
both the cases, as temperature and area are same.
Paragraph 2 Therefore, from equation
 dθ  dQ dθ 1
Sol 5: (A) AA = A ; AB = A ms  – = or – ∝
 dt  dt dt m
 A = l ; B = l The hollow sphere will cool faster as its mass is less.
kA = 3k ; kB = k
A    Sol 2: Let R1, R2 and R3 be the thermal resistances of
∴ RA = = ; RB= B = wood, cement and brick. All the resistances are in
k A AA 3kA kB AB k A
series. Hence,
RA 1
∴ =
RB 3
o
20 C
o
R1 R2 R3 -10 C
Sol 6: (B) Rate at which heat flows from A
= Rate at which heat flows from B R = R 1 + R2 + R3
 dQ   dQ  2.5 × 10 –2 1.0 × 10 –2 25 × 10 –2
⇒   =   = + +
 dt A  dt B 0.125 × 137 1.5 × 137 1.0 × 137
TA TB TA RA 1   
⇒ = ⇒ = = = 0.33 × 10–2 °C/W  as R = 
RA RB TB RB 3  KA 
∴ Rate of heat transfer,
TA TA TB TB
Sol 7: (B) GA = = and GB = = dQ Temperature difference 30
LA L LB L = =
dt thermal resis tance 0.33 × 10 –2
G T 1
∴ = A = ≈ 9091 W
GB TB 3
∴ Power of heater should be 9091 W.
Paragraph 3 Sol 3: Let at any time temperature of the disc be θ.

At this moment rate of heat flow,
 dQ  dQ KA( ∆θ) KA
Sol 8: (B)   = KAv DT = = (q – θ) ….. (i)
 dt initially dt   0
This heat is utilised in increasing the temperature of the
 dQ   ∆T   dQ  disc.
  =KA(4v)   =2  
 dt finally  2   dt initially
dQ dθ
Hence, = ms ….. (ii)
dt dt
P hysi cs | 14.41
Equating Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have  dQ 

Now the rate of heat flow  dt  will be equal from all
dθ KA  
ms = (q – θ)
dt  0 the three sections and since rate of heat flow is given
by
dθ KA
Therefore, = dt
θ0 – θ ms dQ Temperature difference
=
dt Thermal resis tance
350K dθ KA t
or ∫300K θ = ∫0 dt
0 – θ ms  dQ   dQ   dQ 
and   =   =  
 dt 1  dt 2  dt 3
350K KA
or  – ln(θ0 – θ) = t
300K ms
27 – θ1 θ1 – θ2 θ2 – θ
Therefore, = =
0.0125 0.625 0.0125
dQ Solving this equation, we get
dt
= 0.4m q1 = 26.48°C
and q2 = 0.52°C
dQ 27 – θ1
and =
dt 0.0125
ms  θ0 – 300 
∴t= ln   dQ (27 – 26.48)
KA = = 41.6 W
 θ0 – 350  dt 0.0125
Substituting the values, we have
Sol 5: In the first part of the question (t ≤ t1)
(0.4)(600)(0.4)  400 – 300 
T= ln   At t = 0, TX = T0 = 400 K and at t = t1,
(10)(0.04)  400 – 350 
TX = T1 = 350 K
T = 166.32 s
Temperature of atmosphere,
Sol 4: Let q1 and q2 be the temperatures of the two TA = 300 K (constant)

interfaces as shown in figure. This cools down according to Newton’s law of cooling.
o
1 2
Therefore,
27 C
rate of cooling ∝ temperature difference.

dQ
dt 1
dQ
dt 2
dQ
dt 3 TA = 300K
X
R1 R2 R3
Room Outdoor
atmosphere
0.01 m 0.05 m 0.01 m

 dT 
∴ −  = k(T – TA)
  dt 
Thermal resistance, R =
KA dT
⇒ = – k dt
(0.01) T – TA
∴ R1 = R3 = = 0.0125 K/W or °C/W
(0.8)(1)
T1 1 t
dT
(0.05) ⇒ ∫ = – k ∫ dt
and R2 = = 0.625 °C/W T – TA
(0.08)(1) T0 0
T –T  Sol 6: (a) Rate of heat loss per unit area due to radiation
⇒ ln  1 A  = – kt1
 T0 – TA  I = eσ(T4 – T04 )
Here, T = 127 + 273 = 400 K
 350 – 300 
⇒ kt1 = – ln   and T0 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
 400 – 300 
17
⇒ kt1 = ln (2) ∴ I = 0.6 × × 10–8[(400)4 – (300)4]
3
In the second part (t > t1), body X cools by radiation = 595 W/m2
(according to Newton’s law) as well as by conduction.
(b) Let θ be the temperature of the oil. Then, rate of
T = TA heat flow through conduction = rate of heat loss due
TA
to radiation
Y
X temperature difference
∴ = (595)A
thermal resis tance
(θ – 127)
= (595)A
Therefore, rate of cooling   
 
= (cooling by radiation) + (cooling by conduction)  KA 
Here, A = area of disc; K = Thermal conductivity and
 dT  KA
∴ –  = k(T – TA) + (T – TA) …. (ii)  = thickness (or length) of disc
 dt  CL
K
KA(T – TA ) ∴ (θ – 127) = 595
dQ  dT  
In conduction, = = C– 
dt L  dt  
∴ θ = 595   + 127
 dT  KA K 
∴–  = (T– TA)
 dt  LC
595 × 10 –2
= + 127 = 162.6°C
where, C = heat capacity of body X 0.167
 dT   KA 
–  = k +  (T – TA) ….. (iii) Sol 7: Rate of heat conduction through rod
 dt   CL 
= rate of the heat lost from right end of the rod.
Let at t = 3t1 temperature of X becomes T2 KA(T1 – T2 )
∴ = eAσ( T24 – Ts4 ) …… (i)
Then from eq. (iii) L
T2 3t1 Given that T2 = Ts + DT
dT  KA 
∫ T – T = –  k + LC  ∫ dt  ∆T 
4
T1 A tl \ T24 = (Ts + DT) =4
Ts4 1 + 
 Ts 
 T – TA   KA 
ln  2  = – k +  (2t ) Using binomial expansion, we have
 T1 – TA   LC  1
 2KA   ∆T 
= –  2kt1 + t  T24 = Ts4 1 + 4  (as DT << Ts)
 LC 1   Ts 
 T – 300  2KAt1 ∴ T24 – Ts4 = 4(DT)( Ts3 )

or ln  2  = – 2ln(2) – ;
 350 – 300  LC
Substituting in Eq. (i), we have
kt1 = ln (2) from Eq. (i)
K(T1 – Ts – ∆T)
This gives equation :- = 4eσ Ts3 .DT
L
 –
2KAt1 
T2 =  300 + 12.5e CL  K K(T1 – Ts )  K
  or =  4eσTs3 +  DT
  L  L
P hysi cs | 14.43
K(Tl – Ts ) Sol 10: (C)

\ DT =
(4eσLTs3 + K) σA(2T)4 + σA(3T)4 = σ2A(T)4 2T 3T
Comparing with the given relation, 16T 4 + 81T 4 =
2(T')4
K 97T 4 = 2(T')4
proportionality constant =
4eσLTs3 +K 97 4
(T')4 = T
2
1
Sol 8: lm ∝  97 
1/ 4
T ∴ T' = T
 
 2 
λA TB 500 1
∴ = = =
λB TA 1500 3
L L 3L
Sol 11: LL (A) LLR1 =κA 3L + =
E ∝ T A 4
R 3L 2κA 2κA
R11 ==κLA + + 2κ L A
=
=23L κ A
R1 =κLLA + 2κ 1
LLA = 23Lκ1A + 1 =3κA
(Where A = surface area = 4pR2) 1 1 = 1 3L
R =
R111 = = κ A + 2 κ
1+ κ+RA2 =A = 1 κLA
2 κ = 33κκA A L  L
\ E ∝ T4R2 R1 =κκA AL1 2 2κ+A L12 2 κA
A=  3 κLLA2κA 
R122 = L1  +  L1 κA= 3
1  κ1A  +  2κ1A  = 3κκA A 
4 2
 6 
2 R2 = = κLLA  +  2κ LAL = L
EA T   RA  R
R 22  L  R  =LL  L
L
=  A    = (3)4  18  = 9  LLκA  2 2κ3AκA
  R = κ A 2 κ A
EB  TB   RB  R 22 = 3κLκAA   2κA 
R 2 = 3κLLA ∆Q1 = ∆Q 2
R
∆
R Q
∆2Q1 ==
= =
3 κ∆ AQ
∆Q 2 ∆T
∴ Answer is 9. 2 1
3 2 ∆T
∆ Q
T 3κ
= κ∆AA
∆QT t1 = t2
∆ T
Q
∆Q1t1=
1
t = = ∆ ∆Q
∆Q 2 T 2
t R R
1 = ∆T2t2
1 2 1 2
Sol 9: (A, C, D) or (A, B, C, D) ∆R
RT 1 t = R R
∆
∆ T
T1 1 ∆T
∆ T2 t
2 2 R
R1 tt11 = = R tt2⇒ t2= 2 t1= 2 sec
⇒R
R11 tt2= RR2222 t=2 2 secR1
⇒ 2= R 22 t1= 2 sec
1
2 ⇒ t2= R R
1 t= 2 sec
1 1
2
⇒ tt22=
⇒ = R R
2 t= 2 sec
1 t1= 2 sec
R11 1
1 3 5
Sol 12: (2)  dQ 
4  dQ 
 dQ  4  dQ = 10  
4 dt
 dQ  = 104  dQ A  dt B
 dt A = 10(400R)
 dt 2T
B4 4 2 4
 dt A2 4  dt BA = 10 (R TB )
(400R)2 TA4 = 10 44 (R 22 TB44 )
R2
(400R) TA =So,2T10 (R T ) λ A TB
R1 λA A BTBTBand λ= T= 2
=
R3 R5 So,2T= A T and λ= T= 2 B A
So,2T= A TBB and λ= A
B T=B
A 2
λB TA
R4
Let width of each rod is d Sol 13: (9) At (T1 = 487+ 273 = 760K) P1 ∝ (760)4
1 1 i.e. P1 = c(760)4 where c = constant

=R1 = 1 ,R 2 1
=R1 8kd
=1 ,R 2
3kd
1 P1 P1
=R1 8kd
=1 ,R 2 3kd
1 log2 =1 ⇒ P1 =2P0 ⇒ P0
R 3 8kd P0 2
= =1 ,R 4 1 ,
3kd
=R 3 2kd
=1 ,R 4
5kd
1 ,
=R 3 2kd
= 1 ,R 4 5kd , at (T2 = 2767 + 273 = 3040)
R5 = 2kd
1 5kd
24kd
R5 = 1 P2 = c(3040)4
R5 = 24kd P 
24kd Reading of the sensor at T2 = log2  2 
 P0 
 P2    3040  
4
= log  log2 2=   log  1 8 9
= 2 2.  = 2 2 .2 
P
 0   760 
   
∴ Reading of T2 = 9
Sol 17: (D) Heat given by lower compartment

Sol 14: (D) ∆Q = n CP ∆T
5
=2 × R × (700 − T) ...(i) … (i)
f  3  2
= 2  R + R  ∆=
T 2  + R + R × 5
2  2  Heat obtained by upper compartment
5
= 2 × × 8.31× 5 = 208 J 7
2 =2 × R × (T − 400) ...(ii) … (ii)
2
By equating (i) and (ii)
Sol 15: (A) P. → 4 ; Q. → 3; R. → 2; S. → 1
5(700 - T) = 7(T - 400)
Apply PV1+2/3 = constant for F to H.
3000 – 5T = 7T– 2800
(32P0 )V05/3
= P0 VH5/3 ⇒ V= 8V0
H 6300 = 12 T
For path FG PV = constant T = 525K
⇒ (32P0 )V0 = P0 VG ⇒ VG = 32V0 ∴ Work done by lower gas = nR∆T = – 350 R
Work done in GE = 31 P0V0 Work done by upper gas = nR∆T = +250 R
Work done in GH = 24 P0V0 Net work done - 100 R
F n=1
32P0 f=3
Isothermal
Adiabatic
P0
E H G
V0 8V0 32V0 V
PHVH − PF VF
Work done
= in FH = 36P0 V0
( −2 / f)
 VG 
Work done
= in FG RTln
=   160P0 V0 ln2
 VF 
Sol 16: (D) 13. Heat given by lower compartment

3
=2 × R × (700 − T) ...(i) … (i)
2
Heat obtained by upper compartment
7
=2 × R × (T − 400) ...(ii) … (ii)
2
equating (i) and (ii)
3 (700 – T) = 7 (T – 400)
2100 – 3T = 7 T – 2800
4900 = 10 T ⇒ T = 490 K

11P 14 Heat Transfer PDF

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2017-18 100 &

2500 + 1000 (New) Problems

5000+Illustrations and Solved Examples

Topic Covered Plancess Concepts

Heat flow through a conducting rod Current flow through a resistance

3. GROWTH OF ICE ON PONDS

4. SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION OF RODS

4.1 Series Connection

4.2 Parallel Connection

5. RADIAL FLOW OF HEAT THROUGH A CYLINDRICAL TUBE

No mass movement of matter occurs in conduction. Solids are better

Consider a section ab of a rod as shown in figure. Suppose Q1 heat a b

Sol: Always consider the A which perpendicular to the flow of heat.

0.4 × 600 × 0.4

8. PERFECTLY BLACK BODY

Sol: Heat lost by radiation cause temperature to fall.

9. ABSORPTIVE POWER ‘a’

10. SPECTRAL ABSORPTIVE ‘aλ’

11. EMISSIVE POWER ‘e’

12. SPECTRAL EMISSIVE POWER

13. KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

14. STEFANS-BOLTZMANN LAW

Thus, emissivity and absorptive power have the same value.

The energy absorbed per unit time by the body is u0 = eσAT04 .

Sol: Heat lost by radiation and gained by absorption.

= 10 × 10−4 m2 T = 400K T0 = 300K

S 1.35kJ m2 − sec 135 × 103 watt m2

∴ T 4= (2.38 × 1010 K 4 )(215.8)

15. NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

Sol: Newton’s law of cooling, follow logarithm curve in cooling.

16. WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

(b) λm T = constant as per Wien’s law

17. SOLAR CONSTANT AND TEMPERATURE OF SUN

S. No. Term Descriptions

9. Newton’s law of If temp difference of body with surrounding is small i.e.

JEE Main/Boards Sol: Recall the formula of heat transfer.

(100 − 0) Substituting the values

 L1 L2  Example 9: The lower surface of a slab of stone of

at 10℃ Calculate temperature of junction B, C, D. the (30 − T)

K1 In this situation a rod of length L and area of cross

So, if R x = R then R y = 2R dQ 4 πR 2 (θ1 − θ 2 )

Now, if TB is the temperature at B, d

1= 100oC 2= 4oC

KA KA 2 cm. calculate the time required for the thickness to be

Thus, Example 8: A liquid placed in a container open to

∆Q  1 1  Sol: Newton’s law of cooling.

The negative sign indicates that the temperature is  dT  2.8  6 4 − 34 

1  80 − 20  K 0.16 × 10−2 cal / cm − °Cs 

24 × 2.3026 log10 38 − log10 32

Where T is the time required for the temperature of the

Sol: Rate of heat transfer would be dependent on h o

dm KAθ ρL which gives us

Exercise 1 Q.6 What are the thermal radiations? From where do

Q.7 Discuss the variation of temperature of the hot

Previous Years’ Questions outer surfaces. The wavelengths corresponding to

Q.3 The intensity of radiation emitted by the sun has x x

Q. 4 A spherical black body with radius of 12 cm radiates

nm is U3. The Wien constant, b = 2.88 × 106 nm − K. Then,

Q.6 Two identical conducting rods are first connected 0 t 0 t

same vessels. Let q1 and q2 gram per second be the

Q.11. If a piece of metal is heated to temperature θ and

Q.1 A thin walled metal tank of surface area 5 m2 is L L

Now, if TB is the temperature at B, d

1= 100oC 2= 4oC