ELECTRICITY GENERATION AND DELIVERY Advantages of high DC Voltage systems over high AC Voltage systems: As power = volts × amps,
Voltage systems: As power = volts × amps, for the same power level to
1. GENERATING STATION – The normal generation voltage is
11kV produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel.
2. PRIMARY TRANSMISSION – (66kV, 132kV, 220kV, 400kV)
3. SECONDARY TRANSMISSION – Primary TX terminates at the
receiving station (RS) where the voltage is reduced to 33kV
by step-down transformers.
4. PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION – Secondary TX terminates at sub-
stations (SS) where voltage is reduced from 33kV to 11kV.
5. SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION – Primary DX is delivered to
distribution substation (DSS) which step down to 400V
Consists:
a. Feeders – connect the stations to the areas
b. Distributor – which several tappings for the supply to
the consumers are taken.
c. Service mains – conductors which connect the
consumers terminals to the distributor.
COMPARISON BETWEEN DC AND AC SYSTEMS OF TRANSMISSION
AND DISTRIBUTION
DIRECT CURRENTS (D.C.)
A direct current (d.c.) system is one in which current flows in one
direction in the conductors of that system. An everyday example is the
car battery, which has two terminals, one positive (+) and the other
negative (-).
The accepted convention is that the current flows from the positive
terminal to the external circuit and returns to the negative terminal
High voltage transmission of electricity by direct current has been
developed over recent years. In general, however, d.c. distribution is
limited to use in:
a. Tramway and traction systems with a voltage of usually 600V;
b. Railway d.c. traction systems with a voltage of 1.5kV
between rail and overhead collector wire;
c. Lifts, printing presses and various machines where smooth
speed control is desirable;
d. Electroplating; and
e. Battery charging.
Usually d.c. systems are of 2-wire or 3-wire types. In a 2-wire system
one wire is positive and the other negative. The difference in potential
for tramways is 500V with the rail negative and in the d.c. railway
system the difference in potential is 1.5kV, again with the rail negative.
In a 3-wire system the standard voltages are 460 and 230V. There are
three wires, one being at 230V positive (or + 230 volts potential), the
second 230V negative (or – 230 volts potential), with the third called
the “common” or neutral being at zero potential (see Figure 1).
Supply at 230V is taken from the “outer” (or positive) and the common
conductors, or from “inner” (or negative) and the common conductors.
1. There is greater power per conductor and simple line
construction.
2. These systems are economical for long distance bulk power
transmission by overhead lines.
3. Ground return is possible.
4. The voltage regulation problem is much less serious for DC
since only IR drops is involved, IX drops is nil.
5. There is easy reversibility and controllability of power flow
through a DC link.
6. No inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge
problem in DC transmission.
7. There is no skin effect in DC, X-section of line conductor is,
therefore fully utilized.
8. A DC line has less corona loss and reduced interference with
communication circuits.
Corona loss is the other major type of power loss in
transmission lines. Essentially, corona loss is caused by the
ionization of air molecules near the transmission line
conductors.
9. Underground cables can be used because of less potential
stress and negligible dielectric loss.
10. No stability problems and synchronizing difficulties.
11. Less insulation is required in DC.
Disadvantages:
1. The systems are costly since installation of complicated
converters and DC switchgear is expensive.
2. Converters required considerable reactive power
3. Harmonics are generated which require filters.
4. Converters do not have overload capability
5. The DC voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of
power at high voltages.
6. Electric power cannot be generated at high DC voltage due
to commutator problems.
ALTERNATING CURRENT (A.C.)
An alternating current (a.c.) flows in an electrical circuit that is
energized with an alternating voltage. This voltage is one that reverses
its sense of direction in a regular manner, and this is caused by the
method by which it is generated.
The number of voltage cycles in one second of time is called the
frequency of the supply, and is given the name Hertz (Hz). The
standard frequency in Australia and most of the countries is 50 or
60Hz.
Advantage of A.C. for distribution
1. Alternating current has an important advantage over direct
current in that the voltage can be changed by transformers
to a high value for transmission over long distances and then
reduced at the customer’s point of supply to a lower level
suitable for operating lights, motors and other appliances.
transmitted, a high voltage can be used so that the current
can be kept to a low level thereby minimizing the voltage
drop.
2. The substations can be maintained easily and at lesser cost.
Transmission of high power levels therefore requires:
1. Resistance of the transmission line to be as small as possible
2. The transmission line current to be as low as possible
The first condition cannot always be met, as it needs conductors of
large cross-sectional area. Large conductors are expensive and their
great weight would require strong and costly supports.
On the other hand, the second condition can be met by raising the
transmission line voltage so that high power levels can be
transmitted with relatively small currents. The small currents in turn
require relatively small cross-sectional area, lightweight conductors
with correspondingly lighter supports.
Therefore, when high amounts of power levels are involved, it is
general practice to use high transmission voltages and relatively small
currents with correspondingly small voltage drops.
This condition is much more efficient than if an equivalent power level
were transmitted at low voltage and high current with a relatively high
voltage drop.
Transformers are used to provide the high voltages necessary for the
transmission of high-power levels over long distances. In keeping
with the value of the transmission line voltage employed, it is
necessary to insulate the conductors against leakage to earth.
Disadvantages:
1. The construction of transmission is comparatively difficult.
2. The quantity of copper required is more.
3. In order to provide adequate insulation and to avoid corona
loss in case of overhead lines, more spacing between the
conductors is required.
4. The alternators need to be synchronized before they are put
in parallel.
5. In AC system, the resistance of the line is increased due to
skin effect.
6. There is continuous power loss due to charging current even
the line is open.
Voltage Values
In the following, “voltage” means the voltage between the conductors.
The standard voltage values used are:
1. Extra low voltage (ELV) – means any voltage not exceeding
50V a.c. or 120V ripple free d.c.
2. Low voltage – means any voltage exceeding 50V a.c. or 120V
ripple free d.c. but not exceeding 1kV a.c. or 1.5kV d.c.
Thus the normal voltages of 240V and 415V delivered to most
customers are “low voltage”.
 3. High voltage (HV) – means and voltage exceeding 1kV a.c. or
1.5kV d.c.
4. Extra high voltage (EHV) means any voltage exceeding
220kV.

Standard line voltages

The standard line voltages in use are: