IDEA - Design Process

IDEA MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM Page : 1
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER & Date : 24-Jun-13

ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION Design process 1
1. GENERAL
" A good engineer can design bridges, calculates stress and strain and draw up specifications
for machines. But a great engineer is that one, who can tell whether a bridge or machine
should be built at all, where it should be built and when" ( Eugene G. Grace )
1.1. SCOPE OF DESIGN ACTIVITY

The performance of an engineer is measured based on the ability to solve an existing technical
problem, which arises in the daily job. A qualified engineer has to be able to solve this
technical problem utilizing the adequate knowledge in the natural science, mathematics,
engineering and manufacturing technology as well as the special knowledge and experience in
the specific field, where he/she is active now. Furthermore, it is advantageous to know
adequately the quality management system, marketing and financial aspects of product.
The departments, which work intensively with a design engineer, are :
 Marketing department, which main objective is to scout the opportunity of customer
demands and getting the purchase order. It deals with the customers that have wide
spectrum of demands. Most of the demands are not yet clearly specified, so the marketing
department has to detect the real need and to provide the right solution for the right
problem. For this purpose, the design engineer is intensively involved. The design engineer
has to face various possibilities to approach the existing problem. Since the requirements
can change any time quickly and dynamically, the design engineer has to be able to provide
speedily accurate and powerful information and argumentations. The design engineer acts
as a consultant for the customer as well as for the marketing department. The result of the
clarified requirement should be documented as a baseline for further actions. The main
philosophy here is : intellectual problem solving.
 Design department, which main objective is to develop the possible solutions for the
identified problem. The design process is an iteration process. It is slow, precise and
complicated. It combines the intuitive, creative and discursive thinking methods. It uses the
whole brain management. The design engineer must be able to create an optimum solution
in his/her specific domain. The main philosophy here is : to create optimum solution and
its necessary data for manufacturing process.
 Production department, which main objective is to realize the solution by transforming the
abstract data into physical reality. The production department needs necessary, accurate
and complete data to realize the idea. It also works slowly and precisely. The quality of the
solution is mainly depending on accuracy in the manufacturing process. The design
engineer should be involved in the manufacturing process in order to study, how the ideas
will be realized and by what means. He/she should collect the actual data for future design
activity, necessary improvement and development of new product. The philosophy here is :
zero defect manufacturing.
 After sales service, which main objective is to maintain the intended function and
performance of the product. It deals with routine checks as well as emergency conditions. It
should react quickly in order to minimize the downtime on customer side. The design
engineer is requested to monitor the service activity in order to find out the possible weak
Prepared by : Approved by :
points at the actual operation conditions. The collected data is necessary for further
improvement and development of new product. The philosophy here is : physical problem
solving.
 Logistic department, which main objective is to purchase and to store necessary goods for
manufacturing process. The design engineer has to build an intensive communication with
logistic department in order to be able to provide optimum solution using the existing
product range. It is impossible to have any kind of product, which are not used for long
time, since it will disturb the cash flow and the storage system.
1.2. THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A TECHNICAL SYSTEM

 A technical system is a temporarily optimum solution for a certain technical problem. It is a
natural law, that things change every moment, it is born, and it matures and finally it dies.
Consequently, a technical system has also natural lifetime. It is only optimum for a certain
period under operation conditions. If the operation condition changes, either the existing
system may be obsolete or the system has reached its economical lifetime and must be
replaced.
 A technical system is interconnected with the surrounding environments. They influence
each other. A change in the technical system may actuate chain reactions in the surrounding
environment. Vice versa, change in the environment may actuate contagion effects to the
technical system.
Typical examples are :
 Development and improvement in the production technology affect directly to the
wider possibility to produce advantageous product;
 Economical needs of the market will force development or improvement of existing
product and in turn it will cause the production to change its present methods.
 A political decision concerning the limitation of unemployment has caused the
limitation of the robotic development.
There are many such examples in the daily life of design engineer. The typical surrounding
environment of a technical system can be described as below :
Technical Engineering Production Science R&D
TECHNICAL SYSTEM
INPUT OUTPUT
Economy Social Cultural Politics Architecture Art
 The consequence of the interconnection between a technical system and its environment is
the conclusion that a technical system is also a dynamic system. It undergoes steady
changes, which occur within the system as well as in its environment. The change may be
invisible at the first moment, but it happens continuously and slowly beyond our control or
consciousness. It may lead to a dangerous conclusion as if nothing happens, but in fact, we
do not know exactly the actual progress of the change. However, being conscious that
every system undergoes steady changes, we could anticipate approximately when the
change become visible and then, we should be able to draw up analysis upon the symptoms
in order to identify the real reason of the changes. A typical example of above hypothesis is
the aging of a technical component. It undergoes changes due to operation conditions, but
nobody can precisely determine the exact moment when it breaks down. We can only
approximately anticipate but cannot exactly predict.
Invisible change 1 Visible change = accumulation of

invisible changes, which suddenly break
+ the old system and set up a new condition
Invisible change 2 with entirely new qualitative and
quantitative characteristics
Invisible change n
 A technical system contains positive and negative aspects, which exist simultaneously in
equilibrium, although they are contradictory to each other. According to dynamic law of
nature, the equilibrium is temporarily stable, since there are invisible, continuous process of
changes within the system and the setting up new equilibriums. However, the changes
within the system affect the properties of the system. In the moment the quantitative
changes reach a certain level, a breakdown in the old properties occurs suddenly and the
system enter a new visible stage, which is different qualitatively and quantitatively.
1.3. DESIGN ACTIVITY AS A PART OF PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

A problem occurs when the actual characteristics exceed the tolerance limit of the specified
requirements. The problem solving activity should eliminate or minimize the difference so, that
the system will function and perform within the acceptable tolerance limit.
Specified requirement A - Actual characteristics B = E
Let T is the acceptable tolerance limit of A, then if E < T, the normal condition exists;
however if E > T , the problem occurs.
The problem solving activity is spiritual engineering activity, which applies the knowledge in
the physics, engineering science, special knowledge and adequate field experience. It should
realize the solution considering the existing limitation of material, technology, facilities and
economy. It requires personal strong mental attitude from the designated design engineer,
determination, the ability to take decision, on going optimism and endurance during the hard
time, willingness to cooperate in teamwork, clear and open mind to absorb the maximum
possible informative data.
It is to remember that the real reason of a problem should be found inside the system itself,
considering the steady change inside the system. The conducive environment facilitates and
accelerates the change. The surrounding environment is never a decisive factor although its
influence may play very important role. The successful problem solving activity depends
largely on the quantity ( = completeness ) and the quality ( = accurate characteristics ) of the
informative data around the problem.
Hence, it is obligatory for a design engineer to investigate an existing technical problem on the
job site, where the problem occurs. He / she should gather sufficiently informative data at the
first hand; in order to win a proper impression and correct perception of the operation
conditions of technical system, the expected function and performance and its surrounding
boundaries. It is almost impossible to identify the real problem and to conduct a successful
problem solving without such a fresh data.
1.3.1. CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

1.3.1.1. THE HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESS
The study of human ability to solve a problem is called cognitive psychology. Although this
science has not fully explained the problem solving process, psychologists have developed
models that give us good idea of what happens inside our heads during design activities.
Before we go further, we have to understand that to inform means to give knowledge to some
body, so the information means the knowledge about something. The information is recognized
by the brain in term of "chunks of information" ( modules ). The higher the level of expertise
of a designer, the more content in the modules can be processed. The exact type of information
in each module is not always clear, however there are some types of knowledge that might be
included :
 General knowledge. It is the information that most people know and apply without regard
to a specific domain. Example : red is color, 4 > 3, - all exemplify general knowledge. This
knowledge is gained through everyday experiences and basic schooling.
 Domain specific knowledge. It is the information on the form or function of individual
objects. Example : bolts are used to carry shear and axial stress – all exemplify domain
specific knowledge. This knowledge comes from study and experience in the specific
domain. it is estimated that it takes about 10 years to gain enough specific knowledge to be
considered as an expert in the domain. Formal education sets the foundation for gaining this
knowledge.
 Procedural knowledge. It is the knowledge of what to do next. This knowledge comes
from experience, but some procedural knowledge is also based on general knowledge and
domain specific knowledge. For solving design problems, we must often use procedural
knowledge.
The exact language in which the modules of information are encoded in the brain is not known.
They could be textual information, graphical information or analytical information.
Psychologists believe that most of design processes use the three-dimensional graphical
information system.
Information processing takes place through interaction of two environments :
 Internal environment, which describes the information storage and processing inside
human brain. Generally the human mind are considered to have two types of memories :
short-term memory and long-term memory. The information from external information is
brought into the internal system by the sensors such as eyes, ears and hands. Additionally,
as part of internal processing system, there is a controller that manages the information
flow from the sensors to the short-term memory, between the short term memory and long
term memory and between short term memory and the output abilities.
 External environment, which comprises hardware and whatever else, which is used
outside the human body to aid in the solution of the problem.
1.3.1.1.1. SHORT TERM MEMORY

The short-term memory is the main data processor in the human brain. The exact location is
not known specifically, but it has specific attributes.
 Short-term memory is very quick. It can process the information modules within 0,1
second. The term process implies such actions as : comparing one module to another,
modifying module by decomposing it into smaller parts, combining two or more modules
into a new one, changing the a module's size or distorting its shape, and making decision
about the module. It is not known how many short-term memories are actually used to
process the data; but generally, it can be said, that the harder it is to solve the problem, the
more short-term memory is used for processing. It is impossible for us to be aware of what
is happening in our short-term memory while we are solving problems. To follow our own
thoughts we need to use some of that memory to monitor and understand the problem
solving process, making that space no longer available for problem solving.
 The other feature of short-term memory is the fading of information stored there. To keep
from forgetting short-term information, people refresh the information repeatedly. With
such a refreshing, it is possible to retain certain objects within the short-term memory, and
letting the unimportant information fade to make room for the processing a new module of
information.
1.3.1.1.2. LONG-TERM MEMORY

The long-term memory is comparable to disk storage in a computer :
 The long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Human brain will never be full. It is
hypothesized that, as we learn more, we unconsciously find efficient ways to organize the
information by reorganizing the information modules in storage. The expert's information
storage is more efficient that that of the beginner's.
 The long-term memory is slow in recording information. It takes about two to five minutes
to memorize a single information module. It is why to study a new material takes so long.
 The information modules can be retrieved very quickly from long-term memory. Retrieval
is much quicker than storage. Depending on the complexity of information and the
frequency of its use, it can be retrieved within 0,1 second per module. The information
stored in the long-term memory can be retrieved at different levels of abstraction, in
different languages and with different features. Human memory is very powerful in
matching the form of data retrieved to that, which is needed for processing in short-term
memory.
1.3.1.1.3. CONTROL SYSTEM

During the problem solving process, the controller allows us to encode outside information
through our senses, or retrieve information from long-term memory, for processing in short-
term memory. Some of the information in short-term memory is allowed to fade and new
information is input as it is needed and becomes available. The controller can help extend the
short-term memory by making notes and sketches, but they need to be done quickly so they do
not bog down the problem solving process. When we have completed manipulating the
information, the controller can store the result in long-term memory or in the external
environment, by describing it in text, verbally or in graphic image.
1.3.1.1.4. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

The external environment – paper, pencil, computer, notes, etc. – plays important roles in
design process. The commonly known function of these hardware are : source of information,
analytical capability, documentation and communication facility. However, the most important
role for design engineer, the external hardware is the extension for the short-term memory,
because of the fact that the short-term memory is a space-limited central processor. The
external hardware is used for making notes and sketches of ideas and other information needed
in problem solving process. The external hardware must be compatible with short-term
memory characteristics - being very fast and having high information content. A design
engineer will make sketches even when not trying to communicate. These sketches serve as
aids in generating and evaluating the ideas by serving as additional information modules to be
processed.
1.3.1.1.5. LEFT – RIGHT BRAIN MODEL

A competent design engineer should be able to utilize the left and right side brain capabilities :
Left side : Quantitative Verbal Reasoning Logical
Right side : Qualitative Spatial Intuition Imagination
1.3.2. CREATIVITY
Engineering creativity is more akin to inventiveness rather than to research. The popular myth
is that creative ideas arrive like a flash of lightning and clap under thunder routine. However,
most of creative ideas occur by a slow, deliberate process that can be cultivated and enhanced
with study and practice. Human being are born with inherent measure of creativity, but the
process of maturation forms our native capacity. A technical education, with its emphasis on
precision of thought and correct solutions of mathematical problems, is especially deadly to
creativity.
A characteristic of a creative process is that initially the idea is only imperfectly understood.
Usually the creative individual senses the total structure of idea but initially perceives only a
limited number of the details. There ensues a slow process of clarification and grouping the
entire idea takes shape. The creative process can be seen as moving from amorphous idea to a
well-structured idea, from chaotic into organized, from implicit to the explicit. Engineer by
nature and training, generally set a high value on order, explicit detail and hate chaos and
unclear generality. Design engineers should develop and train themselves to be sensitive and
sympathetic to those aspects of the creative process. A creative idea cannot be turned on upon
command. It is necessary to recognize the conditions and situations that are most conducive to
creative thought. Creative ideas are elusive, we must be alert to capture and record our creative
thoughts.
The creativity can be enhanced by the following steps :

 Develop a creative attitude. It is essential to develop self-confidence, that a creative
solution to a problem can be provided. Although we cannot visualize the complete way
through the final solution at the first time, we must have self-confidence, that a solution
will develop before we are finished. Since the confidence comes with success, so we should
start small and build our confidence up with small success.
 Unlock the imagination. We must arise the vivid imagination by beginning with the open
question method. Ask "why", " what if", etc. even if it would seem to be naïve. But this
method provides practice in unlocking imagination and sharpening the power of
observation.
 Be persistent. The creative idea comes not always like a lightning strike. The creative idea
is often a result of hard work. Most of the problem will not be solved at the first attack.
They must be pursued with persistence. Edison made the famous statement : invention is
95% perspiration and 5% inspiration.
 Develop an open mind. Open mind means being receptive to ideas from any and all
resources. The solution to problems is not the property of a particular discipline, nor is
there is any rule that solutions can come only from certain specific persons. Ideally,
problem solutions should not be concerned with company politics, because many creative
ideas could not be picked up and followed through the general politics.
 Suspend the prejudgment. A creative idea develops slowly, but nothing restrains the
creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea. Engineers tend toward
critical attitude, so special self-control is required to avoid judgement at an early stage. The
main aim of ideas development is to find the truth for the problem solving process and not
to win argumentation war.
 Set problem boundaries. It is greatly emphasized to define a problem properly before
problem-solving process can begin. Establishing boundaries of the problem is an essential
part of problem definition. The boundary does not limit the creativity; it focuses the
creativity.
A creative idea often come, when the person is not expecting it and after a period when they
have been thinking about something else. The secret of creativity is to fill the mind and
imagination with the context of the problem and then relax and think something else. As we
relax, there is a release of mental energy, which our subconscious can use to work on the
problem. Frequently the subconscious mind will deliver to the conscious mind a picture of
what the solution might be. Since subconscious mind has no vocabulary, it use picture to
communicate with conscious mind. This is way it is very important for engineers to be able to
communicate effectively through three-dimensional sketches.
1.3.3. INVENTION ( DESIGN )

An invention is the result of creative thinking. The inventions can be classified into several
categories :
 The simple or multiple combinations. The most elementary from of invention is a simple
combination of two existing inventions to produce a new or improved result.
 Labour-saving concept. This is a higher level of invention, in which an existing process or
mechanism is changed to save effort, produce more with the same effort, or to dispense
with a human operator.
 Direct solution to a problem. This category of invention is the typical engineering problem
solving. The inventor is confronted with a need and sets out deliberately to design a system
that will satisfy the need.
 Adaptation of an old principle to an old problem to achieve a new result. This is a
variation of engineering problem solving. The problem exists for some time and the
essential principle of the solution has been known. The creative step consists using the
proper scientific principle to this particular problem as to achieve the useful result.
 Application of new principle to an old problem. A problem is rarely solved for all time. Its
solution is based on the current limitation of knowledge. When knowledge of new principle
becomes available, its application to an old problem may achieve more amazing result.
 Application of new principle to a new use. People, who are broadly knowledgeable about
new scientific and engineering discoveries, often are able to apply new principles in
completely different disciplinary areas or areas of technology.
 Serendipity. The accidental ( unexpected, fortunate ) discoveries may lead to great
inventions, but they are rare. They hardly happen to someone who is not actively pursuing
the solution of a problem. The fortune strike may come, when the investor is actively
engaged in problem solving process, but is stymied until a freak occurrence or chance
observation provides the needed answer. The other possibility of fortune strike comes,
when the investor suddenly gains a valuable insight or discovers a new principle that is not
related to the problem he is pursuing. Then, he applies the discovery to a new problem and
the result is highly successful.
1.3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE DESIGNER

Creative thinkers are distinguished by their ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas and
concepts into meaningful and useful forms. The principal of creative thinking is characterized
by among others :
 Problem sensitivity. It is the basic ability to recognize the existence of a problem. It is the
ability to organize and to structure amorphous and chaotic ideas; to cut through the
misunderstanding, misconception, lack of facts and other obscuring handicaps and to
recognize the core of the problem.
 Fluency of idea. It is the ability to compile up a large number of alternative solutions to a
given problem within a given time. The value lies in the fact, that the more ideas an
engineer has, the greater is the chance to find a useful one, and the more plentiful the
opportunities to set up a new way to do things. Fluency of idea depends largely on personal
mental habit. It can be developed or improved, if one will consciously apply him to it. The
motto : "get your ideas first, and worry about whether they are good or not later on".
 Originality. It is the ability to find a new way to vary existing conditions or to modify
something that will fit in the existing conditions. The creative attribute of originality can be
developed by the training of using open question method : "what, why, who, how, where,
when". It is a habit that can be learned. However, it is to remember, that the objective is to
find a useful answers and not just asking questions. The engineer must be able to uncover
new possibilities for better ways of doing things.
 Creative flexibility. It is the ability to develop willingness to consider a wide variety of
approaches to a problem. It is a matter of attitude. A flexible person starts out by
remembering that if one solution does not work, the problem can be approached from
another angles. The creative person just plain expects to solve the problem, no matter how
many failures temporarily delay the solution.
 Ability of visualization. It is the ability to visualize, to generate and to manipulate visual
images in his head. The information is represented in mind in three ways :
 Semantic information = words
 Graphical information = images
 Analytical information = equations or relationships
 Physical information = hardware or physical model.
Words and equation convey serial information. They are generally understood based on
the word order or the order of variables and constants. Picture or visual information
contains parallel information. They can be decomposed in many different ways and the
engineer can focuses only on the important features.
It needs many sentences to describe information. Therefore, a designer often makes
sketches during problem solving process and less frequently makes textual notes. There is
difference between individuals in the ability to visualize images. However, the ability to
manipulate images can be improved by practice.
 Knowledgeable. It is the deep knowledge in the domain, where the designer is active. The
model of information processing system implies, that all designer start with what they
know and modify this knowledge to meet actual specific problem. At every step on the
way, the process involves small movements away from the known things, but even these
small movements are based on the past experience. Since creative people build their new
ideas based on old design, they must retain a storehouse of images of existing solution in
their long-term memory. Additionally, part of being creative is the ability to evaluate the
viability of ideas. Therefore, without a deep knowledge in his/her specific domain, a
designer cannot evaluate a design. Knowledge about this specific domain can only be
gained through consistent and hard work.
 Analytical ability. It is the ability to decompose and to manipulate knowledge, since new
ideas are born from the combination of existing knowledge. A creative designer should
prepare more than one approach to solve a problem. If the initial process does not obtain
solution, the other alternative approaches should be used. This ability can only be learned
and improved by sufficient exercises.
 Courage to decide. It is the ability and the courage to take an intellectual chance. Fear of
making mistake and fear to spend time on a design, that may not work at the end, are
characteristics of a non-creative individual.
 Non-conformist. There are two types of non-conformist :
 Constructive nonconformist are they, who take stand because they think they are right,
but generally they might generate good ideas.
 Obstructive nonconformist are they, who take stand just to have opposing view. They
generally will only slow down the progress.
A creative designer are normally constructive nonconformist, however, he / she should never
be hard to manage, just because he / she wants to do thing his / her own way. One thing is sure,
creativity is just one of so many attributes that a designer should have.
1.3.4.1. CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING

The problem solving process follows certain logical sequences. The common sequences are :
 Preparation : the examination of problem and the study of its interrelations.
 Incubation : the understanding of the problem.
 Inspiration : the emerge of a path toward solution.
 Verification : the countercheck of elaborated solution against the initial requirements.
 Execution : the physical realization of the solution.
This is obviously simplified model, since there is many problems that are solved more by
perspiration ( = intelligence, sharp mind followed by persistence ) rather than by inspiration. It
is useful to understand something how the mind stores and processes information :
 The conscious mind compares the information stored in the subconscious mind with
external reality.
 The subconscious mind is a rigorous storehouse of information, ideas and relations based
on past education and experience.
 The unconscious mind acts on other two elements. It may distort the relation of the
conscious mind and subconscious mind through its control of symbols and generation of
bias.
The exact detail of how human mind processes information are still researched, but it is known
that the mind is inferior to the modern computers in its data processing capacity and velocity.
However, despite of its low speed processing capacity, the mind is a device with a rigorous
capacity to store information. This characteristic of mind is dominant in the development of
problem solving methods.
The attempts at problem solving are often stymied by the mind's low speed capacity, so that it
is difficult to connect with the information stored in the subconscious mind. Thus, the
important step in problem solving process is to study the problem from all angles and in as
many ways as possible to understand it completely. Most problems studied in that way contain
more than seven elements that the mind can visualize at once. Thus, problem must be divided
into so many problem modules, that the mind can visualize and conceptualize them
simultaneously. Obviously, each module must be easily decomposed into its relevant parts.
It is important to know that there is no guarantee that the initial approach taken in problem
solving process will be successful at once. If the process sticks, the direction should be
changed. Persisting in unfruitful line will only lead to frustration. It is a good idea to keep
initial problem solving effort approximately and exploratory to avoid making premature
commitment.
Another step in problem solving process is to generate divergent ideas and relations. The
objective is to stir up the facts in subconscious mind so that unusual and creative relationship
will be revealed. The objectives are:
 To identify the core of the problem and its structures. It must be avoided to make
conclusion before the problem is thoroughly digested and understood.
 To find multiple solutions to the problem, so it will be easier to optimize the result. Always
try to find principles underlying the solution so, that they can be generalized and
increasingly understood. The solution should be documented in form of writing, drawing
and models.
IDEA MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM Page : 2.1
ENGINEER ASSOSCIATION DESIGN PROCESS
2. ORGANIZATIONAL FLOW OF DESIGN ACTIVITY
Job : Planning : Coordination : Design Process

Specification Resources Information flow
Network
Monitoring
Quality
Progress
2.1. PLANNING AND COORDINATION
Analysis :
JOB Process planning : Environmental
Identification or work sequences Economical analysis
Identification of sequential goals Technological analysis
Network planning Financial variable
Planning of human resources Socio-cultural variable
Planning of technical resources Political variable
Planning of financial resources Legal variable
Planning of time schedule Market competition
Planning of QC checkpoint Stakeholder policy
Documentation system
Resources
Comparative advantages
Competitive advantages
S W O T analysis
Coordination :
Interaction between departments
Information flow
Document control
No Planning Yes Design

Complete ? Process
2.1.1. PLANNING
The objective of planning activity is to arrange in advance all resources and necessary activities,
which are needed to execute successful design process. It should anticipate the all-possible work
sequences, their interrelationships and the respective period to achieve effective and efficient
design process.
The work plan is necessary for a design team in the following points :
 The team should know the direction of its activities, to recognize where and when the
possible distortions from the specified path may occur, so that an effective control
mechanism can be established. The planning arises the self-confidence to lead actions and
greater chance to achieve the expected goals.
 The team should have clear idea what resources to be organized and how.
The actual scope of planning activity differs from one job to another, depending on the job size.
However, all plans have more or less similar characteristics.
A plan should contains at least but not limited to :

 The work sequences, its network, interactions and linkage of the total process so that the
process can be finished within the given period.
 The quantity of the qualified and competent people required for each work sequence.
 The technical resources, hardware and software.
 The expected cost of the whole process.
 The estimation of adequate time frame and the critical paths within the process.
 The establishment of control checkpoints concerning the quality requirement, progress of
work and if necessary the cash flow, especially when handling big project.
 The establishment of adequate documentation system.
In order to be able to work out an effective plan, the planning team should consider the
environmental and resources aspects such as : the available comparative advantages and
competitive advantages of the design team based on intensive SWOT analysis. The other aspects
might be : technological aspect, market aspects, financial aspects, social aspects, cultural aspects,
political aspects, legal aspects, external and internal stakeholders.
2.1.2. COORDINATION
An effective coordination is essential to ensure an effective flow of informative data between all
related departments. Unfortunately, it is often forgotten, that there is a high degree of
interdependence between various units performing tasks.
The coordination is necessary to integrate the objectives and activities of various task units
working in a project. Without coordination, people and department will lose sight of their roles
within the organization and they are tempted to pursue their own specific interests at the expense
of organizational goals.
A work plan will help to ensure an effective integration, where and when various department
should cooperate and their activities should be integrated to contribute the accomplishment of the
task, without reducing the effectiveness of the departments in executing their specific tasks.
An open communication is the key to an effective coordination. The effectiveness of

coordination is directly dependent on the acquisition, transmission and processing of
information. It is useful to think of coordination as an information-processing task.
2.2. PROCESS FLOW OF DESIGN ACTIVITY.
REQUIREMENT CLARIFICATION CONCEPTION DETAIL

DESIGN
No No
Yes
Requirement Concept still
Fulfilled ? valid ?
Yes
MANUFACTURING DESIGN REVIEW

Customer response
New development
Necessary improvement
Periodical review
3. CLARIFICATION AND VERIFICATION
Requirements Clarification & verification

General description Function range
Technical description Performance range
Operation conditions Operation conditions
Boundary conditions Boundary conditions
Quality requirements Applied codes & standards
Testing & measuring requirements
Special requirements
Acceptance & rejection criteria
Delivery condition
No Any missing data
Disputes , misinterpretation
Specification, measurability, achievability
All points realistic , timeablility
Clarified ?
Yes
Yes
Advanced Requirement List

No
Continue ? End
Identification of core of problem

No
No Core of problem yes Sure to be able to Yes

Identified ? fulfill requirements?
Conception
3.1. CLARIFICATION
The quality of a product is not produced accidentally; it must be built into the product from the
very beginning of the product realization process. Therefore, the clarification and verification of
requirements are obligatory steps to achieve a quality solution.
The objective of clarification and verification steps is to collect necessary informative data, to
complete them and to arrange them so, that the core of the problem and its boundary can be
identified. The real need of the customer should be reflected completely in the conclusion of the
verification step.
The clarification is a preventive action to avoid error in the subsequent process, which are caused
by misunderstanding and misinterpretation of data, ambiguous description of requirements and
its specifications, missing information, alternative proposals etc. The error is likely to occur in
the interface zone, where information is handed over to the next process.
The verification step should recheck the previous informative data and its completeness. The
obligatory requirements should be collected and separated in a specific group and arranged
according to the classification of the data. The optional data is to be collected in another group.
The obligatory requirements are the baseline for the required quality level. Therefore, the
specifications of the obligatory requirements should be thoroughly discussed and clarified, until
a realistic solution could be seen in general form. The supplier should be sure, that it could fulfill
satisfactorily the customer's need, technically as well as economically. The supplier image and
reputation are put on risk.
The clarification and verification steps are closed with a documented list, - Advanced
Requirement List -, which contains the agreed specifications of requirements. It is recommended,
that the customer and the supplier sign the list as a binding document for both side.
3.2. DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFICATION

The transformation process from input characteristics into output characteristics needs accurate
and complete informative data. The basic data for design process are the specifications. There
are some characteristics of specifications, that must be fulfilled :
 The specification should describe precisely the detail characteristics of the required solution
regarding its expected function, performance, lifetime and boundary conditions.
 The specification regarding the function will determine the applied physical effects, the
shape of components and their arrangement.
 The specification regarding the performance will determine the necessary properties of
material and the dimensions of components.
 The boundary condition will determine the limitation of available space and determine
the connection to the surrounding objects.
 Although the specification should adapt, consider and reflect the most possible needs of
customer, it should be made in accordance with the law of nature. Hence, it should be
specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-able.
 The specification should mention clearly the applicable standards and codes, which will be
used as reference. It should mention clearly the acceptable tolerance limit, test requirements
and acceptance criterion, especially if they differ from that stated in the applied standards.
 The description of specification must use clear, simple and understandable wording. It should
be described unambiguously to avoid misinterpretation and potential confuses.
3.2.1. QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT ( QFD )

QFD is a method to understand customer's requirement by applying systematic steps in
deepening the requirements. It is obligatory step in the design activity, regardless whether it
involves a big project or just a single component. The objective of understanding the design
parameters is : to translate the customer's requirements into a measurable technical description
of what to be designed.
There are things to be considered :

 No matter how well the team think it understand the problem, it should employ the QFD
method for all design projects. Because during the QFD process, the team will learn what it
does not know about the problem. The QFD method can be apply to all problem-solving
activities regardless the size of problem, entire problem or any sub-problem.
 The customer's requirement must be translated into measurable design parameter. It is
important to identify firstly about the functional requirement ( = What needs to be designed ).
Only after the core of problem is identified and fully understood, then comes the form ( =
How the design looks like and how it will work ).
The cognitive capabilities of a designer often assimilate the functional requirements in term of
forms. These images then become the favorite design and the mind is locked into them. The
QFD procedure helps to overcome this cognitive limitation.
3.2.1.1. QUALITY DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURE.

 STEP 1 : IDENTIFYING THE CUSTOMER
The objective of this step is : to determine the domain of the customer. The nature of
requirements depends on the natural characteristics of this customer's domain. The type of
product is determined by the desire of the customer, not by the engineer's vision of what the
customer should want.
Many product have been rejected, simply because the engineer's concept does not comply
with the actual requirements of customer. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the domain of
the customer. The new concept of "customer" involves also the people inside the own
organization. As for design department, the external customer is the actual customer, whose
interest is represented by the marketing department. The internal customers are the other
departments, which have direct or indirect relationship with the activities of design
department. The key is effective communication.
Example of customer domains :
Metal fabricator Cold storage Garbage incinerator
Steel mill General store Airport material handling
Foundry Supermarket Seaport material handling
Scrap yard Metal printing Dry-port material handling
Log yard Paper printing Trading Company
Dock yard Marble and granite Transportation company
Container yard Paint manufacturer Engineering company
Ship yard Vehicle manufacturer Servicing company
Workshop Assembly plant Public works
Chemical plant Parts manufacturer Civil works

Cement plant Pulp and paper Telecommunication
Food processing plant Mining industry Electro-technical industry
Aircraft industry Plastic industry Electronic industry
Rolling stock industry Power station Pharmaceutical industry
Military industry Pumping station Water work & irrigation
etc.
 STEP 2 : DETERMINING THE CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT

The objective of this step is : to determine what is to be designed. This step is characterized
by the listing of all requirements that affect the design. As it is important that all views are
considered, this step should be accomplished with the whole design team with all related
departments and should be based on the results of survey on customer site. The customer
requirements can be gained through interviews, questionnaires and market studies.
The Temporary Requirement List ( TRL ) can be made in customer language and words such
as "easy", "fast" and other abstract terms. However, these terms should be translated in the
real, measurable engineering parameters in the Advanced Requirement List ( ARL ). The
ARL should be understood as an actual database and the baseline to develop a better design –
not to judge what is wrong with the existing design.
Developing the informative data is an iterative effort; the objective is to develop a complete
list in order to compose an ideal design.
 STEP 3 : DETERMINING THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF

REQUIREMENTS
The objective of this step is : to evaluate the importance of each requirement. This is
accomplished by generating of weighing factor for each requirement. The weighing result
will give an idea how much effort, time and money to invest in achieving each requirement.
Two questions can be used as reference :
 To whom is the requirement important?
 How to measure the importance of this diverse group of requirements?
Obligatory requirements are usually associated with standards, spatial constraints and
company requirements. Although obligatory requirements must be fulfilled, not all obligatory
requirements are essential. The rest of remaining requirements after identifying the "must"
requirements is considered as the "want". They must be weighted according to the relative
importance, compared to each other using the question : "which is more important to the
success of this product?". This question is hard to answer when comparing two different
requirements, but it still important to decide which one is more dominant.
 STEP 4 : COMPETITION BENCHMARKING

The objective is : to determine how the customer perceives the competitor's ability to meet
the requirements. The benchmarking is important for two reasons :
 To force an awareness of what already exists.
 To point out opportunities to improve on what already exists.
The competition benchmarking is a major aspect of understanding a design problem. In
benchmarking, each competing product must be compared with customer requirements.
Some of these comparisons are objective and can be measured directly; others are subjective
and customer opinion may be consulted. each customer requirement must be rated on a scale.
The rating will give an indication of how competition is perceived by the customer.
 STEP 5 : DEVELOPING MEASURABLE ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS

The objective is : to transform the customer requirements into a set of measurable
engineering requirements ( design specifications ).
The measurable parameters are used to evaluate the proposed product design. The important
point here is to find as much as possible the ways to measure each customer's requirement. If
measurable parameter and / or its unit cannot be gained, then there is a problem. This is
usually an indication that the customer requirement is not yet well understood. Possible
solution is to break the requirements into finer independent parts or redo the step 3, with
special attention to the specific requirements. Each engineering specification must be
measurable value and measurable unit.
 STEP 6 : SETTING ENGINEERING TARGETS FOR DESIGN

The objective is : to determine the target values for each engineering measure. As the
product evolves, these target values will be used to evaluate the product ability to satisfy
customer requirements. Firstly, it is to ascertain how the competitors will meet the specified
engineering requirements and secondly, it is to establish the value to be obtained with the
new product. Products are compared to customer requirements and they need to be measured
relative to the engineering requirements. This ensures the existing knowledge and equipment
for evaluation. The values obtained by the measuring of competition give a basis for
establishing the targets. This usually means obtaining actual samples of the competitor's
product and making measurements on them in the same way that measurements will be made
on the product being designed. Setting target early in the design process is important;
otherwise, the design process will be meaningless. Some requirements have ready-made
target values, but other requirements need a realistic target to be set. These values define an
ideal product and must be based on what is physically realizable, which is why it is essential
to examine the competing product. The best targets are set for a specific value.
3.2.1.2. CONCLUSION
The QFD method ensures that the problem is well understood. It is useful to have a clear set of
customer's requirements and associated engineering measures. It slows the design process, but
the time spent in developing information is returned the next design process.
The QFD method forces such in-depth thinking about the problem that many good design
solutions develop from it. We may try to stay focused on what needs to be designed; but ideas
for the problem solutions are invariably generated. Ideas recorded as brief notes of sketches
during the problem understanding phase may be useful later; however it is important not to lose
sight of goals of the technique and drift of to one favorite design idea.
The QFD method can be applied during the latter phase of design process as well. We may use it
to develop a better measure for functions, assemblies or components in term of cost, failure
modes or other characteristics. The customer requirements or the engineering requirements could
be replaced with what needs to be measured and with any other measuring criteria.
3.2.2. REQUIREMENT MATRIX
Type of Description External Requirement Internal Requirement

requirements parameters
Must Want Weight Must Want Weight
Technical requirements
Function
Performance
Durability
Material
Manufacturability
Assembly
Maintenance
Quality requirements
Fitness for use
Standard & codes
Measuring & test
Acceptance criterion
Commercial requirements
Delivery conditions
Estimated cost
Warranty
The requirement matrix is useful help to classify the requirements according to their
characteristics and the importance level of the information. The design specification can be
described in terms of word, measurable values and units. It should ease the designer to evaluate,
what kind of necessary information is still needed for design process. During the writing down of
information, a designer can use his/ her own word to describe the specification of requirements,
so the designer can prove himself / herself, whether they understand clearly the requirements of
the customer.
3.3. IDENTIFICATION OF CORE OF PROBLEM

The natural core of the problem is necessary to be identified, since the direction of the problem
solving process depend largely on the knowledge of the essential core of the problem itself. The
experiences showed, that to know the core of the problem is to solve already the half of the
problem.
The core of the problem can be found using the following steps :
 Concentrate on the obligatory requirements, which directly affect the function and the
performance, while temporarily ignoring supplementary requirements, desires and optional.
 Transform the quantitative statements into qualitative one.
 Extend systematically and meaningfully the identified information.

 Concentrate the effort to recognize the core of the problem from the extracted information
and define it neutrally. The neutral definition avoids the fixation of mind on certain solution
principles, so that a wider horizon for possible solution alternatives can be opened.
 Extend systematically the definition to examine, whether a correction or amendment of
definition could bring a better reference point for more effective problem solving process.
Example : The meaning and scope of terminology "material handling equipment" is much wider
than "crane system". However, the real solution may be just a simple monorail crane.
4. CONCEPTION
4.1. CONCEPTION PROCESS
IDENTIFIED CORE OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING OF PROBLEM

 Neutral definition
 Identification of main structure
 Advanced Requirement List
 Functional decomposition
 Meaningful arrangement of
structures
MORPHOLOGICAL
FINDING OF SOLUTION
MATRIX
 Conventional method
 Intuitive method
 Discursive method
 Usage of catalogue
SELECTION AND EVALUATION

 Combining possible variants No
All requirement
 Evaluation of variants concerning
fulfilled ?
technical aspects, quality aspects,
economical aspects, safety aspects.
 Selection of meaningful variants Yes
FINAL CONCEPT
PRODUCT  General design sketches

DESIGN  General design calculation
 General component list
4.1.1. DESIGN NOTEBOOK

Design Notebook is the initial document, which states, that the customer requirements are
completely clarified, verified and understood. The design team is ready to proceed the design
process activities.
The Design Notebook includes the following points :
 Advanced Requirement List, which describes the clarified requirements with respective
specifications and weighting of customer requirements.
 Competition benchmark versus customer requirements.
 Competition benchmark versus engineering requirements.
 Engineering targets and project planning.
The Design Notebook gives complete description of the state of the design. With this
information, a professional designer can review the presentation and the management can decide
whether to continue the project or to stop it before more funds are expended.
Since the breadth of necessary knowledge for the most project is too large to handle alone,
design project are normally handled by a team of individuals with knowledge from different
areas.
4.2. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURING OF PROBLEM

The generation of a concept begins with the sound understanding of the core of problem. This
understanding is the baseline for the search of expected function of the product. A concept is
abstract ideas of how the identified functions will be realized and in turn, what the product might
be.
Some conceptual ideas are naturally generated during the development of specification, because
designer has to associate the possible solution of problem with things he / she already knows. It
is the analogical way to understand a problem. The conceptual ideas can be represented in rough
sketches with relevant notes. Here is a great danger, when the designer tends to take his favorite
ideas and start to refine them toward a product design. It is a weak methodology.
Remember : "If you generate only one idea, it will probably be a poor idea; but if you generate
20 ideas the you might get one or two excellent ideas".
The generation of concepts is an iterative process. Many steps must be executed in parallel
including necessary repetitions. There are several corrective steps, repetitions, alternating
processes of analysis and synthesis and evaluation of preliminary generated concepts to obtain
suitable solutions for each identified function. These iterative loops include also managerial tasks
such as : documentation of generated ideas, updating of work plans, etc.
The concept generation is based on two sequential steps :
 Functional decomposition, followed by
 Generating concepts from decomposed functions.
It will be difficult to have a clear overview on a complex problem at glance, especially when
handling new problem, which sometimes come from other domain. Such a complex problems
can be decomposed into smaller sub-problems to give a better overview. The degree of
complexity of decomposition will depend on the type of problem. The most complex one is
when solving a new problem; lesser complex is when solving an adaptation problem or
modification of existing system, because the boundary conditions remain almost the same. Each
identified sub-problem may require its own design team, because it should be understood and
planned independently in parallel with other sub-problems. Decomposition must be done
carefully, since it restricts the design options.
Identified core Neutral Functional Generating

of problem definition decomposition concept
Necessary Evaluation
corrective action of concepts
4.2.1. FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION

A technical system consists of several elements, which fulfill specific function and performance.
It transforms input characteristics into output characteristics. These characteristics can be
classified into three groups : material, energy and signal. The input – output characteristics are
combinations of the three forms of characteristics.
The transformation processes from the input characteristics into the output characteristics are
executed by specific physical effects, which are described by reproducible physical equations.
The applied physical effects determine the function of the system and the respective
transformation processes. This transformation process determines the forms and dimensions of
the physical contact areas, - where the transformation process occur - and the expected
performance of the system
Each identified function is treated as a separate subsystem.
The technical problem solving depends very much on the exact knowledge upon the applied
physical effects on a technical system, in order to identify the expected function and performance
of the system and so to provide and optimum solution for a technical problem. Hence, the
objective of the decomposition is to manage more easily smaller parts of a problem.
Input TECHNICAL Output

characteristic SYSTEM characteristic
Applied physical Function

effect
Transformation Performance
process
The function tells what the product must do to accomplish design requirements; whereas its form
or structure conveys how the product will do the design requirements.
A function can be described in terms of logical flow of energy, material and information. The
human involvement is defined as function, because very view design can totally exclude the
human involvement. The flow of energy, material and information are rarely distinguishable.
 The function, which is associated with flow of energy, is classified by :
 The type of energy ( mechanical, electrical, fluid, thermal ) and
 The action of energy in the system ( transformed, stored, conducted, transferred,
dissipated, etc. Thus all terms used to describe the flow of energy are action word.
 The function, which is associated with flow of material, can be divided into three main
categories :
 Through flow, where the process conserves the material. The material is manipulated to
change its position or shape, such as : positioning, lifting, holding, supporting, moving,
translating, rotating, guiding, etc.
 Diverging flow, where the material is divided into several bodies, such as : dismantling,
separating, cutting, etc.
 Converging flow, where several bodies are jointed together, such as : assembling,
joining, retrofitting, etc.
 The function, which is associated with flow of information, can be classified as signal
processor. The signals can be mechanical, electrical signal and software. Generally,
information flow is used for measuring activities, automatic control system or to interface
with human operator.
The objectives of the function modeling technique are :
 To decompose the problem in terms of the flow of material, energy or information. It forces
the designer to understand the detail function of the future product, already at the very
beginning stage.
 To understand and to analyze existing designs.
 To set benchmark for existing design as well as for future design.
4.2.1.1. PROCEDURES FOR FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION

 STEP 1 : IDENTIFICATION OF OVERALL FUNCTION TO BE
ACCOMPLISHED
The objective here is : to generate a single statement of the overall function based on the
customer requirement. All design problems have one or two "most important" functions. These
must be stated in a single, concise(?) sentence. Example : "switching the signals" instead of "
design a contactor"
The statement is derived from the identified core of problem. The statement should be neutrally
defined in order to avoid a fixation of mind only on certain known principles. The construction
of the statement is iterative process, since the statement should provide optimum reference point
for the next design process.
 STEP 2 : DECOMPOSE THE FUNCTION INTO SUB-FUNCTIONS

The objective here is : to refine the overall function statement as much as possible. There are
reasons for doing this :
 The resulting decomposition controls the search for solutions to the design problem. The
expected function must be fulfilled by the concepts, which determine the product. It is
emphasized once again on fully understanding and correct identification of the expected
function, otherwise time is wasted to generate wrong product for wrong problem.
 The division into finer functional details leads to better understanding the design problem.
Although all this detail work seems to counter the creativity, the most suitable ideas come
from fully understanding the functional needs of the design problem.
 Breaking down the functions may lead to the realization using some existing modules or
products that are available in the market. It shortens the design time remarkably.
4.2.1.2. GUIDELINES
 Document "what", not "how". It imperative that only "what" needs are to be considered.
Detailed and structure oriented "how" considerations should be suppressed in this stage.
Although the functions are remembered by their physical embodiments, it is important that
the natural tendency is override here. If, in case a specific problem solution cannot be
proceeded without some assumptions, the document the assumptions.
 Use standard notations as much as possible. For some type of systems, there are well-
established methods for building functional block diagrams. Standard logic symbols or words
can be used to note the flows.
 Break the function down as fine as possible and consider the logical flow. It is necessary to
consider the logical relationship between the functions and to arrange them according to the
sequential work in the flow of function.
The Logical Analysis helps to discover the relationship between the input and output. The
logical circuitry is derived using "What-If Analysis". The Boolean algebra is an effective
mean to describe the combination of basic logical functions ( AND; OR; NO ).
When the main flow is clearly identified, it is useful to draw up the main flow in a single
structure. The adjacent flows are normally executed by sub-functions, which are found by
systematically and meaningfully extension of the main flow. It is to ensure that every
transformation of specific physical effect is executed by specific structure. The consecutive
sequences of the physical effects should be arranged so, that a functioning system can be
identified.
The complexity of structure depends on the identified functions. It is often more simpler and
effective to solve a specific sub-problem without logical and physical relationship to the
other sub-problems. The relationship will be searched and found later, if all of the elements
and work principles are completely known. If some principles do not match to each other,
then it must be modified; however, the reference points are known already, so the
modification and adaptation of functions are easier.
 Match the inputs and outputs in the functional decomposition. Inputs to each function must
match with the outputs of the preceding function. The flow of material energy and
information between one function to another can be viewed as conveying process without
change or transformation.
 Recheck the concept to eliminate the critical points. Every system has critical points due to
logical mistakes; inaccurate and incomplete informative data; changing the operation
conditions.
4.2.1.3. RESUME
 It must be realized, that the functional decomposition cannot be done in one pass and that is a
hard work to develop the block diagram. However, it is factual, that a design is only as good
as the degree of understanding of the functions, which are required to solve the problem.
Therefore, the functional decomposition diagrams should be updated and refined parallel
with the progress of design process.
 During the composition of a problem, every partial problem that is firstly recognized could
be solved roughly using known principles, so that the design time can be shortened
considerably. However, after all partial problems are solved, there must be another iterative
process for finding better conceptions in order to avoid fixation of mind only on particular
principles.
 The form and complexity of function diagram depend fully on the completeness, accuracy
and weight of the informative data. It is useful to follow firstly the main flow, since it
determines the form of solution. The function diagram should be designed as simple as
possible to obtain economical solution. In the most cases, using modular system is the most
economical solution despite on increasing requirements.
4.2.2. GENERATING CONCEPTS

There are two steps in generating concepts :
 STEP 1 : DEVELOPING CONCEPTS FOR EACH FUNCTION
The objective here is : to generate as much as possible concepts for each identified function.
There are points to consider :
 Some of the ideas may be farfetched for the intended product; but wild, impractical ideas
may lead to good concepts. Therefore, the horizon of ideas should not be limited here. The
step here is to generate ideas, not to evaluate ideas.
 All the concepts found here are abstract, as far as they do not have yet specific geometry.
Rough sketches of these concepts would be simple blocks. The concepts must be kept in the
same abstraction level using the description of physical effects.
 If there is a function, for which only one concept exists, the function should be examined.
There are only very view functions, which can be fulfilled only by one concept. The reasons
of lack of concepts could be :
 The designer has made fundamental assumption without realizing it. It is right to make
assumption, as long as he is aware, that assumption has been made.
 The function is directed to "how", not to "what". If one idea is built into a function, the
true function of the design must be reconsidered.
 The knowledge in the domain is limited. Help is needed.
 STEP 2 : COMBINING CONCEPTS

It useful to make a list of identified functions and to write down the possible abstract concepts in form of
matrix ( morphological matrix ).
The advantages of using the matrix are :
 The direction of the solution process can be stimulated effectively.
 The basic characteristics of concepts and the possible combinations among them are easier to
be recognized.
 Meaningful combinations of several partial concepts and their variants may produce several
general concepts for solution.
The result of applying step 1 is the morphological matrix. The example of morphological matrix
can be seen below :
Main system Sub-system Sub-sub-system Possible concepts
A1 A1.1
A1.2
A1.3 A1.3.1
A1.3.2
A2 A2.1
A2.2
B1 B1.1 B1.1.1
B1.1.2
B1.2 B1.2.1
B1.2.2
There are pitfall to this method :

 If literally followed, this method would generates too many concepts. If all combinations of
concepts were seen as potential solutions to be investigated, there would be enormous
numbers of concepts to consider. If each possibility was evaluated, the design process may
stagnant.
 It is erroneously assumed that each function of the design is independent and that each
concept satisfies only one function.
 The result may not make sense. Although the method is a technique for generating ideas, it
also encourages a coarse ongoing evaluation of the ideas. Still care must be taken not to
eliminate concepts too readily; a good concept could conceivably be prematurely lost in a
cursory evaluation. The objective here is to do only a coarse evaluation and to generate all
the reasonably possible ideas.
The combination of partial concepts should consider :

 The elements of the selected combinations should be compatible to ensure the free flow of
material, energy and information. The compatibility of solutions is easier to recognize, if
their basic principles are described accurately and completed with all necessary information
about their characteristics and eventual sketches.
 The design should be collision-free, geometrically as well as functionally. It should also fit
to its surrounding environment.
 The combination should definitively fulfill the required function. It should be technically and
economically realistic, considering the capability and capacity of the manufacturing
department.
4.2.2.1. POSSIBLE ELEMENTAR FUNCTIONS

 MECHANICAL :
Transferring Transforming Transmitting Disconnecting
Supporting Attaching Constraining Reinforcing
Sealing Absorbing Insulating Storing
Pivoting Sliding Rotating Rolling
Linking Coupling Clutching Fastening
Limiting Reducing Multiplying Damping
Sensing Indicating Amplifying Conducting
Distributing Deflecting Switching Guiding
Covering Shielding Protecting Partitioning
Positioning Locating Fixing Braking
Forming Cutting Finishing Accelerating
Heating Cooling Freezing Crushing
Pumping Pressing Destroying etc.
 ELECTRICAL
Heating Magnetizing Electrolyze Switching
Damping Amplifying Reducing Multiplying
Limiting Sensing Indicating Linking
Disconnecting Transferring Transmitting Conducting
 FLUIDS ( Hydraulic / pneumatic )

Acceleration Braking Conducting Switching
Reducing Multiplying Sliding Pivoting
Limiting Damping Sensing Indicating
There are many possibilities in every domain of knowledge. The above lists are for reference
only.
4.3. FINDING SOLUTION

4.3.1. CONVENTIONAL METHOD
The conventional method is based on the analogy, investigation and analysis of already existing
system. This method enables the designer to solve the technical [problem systematically and
comprehensively. The conventional method could be :
 The study of available literature and competitor design; the objective is to get information
regarding the present stage of technology as well as various existing solution principles.
 Analysis of natural system, which provides various information about forms, structures and
processes. The phenomenon of the natural system is perfect and most of them can be
transferred to solve technical problem.
The weakness of the conventional method is that the engineer is tempted just to copy the existing
principles without the wish to go deeper into the subject in order to find new and better solutions.
4.3.2. INTUITIVE METHOD

The intuitive method is based on the incidental spark or flood of ideas, which are normally stored
in the sub-conscious mind. The quality and quantity of the ideas depend on the knowledge and
experience of the design engineer. The designer should not rely on the intuitive method because :
 The right ideas cannot be forced to come in the right time, since they are uncontrollable.
 Prejudice and fixation of mind on existing solutions often hinder the occurrence of new
ideas, especially if the engineer is not willing to open his mind or to change the standpoint.
The well-known representative of the intuitive method is the brain storming method, which is
widely used in the design process. The brain storming session is only effective, if each member
of the group contribute ideas from his / her standpoint. The rules of brain storming are quite
simple :
 Record all the generated ideas.
 Generate as many ideas as possible, and then verbalize the ideas.
 Think wildly.
 Resist evaluating the ideas; just generate them.
 Do not allow criticism of other's idea in the group.
4.3.3. DISCURSIVE METHOD

The discursive method is systematic, transparent and communicative method, which can be
influenced and controlled. It is based on the systematic analysis of the structure of problem and
the logical and physical relationship between the structures. The discursive method is effective
due to the following reasons :
 There is information, which is not always available in the engineer's mind, because of the
limitation of knowledge level.
 It is not always possible for an engineer to follow up timely the scientific developments, new
technology and techniques, or the relevant information comes too late.
 It is impossible to avoid logical mistakes in every thinking process.
The well-known representative of the discursive method is the morphological matrix, which is
discussed above.
4.3.4. USAGE OF CATALOGUE

The catalogues contain collection of known and proven principles of solution for various
technical problems. It is used for quick reference to solve similar problem. It opens also the
possibility to develop new concepts based on the existing one. A catalogue contains information
of specific solution for specific problem and its degree of realization :
 The concept used to solve that particular problem.
 The design principles and its respective specifications
 The physical effects and design elements applied for the solution.
 Applied codes and standards.
 Brief design calculation and other necessary information.
In the practical design process, the four methods are used simultaneously. Although one or two
methods are dominant, the other remaining methods are helpful to support the success of the
design process.
4.4. SELECTION OF VARIANT

The obtained variants must be selected to the few promising concepts, which are developed
further into products. The concepts must undergo evaluation, which implies simultaneously
comparison and decision-making.
A concepts must be compared with the references ( requirements, standards, codes, etc.) in order
to have enough information for decision-making on the development of the concept. The
compared concept must be couched in the same language and the same level of abstraction with
the references.
Another problem with concept evaluation is that abstract concepts are normally fussy. Since they
are refined, their behaviors may differ form that initially anticipated. The greater the knowledge
about a concept, the fewer will be the surprises. However, even in well known areas, as the
concept is refined to the product, unanticipated factors arise.
There are two types of comparisons :

 Absolute comparison, which compares a concept directly with some set of requirements.
 Relative comparison, which compares the concepts with each other.
4.4.1. EVALUATION TECHNIQUE

4.4.1.1. EVALUATION BASED ON FEASIBILITY JUDGMENT
This method is an absolute comparison method. As a conceptual design is generated, the
designer has three immediate answers :
 It is not feasible; it will not work. If a concept looks infeasible or not workable, it should be
considered briefly from different points of view before being rejected. There may be some
reasons, such as :
 It may be obviously technologically infeasible.
 It may obviously not meet customer requirements.
 The concept looks differently from the way, in which things are normally done. Human
has the tendency to prefer traditions instead of change. An individual engineer or
company is more likely to refuse new ideas in favor of established concepts. Established
concepts have been proven to work, but this view can block the improvement of product.
It must be differentiated between a potential positive change and a poor concept. Part of
company tradition is its standards. Standards must be followed, since they are helpful in
giving current engineering practice, but their validity is limited. As soon as better
technologies or other conducive conditions enter the company, the standards must be
reviewed and updated.
 It is conditional. The initial reaction might be to judge a concept as workable, if something
else happens to support the concept. The typical external factors involved are : readiness of
technology, the possibility of obtaining currently unavailable information, development of
some parts of the product.
 It is worth to consider. The hardest concept to evaluate is a concept, where there is no
immediate evident, whether it is good concept or not. However, it looks worth to consider.
The evaluation of such a concept needs sound engineering knowledge and experience. If
sufficient knowledge is not immediately available for the evaluation, then it must be
developed. This is accomplished by developing models that can be easily evaluated. There
are three models available in the design process : graphical, physical and analytical models.
Additionally, computers are helpful tool to evaluate a concept.
4.4.1.2. EVALUATION BASED ON TECHNOLOGY – READINESS ASSESSMENT

This method is also absolute comparison method. This method determines the readiness of the
technologies that may be used in the concept. It refines the evaluation by forcing an absolute
comparison with state-of-the –art capabilities. If a technology is to be used as a part of product
design, it must be mature enough as design issues, not research issues. The majority of
technologies are mature, however, in a competitive environment, there are high incentives to
include new technologies in products, provided that the technologies are really ready to be
included in the product. The maturity of product can be measured as follow :
 Can the technology be manufactured with the known process? If reliable manufacturing
process is not refined for the technology, then either the technology should not be used or
there must be a separate program for developing the manufacturing capability. The risk of
separate program is : it may fail and jeopardize the entire project.
 Are the critical parameters, that control the function, already identified?. It is important to
identify the critical parameters that affect the product, such as : dimensions, material
properties, etc.
 Are the safe operation latitude and sensitivity of the parameters known?. In refining a
concept for a product, the actual values of the parameters may have to be varied in order to
achieve the desired performance or to improve the manufacturability. It is essential to know
the limits on these parameters and the sensitivity of the product's operation to them. This can
be known in only a rough way during early design phase, but during the evaluation, it will
become extremely important.
 Have the failure modes been identified?. Every type of system has characteristics failure
modes. Generally, it is useful to evaluate continuously the different ways a product may fail.
The possible critical points is analyzed using Critical Point Analysis, which is comprising of :
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, Fault Tree Analysis, Risk Assessment and Value
Analysis. The identification of the potential failure mode on suspected critical components,
its causes and effects on these components and on the system as a whole.
The recommendation of necessary corrective actions to eliminate the identified potential
failure. If necessary, the recommendation of alternative solution.
Possible corrective actions :
Change Replacement Elimination
Supplement Reinforcement Improvement
Adding Adjusting Aligning
 Does hardware exist that demonstrates positive answers to the above four question?. The
most crucial measure of a technology readiness is its laboratory models or another product. If
the technology has not been demonstrated as mature enough for use, then the designer should
be very sure that it would be ready in time for production.
 Is the technology controllable throughout the product's lifetime?. This question addresses
the later stages of the product life cycle : its manufacture, service and retirement. The
answers to these questions are the responsibility of the design engineer.
4.4.1.3. EVALUATION BASED ON SCREENING CONTROL

It is another absolute comparison method. Once it is established that the technologies used in a
concept are mature, it must be compared with the customer's requirements in an absolute basis.
Each concept must be questioned based on the customer's requirements, and the answers are
either "Yes" or "No".
This evaluation will not only weed out designs that should not be further considered, but will
also help generate new ideas. If a concept has only satisfactory responses, it may be worth to
modify it rather than to eliminate it. This evaluation rapidly points out the weak areas in a
concept so, that it can be patched, changed, or modified to fix the problem. During patching, the
functional decomposition and morphology should be referenced and possibly updated as more is
learned through evaluation.
4.4.1.4. EVALUATION BASED ON DECISION MATRIX

This is a relative comparison method. The decision matrix method is fairly simple, has proven
very effective for comparing concepts that are not refined enough for direct comparison with the
engineering requirements. The method provides a score to each concept relative to another in its
ability to meet customer requirements. Comparison of scores gives insight to the best alternatives
and good information for making decision. The decision matrix method is iterative evaluation
method that tests the completeness and understanding of requirements, rapidly identifies the
strongest concepts and helps foster new concepts. This method is most effective, if each member
of the design team perform it independently and the individual results are compared. The results
of comparison are repeated with iteration so long until the team is satisfied with the results.
 STEP 1 : CHOOSE CRITERIA FOR COMPARISON

It is necessary to know the basis on which the concepts are to be compared with each other. The
rough sketches of concepts are not refined enough to compare with engineering specifications for
evaluation. There is confusion in level of abstraction. Thus, the basis for comparing the design
concepts must be the customer requirements, which are abstract too like the concepts. Concepts
that cannot meet the "must" requirements were filtered out in screening comparison.
 STEP 2 : SELECT THE ITEMS TO BE COMPARED

The different ideas developed during the concept generation are to be compared. It is important
that the concepts are compared in the same language and same abstraction level.
 STEP 3 : GENERATE SCORES

By this time in the design process, every design engineer has a favourite concept, which is
assumed the best among the concepts that have been developed yet. This concept may be used as
a datum; all other design being compared to it relative to each other of the customer
requirements.
 If the concept is better than the datum, it is given the score +1
 If the concept is about the same as datum, it is given the score 0
 If the concept fails to meet the datum, it is given the score -1
If the problem is to redesign an existing product, the product can be used a s datum, if it is
abstracted in the same level as the new concepts. If it is impossible to make comparison to a
design requirement, then more information must be developed. This may require more analysis,
further experimentation, or just better visualization. It may even be necessary to redesign and
then return to make comparison.
 STEP 4 : COMPUTE TOTAL SCORES

After comparing a concept with the datum, four scores are generated : plus scores, minus scores,
the overall total and weighted total. The overall total is the difference between the sum of plus
scores and the sum of minus scores. The weighted total is the sum of each score multiplied by
importance weighting.
 If a concept has a good overall score or a high + scores, it is important to notice what
strength they exhibit; in which criteria they meet better than the datum. Likewise, grouping
of – scores will show, which requirements are especially hard to meet.
 If most concepts get the same score on a certain criterion, examine the criterion closely. It
may be necessary to develop more knowledge in the area of the criterion in order to generate
better concepts. Or, the criterion might be too ambiguous, is interpreted differently by
different members of the team or is unevenly interpreted from concept to concept. If the
criterion has low importance weighting, do not spend much time on clarifying it. However, if
it is an important criterion, take the more effort either to generate better concepts or to clarify
the criterion.
 To learn even more, redo the comparisons, with the highest scoring concept used as the new
datum. This iteration should be redone until a clearly best concept emerges.
After team members have completed the procedure, the entire team should compare their
individual results. The results can vary widely, since neither the concepts nor the requirements
are yet refined. Discussion among the group member should result in a few concepts to refine. If
it does not, the group needs to clarify the criteria and generate new concepts.
IDEA MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM Page : 5 . 1
5. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
ROUGH DETAIL DESIGN

SOLUTION CONCEPT  General layout with spatial constraints
 Selected concept  Rough design of functional structures
 Product specifications  Rough design calculation
 Operation conditions  Drawing of several possible solutions
 Applied physical effects  Selection of materials
 Principal sketches  Selection of manufacturing process
 Applied codes & standards
No
Are suitable form found to executed
the intended function?
Yes
EVALUATION OF DESIGN REFINED DETAIL DESIGN

 Function consideration  Refinement of functionasl structures
 Performance consideration  Detailed design of each structural
 Manufacturing consideration component
 Assembly consideration  Detail calculation of each component
 Measuring & test consideration  Optimation of design
 Maintenance consideration  Documentation in form of drawings
 Economic consideration  Component lists
DOCUMENTATION
No All requirements Yes
 General assembly drawing
fulfilled ?
 Sub-assembly drawing
 Manufacturing drawing
 Component list
5.1. BASIC GUIDE LINES

The selected solution concepts should be transformed into first step of visual realization in form
of design drawing and the necessary design calculation. As a part of product development
procedure, the evolving product will be decomposed into modules and individual components.
Each of these modules and components will require the same evolutionary steps.
The following aspects should be considered throughout the design activities:
Specific  The structures must be arranged so, that a specific function is executed by an
identifiable specific modules or component.
 The selected physical principles and their interrelationship should be clearly
identifiable. The transparent arrangement of correct physical principles will
ease the detection of disturbances and deviations.
 The systematic flow of material, energy and information must be secured by
the design.
 The design principle should be selected that any working load at any
condition can be described and calculated clearly.
 The design should ensure the correct sequence of assembly and maintenance
process.
Simple  The design should be directed to use minimum quantity of components and
to use only the necessary processes.
 The simple geometrical forms and shapes lead to an effective application of
mathematical formulae for design calculation.
 The usage of symmetrical forms should be preferred to ease the anticipation
of the magnitude and direction of possible deformations due to
manufacturing process, applicable working load and temperature effect.
 Simple and symmetrical forms will ease the processes of design, calculation,
standardization, manufacturing, quality control, assembly, material handling,
service, repair and maintenance activities. The time consumption of these
processes will be reduced considerably.
 The usage of special tools and complicated work instructions can be avoided.
Safe  The following design points affect directly to the reliability of a design :
Strength of material ; Wear and corrosion characteristics; Elastic and plastic
deformation under load; Stability under load; Resonance behavior;
Temperature effects; Sealing; Excessive cost restriction; Too short delivery
time.
5.2. MANUFACTURABILITY CONSIDERATION

The product design process is iterative process, where many steps must be executed in parallel
including the necessary repetition. It includes also corrective steps, repetition and alternating
process of analysis and hypothesis, optimizing and redesign. The iterative process here is more
closely intertwined than in the concept phase. A design team should make this stage of design
process, because based on the international survey, more than 60% of all manufactured parts
were not made exactly as represented in the drawing. The reasons varied :
 The drawings were not complete or ambiguous
 The parts could not be made as specified in the manufacturing documents.
 The parts could not be assembled if manufactured as drawn.
Many of these problems have been overcome by the introduction of design team and the
philosophy of design for manufacturability. A designer alone cannot perfectly accomplish the
whole processes from refining of concepts to manufacturing of product. There are too many
factors to be considered by a designer in order to make good decisions without help of other
specialists. The refining from concept to product requires the consideration of four basic
elements surrounding the function :
FUNCTION
Shape Material Manufacturing Assembly
The following eight steps accomplish the design for manufacturability. The technique is based
on using the functional knowledge of the concept to generate shapes. This generation is tempered
by the knowledge of spatial constraints, material properties and availability, production
capabilities and limitations.
Selected Availability of suitable Selection of material

concept modules in the market & production
Identify each Note spatial

components constraints
Develop and
refine interface
Establish new modules
and components
Connect functional
interface
Refine & EVALUATE

patching
 STEP 1 : FIND AVAILABLE PRODUCT TO MEET THE NEEDS

A concept can be realized in two ways : either to use the available product / module or to design
of new components and assemblies.
Nowadays, a designer does not need to design basic elements for each new product, since these
elements are readily available from vendors. When such basic elements are needed in a product,
they are usually purchased from vendors, who are specialized in manufacturing them. To find
existing modules for use in the design is generally cheaper than designing and manufacturing the
modules. The specialist vendors have many advantages :
 They have the history in designing and manufacturing the elements. They have already the
expertise and specific machinery to produce the modules.
 They already know what can go wrong during design and production, since they have
undergone the incremental process to improve their products. A new design effort would
need to gain extensive experience before reaching their expertise level.
 They specialize in design and manufacture the component in high volumes to keep the lower
cost than through in-house effort.
Even if the components are not already available for thee requirements in a product, it is
important to be aware of "what module is available", because details form existing products can
help generate product ideas.
 STEP 2 : SELECT MATERIAL AND PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

This step is taken, if there are no existing products to be considered. Before beginning to embody
concepts, it is important to identify materials and production techniques and to be aware of their
specific engineering requirements. It seem premature to consider the topic now, but they have
significant influences :
 The quantity of the product to be manufactured greatly influences the selection of the
manufacturing process to be used.
 The knowledge of experience has a major influence on the selection of material and
production process. This knowledge can have positive as well as negative aspects. It can
direct the selection to reliable choices, but simultaneously, it may obscure new and better
choices.
 A limited knowledge and experience limit the choices. If only available resources can be
utilized, then the material and the processes are limited by these capabilities. However,
knowledge can be extended by team members, who are specialist in material and
manufacturing process so, that the choices are increased.
 Obvious requirements of material property are identified during the problem understanding
and conceptual design phase. These requirements constrain the choice of material and
processes.
 The most compelling point in the selection of material is its availability. Special materials
are normally not available in the common market. They must be purchased from specialist
vendor.
 STEP 3 : NOTE SPATIAL CONSTRAINTS

One category of customer requirements is the spatial constraints on the product. These
constraints give boundaries to the shapes that can be developed. The constraints on modules and
components become more refined as the product evolves. The spatial constraints are the basis for
layout drawings, whose primary purpose is to keep track of the developing dimensions on the
total product and on the evolving modules and components. A good approach is to begin the
layout drawing with known external spatial constraints, those at interfaces to bodies external to
the object being drawn. This will define the envelope in which the form can evolve.
 STEP 4 : IDENTIFY SPARATE COMPONENTS

Although conceptual design focused on the function of the system, the resulting concept sketches
probably contain representations of individual components. Now it is time to question these
forms, to decompose and to refine them. A decision to decompose conceived shapes into
separate components can be justified using the following reasons :
 Components need to move relative to each other. For example, parts that slide and rotate
relative to each other have to be separate components. However, if the relative motion is
small, then perhaps elasticity can be built into the design to meet the need.
 Components need to be different material for functional purpose.
 Components need to be accessible.
 Component needs to accommodate the material and production limitation identified in step
2.
 Available standard components should be considered for the product.
 Separate components would minimize the cost. Sometimes it is less expensive to
manufacture two simple components than to manufacture one complex component, in spite
of the added stress concentrations and assembly cost caused by the joining of the two
components.
 STEP 5 : CREATE AND REFINE INTERFACES FOR FUNCTIONS

This is a key step when embodying a concept, because it makes direct use of the functions
identified during conceptual design. It is based on the assumption that, the most parts, functions
occur at the interface between components. The objective of this step is to develop and refine the
interfaces between the components. There are several guidelines :
 Interfaces must always reflect force equilibrium and consistent flow of energy, material and
information. The interfaces must be developed considering all the objects interacting with
them. Since only the interactions with external objects are initially known, they must be
addressed first.
 After external interfaces, consider the interfaces that carry the most critical functions.
Unfortunately it is not always clear which functions are most critical. Generally, either they
are those functions that seem hardest to achieve or those are described as most important in
the customer requirements.
 It is important to maintain functional independence in the design of a module or component.

This means that each critical dimension in the module or component should affect only one
function.
 Care must be taken in breaking the design into separate components. Although functionality
occurs in the interfaces of components, complexity arises since one function often occurs
across many components and since one component may serve many functions.
 This step may force decompositions, which result in new functions and may encourage the
refinement of the functional breakdown. As the interfaces are refined, new components and
modules may appear. One step in the evaluation of each potential embodiment is to
determine how each new component changes the functionality of the design. In order to
generate new interfaces, it may be necessary to treat them as a new design problem and
utilize the QFD techniques.
In case of the body of a component provides the function ( e.g. : mass, stiffness, strength, etc. )
the next step becomes more important than this step.
 STEP 6 : CONNECT THE FUNCTIONAL INTERFACES WITH MATERIALS

It has been estimated that less than 20% of the dimensions on the most components are critical to
the performance of a device. This is because the most of material in a component connect the
functional interfaces, and therefore is not dimensionally critical. Once the functional interfaces
have been determined, designing the body of the component becomes easy. The guide lines in
developing the shapes are among others :
 The material between the interfaces generally serve three main purposes : to transmit energy
with sufficient strength and rigidity; to act as an enclosure or guide for other components; to
provide appearance surfaces.
 Try to connect interfaces with strong structural shapes that carry the load from one interface
to another with the minimum internal stress. Ideal strong shapes distribute the force evenly
throughout the entire structure. The stress is evenly distributed and ideally, failure occurs
only when the stress at all locations reaches a critical value. The simplest strong shape is a
rod in tension or compression.
 Use direct transmission path. A good method for visualizing how forces are transmitted
through modules and components is to use a technique called force flow visualization. Treat
forces like fluid that flows in and out of the interfaces and through a component. The fluid
always takes the path of minimum resistance through the component. Draw multiple flow
lines. The direction of each flow line represents the maximum principal stress at the location.
Lable the flow lines for the major type of stress occurring at the location : ( T = tensile
stress, C = compression, S = shear, B = bending ). Note that bending stress can be
decomposed into tensile stress and compression stress and that shear must occur between
tension and compression on a flow line. Remember that force is transmitted at interfaces
primarily by tensile and compression. Shear occurs only in adhesive and friction interfaces.
 The stiffness determines more frequently the adequate size of a component. Although design
textbooks emphasize strength, the dominant consideration for many components should be
their stiffness and vibration behavior.
 Use standard shapes when possible, since it is the most popular policy to keep the minimum
number of different components in inventory. Each component should be coded with a
number that gives basic information about its shape and size. This coding schemes allows a
designer to check to see if components already exist for use in a new product.
 STEP 7 : EVALUATE THE PRODUCT DESIGN

During conceptual design, evaluation methods are coarse because the concepts are abstract. As
concepts are refined, more complex evaluation techniques are available. The objective of
evaluation is to provide enough information to enable to compare the product design to the
engineering specifications. The results of evaluation can channel the flow of the design process
in one of the following directions :
 If the design process has reached a point where the results should be reported, then the
project should proceed a design review.
 If the evaluation concludes that the current concepts are not leading to a quality product, then
the process needs to return to earlier phases to improve understanding or develop new
concepts.
 The result of the evaluation may indicate that the product is ready to be further refined or
need patching.
 STEP 8 : REFINE OR PATCH MATERIAL, PRODUCTION CHOICES AND

SHAPES
In current design method, the selected material and production techniques must evolve according
to the evolvement of the shape of the product. As a product matures, its layout, details, materials
and production techniques are refined. However, when a product is refined, changes are
sometimes made without accompanying refinement. This is called patching.
There many types of patching :
 Combining. Making one component serve multiple functions or replacing multiple
components. There is strong encouragement for this, when the product is evaluated for its
ease of assembly.
 Decomposing. Breaking components into individual components. As new components are

developed through decomposition, it is always worth reviewing the first six steps of the
design for manufacturability technique. it is worthwhile to consider that the identification of
a new component establishes a new need, and return to the beginning of design process with
it.
 Magnifying or minifying. Magnifying is making component or some feature of it bigger
relative to the adjacent items. Exaggerating the size or number of feature will often increase
the understanding of the component. Minifying is making a component or some feature of it
smaller. Eliminating, streamlining or condensing a feature often improves the design.
 Rearranging. Reconfiguring the components or their features often leads to new ideas, since
the reconfigured shapes will force rethinking of how the component fulfills the functions. It
may be helpful to rearrange the order of the functions in the functional flow.
 Reversing. It is a subset of rearranging by transposing or changing the view of the
components and its features.
 Substituting. Identifying other concepts, components or features that will work alternatively
to the current idea. Be aware that new ideas sometimes carry new functions. Sometimes the
best approach here is to revert to conceptual design techniques to aid developing new ideas.
The excessive patching is troublesome. If design progress is stuck on one function or component
and the patching cannot resolve the difficulty, then the time can be wasted in continuing the
effort. Application of the following suggestion may relieve the problem :
 Return to the techniques in conceptual design; try to develop new concepts based on the
functional decomposition and the resources for ideas.
 Be aware that certain design decisions have altered or added without considering the
functions of the component. as the product evolves, many design decisions are made and
unintentionally changes of the function of a component are likely to occur in the process.
When stuck on finding a quality solution, it is always worthwhile to investigate what
function the component is fulfilling.
 If investigating the changes in functionality does not resolve the problem, then consider,
whether the requirements on the design might be too tight. The targets based on the
engineering requirements might be unrealistic and the rationale behind them should be
reviewed.
The result of refinement or patching any aspect of the product can lead in two directions :
 First, and most often, the refinement or patching is part of the generating or evaluating loop
in the product design. After each patch or refinement, it is good practice to thing through the
first six steps for the product development before re-evaluating.
 Sometimes the result of the refining or patching effort requires a return to earlier stages of
the design process.
It must be noted that sometimes during the design of a new product, the requirements cannot be
met with existing materials or production techniques, no matter how much patching and shape
modification occurs. This situation gives rise to the development of new materials and
manufacturing processes. Until recently, the thought of designing materials and processes to
meet the product design needs meant postponing the design project so that material and
production technology could reach design maturity. However, recent advancement in the
knowledge of metal and plastic material have allowed for material and process design on
demand.
5.3. ASSEMBLY CONSIDERATION

Part of labor cost in the manufacturing of a product is the assembly cost, which can be
significant for some product. Design for assembly should consider the ease of assembly of a
product. Since virtually all products are assembled out of many components, there is a strong
incentive to make the product as easy to assemble as possible. Basically the assembly process
comprises of :
 Retrieve the component from the storage.
 Handle the components to orient and to position them relative to each other, before they can
be mated together.
 Mate them.
Hence, the ease of assembly is directly proportional to the number of components that must be
assembled and the ease with which they can be moved from their storage to their final assembled
position.
5.3.1. GUIDELINES
 OVERALL QUANTITY OF COMPONENT SHOULD BE MINIMIZED.
The theoretical minimum number of each component should be found. each pair of adjacent
components should be checked to see if they really need to be separate components. Assuming
no production or material limitation, components must be separated if :
 The components are moveable relative to each other.
 The components are made from different materials.
 The assembly or dismantling would be impossible.
The improvement potential is calculated as follow :
Actual nos. of components - theoretical nos. of component
IP =
Actual nos. of component
IP < 10% : current design is outstanding
11% < IP < 20% : current design is very good
21% < IP < 40% : current design is good
41% < IP < 60% : current design is fair
61% < IP < : current design is poor
As the product is redesigned, keep track of actual improvement, where

Initial design nos. of component - redesign nos. of component
Actual improvement =
Initial design nos. of component
Typical improvement in the number of components of the range of 30% to 60% is realized by
redesigning the product to reduce the component count.
 MAKE MINIMUM USE OF SEPARATE FASTENER.

One way to reduce component count is to minimize the use of separate fasteners. This is
advisable for many reasons :
 Each fastener used is one more component to handle, and there may be more than one in
case of bolt, nuts and accompanying washers. each component handling takes time.
 Fasteners are not cheap. This is especially true, when we consider the cost involved is not
only cost paid for vendor, but cost of purchase, inventory, accounting and quality control.
 Fasteners are stress concentrator. They are points of potential structural failure in the design.
For all the reasons, it is best to eliminate as much fasteners as possible from the design. It must
be considered also, how well the use of fasteners has been standardized.
 DESIGN THE PRODUCT WITH A BASE COMPONENT FOR LOCATING OTHER

COMPONENT.
This guideline is to encourage the use of single base upon which all other components are
assembled. The ideal design would be built like a layer cake, with each component or sub-
assembly stacking on top another one. Without a base to build on, assembly may consist of work
on many sub-assemblies, each with its own fixturing, transportation, repositioning and fixing.
The use of single base component may shorten the length of assembly work considerably.
The most important hints here is : do not require the base to be repositioned during the process.
It is important that the base component is positioned precisely. On larger product, repositioning
may be time consuming and costly. A product requiring more than two repositioning is
considered poor.
 MAKE THE ASSEMBLY SEQUENCES EFFICIENT.

If there are N components to be assembled, then there are potential N ! different possible
sequences to assemble them. An efficient assembly sequence is one that :
 Afford assembly with fewest steps.
 Avoid risk of damaging components.
 Avoid awkward, unstable or conditionally unstable positions for the product and the
assembly personnel and machinery during the work.
 Avoid creating many disconnected sub-assemblies to be joined together.
Since even minor design change can alter the chosen assembly sequence, it is important to
consider the efficiency of the sequence during design.
 List all the components and processes involved in the assembly.
 List the interfaces between components and generate interface diagram.
 Determine for each interface the other interfaces that must be accomplished before
accomplishing it.
 Determine for each interface, the interfaces that must be left to be accomplished after it is
accomplished.
 Generate sequences of the interfaces subject to constraining relations.
 Prune the sequence diagrams by eliminating awkward sequences that result in separate sub-
assemblies.
 AVOID COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS THAT COMPLICATE RETRIEVAL.

Three characteristics of components that make them difficult to retrieve:
Tangling : e.g. spring with open end.
Nestling : where the component can jam inside each other.
Flexibility : gasket, harness, etc.
 DESIGN COMPONENTS FOR SPECIFIC RETRIEVAL, HANDLING AND

INSERTION.
Consider the assembly method of each component during design.
 DESIGN ALL COMPONENTS FOR END-TO-END SYMMETRY AND SYMMETRY

ABOUT THEIR AXIS OF INSERTION.
The one extreme is that a component can only be installed in one way. The act of orienting and
inserting the component takes time and either worker dexterity or machine complexity. The other
extreme is that the component is spherical, the orientation is of no consequence and handling is
much easier. Most components fall between the two extremes.
There are two measures of symmetry :
 End-to-end symmetry ( = symmetry about an axis perpendicular to the axis of insertion ). It
means that a component can be inserted in the assembly either end first. Obviously, not all
components can be designed to meet this guideline; however, it is still an important design
goal.
 Rotational symmetry ( = symmetry about insertion axis )
 DESIGN COMPONENT TO MATE THROUGH STRAIGHT LINE ASSEMBLY, ALL

FROM THE SAME DIRECTION.
This guideline, which is intended to minimize the motion of assembly, has two aspects:
 The component should mate through straight-line motion.
 The motion should be always be in the same direction.
If both corollaries are met, the assembly should fall together from above. Thus, the assembly
process would never require reorientation of the base or any assembly motion other than straight
down.
 MAKE USE OF CHAMFERS. LEADS AND COMPLIANCE TO FACILITATE

INSERTION AND ALIGNMENT.
To make the actual insertion or matting of component as easy as possible, each component
should guide itself into place. This can be accomplished using three techniques :
 Using chamfers or rounded corners.
 Using lead sections.
 Component compliance or elasticity.
 MAXIMIZE COMPONENT ACCESIBILITY.

Assembly can be difficult if components have no clearance for grasping. Assembly efficiency is
also low if a component must be inserted in an awkward spot. Beside concern for assembly,
there is also maintenance to consider. In both assembly and maintenance, tools may be necessary
and room must be allowed for the tool to mate with the component and to be manipulated.
5.4. RELIABILITY, TESTING, MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATION

Reliability is a measure, how a product maintains its quality over the time. Quality is defined
here as the satisfactory performance under a stated set of operating conditions. Non-satisfactory
performance is considered as a failure, and so in calculating the reliability of a product we use a
technique for identifying failure potential.
A failure is defined as any change or any design error or any manufacturing error that renders a
component, assembly, or system incapable of performing its intended function.
Based on this definition, a failure has two properties : the affected functions and the operational
change or design error or manufacturing error that produced the failure.
Typical sources of failure or failure modes are wear, fatigue, yielding, jamming, bonding
weakness, property change, buckling, imbalance, etc. The failure potential evaluation can be
used throughout the product development process and refined, as the product is refined.
 STEP 1 : IDENTIFY THE FUNCTION AFFECTED

For each function identified in the evolution of the product, ask : "What if this function failed to
occur?". If functional development has paralleled form of development, this step is easy; the
functions are already identified. If detail functional information is not available, this step can be
accomplished by listing all the functions for each component or assembly.
 STEP 2 : IDENTIFY THE EFFECT OF FAILURE ON OTHER SYSTEM

What are the consequences of each failure identified in step 1 on other parts of the system? If
this failure occurs, what else might happen? These effects may be hard to identify in systems,
where the functions are not independent. Many catastrophes result when one's system benign
failure overload another system in unexpected manner, creating an extreme hazard. If functions
have been kept independent, the consequence of each failure should be traceable.
 STEP 3 : IDENTIFY THE FAILURE MODES AFFECTED THE FUNCTION;

FOR EACH ERROR, IS IT POSSIBLE TO IDENTIFY THE PARAMETERS THAT
WOULD CASUE THE FAILURE ?
List the changes or the design or manufacturing errors that can causes the failure. Organize them
into the grouping : D = design error; M = manufacturing error; O = operational error.
 STEP 4 : IDENTIFY THE CORRECTIVE ACTION

For each design error or manufacturing error listed in step 3, note what redesign action should be
taken to ensure that the error does not occur. For each operational change, use the information
generated to establish a clear way to detect the failure modes. This is important, as it is the basis
for diagnosis the problem. Moreover, it may be important to redesign the device so that the
failure mode has a reduced effect on the function.
Once the different potential failures of the product have been identified, the reliability of the
system can be found. The rated units of reliability is called "Mean Time Between Failure" (
MTBF in hours ). MTBF data is generally accumulated from testing a representative sampling of
the product or it is collected by service personnel who record the part number and the type of
failure for each component they replace or repair. This data is a helpful aid for new design. Often
MTBF value is expressed as its inverse and called the failure rate L, the number of failures per
unit time. Assuming the failure rate is constant over the life of component, the actual reliability
of a component can be expressed as : Ri= e   L . t 
The total reliability of a product is the product of the reliabilities of all its components :
n
Rt =  Ri
i 1
The reliability can be increased either by decreasing the failure rate or to build redundancy, often
called parallel reliability.
5.4.1. TESTABILITY
Testability refers to the ease with which the performance of critical functions is measured.
Measurements might be made during the manufacturing to ensure that no errors are built into the
product. There are no firm guidelines to an acceptable level of testability. However, the designer
should ensure that the critical parameters that affect the critical functions could be tested. In this
way, the ability - to diagnose manufacturing problems and failures when they occur – can be
increased.
5.4.2. MAINTAINABILITY
Maintainability is related to the easy of diagnosis, dismantling and repair at any level of function.
6. EVALUATION
EVALUATION
DESIGN DRAWING  Function
 General assembly  Performance
 Sub-assembly  Cost
 Detail drawing  Safety
 Reliability
 Test ability
 Failure Mode & Effect Analysis
Corrective No Engineering target

action fulfilled?
Yes
FINAL DRAWING
 Drawing OPTIMIZATION OF
 Component List DESIGN
 Manufacturing documents
As the design is processed, there is a continuous need to evaluate them. The objectives of the
design evaluation are :
 To manage the functional development of the product.
 To develop enough information to be able to compare the product with the target of
engineering requirements. It is to ensure that the features of a design are still being able to
meet the changing requirements. The changing requirements may conclude the functional
and performance requirements, the applicable statutory and regulatory requirements, other
requirements essential for design development and economic necessity of the company. The
design review program should include the identification of any problems and proposal of
necessary corrective actions.
6.1. FUNCTIONAL EVALUATION

It is important to track changes in the function of product, besides comparing the product with
the engineering target. Conceptual design was developed based on functionally modeling of the
problem, and then developing potential concepts to fulfill these functions. The transformation
from function to concept does not end the usefulness of the functional modeling tool. As the
form is refined from concept to product, the function is also refined. The benefit of refining the
function - as the form is evolving -, is that by updating the functional breakdown, the functions
of a component can be kept clear. Nearly every decision about the form of the object adds
something – desirable or not – to the function of the object. It is important not to add something
that is contradictory to the desired functions. Besides tracking the functional evolution of the
product, the refinement of the functional decomposition also helps in the evaluation of potential
failure modes.
6.2. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The engineering requirements are developed based on the need of customer. Every requirement
has its specific targets. The objective of the performance evaluation is to evaluate the product
relative to the targets. The targets are represented as numerical values; hence, the evaluation can
only be executed, after refining the product to the point where numerical engineering measure
can be made.
An effective evaluation procedure should :
 Identify clearly, what has to be altered in order to make the designs meet the requirements.
 Demonstrate the product’s insensitivity to variation in the manufacturing processes and
operation environment.
 Result in numerical measures of the product for comparison with the engineering
requirement targets. These measurements must be sufficiently accurate and precise to enable
a valid comparison.
 Give some indication, which features of the product must be modified to achieve the
performance target and by how much.
 Include the effects of manufacturing process and environmental changes. Insensitivity to
these "noise" while meeting the engineering requirements will result in a quality design.
Nowadays, the ideal evaluation tool is represented by computer programs that would take
concepts straight from engineer's mind and instantly produce a sample of the product. With this
tool, the engineer can operate and simulate the sample model with least expenditure of time,
money and other resources.
In the mechanical design process, there are some type of models, such as :
Physical models Analytical models Graphical models

( form & function ) ( mainly function ) ( mainly form )
Abstract Laboratory models Engineering science Sketches

product Simulation prototype Analysis Drawings
Refined Prototype Finite elements Detail drawings

product Detail simulation Solid model
The above types are represented by the language and the level of refinement of the product.
During the conceptualization, the modeling techniques are rough, but require few resources
regardless of language. As the product becomes more refined, modeling methods become better
predictors of the final product's performance. The most common final representations in the
design process are pre-production prototypes and detail drawings, which represent closely the
final product.
6.2.1. ACCURACY AND VARIATION IN MODELS

The abstract models were used to develop rough measure of the viability of a concept compared
with other concepts. As the product is developed and compared with engineering requirements, it
is necessary to more concern on the ability of the models to represent accurately the final
product.
Regardless of the type of models, the objective of modeling is to find the easiest way to produce
numerical values for evaluation and comparison of the developed product with engineering
targets within the available resources.
In any model ( rough or precise ), two errors may occur :
 Error due to inaccuracy. Accuracy id the correctness or truth of the estimation of model. If
there is a distribution of results ( slightly different number obtained in each measurement of
the same object by repeated measurements ), then the mean value of the distributed
measurement results is used as estimation. With an accurate model, the product performance
could be predicted closely to the real product; with an inaccurate model, the estimation will
be a poor one.
 Error due to variation. The variation of the obtained result on the models refers to the
statistical variation about the mean value. The objective of modeling is to develop an
accurate model with small variation. An inaccurate model is inaccurate; no matter how small
is the variation.
Physical evaluation models can vary greatly from the estimated mean value. Even during the
production, all samples are not the exact same size; are not made of exactly the same material
and do not behave in exactly the same way.
There are some important points to understand the goal of modeling :
 The importance of normal distribution in modeling. For most design parameters, variations
in value can be considered as normal distribution, which is characterized by the mean value
and variance or standard deviation. However, the most analytical models are deterministic,
which means that each variable is represented by a single value. Since all parameters are
really distribution, this single value is generally assumed as mean value. Design calculation
using only mean value may not give accurate estimation. Regardless of accuracy, analytical
models give no information on the variation of the estimated value. However, stochastic
analytical models consider both the mean value and variation using the methods from
probability and statistics.
 The difference between the manufacturing variations and tolerance. The tolerance
represents the allowable deviations from the mean value. The manufacturing engineer will
use this tolerance value to determine which manufacturing machine will be used to make the
component and the QC engineer will use it to determine when to change the tools. Actually,
the variation is controlled by a combination of tool control and inspection.
+ Tolerance
Mean value
- Tolerance
 The effect of "noise" on the design performance. The "noise" affecting the design
parameters are among others :
 Manufacturing variations, which include the dimensional variations, variations in
material properties and surface finishes, differences in assembly alignment, etc.
 Aging or deterioration effects, which include etching, corrosion, wear or other surface
effects, creeping ( = changes of material properties and shape over the time ).
 Environmental conditions, which include all effects of the operation environment on the
product. Some environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity affect the
material properties; the amount of load affect the operating stress, strains and position;
etc.
All these "noises" will be inherent in the physical models and hence, will affect the variation of
any result. A quality product is one that is insensitive to the "noises" and has a small variation in
performance. These noise factors must be considered also in analytical modeling.
6.2.2. MODELING FOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

 STEP 1 : IDENTIFY THE DEPENDENT PARAMETERS THAT NEED TO BE
MEASURED.
Often the goal in evaluation is just to see, if a new idea is feasible. Even with this poor goal, the
important critical parameters must be clearly identified, since they affect directly the
performance. During the specification development phase, many interested parameters must be
identified. As the product is refined, other important requirements and targets may possibly arise.
hence, throughout the development of the product, the parameters that demonstrate the
performance of the product will be identified. These parameters need to be measured during the
product evaluation.
 STEP 2 : NOTE THE REQUIRED ACCURACY OF THE DEPENDENT

PARAMETERS.
In the early phase of product refinement, it may be sufficient to find only the order of magnitude
of some parameters. Preliminary calculations may be sufficient as indicators of performance for
relative comparisons. However, as the product is refined, the accuracy of the evaluation
modeling must be increased to enable comparison with the target values. It is important to
realize, how accurate the result should be. Much effort can be wasted on a finite element model,
where rough calculation using the classical method or simple laboratory test would be sufficient.
 STEP 3 : IDENTIFY THE LIMITS AND VARIATIONS OF INDEPENDENT

PARAMETERS.
If the goal is to develop data on dependent parameters, then the engineer should know the
variables on which the parameters depend. Sometimes it is difficult, until a model is built and
tested, so that some dependencies are discovered. Sometimes a model is built just to find,
whether the estimated variables are really important or not, while other more important variables
are left out of consideration.
Besides identifying the independent variables that affect the dependent parameters, it is also
useful to know the limits on their values. This does not imply that actual values of these
parameters should known, but the physical limits on these values should be realized.
 STEP 4 : UNDERSTAND THE ANALYTICAL MODELING CAPABILITIES.

Generally, analytical models are less expensive and faster to implement than physical models.
However, the applicability of the analytical models is dependent on the level of required
accuracy of results and on the availability of sufficient methods.
The accuracy of the model can be improved using more sophisticated modelling techniques from
advanced strength of materials. Finally, using finite element methods, even more accuracy can
be achieved, though at a higher cost in terms of time, expertise, and equipment.
 What level of accuracy is needed? Analytical models can be used instead of physical
models only when there is a high degree of confidence in their accuracy.
 Are analytical models available that can give the needed accuracy? If not, then physical
models are required.
 Are deterministic solutions sufficient? They probably are in the early evaluation efforts.
However, as the product is finalized, they are not sufficient, as knowledge of the effect of
noises on the dependent parameters is essential in developing a quality product.
 If no analytic techniques are available, can they be developed? In developing a new
technology, part of effort is often devoted to generating analytical techniques to model
performance. During a design effort there is usually no time to develop very sophisticated
analytical capabilities.
 Can the analysis be performed within the limitations of money, time, knowledge and
equipment? Time and money are two of the measures of the design process. They are
usually in limited supply and greatly influence the choice of modelling technique. Limitation
in time and money can often overwhelm the availability of knowledge and equipment.
 STEP 5 : UNDERSTAND THE PHYSICAL MODELING CAPABILITIES.

Physical models or prototypes are hardware representation of all parts of the final product. Most
design engineer would like to see and touch the physical realization of their concepts throughout
the design process. However, there is also limitation in time, money, knowledge and equipment,
consequently the ability to develop physical model is limited too. Generally, the physical models
are expensive and take time to produce. Additionally, the safety of human subjects in the
experimental evaluation is important and depending on the type of the product, may be regulated
by standard.
 STEP 6 : SELECT THE MOST APPROPRIATE MODELING METHOD.

The most ideal condition for design engineer is to have both analytical and physical model and
having the results agree. However, resources rarely allow both modeling methods to be used
simultaneously. Hence, the required model is selected based on the needed accuracy with the
fewest resources.
 STEP 7 : PERFORM THE ANALYSIS OR EXPERIMENTS
 STEP 8 : CONFIRM THE RESULTS.

In evaluating models, the results are as important as the scientific experiments, but the models
must also give indication of what to be modified and how much; since the results of the model
will be used to patch or refine the product. In analytical modeling, this is possible through
sensitivity analysis. However it is more difficult with physical models. Unless the model itself is
designed to allow parameters to be easily altered, it may be difficult to learn what to do next.
6.2.3. ROBUST DESIGN

Although all necessary steps in the design process are taken there is still no guarantee that a
quality product has been developed. There are two interdependent issues, which greatly
influence the final design quality, but they generally come in later design process :
 Determination of final values for dimensions, material properties and other parameters.
 Establishment of best manufacturing tolerances.
The key philosophy of robust design is :
Determine values for the parameters based on easy-to-manufacture tolerances and default
protection from aging and environmental effects, so that the best performance is achieved. The
term "best performance" implies that the engineering requirement targets are met and the product
is insensitive to manufacturing, aging and environmental noise. Such an insensitive product is
considered robust and will be perceived as a high-quality product. If noise insensitivity cannot be
met by adjusting parameters, then tighten tolerances and shield the design from effects of aging
and environment.
6.2.3.1. DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES AS A DESIGN FACTOR

A drawing of a component to be manufactured is incomplete without tolerances on all the
dimensions. These tolerances are binding for manufacturing variations. However, studies have
shown that less than 20% of the tolerances actually affect the function of typical components.
The rest of the dimensions on typical component could be outside by the range of their
tolerances and still work satisfactorily. Thus, when specifying tolerances for non-critical
dimensions, always use the standard nominal tolerances for manufacturing the component.
Tighter values can be held, but the cost will increase. The meaning of tolerance is :
 It communicates essential information to manufacturing engineer to help determine the

suitable manufacturing process.
 It is used to establish quality control guidelines. The quality of the product can only be as
good as the quality designed to it.
The first step in robust design is to determine the effects of the tolerances on the performance of
the product.
6.2.3.2. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Sensitivity analysis is a technique for evaluating the statistical relationship of dimensions and
their tolerances in a design problem.
 Develop a relationship between dependent dimensions and those, which are dependent on
them. Use the mean value of each independent dimension for calculation the mean value of
the dependent dimension.
 Calculate the tolerance on the dependent variable or work in terms of standard deviations.
 If the calculated tolerance is not satisfactory, identify which independent dimension has the
greatest effect, and modify it if possible. Depending on the ease and expense, it may be
necessary to choose a direct dimension to modify.
The problems of two or three dimensions are similarly solved, but the equation relating variables
become complex for multidimensional system. If the variables are not related in a linear fashion,
the equation should be modified.
Robust design can be summarized as three-steps method :
 STEP 1 : Establish the relationship between the critical dependent dimension or other
parameter and the independent parameters. Also define the target for
dependent parameter, making it as large as possible, as small as possible or a
specific value.
 STEP 2 : Based on the known tolerances ( standard deviations ) on the independent
variables, generate the equation for the standard deviation of the dependent
variables.
 STEP 3 : Solve the minimum standard deviation of the dependent variable subject to
this variable while keeping the target. There are usually other constraints on
this optimization problem that limit the values of the parameters to feasible
level.
There are some limitations on this method :

 It is only good for design problem that can be represented by an equation. In systems, where
the relation between the variables cannot be represented by equations, experimental method
must be used.
 The Lagrange optimization method is only useful for relative simple design problems. More
sophisticated methods may be necessary for more complex situation. The Lagrange method
does not allow the inclusion of constraints.
6.3. COST EVALUATION

One of the most difficult and yet important tasks for a design engineer in developing a new
product is the cost estimation. It is important to generate cost estimation as early as possible,
when it is needed to compare the product design with the original requirements. In the
conceptual phase or at the beginning of embodiment phase, a rough estimation of cost is first
generated; then as the design is refined, the cost estimation is refined as well. For redesign
problem, where the changes are not extreme, early cost estimation will be fairly accurate, as the
current cost are known. However, entirely new features will require cost estimation from scratch.
As the design matures, cost estimations must converge on the final cost. This is usually requires
price quotes from vendors and the aid of a cost estimation specialist. However, the design
engineer shares the responsibility, especially when there are many concepts or variations to
consider and when the potential components are too abstract for others to cost estimation. It is
important to understand what control the design engineer has over the manufacturing and selling
price of the product.
The table below is typical schematic diagram for cost estimation. The definition and terminology
of "cost" differs for each company, since they have their own bookkeeping system. The
terminology used here refers to the schematic diagram below.
LIST PRICE
Material Purchased Labor Tooling Overhead Selling Profit Discount
parts expenses
Direct cost Indirect cost
Variable cost Fixed cost
Manufacturing cost
Total cost
Selling price
 The direct costs are those costs that can be traced directly to a specific component or
product. All other costs are called indirect cost.
 The material cost is the major part of direct cost. This includes the expenses of all materials
that are purchased for a product, including the expense of the waste caused by the scrap and
spoilage. Scrap is often an important consideration. If the scrap can be reclaimed, the return
from the reclamation can be deducted from the material cost.
 The purchased part cost is the cost, which arises when components are purchased from
vendors. The cost includes the packaging and shipping of the product. At maximum, all
components may be made outside the company and only the assembly is performed in-
house. In this case, there are no material costs.
 The labor cost is the cost of wages and benefits to the work force needed to manufacture and
to assemble the product. This value must include all fringe benefits such as medical
insurance, retirement funds and vacation time.
 The tooling cost includes all jigs, fixtures, molds and other parts specially manufactured or
purchased for the production process.
 The manufacturing cost is the direct cost plus the overhead costs, which include the
administration, engineering, secretarial, cleaning, rental of building and facilities, and other
costs that occur daily, even if the production process is idle. The manufacturing cost can be
divided into :
 The variable cost, which is directly proportional to the number of produced units (
material, labor, purchased parts ). For most high-volume processes, the variation is
nearly linear, however, for low-volume process, the costs may change drastically with
the volume.
 The fixed cost includes the tooling and overhead. They remain the same regardless of the
number of units made. Even if the production fell to zero, funds spent on tooling, the
expenses associated with the facilities, and non-production labor would remain the same.
 The total cost of the product is the manufacturing cost plus the selling expenses. It
accounts for all expenses needed to get the product to the sale point. The actual selling
price is the total cost plus the profit. If the product is sold through distributor or anything
else other than direct sales, then the actual price to the customer is the list price, which is
the selling price plus the discount.
The salaries for designers, drafters and engineers and the costs for their equipments and facilities
are all part of overhead cost. Designer has little control over these fixed expenses but to use their
time and equipment very efficiently. The designer's big impact is on direct costs : type of
material used, the specification of purchased parts, the production methods, labor hours needed
to accomplish the manufacturing process and the cost of tooling. The appropriate cost estimation
can only be made, if the estimator has the sufficient and detailed information. The designer has
to refine the design up to such a level, where rough cost can be estimated for making major
decision. In many companies, the designer does all cost estimations.
EXAMPLE OF ESTIMATING MACHINED COMPONENTS :

Machined components are made by removing portions of material, which are not needed. The
cost of machining are primarily dependent on the cost and shape of the stock material, the
amount and shape of material that needs to be removed and how accurately it must be removed.
 From what material is the component to be machined? The material affects the cost in three
ways : The cost of raw material, the value of the scrap and the ease with which the material
can be machined. The first two are direct material costs and the last affects the amount of
labor needed, the time and the type of machine that will be tied up to manufacture the
component.
 What type of machine will be used to manufacture the component? The type of machine
will affect the cost of the component. For each type of machine, there is the cost of the
machine time itself plus the cost of the specific tolls and fixtures needed.
 What are the major dimensions of the component? This factor helps determine what size of
the machines of each type will be required to manufacture the component. Each machine has
a different cost for use, depending on the initial cost of the machine and its age.
 How many machined surfaces are there and how much material is to be removed? Just
knowing the number of surfaces and material removal ratio can give the good estimate for
required time consumption to machine the component. More accurate estimation requires the
exact knowing about the machining sequences.
 How many components will be made? The quantity of the same component to be made has a
great influence on the cost. For one piece, the fixturing is minimum, though long setup and
alignment times will be required. For a high volume, the manufacturing process will be
automated, with extensive fixturing and numerical controlled machine.
 What tolerance and surface finishes are required? The tighter is the tolerance and surface
finish requirement, the more time and equipment will be needed in the manufacturing
process.
 What is the labor rate for machinist?
INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER &
Date : 24-Jun-13
7. QUALITY ASPECT
The quality of a product is consciously built into the product from the first step until the end of
the product development process. It is not the incidental result of manufacturing process.
7.0.1. DEFINITON CONCERNING THE QUALITY

Product It may be finished product, service or process.
Specification The detail and precise description of characteristics, which a product should
possess during executing the intended function and performance under
operating condition.
Tolerance The acceptable deviation from the specified characteristics.
Quality The measure how closely a product conforms to a specified standard within
the tolerance limit.
System The methodical and meaningful arrangement of several working principles,

which should be effectively related to each other, in order to achieve the
stated goals.
Management The processes of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the effort of
organization to achieve the stated goal using organizational resources. It
includes the establishment of organizational structure, responsibilities,
procedures, processes and resources for implementing the applied system
Quality It is systematic description of necessary actions how quality requirements will

system be fulfilled in the process.
7.0.2. THE OBJECTIVES OF QUALITY SYSTEM

 The quality system emphasizes more on preventive actions, which are planned to avoid the
occurrence of problem, while maintaining the error detection system as also important task. It
should emphasize the "zero defect" philosophy, which means to produce the right product at
the first chance.
 The quality system should minimize the risk, cost and loss of reputation due to rejections of
product.
 The quality system should help the consistent improvement of design engineer to meet the
changing market behaviour. The satisfying of customer requirements should be enhanced by
the application of quality system. The company should monitor the continuous improvement
of the design engineer.
Date : 24-Jun-13
7.0.3. COMPARISON OF TEN KEYS TO QUALITY AND JURAN TRILOGY
10 KEYS TO QUALITY JURAN TRILOGY
1. Management must establish, inspire and lead QUALITY PLANNING :

quality system implementation. - Establish quality goals.
- Identify the customer.
2. Drive planning and delivery of services based - Determine customer need.
on thorough understanding of client needs and - Develop service to fulfil the need.
expectation. - Develop process to provide the
service.
3. Develop process controls to ensure that quality - Establish process control.
requirements can be fulfilled properly.
4. Monitor the process to ensure the fulfilment of QUALITY CONTROL :

quality requirements. - Evaluate actual quality
performance.
5. Provide processes to improve the service as it - Compare the routine with
is being produced ( in process improvement ). quality goals.
- Take appropriate corrective
action to eliminate the
differences
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of process control QUALITY IMPROVEMENT :

and provide a positive feedback system to - Establish infrastructure to secure
ensure increased capability of quality delivery. annual quality improvement.
- Identify improvement projects.
7. Institute programs for continuous training to - Establish team to lead the
be able to response adequately the changing implementation of quality project.
market. - Provide resources, motivation
8. and training to teams.
Provide conducive work environment, which
motivates staff to do their best
9.
Purchase on value basis rather than on cost
basis.
10. Keep good records to demonstrate quality Quality documentation.

capability and performance.
The implementation of the quality keys bring consequences to the company, since it should :
 Monitor and anticipate the environmental changes and their effects on the progress of the
organization. A faster, responsive process should be created to meet the customer demands.
A quick response time and delivery time is one of the ways to gain competitive advantages.
Date : 24-Jun-13
 Add value to its product so, that the customer will buy in preference to a competitor's
offering. The company should be able to create comparative and competitive advantages on
its own way in order to be considered as competent player in its field. Trying to match every
move of competitor is expensive and counter productive, because the company reacts only
upon competitor's actions. Moreover it shows that the company is incompetent.
 Facilitate and emphasize on the establishment of teamwork so, that the problem solving
process can be delegated more to the ground floor. Although the ultimate responsibility is
still in manager's hand, the manager can monitor the progress of work without hampering the
creativity of the participants involving in the work. The management should focus on the
efforts of the people regardless of the educational or cultural background. The clear trend is
toward participative and consultative approach to management functions to enable the
employee to share the responsibility for control.
 Device constructive ways to bring performances up to standard after identifying past failures.
Instead of arguing "who" made the mistake, it should concentrate now on "how" to eliminate
the mistake in the future.
7.1. QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEM

The management control is a dynamic process of ensuring that the results of the actual activities
conform to the planned standards. The control system monitors the effectiveness of the activities
to assure that the company resources are used in the most effective and efficient ways in
achieving the targets. Appropriate corrective actions should be conducted to rectify the directions
of activities in order to minimize deviations from the standards.
Improvement
Establish standards and

methods for measuring Measure the
performance Does the performance
the performance conforms to standard
Correction action
7.1.1. APPLICABLE CONTROL METHODS

There are four major types of control activities :
 Pre-action control. It ensures that the necessary human resources, technical resources and
financial resources are set aside before an action is undertaken. The common idea of pre-
action control is to prevent error from occurrence. The financial budget will help the
organization to anticipate expenses and to provide adequate funds for a project. Time
Date : 24-Jun-13
schedule will help the managers to identify tasks and to estimate the time needed to
accomplish the task, allowing extra time for unforeseen events.
 Steering control. It detects the deviations from specified standards or goals and it insists to
necessary corrections to be made before a particular sequence of action is complete. Steering
control is effective only if the manager obtains timely and accurate information about the
actual progress toward the desired goal and the eventual environmental changes around the
project.
 Screening control. It provides a screening process, in which specific aspects of a procedure
must be approved or specific conditions must be met before the operation may continue.
 Post-action control. It measures the results of a completed action. The deviations from the
plan are identified, recorded and analysed. The data are applied as reference to similar
activities in the future.
Predictors and standards
INPUT Steering
Pre-action control
control
Screening
PROCESS control
Post-action
control OUTPUT
7.1.2. CONSIDERATION IN DESIGNING CONTROL SYSTEM

 The desired result must be defined clearly and specifically, since it influences strongly the
directions of a process, when engineer has to establish the measurable targets with realistic
deadlines.
 The predictors of results must be sufficiently and accurately defined and communicated,
since they should be the reliable indicators, whether managers should take corrective actions.
If the numbers of reliable and timely predictors are sufficient, the manager can be more
confident in making predictions of performance. Typical predictors are : change in key
inputs; the result of early stages; indirect symptoms; changes in assumed conditions or past
performance.
 The applicable standards for predictors and results must be established, since the standards
describe the benchmark for evaluation the performance.
Date : 24-Jun-13
 The information system and feedback system should be able to collect necessary information
on predictors and to use the information to compare the predictor with the standards. An
effective control system enables the top-down responses as well as bottom-up responses.
 Once the control system is put into operation, it will need necessary, continuous adjustment
to the predictors and to the standards in order to produce satisfactorily improvement in the
control system.
 The essential performance areas, strategic control points and the operation areas must be
identified clearly.
 Essential performance area : are those aspects of the organization that must function
effectively for the entire organization to succeed. The type of these essential performance
areas determines the applicable standards and respective control system.
 Strategic control points : are critical points in the system at which monitoring and
collection of information should be carried out. If such strategic control points can be
located, the amount of collected information can be reduced considerably and the
evaluation will be more effective. The strategic control points are selected by focusing on
most significant elements in a given process.
 Operation areas : are the areas, where a change should occur. Since errors are most
likely to be made when such a change occurs, monitoring such an interface is usually a
highly effective way to control a process.
7.2. STANDARDIZATION
Standardization is the time limited result of the technical and economical compromises between
the repeating market demand and economic necessity. The standardization is a powerful tool to
produce effective products with maximum economy. It is the discipline to use the minimum
number of different materials and parts for the maximum number of purposes, produced by the
most economical manufacturing processes, of the appropriate quality to give reliable and
acceptable performance at minimum cost. The effective standardization helps the saving of
material consumption, energy consumption and the overall operation cost.
The standardisation simplifies the product variety and the control of their variants of
components. It affects directly to the following aspects :
 The function of product.
 The design and design calculation process.
 The value engineering system
 The production, assembly process and maintenance activities.
 The material ordering process and storage management.
 The quality control system.
The standardization improves the management system in the following aspects :
Date : 24-Jun-13
 The management control and auditing system.

 The management information system.
 The product safety.
 The production capabilities and capacities.
 The quality assurance system
 The precision of work.
There some point to be considered in the standardization process :

 The statements in a standard must use correct wording, easy to understand and should be
unambiguous. The standard should not contain statements that are contradictory to legal
regulations and law.
 The standard should use notation, units, dimensions, value and specifications used in the
valid international standards. The compatibility of the standard will guarantee the
interchange ability of the product, which is made in accordance with the standard.
 In case a standardized product shows even single deviation from the characteristics stated in
the standard, its description must be changed.
ANALYSIS OF REPEATING DEMAND DATA SORT

 Function of product  Distribution curve
 Performance range  Frequency of demand
 Design criterion  Product variety
 Dimensions and properties  Product range
 Economical value  Performance range
 Market availability  Comparison with existing standards
 Market demand  Comparison with competitor
products
STANDARDIZATION REDUCTION OF VARIETY

 Specification of selected product  Product variety
 Documentation  Product range
 Performance range
Date : 24-Jun-13
7.3. DOCUMENTATION SYSTEM

The design process is specific activity, which is executed according to certain specific
requirements. A design process involves a lot of decision-making activities. Therefore, these
particular sequences, where the decisions are made, should be clearly described and properly
documented. The objective of the documentation system here is to enable the designer to trace
back the history of a design process.
A document is evidence that a process is made according to the specified requirements. A design
document describes the history of a product creation and contains at least the following points :
 What kind of processes are made ?
 Why this type of process is selected ?
 Who execute the process ?
 How is the process executed ?
 When the process is executed ?
 Where the process is executed ?
 What kind of “noises” occurs in the process and why ?
 How are these noises eliminated ?
The open questions on every subject will force the designer to document his/her activities, the
history of activities and the backgrounds of his/her decisions.
A document has legal consequences; therefore the content of a document must be true. The
process itself might be right or wrong, but the documentation must always be correct and true.
7.3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF DOCUMENT
CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION CHARACTERISTICS
Form of Written form The written form describes the complete history of a
document process and the background of the decisions made.
A complete history can be traced back from the
content of written document.
Visual form The visual form records the specific momentums of

actual events using picture-recording equipment.
The visual form is mostly used to strengthen the
evident of the written history.
Audible form Audible from records the specific momentum of

events using sound-recording equipment. Also it is
used to strengthen the evident.
The combination of all the three forms built a

complete history of an event.
Date : 24-Jun-13
Type of Informative The informative document contains specific

document document information about processes or products. The
informative document is not binding if it stands
alone. The interpretation of the content is free and
the correctness of the content depends totally on its
originator. The informative document becomes
binding, if it is a part of a contract.
Instructional The instructional document contains specific

document instructions for executing a process. The content of
the document is binding for its originator as well its
receiver. The content cannot be interpreted freely;
any misinterpretation must be clarified before the
process may begin. The originator and the receiver
are responsible that the process is executed in
accordance with the instructions stated in the
document.
Recording The recording document records specific sequences

document of a process. The correctness of the content depends
on the originator. However, since the content of the
recording document is binding for the originator and
for the receiver, it is of the interest of the receiver to
recheck the correctness of the document. Once the
receiver accepts the content, the receiver and the
originator are responsible for the document.
7.3.2. IDENTIFICATION OF DOCUMENT.

The identification of a document is the characterization of every document so that it cannot be
confused with each other. The identification of document comprises at least the following points
 Classification of document
 Specific number of issue.
 Revision number.
 Authorization code.
 Effective date of issue.
The classification and identification system of document is called numbering system and it
should consider the following points :
 The numbering system should be clear and unmistakeable.
 The numbering system must be expandable, whenever the need arises.
 The numbering system should be so designed, that the access for manual process of
computerized process is enabled.
 The numbering system must be arranged in logical system.
Date : 24-Jun-13
7.3.3. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS OF DESIGN DEPARTMENTS.

7.3.3.1. DESIGN CALCULATION
 A design calculation is evidence, that a component of a technical system is checked and
sufficiently dimensioned, so it is safe to fulfil the expected task under operation conditions. It
is a permanent record of design decision and design criterion, which will be used for future
reference.
 The design calculation should be prepared in conformance with the selected solution concept.
The content, the formulae, and the structure of design calculation should be arranged in
logical sequences. It must be sufficient and use clear wording so an independent and
competent auditor can check and review easily. The applied codes and standards, assumption
and restraints should be clearly identifiable.
 The selected units and notation should be consistently used throughout the design calculation
and they should be in accordance with the units and notations used in the reference codes and
standards. If the unit and notation convention between the standards are contradictory or
potential confusing, they should be identified and clarified before use.
 The design calculation should be made for the following purpose : preliminary conceptual
design, analysis and detailing of design and the verification of design.
7.3.3.2. DESIGN DRAWING

Design drawing describes the physical realization of the abstract solution. The drawing is the
baseline for manufacturing and assembly processes. The design drawings are final representation
of design effort and will be used for communication purpose, therefore, the management must
approve each drawing.
General assembly drawing : describes the general layout and arrangement of the product relative
to its surrounding environment. It is a working document, whose purpose is to support the
development of the major components and their relationships. The characteristics of assembly
drawing are among others :
 A general assembly drawing is a working drawing and as a such is frequently changed during
the design process. These changes are seldom documented; information can be lost. Good
records in the design notebook can compensate the potential loss.
 A general assembly drawing should be made in scale, whenever it is possible.
 Only important dimensions are shown on a general assembly drawing. Starting with the
spatial constraints, it sets the stage for developing individual components in the product
generation process. These constraints are best shown on a general assembly drawing.
 Tolerances are usually not shown, unless they are critical.
 Notes on the general assembly drawing are used to explain a specific design feature or the
function of the product.
 A general assembly drawing is often allowed to become obsolete. Since detail drawings are
developed, the general assembly drawing could become less useful. However, if the product
Date : 24-Jun-13
is being developed on a CAD system, the general assembly drawing’s data files become the
important basis for the sub-assembly drawings and detail drawings.
Sub-assembly drawing : is complementary drawing that shows complex detail of particularly

enlarged sections in a general assembly drawing. The sub-assembly drawing contains more
information regarding the dimensions and tolerances of important components.
Manufacturing drawing : is work document necessary for manufacturing of individual

component. The details of individual components are developed based on the general assembly
drawings and sub-assembly drawings. The manufacturing drawing describes :
 The clear shape and form of components.
 The detail dimensions and the acceptable tolerance limits.
 The required finish quality, clear description of special process requirements.
 The selected material and its properties.
Installation drawing : is a work drawing, which shows how the components fit together. The
most common type of installation drawing uses orthographic views. Installation drawings are
similar to general assembly drawing, except the purpose is different. The characteristics of
installation drawings are :
 Each component is identified with specific code and keyed to the bill of material. The bill of
material can be put on the drawing or use separate forms.
 References can be made to other drawing and specific assembly instructions for additional
needed information.
 Necessary detail views are included to convey information, which are not clear in the major
views.
7.3.3.3. COMPONENT CHECKLIST

Component checklist is a document to index the product. The checklist contains :
 Item number, is the key to the component on the installation drawing
 Part number, is a number used throughout the purchasing, manufacturing, inventory control,
and assembly system to identify the component. If the item number is a specific index to the
assembly drawing, the part number is an index to the company system.
 The quantity needed in the assembly.
 The description of the component.
 The material of which the component is made.
If the checklist is used for monitoring the process flow of product, it should shows specific
checkpoints, where the status of the process must be checked, what to be checked, how to check,
and which special attention should be given.
Date : 24-Jun-13
7.3.3.4. DESIGN CHANGE NOTE

Although the design process enables change early in the design process, changes can still occur
after the product is released to production. These changes may be caused by the correction of
design error, a change in the customer requirements causing the redesign of part of the product,
or a change in material or manufacturing method. The Engineering Change Note ( ECN ) is
required to make the change in approved documentation. An ECN contains at least :
 The identification of what need to be changed. This should include the part number, the
description of the component and the respective drawing that shows the component in detail.
 The real reasons for the change. The reason could be the customer request, market need,
field survey, field experience, new technology and techniques, result of design review
program. It must be described clearly.
 The detail and clear description of change. It will probably include the drawing of the
component before and after the change for comparison. Generally, it is the detail drawing of
the components affected by the change.
 The list of document and the departments affected by the change. The most important part
of making a change is to secure that all pertinent groups are well informed and all documents
are updated accordingly. The effective date of change must be identified and the obsolete
documents must be withdrawn immediately from working area.
 Approval of the change. Since changes affect the operational activity of a company, the
management must approve it.
7.4. DESIGN REVIEW

It is important that the design process provides periodic evaluation, including an analysis of the
reliability implications of all parts, materials and processes of the design at significant stages in
the development. Such evaluation can take the form of analytical methods such as FMEA, FTA
as well as test of prototype models. The amount and the degree of such examination are related
to the risks identified in the design plan. Independent evaluation may be employed to verify the
original design calculation, to provide alternative calculation or perform test :
 Evaluation of function, performance, durability, safety, reliability and maintainability under
expected storage and operation conditions.
 Inspections to verify that all design features are as intended and that all authorized design
changes have been accomplished and documented.
 Validation of computer systems and software.
7.4.1. ELEMENTS OF DESIGN REVIEW

It is useful to establish a checklist of factors for design review. The following typical elements
can be considered :
Items pertaining to customer needs and satisfaction :

 Comparison of customer needs, expressed in the product brief with specifications for
materials, products and processes.
Date : 24-Jun-13
 Validation of design through prototype test or trials.

 Ability to perform under expected operation conditions.
 Consideration of unintended uses and misuses.
 Safety and environmental compatibility.
 Compliance with regulatory requirements, international standards and corporate practices.
 Comparisons with competitive designs.
 Comparison with similar designs, especially analysis of internal and external problem
history, to avoid repeating problems.
Items pertaining to product specification and requirements :

 Reliability, durability, serviceability, maintainability.
 Permissible specification tolerances and comparison with process capabilities to produce the
specified tolerance limit.
 Acceptance and rejection criteria for the product.
 Ease of assembly and installation, storage needs, shelf-life and disposability.
 Benign failure and fail-safe characteristics.
 Aesthetic specifications and acceptance criteria.
 Failure Mode & Effect Analysis and Fault Tree Analysis.
 Ability to diagnose and to correct problem.
 Labelling, warnings, identification, traceability requirements and user instructions.
 Review and use of standard materials or parts.
Items pertaining to process specifications :

 Producibility of design, including the special process needs, mechanization, automation,
assembly and installation of component.
 Capability to inspect and check out the design, including any special inspection and check
requirements.
 Specification of materials, including its availability in the market.
 packaging, handling, storage, safety factors relating to incoming and outgoing material.
Design verification, which is undertaken independently to support the review :

 Alternative calculation, made to verify the correctness of the original calculations and
analyses.
 Testing on prototype or trial on product.
 Independent verification of calculation and design process.
Date : 24-Jun-13
7.4.2. FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS.

The Failure Mode & Effect Analysis ( FMEA ) is a systematic and analytical quality planning
tool for identifying at design stages, what could potentially go wrong either with a product
during its manufacturing or end-use by the customer.
Its effective use should lead to a reduction in :
 Defect during the production of initial sample or volume production.
 Customer complaints
 Failures in field.
 Performance-related deficiencies.
 Warranty claims.
There are two categories of FMEA :

 Design FMEA. The design FMEA assesses what could, if not corrected, go wrong with the
product in service and during manufacturing as a consequence of a weakness in the design.
Design FMEA also assists in the identification or confirmation of critical characteristics.
 Process FMEA. The process FMEA is mainly concerned with the reason for potential failure
in service and during manufacturing as a result of non-conformance with original design
intent, or failure to achieve the design specification.
The procedure of FMEA is progressive iteration, which involves following steps :

 It starts by focusing on the function of the product or process.
 It identifies potential failure modes, assesses the effects of each potential failure and
examines the causes of potential failure.
 It reviews current control system.
 It determines the Risk Priority Number ( RPN )
 It recommends the corrective action, which is to be taken to help eliminate potential
concerns.
 It monitors the corrective actions and counter-measures, which have been put.
The RPN comprises an assessment of occurrence, detection, severity of ranking and the sum of
these three rankings.
 The occurrence ( O ) is the likelihood of a specific cause will result in the identified failure
mode and based on perceived or estimated probability. It has the scale 1 to 10.
 The detection ( D ) is the likelihood of design verification program pinpointing a potential
failure mode before it reaches the customer. Scale 1 to 10.
 The severity of effect ( S ) is the likelihood of the customer noticing any difference to the
functionality of the product. Scale 1 to 10.
Date : 24-Jun-13
The resulting RPN = O x D x S, should always be checked against past experience of similar
product and situations.
Following the determination of RPN, it is usual to perform a Pareto analysis and address the
potential failure modes in order of decreasing RPN. Determining the acceptable RPN figure is
really a matter of applying some common sense. If Z = 100 is assumed to be acceptable
maximum, it is to be checked with past experience. The rule to be applied is to adopt a consistent
approach for each ranking and high RPN values will generally be expected.
For design FMEA, the potential failure causes must be studied before drawings are released to
production status. If this is not done properly, the problem related to the identified failure mode
will occur during manufacturing. Following the completion action, the RPN can be calculated
until satisfactory result is achieved.
 Determine potential failure mode

 Identify component by name & part
 Determine potential effects of
 Identify process function & identified failure mode
operation
 Determine the potential causes of
the identifed failure mode
 List down the current control
system
 Estimate probability of occurrence ( O )
 Estimate probability of detection ( D )
 Estimate probability of severity ( S )
 Calculate RPN = O x D x S
No RPN > acceptable Yes

End of minimum value Z Necessary corrective
process action on design

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IDEA MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM Page : 1

INDUSTRIAL DESIGNER & Date : 24-Jun-13

1.1. SCOPE OF DESIGN ACTIVITY

1.2. THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A TECHNICAL SYSTEM

Technical Engineering Production Science R&D

Economy Social Cultural Politics Architecture Art

Invisible change 1 Visible change = accumulation of

1.3. DESIGN ACTIVITY AS A PART OF PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

Specified requirement A - Actual characteristics B = E

1.3.1. CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

1.3.1.1.1. SHORT TERM MEMORY

1.3.1.1.2. LONG-TERM MEMORY

1.3.1.1.3. CONTROL SYSTEM

1.3.1.1.4. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

1.3.1.1.5. LEFT – RIGHT BRAIN MODEL

The creativity can be enhanced by the following steps :

1.3.3. INVENTION ( DESIGN )

1.3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE DESIGNER

1.3.4.1. CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING

2. ORGANIZATIONAL FLOW OF DESIGN ACTIVITY

Job : Planning : Coordination : Design Process

2.1. PLANNING AND COORDINATION

No Planning Yes Design

A plan should contains at least but not limited to :

An open communication is the key to an effective coordination. The effectiveness of

2.2. PROCESS FLOW OF DESIGN ACTIVITY.

REQUIREMENT CLARIFICATION CONCEPTION DETAIL

MANUFACTURING DESIGN REVIEW

3. CLARIFICATION AND VERIFICATION

Requirements Clarification & verification

Advanced Requirement List

Identification of core of problem

No Core of problem yes Sure to be able to Yes

3.2. DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFICATION

3.2.1. QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT ( QFD )

There are things to be considered :

3.2.1.1. QUALITY DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURE.

Chemical plant Parts manufacturer Civil works

 STEP 2 : DETERMINING THE CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT

 STEP 3 : DETERMINING THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF

 STEP 4 : COMPETITION BENCHMARKING

 STEP 5 : DEVELOPING MEASURABLE ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS

 STEP 6 : SETTING ENGINEERING TARGETS FOR DESIGN

3.2.2. REQUIREMENT MATRIX

Type of Description External Requirement Internal Requirement

3.3. IDENTIFICATION OF CORE OF PROBLEM

 Extend systematically and meaningfully the identified information.

IDENTIFIED CORE OF PROBLEM STRUCTURING OF PROBLEM

SELECTION AND EVALUATION

PRODUCT  General design sketches

4.1.1. DESIGN NOTEBOOK

4.2. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURING OF PROBLEM

Identified core Neutral Functional Generating

4.2.1. FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION

Input TECHNICAL Output

Applied physical Function

4.2.1.1. PROCEDURES FOR FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION

 STEP 2 : DECOMPOSE THE FUNCTION INTO SUB-FUNCTIONS

4.2.2. GENERATING CONCEPTS

 STEP 2 : COMBINING CONCEPTS

Main system Sub-system Sub-sub-system Possible concepts

There are pitfall to this method :

The combination of partial concepts should consider :

4.2.2.1. POSSIBLE ELEMENTAR FUNCTIONS