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COMPUTER CONTROL

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OF

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POWER SYSTEMS
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Electrical energy is an essential ingredient for the

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industrial and all round development of any country. It is
generated centrally in bulk and transmitted economically

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over long distances.
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POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

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Generation
Primary Transmission(132/220/400/765KV)

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CB

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Power Plant Bus-bar Steel Tower
Sending end SS (11/220kV) CB 220 kV Primary Grid
Bus-bar
(220/66 kV)

Commercial/ 66 kV

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Industrial Transmission
Customer

Secondary Transmission(66/132KV)
Urban
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(11/0.415 kV) Primary Distribution
Customers

Secondary Grid
Secondary Distribution (66/11 kV)
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Distribution
Underground Cable
Pole
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To Other
Residential Residential
66Kv
Customer Substations
Customer
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Structure of Power Systems

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Generating Stations, transmission lines and the distribution

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systems are the main components of an electric power system.

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Generating stations and distribution systems are connected

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through transmission lines, which also connect one power
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system (grid, area) to another.
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A distribution system connects all the loads in a particular

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area to the transmission lines.

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Structure of a Power System

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Electrical energy is conserved at every step in the
process of Generation, Transmission, Distribution and

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utilization of electrical energy.

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The electrical utility industry is probably the largest and

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most complex industry in the world and hence very complex
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and challenging problems to be handled by power engineering
particularly, in designing future power system to deliver
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increasing amounts of electrical energy.

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Power system operation
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This calls for perfect
understanding,

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analysis and

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decision making of the system.

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This power system operation and its control play a very
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important task in the world of Electrical Power Engineering.
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Major Concerns of Power System Design and Operation

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• Quality : Continuous at desired frequency and voltage level

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• Reliability : Minimum failure rate of components and systems
• Security : Robustness - normal state even after disturbances

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• Stability : Maintain synchronism under disturbances
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• Economy : Minimize Capital, running and maintenance Costs
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Power Quality

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Power quality is characterized by –
§ Stable AC voltages at near nominal values and at near

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rated frequency subject to acceptable minor variations,

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free from annoying voltage flicker, voltage sags and
frequency fluctuations.

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§ Near sinusoidal current and voltage wave forms free from
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higher order harmonics
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All electrical equipments are rated to operate at near rated

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voltage and rated frequency.

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Effects of Poor Power Quality

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• Mal-operation of control devices, relays etc.

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• Extra losses in capacitors, transformers and rotating

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machines

• Fast ageing of equipments

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• Loss of production due to service interruptions
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• Electro-magnetic interference due to transients
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• Power fluctuation not tolerated by power electronic parts

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Major causes of Poor Power Quality

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- Nonlinear Loads

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- Adjustable speed drives

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- Traction Drives
- Start of large motor loads

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- Arc furnaces
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- Intermittent load transients
- Lightning
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- Switching Operations
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- Fault Occurrences
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Steps to address Power Quality issues

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• Detailed field measurements
• Monitor electrical parameters at various places to assess the

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operating conditions in terms of power quality.

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• Detailed studies using a computer model. The accuracy of
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computer model is first built to the degree where the observed
simulation values matches with those of the field
measurement values. This provides us with a reliable computer
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model using which we workout remedial measures.

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…Steps to address Power Quality issues

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• For the purpose of the analysis we may use load flow studies,
dynamic simulations, EMTP simulations, harmonic analysis

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depending on the objectives of the studies.

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• We also evaluate the effectiveness of harmonic filters through

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the computer model built, paying due attention to any reactive
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power compensation that these filters may provide at
fundamental frequency for normal system operating conditions.
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• The equipment ratings will also be addressed to account for

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harmonic current flows and consequent overheating.

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Power Quality Solutions :

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Poor power quality in the form of harmonic distortion or

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low power factor increases stress on a facility’s electrical
system.

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Over time this increased electrical stress will shorten
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the life expectancy of electrical equipment.
In addition to system degradation, poor power quality
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can cause nuisance tripping and unplanned shutdowns

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within electrical system.

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In an increasingly automated electrical world, it is
important for a facility to evaluate power quality.

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Harmonic distortion, low power factor, and the presence
of other transients can cause severe damage to electrical system

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equipment. KU
Power System Engineers provides system analysis and
evaluation of power quality issues and makes recommendations
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for system design solutions

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For economical technical reasons, individual power systems

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are organized in the form of electrically connected areas or

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regional grids.

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As power systems increased in size, so did the number of

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lines, substations, transformers, switchgear etc. Their operation
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and interactions became more complex and hence it is necessary
to monitor this information simultaneously for the total system at
a focal point called as Energy Control Centre. The fundamental
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design feature is increase in system reliability and economic

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feasibility.
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Reliability

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Reliability is the probability that a device or a
system will operate without failure for a given period and

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under given operating conditions.

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So, if I say that the reliability of my walkman is 0.98
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(or 98%), I mean that my walkman is working 98% of the
time and failing 2% of the time.
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Reliability

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Reliability has two components

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Reliability

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Adequacy Security
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• Adequacy:
A measure of the ability of the power system to supply

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the aggregate electric power and energy requirements of the

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customers within components ratings and voltage limits,
taking into account planned and unplanned outages of

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system components.
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Adequacy measures the capability of the power system
to supply the load in all the steady states in which the power
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system may exist considering standards conditions.

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• Security:
A measure of power system ability to withstand sudden

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disturbances such as electric short circuits or unanticipated

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losses of system components or load conditions together with
operating constraints.

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Another aspect of security is system integrity, which is
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the ability to maintain interconnected operation. Integrity
relates to the preservation of interconnected system operation,
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or avoidance of uncontrolled separation, in the presence of

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specified severe disturbances.

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An operator’s view of “security”

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Security
“Any consequence of a
credible disturbance

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that requires a limit”

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Overload Angle/
Voltage
Security Frequency
Security

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security
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Trans- Line Low Unstable Frequency Rotor angle
former Overload Voltage Voltage instability instability
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Overload
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Static security Dynamic security

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Stability

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Stability of a power system is its ability to return

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to normal or stable operating conditions after having

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been subjected to some form of disturbance.

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Conversely,
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denoting loss of synchronism or falling out of step.
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Importance of Power System Stability

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Generators must be kept in synchronism; if their

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relative motion begins to change too much, uncontrollable

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oscillations may appear in the grid causing damage to
generators and to equipment.

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Therefore, relays are used to detect this condition and
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trip generators before the damage occurs. Although tripping
prevents the damage, it results in under-frequency, and
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possibly load interruption, and in the worst case, cascading

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outages and blackout.

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Differences between reliability, security, and stability

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Reliability is the overall objective in power system design

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and operation. To be reliable, the power system must be secure
most of the time. To be secure, the system must be stable but

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must also be secure against other contingencies that would not

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be classified as stability problems e.g., damage to equipment
such as an explosive failure of a cable, fall of transmission towers
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due to ice loading or sabotage.
As well, a system may be stable following a contingency,
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yet insecure due to post-fault system conditions resulting in

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equipment overloads or voltage violations

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System security may be further distinguished from

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stability in terms of the resulting consequences.

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For example, two systems may both be stable with

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equal stability margins, but one may be relatively more secure
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because the consequences of instability are less severe.
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Security and stability are time-varying attributes which can be
judged by studying the performance of the power system

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under a particular set of conditions.

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Reliability, on the other hand, is a function of the time-

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average performance of the power system; it can only be
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judged by consideration of the system’s behavior over an
appreciable period of time
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Power System Action Time frame

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Existing architecture of energy control centres and also the future projection of
new technologies in power transmission

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New challenges in power systems

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No Function Description

1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) The function of the AGC is to allocate the generation among the system generator units in real-time to meet the

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system load.

2 Economic Dispatch Calculation (EDC) This program allocates generation among the available units so as to minimize the cost of supplying the system
load.

3 Unit Commitment. The Unit Commitment function is to establish the minimal cost operating policy over a specified time period,

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(usually a day to one week) within a set of specified constraints.

4 System Load Forecast To forecast then system load, usually for the next one day to one week, taking account of historical as well as

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weather load models.

5 State Estimator The State Estimator is a mathematical procedure for producing the best estimate of the status of a network, from a
set of measurements. The result of the State estimation provides the base from which the Contingency Analysis
program is run.

6 Power Flow
7 Short Circuit Analysis
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The Power Flow Program provides the capability for operators and operation planners to study the effects on the
power network under postulated conditions.
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This application program performs the calculation of three phase and/or single phase to ground short circuit
currents and the associated voltage profile.

8 Bus Load forecast Provides short term forecasting of the loads on feeders and stations.
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9 Transient Stability Simulates and analyses the dynamic response of an interconnected system for several seconds following a
disturbance.
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10 Contingency Analysis This application program automatically assesses the impact of selected outages on the real-time power system and
alerts the user to rating violations on affected pieces of equipment.
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11 Dispatcher Training Simulator This equipment provides the engineers with familiarization with the operations in a power control system.
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Components of power system operation and control

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• Information gathering and processing

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• Decision and control

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• System integration
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Typical power utility control hierarchy.

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Layer 1. Utility: The upper level of the hierarchy covers all the enterprise-
wide IT, asset management, and the energy trading systems.

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Layer 2. Network: Historically, this layer has controlled the bulk power

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transmission networks, including the economic dispatch of the
generators.
Layer 3. Substation: The integrated control of all circuit breakers inside the

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substation with the communication of all protection relay status.
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Layer 4. Distribution: This layer of the control hierarchy covers the medium-
voltage feeder systems and reflects the expansion of the real-time
control capability, through remote control and local automation, of
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the feeder devices located below the primary substations.

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Decision tree showing the
logical steps to the
implementation of local or

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central automation of a
primary switch

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Need for Power System Management

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• Demand for Power Increasing every day

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Electricity consumption doubled after 1980;
consumer electronics increase

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No of transmission line, Sub-stations, Transformers,
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switchgear etc.,
• Operation and Interaction is more and more complex
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• Essential to monitor simultaneously for the total system at

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a focal point – ENERGY LOAD CENTRE

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Energy Load Centre

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The function of energy load centre is to control the
function of coordinating the response in both normal and

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emergency conditions.

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Digital Computers are very effectively used for the
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purpose. Their function is to process the data, detect
abnormalities, alarm the human operator by lights, buzzers,
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screens etc., depending on the severity of the problem.

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Control Centre of a Power System

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Human Machine Interface – equipped with

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• CRT presentations

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• Keyboards – change parameters

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• Special function keyboards- alter transformer taps, switch
line capacitors etc.,
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• Light-Pen cursor – open or close circuit breakers
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• Alarm lights, alarms, dedicated telephone communications

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with generating stations and transmission substations,

neighbouring power utilities
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