Approaches in the analysis and design of foundations on special soils:

 Emphasis on recent fills, collapse soils and Expansive soil. Includes ground improvement
methods.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The structure of soils that experience large loss of strength or great increase in compressibility
with Comparatively small changes in stress or deformations is said to be metastable (Peck et
al.,1974).
Metastable soils include (Peck et al., 1974):
1. Extra-sensitive clays such as quick clays,
2. Loose saturated sands susceptible to liquefaction,
3. Unsaturated primarily granular soils in which a loose state is maintained by apparent
Cohesion, cohesion due to clays at the inter granular contacts or cohesion associated with the
accumulation of soluble salts as a binder, and
4. Some coprolites either above or below the water table in which a high void ratio has been
Developed as a result of leaching that has left a network of resistant minerals capable of
Transmitting stresses around zones in which weaker minerals or voids exist. Footings on quick
clays can be designed by the procedures applicable for clays as explained in Chapter 12. Very
loose sands should not be used for support of footings. This chapter deals only with soils under
categories three and four listed above.
There are two types of soils that exhibit volume changes under constant loads with changes in
water content. The possibilities are indicated in Fig. 18.1, which represent the result of a pair of
tests in a consolidation apparatus on identical undisturbed samples. Curve a represents the p
curve for a test started at the natural moisture content and to which no water is permitted access.
Curves b and c, on the other hand, correspond to tests on samples to which water is allowed
access under all loads until equilibrium is reached. If the resulting e-\og p curve, such as curve b,
lies entirely below curve a, the soil is said to have collapsed. Under field conditions, at present
overburden pressure p1and void ratio e Q, the addition of water at the commencement of the
tests to sample 1, causes thevoid ratio to decrease to e v the collapsible settlement Sc may be
Where H = the thickness of the stratum in the field.
Soils exhibiting this behavior include true loess, clayey loose sands in which the clay serves
Merely as a binder, loose sands cemented by soluble salts, and certain residual soils such as those

Page | 1
Derived from granites under conditions of tropical weathering.
On the other hand, if the addition of water to the second sample leads to curve c, located
Entirely above a, the soil is said to have swelled. At a given applied pressure pr the void ratio
Increases to e',, and the corresponding rise of the ground is expressed as Soils exhibiting this
behavior to a marked degree are usually montmorillonite clays with high plasticity indices.
Foundations on Collapsible and Expansive Soils
COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
According to Dudley (1970), and Harden et al., (1973), four factors are needed to produce
collapse in a soil structure:
1. An open, partially unstable, unsaturated fabric
2. A high enough net total stress that will cause the structure to be metastable
3. A bonding or cementing agent that stabilizes the soil in the unsaturated condition
4. The addition of water to the soil, which causes the bonding or cementing agent to be reduced,
and the inter aggregate or inter granular contacts to fail in shear, resulting in a reduction in
total volume of the soil mass.
Collapsible behavior of compacted and cohesive soils depends on the percentage of fines, the
Initial water content, the initial dry density, the energy, and the process used in compaction.
Current practice in geotechnical engineering recognizes an unsaturated soil as a four-phase
material composed of air, water, soil skeleton and contractile skin. Under the idealization, two
phases can flow, that is air and water, and two phases come to equilibrium under imposed loads
that is the soil skeleton and contractile skin. Currently, regarding the behavior of compacted
collapsing soils, geotechnical engineering recognized that
1. Any type of soil compacted at dry of optimum conditions and at a low dry density may
develop a collapsible fabric or metastable structure (Barden et al., 1973).
2. A compacted and metastable soil structure is supported by micro forces of shear strength that
is bonds that are highly dependent upon capillary action. The bonds start losing strength with
the increase of the water content and at a critical degree of saturation, the soil Structure
collapses (Jennings and Knight 1957; Barden et al., 1973) 3. The soil collapse progresses as
the degree of saturation increases. There is, however, a critical degree of saturation for a

Page | 2
 given soil above which negligible collapse will occur regardless of the magnitude of the pre
wetting overburden pressure (Jennings and Burland,1962; Houston et al., 1989).
3. The collapse of a soil is associated with localized shear failures rather than an overall shear
failure of the soil mass.
4. During wetting induced collapse, under a constant vertical load and under Ko-oedometer
conditions, a soil specimen undergoes an increase in horizontal stresses.
5. Under a triaxle stress state, the magnitude of volumetric strain resulting from a change in
stress state or from wetting, depends on the mean normal total stress and is independent of
the principal stress ratio.
The geotechnical engineer needs to be able to identify readily the soils that are likely to collapse
and to determine the amount of collapse that may occur. Soils that are likely to collapse are loose
fills, altered windblown sands, hill wash of loose consistency, and decomposed granites and acid
igneous rocks.
Some soils at their natural water content will support a heavy load but when water is provided,
they undergo a considerable reduction in volume. The amount of collapse is a function of the
relative proportions of each component including degree of saturation, initial void ratio, stress
history of the materials, thickness of the collapsible strata and the amount of added load.
Holtz and Hilf (1961) proposed the use of the natural dry density and liquid limit as criteria for
predicting collapse. Figure 18.3 shows a plot giving the relationship between liquid limit and dry
unit weight of soil, such that soils that plot above the line shown in the figure are susceptible to
collapse upon wetting.
EXPANSIVE SOILS
DISTRIBUTION OF EXPANSIVE SOILS
The problem of expansive soils is widespread throughout world. The countries that are facing
problems with expansive soils are Australia, the United States, Canada, China, Israel, India, and
Egypt. The clay mineral that is mostly responsible for expansiveness belongs to the
montmorillonite group. Fig. 18.8 shows the distribution of the montmorillonite group of minerals
in the United States. The major concern with expansive soils exists generally in the western part
of the United States. In the northern and central United States, the expansive soil problems are
primarily related to highly over consolidated shales. This includes the Dakotas, Montana,

Page | 3
Wyoming and Colorado (Chen, 1988). In Minneapolis, the expansive soil problem exists in the
Cretaceous.
The weathered volcanic material in the Denver formation commonly swells when wetted and is a
cause of major engineering problems in the Denver area.
The six major natural hazards are earthquakes, landslides, expansive soils, hurricane, tornado and
flood. A study points out that expansive soils tie with hurricane wind/storm surge for second
place among America's most destructive natural hazards in terms of dollar losses to buildings.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SWELLING SOILS
Swelling soils, which are clayey soils, are also called expansive soils. When these soils are
partially saturated, they increase in volume with the addition of water. They shrink greatly on
drying and develop cracks on the surface. These soils possess a high plasticity index. Black
cotton soils found in many parts of India belong to this category. Their color varies from dark
grey to black. It is easy to recognize these soils in the field during either dry or wet seasons.
Shrinkage cracks are visible on the ground surface during dry seasons. The maximum width of
these cracks may be up to 20 mm or more and they travel deep into the ground. A lump of dry
black cotton soil requires a hammer to break. During rainy seasons, these soils become very
sticky and very difficult to traverse.
Expansive soils are residual soils, which are the result of weathering of the parent rock. The
depths of these soils in some regions may be up to 6 m or more. Normally the water table is met
at great depths in these regions. As such, the soils become wet only during rainy seasons and are
dry or partially saturated during the dry seasons. In regions, which have well-defined, alternately
wet and dry seasons, these soils swell and shrink in regular cycles. Since moisture change in the
soils bring about severe movements of the mass, any structure built on such soils experiences
recurring cracking and progressive damage. If one measures the water content of the expansive
soils with respect to depth during dry and wet seasons, the variation is similar to the one shown
in Fig. 18.9.
During dry seasons, the natural water content is practically zero on the surface and the volume of
the soil reaches the shrinkage limit. The water content increases with depth and reaches a value
w n at a depth D , beyond which it remains almost constant. During the wet season the water
content increases and reaches a maximum at the surface. The water content decreases with depth
from a maximum of w n at the surface to a constant value of w n at almost the same depth Dus.

Page | 4
This indicates that the intake of water by the expansive soil into its lattice structure is a
maximum at the surface and nil at depth Dus. This means that the soil lying within this depth
Dus is subjected to drying and wetting and hence cause considerable movements in the soil. The
movements are considerable close to the ground surface and decrease with depth. The cracks that
are developed in the dry seasons close due to lateral movements during the wet seasons.
The zone which lies within the depth Dus may be called the unstable zone (or active zone) and
the one below this the stable zone. Structures built within this unstable zone are likely to move
up and down according to seasons and hence suffer damage if differential movements are
considerable.
If a structure is built during the dry season with the foundation lying within the unstable zone,
the base of the foundation experiences a swelling pressure as the partially saturated soil starts
taking in water during the wet season. This swelling pressure is due to constraints offered by the
foundation for free swelling. The maximum swelling pressure may be as high as 2 MPa (20 tsf).
If the imposed bearing pressure on the foundation by the structure is less than the swelling
pressure, the structure is likely to be lifted up at least locally which would lead to cracks in the
structure. If the imposed bearing pressure is greater than the swelling pressure, there will not be
any problem for the structure. If on the other hand, the structure is built during the wet season, it
will definitely experience settlement as the dry season approaches, whether the imposed bearing
pressure is high or low. However, the imposed bearing pressure during the wet season should be
within the allowable bearing pressure of the soil. The better practice is to construct a structure
during the dry Season and complete it before the wet season.
In covered areas below a building, there will be very little change in the moisture content except
due to lateral migration of water from uncovered areas. The moisture profile is depicted by curve
1 in Fig. 18.9.
CLAY MINERALOGY AND MECHANISM OF SWELLING
Clays can be divided into three general groups because of their crystalline arrangement. They
are:
1. Kaolinite group
2. Montmorillonite group (also called the smectite group)
3. Illite group.

Page | 5
The kaolinite group of minerals are the most stable of the groups of minerals. The kaolinite
mineral is formed by the stacking of the crystalline layers of about 7 A thick one above the other
with the base of the silica sheet bonding to hydroxyls of the gibbsite sheet by hydrogen bonds.
Since hydrogen bonds are comparatively strong, the kaolinite crystals consists of many sheet
stackings that are difficult to dislodge. The mineral is, therefore, stable and water cannot enter
between the sheets to expand the unit cells.
The structural arrangement of the montmorillonite mineral is composed of units made of two
silica tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina-octahedral sheet. The silica and gibbsite sheets are
combined in such a way that the tips of the tetrahedrons of each silica sheet and one of the
hydroxyl
layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer. The atoms common to both the silica and
gibbsite layers are oxygen instead of hydroxyls. The thickness of the silica-gibbsite-silica unit is
about 10 A. In stacking of these combined units one above the other, oxygen layers of each unit
are adjacent to oxygen of the neighboring units, with a consequence that there is a weak bond
and
excellent cleavage between them. Water can enter between the sheets causing them to expand
significantly and thus the structure can break into 1 0 A thick structural units. The soils
containing a considerable amount of montmorillonite minerals will exhibit high swelling and
shrinkage characteristics. The illite group of minerals has the same structural arrangement as the
montmorillonite group. The presence of potassium as the bonding materials between units makes
the illite minerals swell less.
DEFINITION OF SOME PARAMETERS
Expansive soils can be classified on the basis of certain inherent characteristics of the soil. It is
first necessary to understand certain basic parameters used in the classification.
Swelling Potential
Swelling potential is defined as the percentage of swell of a laterally confined sample in an
oedometer test which is soaked under a surcharge load of 7 kPa (1 lb/in2) after being compacted
to maximum dry density at optimum moisture content according to the AASHTO compaction
test.
Swelling Pressure

Page | 6
The swelling pressure /?5, is defined as the pressure required for preventing volume expansion in
soil in contact with water. It should be noted here that the swelling pressure measured in a
laboratory oedometer is different from that in the field. The actual field swelling pressure is
always less than the one measured in the laboratory.
According toHoltz and Gibbs (1956), 1 0 cm3 (V.) of dry soil passing thorough a No. 40 sieve is
poured into a 100 cm3 graduated cylinder filled with water. The volume of settled soil is
measured after 24 hours which gives the value of V~ Bentonite-clay is supposed to have a free
swell value ranging from 1200 to 2000 percent. The free swell value increases with plasticity
index. Holtz and Gibbs suggested that soils having a free-swell value as low as 100 percent can
cause considerable damage to lightly loaded structures and soils heaving a free swell value below
50 percent seldom exhibit appreciable volume change even under light loadings.
EVALUATION OF THE SWELLING POTENTIAL OF
EXPANSIVE SOILS BY SINGLE INDEX METHOD (CHEN, 1988)
Simple soil property tests can be used for the evaluation of the swelling potential of expansive
soils (Chen, 1988). Such tests are easy to perform and should be used as routine tests in the
investigation of building sites in those areas having expansive soil. These tests are
1. Atterberg limits tests
2. Linear shrinkage tests
3. Free swell tests
4. Colloid content tests
Atterberg Limits
Holtz and Gibbs (1956) demonstrated that the plasticity index, Ip, and the liquid limit, w/5 are
useful indices for determining the swelling characteristics of most clays. Since the liquid limit
and the
Foundation on Expansive Soil
Nature of Expansive Soil:
Expansive soil is a term generally applied to any soil that has a potential for swelling and
shrinkage under change in moisture condition expansive soils cause most damage to structures/
particularly light buildings/ and pavement factors influencing the swelling and shrinkage are
• Clay Mineralogy
Plasticity

Page | 7
 Dry density
Moisture Variation
Initial Moisture Content
Identification Method:
i. Single Index Method
Simple soil property tests can be used for the evaluation of the swelling potential of expansive
soils. Plasticity index may be used as a preliminary indicator of swelling potential of most clays.
The swell potential of a soil is defined as the percentage of swell of a laterally confined soil
sample which has been soaked under 7KN/m2 load. The swell potential is defined as a function
of plasticity index as:
S=60(PI)2.44.K
Where S=Swell potential.
K=3.6*10-5
Generally, relationship between PI (plasticity Index) and swell potential can be established as
follows:
PI Swell Potential
0-15 Low
10-20 Medium
20-35 High
Above 35 Very High
Highly swelling soils have high PI-Value but all soils with high PI-values may not be expansive.
Free Swell: free swell test consists of placing a known volume of dry soil in water and noting the
swelling volume after the material settles without any surcharge to the bottom of the cylinder.
The difference between the final and initial volume, expressed in percentage of initial volume is
the free swell. If the free swell is less than 50% the soil may not cause considerable damage to
lightly loaded structures soils having free swell about 100% can cause considerable damage.
Free Swell=[Vf-Vo]*100%/Vo
Colloidal Content:
The grain size characteristics of the clay appears to be having a bearing on its swelling potential
for a given clay type, the amount of swell will increase as the amount of clay present in the soil

Page | 8
increases for any clay type . The relationship between swelling potential and percentage of clay
size can be expressed by:
S=KCx
Where: S= Swell potential
C= Clay content
K and x= constant dependence on type of clay
Classification Methods:
By utilizing routine laboratory tests such as Atterberg limits, Colloidal contents, Shrinkage
Limits and others, the swelling potential can be evaluated without restoring to direct
measurements.
Colloidal Content PI Ws % of volume Change Degree of Expansiveness
>28 >35 <11 >30 Very High
20-30 25-41 7-12 20-30 High
13-23 15-28 10-16 10-30 Medium
>15 <18 >15 <10 Low
Direct Measurements:
The most satisfactory and convenient method of determining the swelling potential and swelling
pressure is by direct measurement. Direct measurement can be achieved by the use of the
oedometer.
Physical Properties of Expansive Soils.
Moisture Content:- Irrespective of high swelling potential, if the moisture content of the soil
remains unchanged, there will be no volume change and the structure founded on clays with
constant moisture will not be subjected to movement caused by heaving when the moisture
content of the clay is changed, volume expansion will take place. Complete saturation is not
necessary to cause swelling. Slight change of moisture content in the order of 1 to 2% is
sufficient to cause swelling.
Dry Density:-the dry density of a soil is an other index of expansion. If the initial dry density of
the soil is high then its swell potential will be high.
Surcharge pressure and the size and thickness of samples are another factors which affect the
swell potential.
Mechanics of Swelling

Page | 9
If the environment of the expansive soil has not been changed, swelling will not take place.
Environmental can consist of pressure release due to excavation volume increase due to change
in moisture, etc.
Foundations on Collapsible and Expansive Soils
Note: Percent swell measured under 1 psi surcharge for sample compacted of optimum water
content to maximum density in standard RASHO test
sizes for experimental soils (after Seed et al., 1962)
swelling of clays both depend on the amount of water a clay tries to absorb, it is natural that they
are related. The relation between the swelling potential of clays and the plasticity index has been
established as given in Table 18.2
Linear Shrinkage
The swell potential is presumed to be related to the opposite property of linear shrinkage
measured in a very simple test. Altmeyer (1955) suggested the values given in Table 18.3 as a
guide to the determination of potential expansiveness based on shrinkage limits and linear
shrinkage.
Colloid Content
There is a direct relationship between colloid content and swelling potential as shown in Fig.
18.10
(Chen, 1988). For a given clay type, the amount of swell will increase with the amount of clay
present in the soil.
CLASSIFICATION OF SWELLING SOILS BY INDIRECT MEASUREMENT
By utilizing the various parameters as explained in Section 18.11, the swelling potential can be
evaluated without resorting to direct measurement (Chen, 1988).
USBR Method
Holtz and Gibbs (1956) developed this method which is based on the simultaneous consideration
of several soil properties. The typical relationships of these properties with swelling potential are
shown in Fig. 18.11. Table 18.4 has been prepared based on the curves presented in Fig. 18.11 by
Holtz and Gibbs (1956).
The relationship between the swell potential and the plasticity index can be expressed as follows
(Chen, 1988) Figure 18.12 shows that with an increase in plasticity index, the increase of
swelling potential is much less than predicted by Holtz and Gibbs. The curves given by Chen

Page | 10
(1988) are based on thousands of tests performed over a period of 30 years and as such are more
realistic.
Activity Method
Skempton (1953) defined activity by the following expression
The proposed classification chart is shown in Fig. 18.13. This method appears to be an
improvement over the USER method.
The Potential Volume Change Method (PVC)
A determination of soil volume change was developed by Lambe under the auspices of the
Federal Housing Administration (Source: Chen, 1988). Remolded samples were specified. The
procedure is as given below.
The sample is first compacted in a fixed ring consolidometer with a compaction effect of 55,000
ft-lb per cu ft. Then an initial pressure of 200 psi is applied, and water added to the sample which
is partially restrained by vertical expansion by a proving ring. The proving ring reading is taken
at the end of 2 hours. The reading is converted to pressure and is designated as the swell index.
From Fig. 18.14, the swell index can be converted to potential volume change. Lambe
established.
The PVC method has been widely used by the Federal Housing Administration as well as the
Colorado State Highway Department (Chen, 1988).
Figure 18.15(a) shows a soil volume change meter (ELE International Inc). This meter
measures both shrinkage and swelling of soils, ideal for measuring swelling of clay soils, and
fast and easy to operate.
Expansion Index (El)-Chen (1988)
The ASTM Committee on Soil and Rock suggested the use of an Expansion Index (El) as a
unified method to measure the characteristics of swelling soils. It is claimed that the El is a basic
index property of soil such as the liquid limit, the plastic limit and the plasticity index of the soil.
The sample is sieved through a No 4 sieve. Water is added so that the degree of saturation
isbetween 49 and 51 percent. The sample is then compacted into a 4 inch diameter mold in two
layers to give a total compacted depth of approximates 2 inches. Each layer is compacted by 15
blows of 5.5 Ib hammer dropping from a height of 12 inches. The prepared specimen is allowed
to consolidate under 1 lb/in2 pressure for a period of 1 0 minutes, then inundated with water until
the rate of expansion ceases.

Page | 11
The expansion index is expressed as
where A/I = change in thickness of sample, in.
h. = initial thickness of sample, in.
The classification of a potentially expansive soil is based on Table 18.6.
This method offers a simple testing procedure for comparing expansive soil characteristics.
Figure 18.15(b) shows an ASTMD-829 expansion index test apparatus (ELE International Inc).
This is a completely self-contained apparatus designed for use in determining the expansion
index of soils.
Swell Index
Vijayvergiya and Gazzaly (1973) suggested a simple way of identifying the swell potential of
clays, based on the concept of the swell index. They defined the swell index, Is, as follows
The relationship between Is and swell potential for a wide range of liquid limit is shown in Fig
18.16. Swell index is widely used for the design of post-tensioned slabs on expansive soils.
Prediction of Swelling Potential
Plasticity index and shrinkage limit can be used to indicate the swelling characteristics of
expansive soils. According to Seed at al., (1962), the swelling potential is given as a function of
the plasticity index by the formula
SWELLING PRESSURE BY DIRECT MEASUREMENT
ASTM defines swelling pressure which prevents the specimen from swelling or that pressure
which is required to return the specimen to its original state (void ratio, height) after swelling.
Essentially, the methods of measuring swelling pressure can be either stress controlled or strain
controlled (Chen, 1988).
In the stress controlled method, the conventional oedometer is used. The samples are placed
in the consolidation ring trimmed to a height of 0.75 to 1 inch. The samples are subjected to a
vertical pressure ranging from 500 psf to 2000 psf depending upon the expected field conditions.
On the completion of consolidation, water is added to the sample. When the swelling of the
samplehas ceased the vertical stress is increased in increments until it has been compressed to its
original height. The stress required to compress the sample to its original height is commonly
termed the zero volume change swelling pressure. A typical consolidation curve is shown in Fig
18.17.
EFFECT OF INITIAL MOISTURE CONTENT AND INITIAL

Page | 12
DRY DENSITY ON SWELLING PRESSURE
The capability of swelling decreases with an increase of the initial water content of a given soil
because its capacity to absorb water decreases with the increase of its degree of saturation. It was
found from swelling tests on black cotton soil samples, that the initial water content has a small
effect on swelling pressure until it reaches the shrinkage limit, then its effect increases
(Abouleid,1982). This is depicted in Fig. 18.18(a).
The effect of initial dry density on the swelling percent and the swelling pressure increases
with an increase of the dry density because the dense soil contains more clay particles in a unit
volume and consequently greater movement will occur in a dense soil than in a loose soil upon
ESTIMATING THE MAGNITUDE OF SWELLING
When footings are built in expansive soil, they experience lifting due to the swelling or heaving
of the soil. The amount of total heave and the rate of heave of the expansive soil on which a
structure is founded are very complex. The heave estimate depends on many factors which
cannot be readily determined. Some of the major factors that contribute to heaving are:
1. Climatic conditions involving precipitation, evaporation, and transpiration affect the
moisture in the soil. The depth and degree of desiccation affect the amount of swell in a given
soil horizon.
2. The thickness of the expansive soil stratum is another factor. The thickness of the stratum is
controlled by the depth to the water table.
3. The depth to the water table is responsible for the change in moisture of the expansive soil
lying above the water table. No swelling of soil takes place when it lies below the water
table.
4. The predicted amount of heave depends on the nature and degree of desiccation of the soil
immediately after construction of a foundation.
5. The single most important element controlling the swelling pressure as well as the swell
potential is the in-situ density of the soil. On the completion of excavation, the
stresscondition in the soil mass undergoes changes, such as the release of stresses due to
elastic rebound of the soil. If construction proceeds without delay, the structural load
compensates for the stress release.
6. The permeability of the soil determines the rate of ingress of water into the soil either by
gravitational flow or diffusion, and this in turn determines the rate of heave.

Page | 13
Various methods have been proposed to predict the amount of total heave under a given
structural load. The following methods, however, are described here.
DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS IN SWELLING SOILS
It is necessary to note that all parts of a building will not equally be affected by the swelling
potential of the soil. Beneath the center of a building where the soil is protected from sun and
rain the moisture changes are small and the soil movements the least. Beneath outside walls, the
movement are greater. Damage to buildings is greatest on the outside walls due to soil
movements.
Three general types of foundations can be considered in expansive soils. They are
1. Structures that can be kept isolated from the swelling effects of the soils
2. Designing of foundations that will remain undamaged in spite of swelling
3. Elimination of swelling potential of soil.
All three methods are in use either singly or in combination, but the first is by far the most
widespread. Fig. 18.20 show a typical type of foundation under an outside wall. The granular fill
provided around the shallow foundation mitigates the effects of expansion of the soils.
DRILLED PIER FOUNDATIONS
Drilled piers are commonly used to resist uplift forces caused by the swelling of soils. Drilled
piers, when made with an enlarged base, are called, belled piers and when made without an
enlarged base are referred to as straight-shaft piers.
Woodward, et al., (1972) commented on the empirical design of piers: "Many piers, particularly
where rock bearing is used, have been designed using strictly empirical considerations which are
derived from regional experience". They further stated that "when surface conditions are well
established and are relatively uniform, and the performance of past constructions well
documented, the design by experience approach is usually found to be satisfactory."
The principle of drilled piers is to provide a relatively inexpensive way of transferring the
structural loads down to stable material or to a stable zone where moisture changes are
improbable.
There should be no direct contact between the soil and the structure with the exception of the
soils
supporting the piers.
Straight-shaft Piers in Expansive Soils

Page | 14
Figure 18.21 (a) shows a straight-shaft drilled pier embedded in expansive soil. The following
notations are used.
Lj = length of shaft in the unstable zone (active zone) affected by wetting.
L2 = length of shaft in the stable zone unaffected by wetting
d = diameter of shaft
Q - structural dead load = qAb
q - unit dead load pressure and
Ab = base area of pier
When the soil in the unstable zone takes water during the wet season, the soil tries to expand
which is partially or wholly prevented by the rough surface of the pile shaft of length Lj . As a
result there will be an upward force developed on the surface of the shaft which tries to pull the
pile out of its position. The upward force can be resisted in the following ways.
 The downward dead load Q acting on the pier top
 The resisting force provided by the shaft length L2 embedded in the stable zone.
Two approaches for solving this problem may be considered. They are
 The method suggested by Chen (1988)
 . The O'Neill (1988) method with belled pier.
Two cases may be considered. They are
1. The stability of the pier when no downward load Q is acting on the top. For this condition
a factor of safety of 1.2 is normally found sufficient.
2. The stability of the pier when Q is acting on the top. For this a value of F? = 2.0 is used.
Equations for Uplift Force Qup
Chen (1988) suggested the following equation for estimating the uplift force Q
QuP=7ldauPsLi (18.15)
where d - diameter of pier shaft
a = coefficient of uplift between concrete and soil = 0.15
ps = swelling pressure
= 10,000 psf (480 kN/m2) for soil with high degree of expansion
= 5,000 (240 kN/m2) for soil with medium degree of expansion
The depth (Lj ) of the unstable zone (wetting zone) varies with the environmental conditions.

Page | 15
According to Chen (1988) the wetting zone is limited only to the upper 5 feet of the pier. It is
possible for the wetting zone to extend beyond 10-15 feet in some countries and limiting the
depth of unstable zone to a such a low value of 5 ft may lead to unsafe conditions for the stability
of structures. However, it is for designers to decide this depth Lj according to local conditions.
With regards to swelling pressure ps, it is unrealistic to fix any definite value of 10,000 or 5,000
psf for all types of expansive soils under all conditions of wetting. It is also not definitely known
if the results obtained from laboratory tests truly represent the in situ swelling pressure. Possibly
one way of overcoming this complex problem is to relate the uplift resistance to undrained
cohesive strength of soil just as in the case of friction piers under compressive loading. Equation
(18.15) may be written as
It is possible that the value of a? may be equal to 1.0 or more according to the swelling type
and environmental conditions of the soil. Local experience will help to determine the value of oc
This approach is simple and pragmatic.
Resisting Force
The length of pier embedded in the stable zone should be sufficient to keep the pier being pulled
out of the ground with a suitable factor of safety. If L2 is the length of the pier in the stable zone,
the resisting force QR is the frictional resistance offered by the surface of the pier within the
stable zone. We may write
Two cases of stability may be considered:
1. Without taking into account the dead load Q acting on the pier top, and using F = 1.2
QUP =ff (18.18a)
2. By taking into account the dead load Q and using Fs = 2.0
QK
(<2M/7 - 0 = yf (18.18b)
For a given shaft diameter d equations (18.18a) and (18.18b) help to determine the length L2 of
the pier in the stable zone. The one that gives the maximum length L2 should be used.
Belled Piers
Piers with a belled bottom are normally used when large uplift forces have to be resisted.
Fig. 18.21(b) shows a belled pier with all the forces acting.
The uplift force for a belled pier is the same as that applicable for a straight shaft. The resisting
force equation for the pier in the stable zone may be written as (O'Neill, 1988)

Page | 16
- bearing capacity factor
Chapter Three
Foundation on Expansive Soil
Nature of Expansive Soil:
Expansive soil is a term generally applied to any soil that has a potential for swelling and
shrinkage under change in moisture condition expansive soils cause most damage to structures/
particularly light buildings/ and pavement factors influencing the swelling and shrinkage are
 Clay Mineralogy
 Plasticity
 Dry density
 Moisture Variation
 Initial Moisture Content
Identification Method:
i. Single Index Method
Simple soil property tests can be used for the evaluation of the swelling potential of expansive
soils. Plasticity index may be used as a preliminary indicator of swelling potential of most clays.
The swell potential of a soil is defined as the percentage of swell of a laterally confined soil
sample which has been soaked under 7KN/m2 load. The swell potential is defined as a function
of plasticity index as:
S=60(PI)2.44.K
Where S=Swell potential.
K=3.6*10-5
Generally, relationship between PI (plasticity Index) and swell potential can be established as
follows:
PI Swell Potential
0-15 Low
10-20 Medium
20-35 High
Above 35 Very High

Highly swelling soils have high PI-Value but all soils with high PI-values may not be expansive.

Page | 17
Free Swell: free swell test consists of placing a known volume of dry soil in water and noting the
swelling volume after the material settles without any surcharge to the bottom of the cylinder.
The difference between the final and initial volume, expressed in percentage of initial volume is
the free swell. If the free swell is less than 50% the soil may not cause considerable damage to
lightly loaded structures soils having free swell about 100% can cause considerable damage.
Free Swell=[Vf-Vo]*100%/Vo
Colloidal Content:
The grain size characteristics of the clay appears to be having a bearing on its swelling potential
for a given clay type, the amount of swell will increase as the amount of clay present in the soil
increases for any clay type . The relationship between swelling potential and percentage of clay
size can be expressed by:
S=KCx
Where: S= Swell potential
C= Clay content
K and x= constant dependence on type of clay
Classification Methods:
By utilizing routine laboratory tests such as Atterberg limits, Colloidal contents, Shrinkage
Limits and others, the swelling potential can be evaluated without restoring to direct
measurements.
Colloidal Content PI Ws % of volume Change Degree of Expansiveness
>28 >35 <11 >30 Very High
20-30 25-41 7-12 20-30 High
13-23 15-28 10-16 10-30 Medium
>15 <18 >15 <10 Low
Direct Measurements:
The most satisfactory and convenient method of determining the swelling potential and swelling
pressure is by direct measurement. Direct measurement can be achieved by the use of the
oedometer.
5.2. Physical Properties of Expansive Soils.
Moisture Content:- Irrespective of high swelling potential, if the moisture content of the soil
remains unchanged, there will be no volume change and the structure founded on clays with
constant moisture will not be subjected to movement caused by heaving when the moisture
content of the clay is changed, volume expansion will take place. Complete saturation is not

Page | 18
necessary to cause swelling. Slight change of moisture content in the order of 1 to 2% is
sufficient to cause swelling.
Dry Density:-the dry density of a soil is an other index of expansion. If the initial dry density of
the soil is high then its swell potential will be high.
Surcharge pressure and the size and thickness of samples are another factors which affect the
swell potential.
Mechanics of Swelling
If the environment of the expansive soil has not been changed, swelling will not take place.
Environmental can consist of pressure release due to excavation volume increase due to change
in moisture, etc.
The most important of all is the effect of moisture on expansive soils. The most common method
of moisture transfer is by gravity. The seepage of surface water and precipitation are common
examples. Generally, there is variation of moisture in the dry and wet season. This variation is
limited to a certain depth called Depth of Moisture Fluctuation.
Swelling Pressure: is a pressure induced by expansive soil on the structures founded on it. The
swelling pressure can be measured in the laboratory by direct measurement techniques.
 The swelling pressure of clay is independent of the surcharge pressure, initial moisture
content, degree of saturation, and the thickness of the sample.
 The swelling pressure can be defined as the pressure required keeping the volume of the
soil at its constant density.
 Swelling pressure can be used as a yard stick for measuring swelling soil.
5.3. Methods of Preventing Damage
In order to minimize or eliminate damage to buildings due to heave or shrinkage, the following
methods may be used:
 Structural Measures
 Moisture Control
 Soil Stabilization
Structural Measures:
Depending on the site and architectural conditions, one may use the following methods:
 Pier foundation
 Stiffed slab foundation

Page | 19
  Flexible type of construction
 Conventional types of foundation with special provisions
 Reinforcement of brick walls
1. Pier Foundations:
Pier foundation provides a suitable solution for a Varity of structures located on heaving soils. In
the use of pier foundation, the uplifting force which tends to pull the pier out of the ground is
direct function of the swelling pressure. The withholding force consists of the dead load pressure
exerted on the pier the friction along the un wetted portion of the pier. For safe pier design, the
withholding force must balance the uplifting force.
Uplift force:
With holding force:
Both conditions i.e. the uplift case and the bearing capacity failure condition should be checked.
Belled Pier
Uplift force
With holding force
Bearing capacity
In pier design, it is important to determine the depth of moisture fluctuation. This depth may be
up to 5m below the ground surface. Usually, it varies from 1.5m to 3m. piers drilled in to
materials other than bed rocks may be with enlarged base. This has the purpose of increasing the
bearing area. The greatest advantage of this pier/ belled pier/ is that the resistance against uplift
in the belled piers, the soil weight above the bell induce additional resistance against uplift. For
belled piers the minimum required shaft diameter is 60cm.
Isolation of pier uplift:
Since the most damaging action in a drilled pier system is the uplift force, isolating the pier shaft
from the surrounding soil will be effective. The obvious method is to drill an oversized, borehole
and provide soft compressible material around the pier so that the surrounding soil can not exert
pressure on the pier. However, by so doing the bearing capacity of the pier may be reduced.
Pier Reinforcement
Since the lower part of the pier is anchored in to the stable zone by skin friction and the uplifting
pressure acts on the upper part in the active zone, the pier is subjected to tensile stress develops
with in the pier

Page | 20
-Reinforcement of the pier is determined using T.
-Minimum reinforcement is 1%.
Failure of Pier System:
The most common errors in the design are:
 Insufficient pier length.
 Absence of pier reinforcement.
 Excessive concrete on top of pier.
 Absence of air gap between the grade beam and ground surface.
Under reamed piles;
Under reamed piles have been used as anchor piles in expansive clays. For anchor enlarged bulb
is often used and also one or more bulbs may be used.
Single Under reamed pile
Pu=CaAs+AbCbNcb+π{[d2o-d2]/4}CoNco
Where:
Pu=Ultimate bearing capacity.
Ca=Average pile soil adhesion.
As=Surface area of the pile shaft.
Cb=Cohesion at the pile base.
Co=Cohesion at the base of the bulbs.
Ncb=Value of Nc at the pile base level.
Nco=Value of Nc at the base of the bulb.
Ab= Area of the base.
Double Under reamed piles
Two methods are available for estimating the load capacity:
1. Summation of the frictionless of the frictional resistance along the above and below the
bulb, shearing resistance of the cylinder circumscribing the bulbs and the bearing
capacity of the bottom bulb and base.
2. Summation of the frictional resistance along the shaft above and the top bulb and below
the bottom bulb and the bearing capacity of all the bulbs and base.
NB! The lesser of the two capacities must be taken for design.
2. Footing Foundations:

Page | 21
Footing foundations can be used on expansive soils provided one or more of the following
criteria are met:
i. Sufficient dead load pressure is exerted on the foundation.
ii. The structure is rigid enough so that differential heaving will not cause cracking.
iii. The swelling potential of the foundation soils can be eliminated or reduced.
A) Continuous Footing:
The most common type of foundation for lightly loaded is continuous footing. It should be noted
that continuous footings may be expected to function well in highly expansive soils. The use of
this system should be limited to soils with low degree of expansion.
B) Wall footings:
Engineers often specify the erection of basement walls directly on the soil without the use of
footings. This reduces the bearing width and increase the contact pressure considerably the unit
dead load pressure exerted on the soil will increase also . such a concept is sound from the
expansive soil point of view. However, care must be taken toensure the rigidity of the system by
checking the following conditions:
 Determine if there are any soft pockets that cause settlements.
 Ensure that there is sufficient reinforcement of the basement wall to provide rigidity.
 Make sure that the walls are properly restrained against earth pressures.
C) Pad foundation
The pad foundation essensially consist
Expansive soils are found in many parts of the world, but more common in semi-arid and arid
areas.
An expansive soil is generally unsaturated:
 due to desiccation (aridness, drought)
 Clay mineral contents that exhibit high volume change up on wetting.
The large volume changes up on wetting cause extensive damage to structures, in particular,
light buildings and pavements. The problems associated with swelling soils are of enormous
financial proportions.
Foundation heave occurs as a result of the change in the water content of the soil which can be
caused by the environment or man made. Climates drought, heavy rain, change in surface
covering the area preventing evaporation & transportation are some of the causes of heave.

Page | 22
The heave potential of a soil depends on the properties of the soil, such as clay content, plasticity
index & shrinkage limit, initial dryness & matric suction of the soil.
Many empirical methods have been proposed to correlate the swelling potential of a soil to
properties such as total volume change, colloidal content, plasticity index and shrinkage limit as
shown in table below.
Table: Probable expansion as estimated from Classification Test Data (from Holz and Kovacs,
1981)
Degree of Expansion as % Colloidal Plasticity index, Shrinkage
Expansion of the total content PI limt,ws
volume change (%-1µm
Very high >30 >28 >35 <11
High 20-30 20-31 25-41 7-12
Medium 10-20 13-23 15-28 10-16
low <10 <15 <18 >15

Fig Correlation
between
soil properties
and swelling potential
The amount of total heave can also be written as a function of the difference between the present
in situ stress and some future stress state and the volume change indices for the soil. In general
the net normal stress state variable remains constant, while the matric suction stress variable

Page | 23
changes during the heave process. Matric suction changes result the change of water content.
Therefore, total heave can be predicted by measuring the in situ matric suction and estimating or
predicting the future matric suction in the field under specific environmental conditions.
The prediction of heave on the basis of matric suction measurements has not been extensively
use due to difficulties associated with accurate measurements of matric suction and appropriate
soil properties. More common are the method of heave prediction based on one dimensional
oedometer test results. In the oedometer methods, matric suction measurements are not required.
One of these methods is briefly discussed herein.
1. The Direct model method: is based on a “free swell” oedometer on undisturbed samples
(Fig. 2.2a). The specimens are subjected to the over burden pressure (or the load that will
exist at the end of construction) and allowed free access to water. The predicted heave is
generally below the actual heave experienced in the field. The stress path followed by the
test procedure is shown in Figure 2.2b. The conventional two-dimensional manner for
plotting the test data is shown in Fig.2.3. The underestimation of the amount heave
appears to be primarily due to a lack of consideration of disturbance which has been
experienced by the soil during sampling.

Fig.2.2 a Correlation between soil properties

and swelling potential (from Van de Merwe,
1964)
Fig.2.2b

Page | 24
During heave process the net normal stress state remains constant while the matric suction stress
state variable changes.
Total heave can be predicted by measuring the instamatic suction in the field under specific
environmental conditions.
2.2. Application of heave predictions
Reasonable estimates of the anticipated vertical and horizontal heave and the differential heave
are necessary for the following applications.
a. Determination of adequate designs of structures that will accommodate the differential soil
movement without undue distress. These predictions are also needed to estimate upward drag
from swelling soils on portions of deep foundations such as drilled shafts within the active zone
of moisture change and heave. Estimates of upward drag help determine an optimum design of
the deep foundation.
b. Determination of techniques to stabilize the foundation and to reduce the anticipated heave.
Factors influencing heave
Factors that significantly influence the magnitude and rate of foundation movement are discussed
below. The difficulty of predicting potential heave is complicated beyond these factors by the
effect of the type and geometry of foundation, depth of footing, and distribution of load exerted
by the footing on the magnitude of the swelling of expansive foundation soil. Additional
problems include estimating the exact location that swelling soils will heave or the point source
of water seeping into the swelling soil and the final or equilibrium moisture profile in the areas
of heaving soil.
Factors influencing magnitude and rate of volume change
 Composition of solids:
A high percentage of active clay minerals include montmorillonites and mixed layer
combinations of montmorillonites and other clay minerals that promote volume change.
 Concentration of pore fluid salts:
High concentration of cations in the pore fluid tends to reduce the magnitude of
volume change; swell from osmosis can be significant over long period of time.
 Composition of pore fluid:
Prevalence of monovalent cations increase shrink-swell; divalent and trivalent cations
inhibit shrink-swell

Page | 25
 Dry Density:
High initial dry densities result in closer particles spacing and larger swells
 Structure:
Flocculated particles tend to swell more than dispersed particles; cemented particles tend to
reduce swell; fabrics that slake readily may promote swell.
Environmental Conditions
 Climate:
Arid climates promote desiccation, while humid climate promote wet soil profiles.
 Ground water:
Fluctuating and shallow water tables (less than 20 ft from the ground surface) provide
a source of moisture for heave.
 Drainage: Poor surface drainage leads to moisture accumulations or ponding.
 Vegetative cover: Trees, shrubs, and grasses are conductive to moisture depletion by
transpiration; moisture tends to accumulate beneath areas denuded of vegetation.
 Confinement:Larger confining pressures tend to reduce swell; cut areas are more likely to
swell than filled areas; lateral pressures may not equal vertical overburden pressure.
 Field permeability: Fissures can significantly increase permeability and promote faster rate of
swell.
Direction of soil movement
The foundation soil may expand both vertically and laterally. The vertical movement is usually
of primary interest, for it is the differential vertical movement that causes most damages to
overlying structures.
a. Vertical movement.
Methodology for prediction of the potential total vertical heave requires an assumption
of the amount of volume change that occurs in the vertical direction. The fraction of volumetric
swell N that occurs as heave in the vertical direction depends on the soil fabric and anisotropy.
Vertical heave of intact soil with few fissures may account for all of the volumetric swell such
that N = 1, while vertical heave of heavily fissured and isotropic soil may be as low as N = 1/3 of
the volumetric swell.
Lateral movement is very important in the design of basements and retaining walls.

Page | 26
 b. Lateral movement. Lateral movement is very important in the design of basements and
retaining walls. The problem of lateral expansion against basement walls is best managed
by minimizing soil volume change using procedures described in chapter 7. Otherwise,
the basement wall should be designed to resist lateral earth pressures that approach those
given by

Where:

The Ko that should be used to calculate δh is on the order of 1 to 2 in expansive soils and often
no greater than 1.3 to 1.6.
Potential total vertical heave
A desirable reliability is that the predicted potential total vertical heave should not be less than 80
percent of the maximum in situ heave that will eventually occur but should not exceed the
maximum in situ heave by more than 20 to 50 percent. Useful predictions of heave of this
reliability can often be approached and can bound the in situ maximum levels of heave using the
results of both consolidometer swell and soil suction tests described above.
. a. Basis of calculation. The potential total vertical heave at the bottom of the foundation, as
shown in figure 2.12 is determined by

Page | 27
The AH is the potential vertical heave beneath a flexible, unrestrained foundation. The bottom
nodal point NNP = NEL + 1, and it is often set at the active depth
(1) The initial void ratio, which depends on geologic and stress history (e.g., maximum past
pressure), the soil properties, and environmental conditions and may be measured on undisturbed
specimens using standard laboratory test procedures.
It may also be measured during the laboratory swell tests. The final void ratio depends on
changes in the foundation conditions caused by construction of the structure.
(2) The effects of the field conditions listed above may be roughly simulated by a confinement
pressure due to soil and structural loads and an assumption of a particular final or equilibrium
pore water pressure profile within an active depth of heave.
The effects of confinement and the equilibrium
Pore water pressure profiles are related to the final void ratio by physical models.
Pore water pressure profiles
The magnitude of swelling in expansive clay foundation soils depends on the magnitude of
change from the initial to the equilibrium or final pore water pressure profile that will be
observed to take place in a foundation soil because of the construction of the foundation.

Page | 28
 Fig

2.12 Assumed equilibrium pore water pressure profile beneath foundation soils
(1) Initial profile.
Figure 2.12 illustrates relative initial dry and wet profiles. The wet initial profile is probably
appropriate following the wet season, which tends to occur by spring, while the dry initial
profile tends to occur during late summer or early fall. The initial pore water pressure profile
does not need to be known if the consolidometer swell model is used because the heave
prediction is determined by the difference between the measured initial e o and final e1 void
ratios. The initial void ratio is a function of the initial pore water pressure in the soil.
(2) Equilibrium profile. The accuracy of the prediction of the potential total vertical heave in
simulating the maximum in situ heave depends heavily on the ability to properly estimate the
equilibrium pore water pressure profile. This profile is assumed to ultimately occur beneath the
central portion of the foundation. The pore water pressure profile beneath the foundation
perimeter will tend to cycle between dry and wet extremes depending on the field environment
and availability of water. The three following assumptions are proposed to estimate the
equilibrium profile. A fourth possibility, the assumption that the groundwater level rises to the
ground surface, is most conservative
and not normally recommended as being realistic.
(a) Saturated. The saturated profile, Method 1
Method of predicting vertical heave
The heave H from a consolidometer may be found by

Page | 29
The final effective pressure is given by

Where  v is the total vertical overburden pressure and uw is the equilibrium pore pressure in tons
per square foot.
Potential differential heave
Differential heave results from edge effects beneath a finite covered area, drainage patterns,
lateral variations in thickness of the expansive foundation soil, and effects of occupancy. The
shape and geometry of the structure also result in differential heave. Examples of effects of
occupancy include broken or leaking water and sewer lines, watering of vegetation, and ponding
adjacent to the structure. Other causes of differential heave include differences in the distribution
of load and the size of footings.
a. Unpredictability of variables.
Reliable predictions of future potential differential heave are often not possible because of
many unpredictable variables that include: future availability of moisture from rainfall and
other sources, uncertainty of the exact locations of heaving areas, and effects of human
occupancy.
b. Magnitude of differential heave.
(1) Potential differential heave can vary from zero to as much as the total heave. Differential
heave is often equal to the estimated total heave for structures supported on isolated spot footings
or drilled shafts because some footings or portions of slab foundations often experience no
movement. Eventually, differential heave will approach the total heave for most practical cases
and should, therefore, be assumed equal to the total potential heave, unless local experience or
other information dictates otherwise.
(2) The maximum differential heave beneath a lightly loaded foundation slab may also be
estimated by the procedure based on the moisture diffusion theory and soil classification data
developed by the PTI. Heave predictions by this method will tend to be less than by assuming
that the differential heave is the total potential heave.
5-6. Heave with time
Predictions of heave with time are rarely reliable because the location and time when water is
available to the soil cannot be readily foreseen. Local experience has shown that most heave (and
Page | 30
the associated structural distress) occurs within 5 to 8 years following construction, but the
effects of heave may also not be observed for many years until some change occurs in the
foundation conditions to disrupt the moisture regime. Predictions of when heave occurs are of
little engineering significance for permanent structures. The important engineering problems are
the determination of the magnitude of heave and the development of ways to minimize distress
of the structure.

Page | 31
A. Procedures for Estimating Total Heave
1. On basis of boring log profile select samples at intevals for swell tests.
2. Load specimens in consolidometer to overburden pressure plus weight of structure; add
water and observe swell.
3. compute swell interms of percent of original specimen weight and plot vs depth.
4. Compute total swell which is equal to area encompassed by percent swell vs depth curve.
For example, using curves shown below:
1 2. 8
Total swell=   8.2  1.0    0.10 ft
2 100
B. Procedure for estimating the amount of undercut (x) necessary to reduce total swell to an
allowable value (SALL)
1. From percent swell versus depth relationship, compute and plot total swell versus Depth
relationship.
2. From a given value of S ALL, the amount of under cut is directly read off the total swell-depth
curve.
Note: undercut materials should be replaced by inert material or else the base of the structure
should be lowered to the depth of the required undercut.
The structures most susceptible to swelling/shrinkage on expansive soils are those with
foundations located at shallow depths. Damages experienced by these structures include cracks
in the foundation and walls and jammed doors and windows. The degree of damage based on
observed cracks ranges from hairline cracks, severe cracks, very severe cracks to total collapse.
The pattern of the cracks depends on whether it is a dooming heave or a dish shaped lift heave
(Figure 1.2). The dome effect results from the movement of the moisture from the perimeter to

Page | 32
the centre of the house while the saucer effect results from the moisture moving from centre to
the perimeter.
A large number of structures especially lightweight structures found on expansive soils have met
with widespread problems associated with serviceability performance mainly in the form of
cracks or permanent deformation.
The scarce knowledge about the behaviour of foundations in swelling soils is obvious behind the
damages of structures supported on the foundations mainly due to the uplift of the foundations
(dooming or centre heave) following wetting of the soil.

Page | 33
Although the accusing finger is mainly pointed at the expansive soils, other contributing factors
such as poor design, poor construction, inadequate observation of the construction processes,
poor drainage, trees close to the building (human activities) and climatic factors have
exacerbated the problem.

Page | 34
2.8 Factors affecting total have
Three primary factors controlling total heave are:
 Volume change indices
 Present stress state variables.
 Future stress state variables.
The volume change indices are affected by the properties of the soil such as density and moisture
content
 Soils compacted at various densities and water contents produce different soil
structures which have different volume change indices.
 Soils compacted at low densities and high water contents have a low matric
suction value as compared to dry of optimum water content.
 Volume change indices & stress state are affected by dry density and water
content which in turn affect amount of total heave.
 The results of many literatures indicate that total heave increases with a decrease
in the initial water content of specimens compacted at a constant initial dry
density and increases with increasing initial dry density for specimens compacted
at constant initial water content as shown in fig. 2.3a and 2.3b

Page | 35
 Fig 2.3a Effect on total heave of varying the initial water content for specimens of
constant initial dry density (from Chen, 1988)

Fig 2.3b Effect on total heave of the surcharge pressure for specimens at a specified
density and water content (from Chen, 1988)
In addition to soil properties such as dry density and water content, the amount of total heave is
also affected by the total stress and surcharge pressure. Total heave decreases with an increasing
surcharge pressure and increasing mean normal stress. In other words, it is possible to reduce the
amount of swelling by applying a high total stress to the soil.
Dry density and water content also affects vertical swelling pressure.
Vertical swelling pressure is the pressure developed in a specimen placed in an oedometer ring
and saturated with out allowing any volume change. It is more sensitive to the variation of initial
dry density but independent of the initial water content & surcharge load. Vertical swelling
pressure increases exponentially with an increasing dry density.
Past, Present and future states of stress
The prediction of volume change requires information on possible changes in the stress
state and the soil property, known as a volume change index. Odometer tests are commonly

Page | 36
 performed to determine the present initial state of stress & the volume change indices. The
oedometer test measures the in situ state of stress on the total stress plane without having to
measure the individual components of stress.
Stress state history
The development of an expansive soil can be visualized in terms of changes in the stress state
in the deposit. Changes in stress state occur during geological deposition, erosion and during
environmental changes resulting from precipitation, evaporation and evapo-transpiration. For
example, the drainage of a lake and the subsequent evaporation of water from the lake
sediments results in desiccation of the deposit (drying of soil by evaporation and evapo-
transpiration) lowers water table below the ground surface level. As a result pore water
pressure decreases to negative values while the total stress in the deposit remains constant.
The negative pore water pressure acts in all directions (isotropically) resulting in a tendency
for cracking and overall desaturation of the upper portion of the profile.
The surface deposit can also be subjected to varying and changing environmental conditions. The
changing water flux (i.e. wetting & drying) at the surface results in the swelling and shrinkage of
the upper portion of the deposit.
Environmental factors that results in the alteration of stress state are infiltration, evaporation &
evapo transpiration.
In arid & semi arid regions, the natural water content in a deposit tends to decrease gradually
with time. Low water content conditions in an unsaturated clay deposits indicate that the soil has
a high swelling potential. Expensive soils are unsaturated soils with a high swilling index in a
changing environment, referred to as highly swelling & shrinking soils. Fig 2.4 illustrates the
changes in the stress state of the surface deposit during wetting and drying due to infiltration and
evaporation respectively. Changes
occur primarily on the matric
suction plane at an almost constant
net normal stress.

Page | 37
Fig 2.4 Stress state representation when soil has undergone a complex history caused by drying
and wetting.
In situ stress state
The prediction of heave requires information on the present in situ stress state and the possible
future stress state.The difference between the present and the futures stress state is one of the
main variable which indicates the amount of volume change or heave that can potentially occur.
The laboratory information desired by the geotechnical engineer for predicting the amount of
heave is an assessment of:
 The in situ state of stress
 The swelling properties with respect to changes in normal stress (i.e.   ua ) and matric
suction ( u a  u w ). Of the laboratory tests, the one-dimensional oedometer test is the most
commonly used to determine the present in situ state of stress.

Page | 38
 Fig 2.5 shows typical laboratory oedometer test data plotted to a scale which allows comparison
to the virgin compression curve.
The oedometer test translates the in situ stress state onto the net normal stress state plane. The in
situ stress state is referred to as the corrected
“Swelling pressure, P’s, which is equal to the sum of the overburden pressure and the matric
suction equivalent.
Future Stress state and Ground Movements
After determining the present in situ state of stress and the swelling indices from oedometer tests,
the future state of stress corresponding to several years after construction can be estimated based
upon local experience and climatic conditions. Changes in total stress can be anticipated as a
result of excavation replacement with a relatively inert material (e.g. gravel) and other loadings.
The effect of these changes can be taken in to account using appropriate volume change indices
for net loading and unloading.
The future swelling of the soil can be anticipated by assuming that the final pore water pressures
of the soil may go to zero under a constant net normal stress. Fig. 2.6 shows the actual stress path
that would be followed by a soil element that would be followed by a soil element at the depth
from which the sample was retrieved.

Page | 39
 Fig. 2.6 “Actual” and “Analysis” stress paths followed during the wetting of soil.
Theory of Heave Predictions
The volume change coefficients (indices () and the matric suction changes are used to compute
the total heave.
The total heave formulation will be presented with the initial and final stress states projected on
to the normal stress plane. The results form one dimensional oedometer test results are plotted on
a semi- logarithmic scale and the slope of the plot is used in the formulation for total heave and
thus greatly simplifies the analysis for the prediction of total heave. The in situ stress state is
equal to the vertical swelling pressure of the soil which is measured in one-dimensional
oedometer under Ko-[loading conditions. As a result only vertical or one dimensional heave is
predicted, which is of great importance in the design of shallow foundations.
Total heave formulations
The procedure for the calculation of total heave or swell is similar to that used for settlement
calculations. The amount of total heave is computed form the changes in void ratio
corresponding to the initial and final stress states & the swelling index. The following
formulation assumes stress paths which have been projected onto the net normal stress plane
(Fig.2.7). The total heave stress path follows the rebound curve (i.e. C s) from the initial stress
state to the final stress state.

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Fig 2.7 One-dimensional oedometer test results showing the effect of sampling disturbance
The equation for the rebound portion of the oedometer test can be written as:
 Pf 
e  C s log  (2.1)
 Po 
Where:
e = Change in void ratio between the initial and final stress states
(i.e. e f  eo )
eo = initial void ratio
ef = final void ratio
Cs = swelling index
Po = initial stress state (equivalent to the corrected swelling pressure i.e. Po=P’s)
Pf = final stress state
Po = (  y  ua ) + ( ua  u w ) e (2.2)
 y = total over burden pressure

 y  ua = net over burden pressure

ua = matric suction equivalent

uw =pore-water pressure
p f   y   y  u wf (2.3)
Where:
 y =change in total stress due to the excavation or placement of fill

uwf = predicted or estimated final pore-water pressure.

The heave of an individual soil layer can be written in terms of a change in void ratio.
ei
hi  hi (2.4)
1  eoi
Where
hi = heave of an individual soil layer

hi= thickness of the layer under consideration

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 ei = change in void ratio of the layer under consideration

e fi = initial void ratio of the soil layer

The change in void ratio, ei , can be written by incorporating the soil properties and the stress
states to give the following form for the heave of a soil layer:
Cs p fi
hi  hi log (2.5)
1  eoi poi

Where
Pfi = final stress state in the soil layer
Poi = initial stress state in the soil layer
The total heave from several layers, H , is equal to the sum of the heave for each layer.
H   h i (2.6)
2.11 Control factors in heave prediction and reduction
The main variables considered here are corrected swelling pressure and swelling index.
2.5.1 Closed- Form Heave Equation when Swelling Pressure is Constant
An example is shown in Fig. 2.8 below with the following assumptions:
 The corrected swelling pressure, P’s is constant with depth.
 The soil is assumed to be homogenous (i.e. eo,  and Cs are constant with depth.)
 The final stress state, Pf is assumed to be equal to the total overburden pressure.
The unsaturated, expansive soil swells upon wetting. Most of the heave will occur near ground
surface where there is the largest difference between the corrected swelling pressure and the total
overburden pressure. Heave continues to occur until a depth is reached where there is no
difference between the corrected volume and the total overburden pressure. The depth at which
the corrected swelling pressure equals the total overburden pressure is known as the active depth
of swelling. H:
pi
H  (2.7)
g
Where: H= active depth of swelling
 = total density of the soil, which is assumed to remain constant with depth.
g= gravitational acceleration

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 Fig. 2.8

Overburden and swelling pressure distribution versus depth for the case of constant swelling
pressure
The above definition of active depth is the assumption that the total final pore-water pressure
throughout the profile go to zero.
The heave analysis can be performed by first subdividing the computed active depth into number
H
of layers of equal thickness (i.e. hi =h); h  j
Where:
H=thickness of a soil layer.
An attempt is first made to determine the number of layers required to accurately predict total
heave. The initial stress state, Poi, is equal to the corrected swelling pressure P’s, which can be
defined interms of the active depth
p oi  gH (2.9)
The final stress state, Pfi, in the ith layer from ground surface is computed as the average
overburden pressure of the layer
g (i  1)h  ih
p fi  (2.10)
2
i= soil layer number
The thickness of soil layer, h can be written in terms of the total thickness divided by the number
of layers

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 gh(2i  1)
Pfi  (2.11)
2j

The heave equation is written for each soil layer and then summed to give the total heave.

c sH 1 j  2i  1 
H   
1  eo j i 1  2 j 
(2.12)

Effect of correcting the swelling pressure on the prediction of total heave

Correcting the swelling pressure for the effect of sampling disturbance increase the change in
void ratio as shown in Fig 2.9 As a result the calculation of total heave also increases. The
change in void ratio corresponding to the corrected swelling pressure can be computed from Eq.
2.1 by substituting P’s for Po
 Pf 
e'  C s log  ( 2.13)
 P' o 
The change in void ratio corresponding to the uncorrected swelling pressure, P s, is written as:

 pf 
e  C s log  (2.14)
 ps 
The difference in heave or the in the change in the void ratio can be obtained as follow:
 p 
e  e'  C s log s  (2.15
 p' s 

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 Fig 2.9 Void ratio changes corresponding to the corrected and uncorrected
swelling pressures.

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