Cardiorespiratory Fitness
Cardiorespiratory fitness is an activity that requires delivery
and utilization of oxygen
Benefits of Cardiorespiratory Fitness
 Enhances ability to perform daily tasks
 Decreases risks of cardiovascular diseases,
hypokinetic conditions and early death
 Promotes weight loss and reduced health risks
associated with obesity
Circulatory System
a. Composition of the Circulatory System
1. Blood
- Circulates through our body and delivers
essential substances like oxygen and
nutrients to the body cells
- 4 components: Plasma, Platelets, red
blood cells and white blood cells
- Blood types: A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-,
O+ and O-
2. Blood vessels
a. Arteries - blood vessels that carry
oxygen - rich blood from the heart
through the body
b. Veins - blood vessels that carry
oxygen - poor blood back to the
heart
c. Capillaries - small, thin blood
vessels that connect arteries and
veins
3. Lungs - organ that allows the exchange of
gases between the blood passing in the
alveoli
4. Heart - organ that pumps oxygen-rich blood
to all parts of the body
b. Structure and Functions of Heart
● Muscular organ with 4 chambers (left
ventricle, right ventricle, left atrium and right
atrium)
● Atria are the upper portions of the heart and
receive oxygen - free blood
● Ventricles are the lower chambers of the
heart responsible for pumping oxygen -rich
blood
c. Blood Circulations
1. Pulmonary System - blood flows from the
heart to the lungs to get oxygen supply;
oxygen - rich blood travels back to the heart
2. Systemic System - oxygen - rich blood
travels from the heart to the cells and oxygen
- low blood travels from the cells to the heart
Respiratory System
a. Composition of the Respiratory System
1. Muscles of respiration - diaphragm (principal
muscle of respiration) relaxes allows air to
flow back out of lungs during exhalation
2. Airway - includes nose, mouth, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles
- carries air between the lungs and
body exterior
3. Lungs - pair of organs that contains alveoli
where the exchange from oxygen - low blood to oxygen -rich
blood happen
b. Structure and Functions of the Lungs
- pair of large, spongy organs found lateral to
the heart and above the diaphragm
- the interior of the lungs is made up of tiny
sacs called alveoli
- allows the exchange of nutrients and oxygen
in blood
- In charge of the process of gas exchange
(respiration)
c. Oxygen Circulation
- External respiration: The process of taking in
oxygen through mouth and nose and
delivering it to the lungs where it is picked up
by blood
- Internal respiration: Delivering the oxygen to
the tissues from the blood
Cardiac Output
It is the product of the heart rate (HR) and stroke
volume (SV) (amount of blood pumped per heart beat):
Q=HR x SV
Thus, cardiac output can be increased due to a rise in
either heart rate or stroke volume. During exercise in the
upright position (e.g. running, cycling, etc.) the increase in
cardiac output is due to both an increase in heart rate and
stroke volume.
Heart rate
During exercise the quantity of blood pumped by the
heart must change in accordance with the elevated skeletal
muscle oxygen demand. Since the SA node controls heart
rate, changes in heart rate often involves factor that influence
the SA node. The two most prominent factors that influence
heart rate are the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous
systems.
The parasympathetic fibers that supply the heart arise
from neurons in the cardiovascular control center in the
medulla oblongata and make up a portion of the vagus nerve.
Upon reaching the heart, these fibers make contact with both
the SA node and the Av node. When stimulated, these nerve
endings release acetylcholine, which causes a decrease in the
activity of both the SA and AV nodes due to hyperpolarization
(i.e., moving the resting membrane potential further from
threshold). The end result is a reduction of heart rate.
Therefore, the parasympathetic nervous system acts as a
braking system to slow down heart rate.
Studies have shown that the initial increase in heart
rate during exercise up to approximately 100 beats per minute,
is due to a withdrawal of parasympathetic note. At higher work
rates, stimulation of the SA and AV nodes by the sympathetic
nervous system is responsible for increases in heart rate .
Sympathetic fibers reach the heart by means of the cardiac
accelerator nerves, which innervate both the SA node and the
ventricles. Endings of these fibers release norephrine upon
stimulation, which causes an increase in both heart rate and
the force of myocardial contraction.
Stroke volume
Stroke volume, at rest or during exercise, is regulated
by three variables: (1) the end-diastolic volume (EDV), which is
the volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole; (2)
the average aortic blood pressure; and (3) the strength of
ventricular contraction.
Systolic blood pressure
The pressure exerted by your blood flowing through
your arteries is not constant but is dynamic, and constantly
reflects what the heart is doing at a given moment.
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 When the heart is actively beating (an event called
“systole”), it is ejecting blood out into the arteries. This dynamic
ejection of blood into the arteries causes the pressure within
the arteries to rise. The peak blood pressure reached during
active cardiac contraction is called the systolic blood pressure.
A “normal” systolic blood pressure when a person is
sitting quietly is 120 mmHg or below.
Diastolic
The diastolic blood pressure is the pressure the blood
exerts within the arteries in between heartbeats, that is, when
the heart is not actively ejecting blood into the arteries. After
the heart is finished contracting, the cardiac ventricles relax
momentarily so that they can be refilled with blood, in
preparation for the next contraction. This period of ventricular
relaxation is called “diastole,” and the blood pressure during
diastole is called the diastolic blood pressure.
Hypertension
Hypertension (HTNor HT), also known as high blood
pressure(HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the
blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High
blood pressure typically does not cause symptoms. Long-term
high blood pressure, however, is a major risk factor for
coronary artery disease, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation,
peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease,
and dementia.
VO2 Max
VO2 max, also known as maximal oxygen uptake, is
the measurement of the maximum amount of oxygen a person
can utilize during intense exercise. It is a common
measurement used to establish the aerobic endurance of an
athlete prior to or during the course of training. It is one of
several tests used to determine an athlete's cardiovascular
fitness and performance capacity.
VO2 max is measured in milliliters of oxygen used in
one minute per kilogram of body weight (mL/kg/min). It is
based on the premise that the more oxygen an athlete
consumes during high-level exercise, the more the body will
generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) energy in cells.
Training threshold
Training thresholds refer to the level of intensity
needed in order to stress the body enough to cause an
adaptation or improvement in performance. Training thresholds
are measured by intensity and can be either a % MHR or %
VO2max. There are generally two training thresholds: the
aerobic threshold and the anaerobic threshold.
The aerobic threshold is the intensity needed in order
to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s aerobic
capacity or VO2max. The aerobic training threshold is normally
between 65% and 70% MHR.
The anaerobic threshold is the intensity needed in
order to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s
anaerobic capacity, normally be increasing the speed of lactate
removal. The anaerobic training threshold is normally between
80% and 85% MHR.
Target Heart Rate
It refers to the heart rate where maximum benefit from
an exercise can be obtained. It also aids in keeping track of
one's health and fitness level. Your maximum heart rate is
about 220 minus your age.
Target heart rate during moderate intensity activities
is about 50-70% of maximum heart rate, while during vigorous
physical activity it’s about 70-85% of maximum.
It is important to monitor your heart rate to determine
if you are in the zone. Having a higher heart rate means that
you are straining, whereas having lower means that you have
to push harder, especially if you are trying to lose weight.
Physiological Basis in Developing Cardiorespiratory
Fitness
Aerobic
Exercise is mainly divided into two: Aerobic and
anaerobic. Cardiorespiratory endurance activities often are
called aerobic exercises.
Aerobic exercise is especially important in preventing
cardiovascular diseases. A poorly conditioned heart, which has
to pump more often just to keep a person alive, is subject to
more wear and tear than a well-conditioned heart. Examples of
aerobic exercises are jogging, cycling, and swimming. Group
sports such as soccer and basketball are also considered
aerobic exercises.
A regular aerobic exercise program will delay the
onset of cardiovascular problems and also will improve the
chances of surviving a heart attack. According to the
Department of Health and Human Services, the optimal time
for aerobic exercises is at least 150 minutes of moderate
aerobic activity.
Anaerobic
Describes exercise that does not require oxygen to
produce the necessary energy (ATP) to carry out the activity.
By contrast, the intensity of anaerobic exercise is so
high that oxygen cannot be delivered and utilized to produce
energy. Because energy production is limited in the absence of
oxygen, anaerobic activities can be carried out for only short
periods—2 to 3 minutes. The higher the intensity of the activity,
the shorter the duration.
Examples are gymnastics, track and field, swimming-
among others.
Aerobic ATP Production
Utilises fats, carbohydrate and sometimes proteins for
re-synthesising ATP for energy use. Aerobic system
produces far more ATP than either of the other energy systems
but it produces the ATP much more slowly, therefore it cannot
fuel intense exercise that demands the fast production of ATP.
The process occurs in three stages: Aerobic
glycolysis (slow glycolysis), Krebs cycle (also known as the
citric acid cycle), and Electron transport chain. Total ATP
produced is 38 molecules.
The body uses aerobic metabolism for energy
throughout the day to fuel regular activity by the cells, muscles,
and organs. The only byproducts of the process of aerobic
metabolism of carbohydrates are carbon dioxide and water.
Your body disposes of these by-products by breathing,
sweating and urinating.
Anaerobic ATP Production
It is the transformation of glucose to lactate when
limited amounts of oxygen (O2) are available.
Anaerobic glycolysis is only an effective means of
energy production during short, intense exercise, providing
energy for a period ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes.
The anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system is
dominant from about 10–30 seconds during a maximal effort. It
replenishes very quickly over this period and produces 2 ATP
molecules per glucose molecule.
Lactic acid is a by-product of anaerobic respiration.
When your muscles use anaerobic metabolism, lactic acid is
produced in your muscle cells. With moderate intensity
exercise, it is able to diffuse out of the cells, but with vigorous
muscle contractions it builds up. As you build up more and
more lactic acid, your muscles burn and are fatigued.
ATP
This compound provides the energy for physical
activity, body functions, and maintenance of a constant internal
equilibrium. During physical exertion, more ATP is needed to
perform the activity.
ATP is the form of energy your body uses to perform
bodily functions. ATP is a high-energy containing molecule,
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and it might help if you think of ATP as your body's fuel, much
like gas is the fuel used by your car.
The structure of ATP has an ordered carbon
compound as a backbone, but the part that is really critical is
the phosphorous part - the triphosphate. Three phosphorous
groups are connected by oxygens to each other, and there are
also side oxygens connected to the phosphorous atoms.
phosphate molecules.
Carbohydrates, Protein, Nucleic Acid and Fats
(Macromolecules), raw energy.
Lactic Acid
This energy comes from glucose through a process
called glycolysis, in which glucose is broken down or
metabolized into a substance called pyruvate through a series
of steps. But when oxygen is limited, the body temporarily
converts pyruvate into a substance called lactate, which allows
glucose breakdown—and thus energy production—to continue.
The working muscle cells can continue this type of
anaerobic energy production at high rates for one to three
minutes, during which time lactate can accumulate to high
levels.
Contrary to popular opinion, lactate or, as it is often
called, lactic acid buildup is not responsible for the muscle
soreness felt in the days following strenuous exercise. Rather,
the production of lactate and other metabolites during extreme
exertion results in the burning sensation often felt in active
muscles.
This often painful sensation also gets us to stop
overworking the body, thus forcing a recovery period in which
the body clears the lactate and other metabolites.
Energy Systems
ATP-PC System
· ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate, while PC
stands for Phosphocreatine. ATP synthesizes to ADP and
resynthesizes to ATP with the help of PC molecules and
Creatine Kinase.
These reactions take place very quickly inside the
muscles, and because PC is stored in the muscles it is the first
energy system used during high intensity physical activity. The
muscles only store around 10 seconds worth of PC so any
physical activity that involves quick, short bursts of energy,
makes heavy use of the ATP-PC system. It takes around two
minutes for the body to replenish its PC stores.
Sports that uses much of this energy system: Field
Events (shot put, discus, javelin), Golf Swing, Gymnastics
Lactic Acid System
This system breaks down carbohydrate, a fuel in
limited supply in the body, to produce medium amounts of
power for medium amounts of time. The energy is produced
without oxygen using carbohydrate > sugar > glucose >
glycogen > ATP.
Regardless of how long an effort is, carbohydrate is
always initially broken down through a chemical reaction called
anaerobic glycolysis. Oxygen is not required for this reaction
and whilst only about 5% (2 ATP molecules) of the energy
potential of a glucose molecule can be realised the energy is
liberated quickly, so this energy system is well suited to high
intensity efforts greater than 10 seconds to 2 minutes.
Its by-product, lactic acid, comes from the breakdown
of the glucose released from the muscles. Lactate is not a
waste product but is actually an important part of anaerobic
and aerobic metabolism.
Sports that uses much of this energy system:
Swimming, Skiing
Oxygen System
In this phase, as the term indicates you are using
oxygen to fuel the breakdown of carbohydrates first, free fatty
acids second and if the exercise continues long enough -
protein. Whereas, the previous systems have related to higher
intensity work (or power) the aerobic system is more for
moderate or low intensity work, but of longer duration.
It can draw on your stores of glucose but only for ~90 minutes
at max. It is only able to produce a relatively small amount of
energy, so cannot produce enough energy for any sprinting,
but can produce power for extended periods of time, making it
the predominant system used during any endurance ride.
Sports that uses much of this energy system: Running
(distance), Rowing, Skiing
Oxygen Debt
The additional oxygen that must be taken into the
body after vigorous exercise to restore all systems to their
normal states is called oxygen debt (Hill 1928).
Guidelines for Cardiorespiratory Exercise Prescription
Intensity of Exercise
For muscles to develop, they have to be overloaded
to a given point. Development of the cardiorespiratory system
also relies on the how intensity of exercise. Health and
cardiorespiratory fi tness benefits result when the person is
working between 40 and 85 percent of heart rate reserve
(HRR) combined with an appropriate duration and frequency of
training.
1. MHR 220 minus age (220 – age).
2. RHR = 30s × 2
3. HRR MHR – RHR
4. Calculate the TI at 40, 50, 60, and 85 percent by
multiplying
HRR by .40, .50, .60, and .85, respectively, and then
adding the RHR to each of these four figures. (for
example, 85% TI = HRR x.85 + RHR).
Example
The 40, 50, 60, and 85 percent TIs for a 20- year-old with RHR
of 68 bpm:
MHR: 220 – 20 200 bpm
RHR: 68 bpm
HRR: 200 – 68 132 bpm
40% TI (132 .40) 68 121 bpm
50% TI (132 .50) 68 134 bpm
60% TI (132 .60) 68 147 bpm
85% TI (132 .85) 68 180 bpm
Low-intensity cardiorespiratory training zone:
121 to 134 bpm
Moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory training zone:
134 to 147 bpm
Vigorous-intensity cardiorespiratory training zone:
147 to 180 bpm
Mode of Exercise
The mode, or type, of exercise that develops the
cardiorespiratory system has to be aerobic in nature.
Once a person has established his cardiorespiratory
training zone, any activity or combination of activities that will
get his heart rate up to that training zone and keep it there for
as long as you exercise will give him adequate development.
Examples are walking, jogging, stair climbing,
elliptical activity, aerobics, swimming, water aerobics, cross-
country skiing, rope skipping, cycling, racquetball.
The activity you choose should be based on your
personal preferences, what you most enjoy doing, and your
physical limitations.
Duration of Exercise
The amount of time invested in performing the
primary workout.
Depending on the intensity of the activity and the
health/fitness goals, all exercise sessions should last between
20 and 60 minutes. For adequate weight management
purposes, additional daily physical activity, up to 90 minutes,
may be necessary.
Frequency of Exercise
The number of times per week that one intends to
exercise.
Ideally, a person should engage in physical activity six
or seven times per week. To reap both the high fitness and
health fitness benefits of exercise, a person should do vigorous
exercise a minimum of three times per week for high fitness
maintenance, and three or four additional times per week in
moderate-intensity activities to maintain good health.
Starting and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory Fitness
Program
 Starter Phase - the goal is to build a base for further
physical conditioning.
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  Slow – Progression Phase – the goal is to increase
muscle strength beyond starter phase.
 Maintenance Phase – goal is to maintain the increase
in strength obtained during the first two phases.
Training Techniques
A. Long Slow Distance Training
It is a type of training most people associate with
cardio. It involves covering a relatively long distance at a slow
pace. It is low intensity and long duration.
B. Interval Training
It is a system of exercise in which a short period of
intense effort is followed by a specified recovery period
according to a prescribed ratio.
Maximal Oxygen Uptake (VO2max)
Maximum amount of oxygen the body is able to utilize
per minute of physical activity. It is the best indicator of
cardiorespiratory or aerobic fitness. Commonly expressed in
L/min or mL/kg/min
Resting Heart Rate (RHR)
It is the heart rate after a person has been sitting
quietly for 15 – 20 minutes.
To obtain the RHR, a person must count his/her pulse
for 15 seconds and multiply by 4.
RHR (bpm)=number of pulses for 15 sec×4
Principle of Individuality
Training concept holding that genetics plays a major
role in individual responses to exercise training and that these
differences must be considered when designing exercise
programs for different people.
Recovery Time
Amount of time the body takes to return to resting
level after exercise.

Formula of VO2max in L/min

(𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑯𝑹 × 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑺𝑽 × 𝒂 − 𝒗̅𝑶𝟐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇)
𝑽𝑶𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

Where:
maxHR – Maximal Heart Rate
maxSV – Maximal Stroke Volume
a-v ̅O2diff – Arterial-venous oxygen difference

Example
A person exercising maximally has a heart rate of 190
bpm and maximal stroke volume of 120 mL given that the
arterial-venous oxygen difference is 15 mL per cc and weighs
70 kg.
̅𝑶𝟐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇)
(𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑯𝑹×𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑺𝑽×𝒂−𝒗
VO2max =
𝟏𝟎𝟎,𝟎𝟎𝟎
VO2max =(190×120×15)/100,000
VO2max =342,000/100,000
VO2max =3.42 L/min

To convert L/min to mL/kg/min:

Multiply the value of L/min by 1000 and divide by the
person’s body weight in kilograms.

𝑳/𝒎𝒊𝒏×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
VO2max = 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈

Example
𝑳
×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒊𝒏
VO2max = 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈
VO2max =(3.42×1000)/70
VO2max =3420/70
VO2max = 48. 9 mL/kg/min

Tests to Estimate VO2max

1. 1. 5 Mile Run Test
2. 1 Mile Walk Test
3. Step Test
4. Astrand – Rhyming Test
5. 12 – Minute Swim

Maximal Heart Rate (maxHR)

Highest heart rate for a person, related primarily to
his/her age.

Formula of maxHR

maxHR=208-(0.7×age)

Example
Measuring the maximal heart rate of an 18 years old
boy.
maxHR=208-(0.7×age)
maxHR=208-(0.7×18)
maxHR=208-12.6
maxHR=195.4
maxHR=195 bpm