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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
HEAT TRANSFER
The transfer of heat is normally from a high temperature object to a lower temperature
object. Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories:
Conduction
Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions
with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction.
In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-
band electrons.
Convection
When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a
result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes buoyant and
displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction.
Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection.
Radiation
All materials radiate thermal energy in amounts determined by their temperature, where
the energy is carried by photons of light in the infrared and visible portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. When temperatures are uniform, the irradiative flux between objects
is in equilibrium and no net thermal energy is exchanged. The balance is upset when
temperatures are not uniform, and thermal energy is transported from surfaces of higher to
surfaces of lower temperature.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchanger is a device used for affecting the process of heat exchange between two
fluids that are at different temperatures. Heat exchangers are use full in many engineering
processes like those in refrigerating and air conditioning systems, power plants, food processing
industries, chemical reactors and space and aeronautical applications.
A Heat Exchanger in which two fluids exchange heat by coming in direct contact is
called a direct heat exchanger. Examples of this type are open feed water heaters and jet
condensers. Recuperators (closed type exchangers) are heat exchangers in which fluids are
separated by a wall. The wall me be a simple plane wall or a tube or a complex configuration
involving fins, baffles and multi-pass of tubes.
The temperature and pressure levels, as well as differences often impose several
problems. The corrosiveness, toxicity and scale forming tendency in addition to thermal
properties of substances must be considered. There are also economic considerations, which
include factor such as initial cost of the exchanger, necessary space, and required life of the unit
cases of maintenance.
Parallel and counter flow provides alternative arrangements for certain specialized
applications. In parallel flow both the hot and cold streams enter the heat exchanger at the same
end and travel to the opposite end in parallel streams. Energy is transferred along the length
from the hot to the cold fluid so the outlet temperatures asymptotically approach each other. In
a counter flow arrangement, the two streams enter at opposite ends of the heat exchanger and
flow in parallel but opposite directions. Temperatures within the two streams tend to approach
one another in a nearly linearly fashion resulting in a much more uniform heating pattern.
Shown below the heat exchangers are representations of the axial temperature profiles for each.
Parallel flow results in rapid initial rates of heat exchange near the entrance, but heat transfer
rates rapidly decrease as the temperatures of the two streams approach one another. This leads
to higher exergy loss during heat exchange. Counter flow provides for relatively uniform
temperature differences and, consequently, lead toward relatively uniform heat rates throughout
the length of the unit.
Parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers are the basic heat exchanger flow arrangements.
In a double pipe heat exchanger a parallel flow can be maintained by having the fluids
entrance and exit on either side of the heat exchanger. Both the fluids will enter at different
temperatures but they will exit at same temperature. This heat exchanger requires large surface
area. In parallel flow heat exchanger the initial heating rate is very high and is used where the
tube walls are to be developed with their temperature.
In this type of heat exchanger the hot fluid enters from one side and the cold fluid enters
from other side. A double pipe heat exchanger is used in type of heat exchanger. It is most
commonly used is liquid to liquid type. It is most efficient type of heat exchanger. Counter flow
heat exchangers have larger LMTD value and also greater potential recovery. This permits even
a smaller area of heat exchange.
Cross flow:
These types of heat exchangers are found in car radiators and air conditioning systems
where most of application is found. The air passing through the evaporator coils is cooled by a
cold refrigerant present in it. Gas and liquid media heat transfer takes place mostly in this type
of heat exchangers.
Cross/Counter flow
In industrial heat exchangers, hybrids of the above flow types are often found.
Examples of these are combined crossflow/counter flow heat exchangers and multi pass
flow heat exchangers.
Heat exchangers are classified according to transfer processes into indirect- and direct
contact types.
In an indirect-contact heat exchanger, the fluid streams remain separate and the heat
transfers continuously through an impervious dividing wall or into and out of a wall in a
transient manner. Thus, ideally, there is no direct contact between thermally interacting fluids.
This type of heat exchanger also referred to as a surface heat exchanger, can be further classified
into direct-transfer type, storage type, and fluidized-bed exchangers.
In a direct-contact exchanger, two fluid streams come into direct contact, exchange heat,
and are then separated. Common applications of a direct-contact exchanger involve mass
transfer in addition to heat transfer, such as in evaporative cooling and rectification; applications
involving only sensible heat transfer are rare. The enthalpy of phase change in such an
exchanger generally represents a significant portion of the total energy transfer. The phase
change generally enhances the heat transfer rate. Compared to indirect contact recuperators and
regenerators, in direct-contact heat exchangers, (1) very high heat transfer rates are achievable,
(2) the exchanger construction is relatively inexpensive, and (3) the fouling problem is generally
nonexistent, due to the absence of a heat surface (wall) between the two fluids. However, the
applications are limited to those cases where a direct contact of two fluid streams is permissible.
The design theory for these transfer exchangers is beyond the scope of this book and is not
covered. These exchangers may be further classified into Immiscible Fluid Exchangers, Gas–
Liquid Exchangers, and Liquid–Vapor Exchangers.
RECUPERATORS
the turbine inlet temperature. By recovering some of the energy usually lost as waste heat, the
recuperator can make a heat engine or gas turbine significantly more efficient.
REGENERATOR
A regenerative heat exchanger, or more commonly a regenerator, is a type of heat
exchanger where heat from the hot fluid is intermittently stored in a thermal storage medium
before it is transferred to the cold fluid. To accomplish this the hot fluid is brought into contact
with the heat storage medium, then the fluid is displaced with the cold fluid, which absorbs the
heat. In regenerative heat exchangers, the fluid on either side of the heat exchanger can be the
same fluid. The fluid may go through an external processing step, and then it is flowed back
through the heat exchanger in the opposite direction for further processing. Usually the
application will use this process cyclically or repetitively.
Regenerative heating was one of the most important technologies developed during the
Industrial Revolution when it was used in the hot blast process on blast furnaces, It was later
used in glass and steel making, to increase the efficiency of open hearth furnaces, and in high
pressure boilers and chemical and other applications, where it continues to be important today.
Most processes of heating, cooling, heat recovery and heat rejection involve transfer of
heat between two fluids. Hence, two-fluid heat exchangers are the most common. Three fluid
heat exchangers are widely used in cryogenics and some chemical processes (e.g., air separation
systems, a helium–air separation unit, purification and liquefaction of hydrogen, ammonia gas
synthesis). Heat exchangers with as many as 12 fluid streams have been used in some chemical
process applications.
Another type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. These exchangers are
composed of many thin, slightly separated plates that have very large surface areas and small
fluid flow passages for heat transfer. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the
plate-type heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers
of this type are called plate-and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are
normally of the gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are
many types of permanently bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip brazed, vacuum-brazed,
and welded plate varieties, and they are often specified for closed loop applications such as
refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that are used, and in the
configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped with "chevron", dimpled, or other
patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves.
When compared to shell and tube exchangers, the stacked-plate arrangement typically
has lower volume and cost. Another difference between the two is that plate exchangers
typically serve low to medium pressure fluids, compared to medium and high pressures of shell
and tube. A third and important difference is that plate exchangers employ more counter current
flow rather than cross current flow, which allows lower approach temperature differences, high
temperature changes, and increased efficiencies.
In this project we are using u-bend double pipe heat exchanger. The double-pipe heat
exchanger is one of the simplest types of heat exchangers. It is called a double-pipe exchanger
because one fluid flows inside a pipe and the other fluid flows between that pipe and another
pipe that surrounds the first. This is a concentric tube construction. Flow in a double-pipe heat
exchanger can be co-current or counter-current. There are two flow configurations: co-current
is when the flow of the two streams is in the same direction, counter current is when the flow
of the streams is in opposite directions As conditions in the pipes change: inlet temperatures,
flow rates, fluid properties, fluid composition, etc., the amount of heat transferred also changes.
This transient behavior leads to change in process temperatures, which will lead to a point where
the temperature distribution becomes steady. When heat is beginning to be transferred, this
changes the temperature of the fluids. Until these temperatures reach a steady state their
behavior is dependent on time.
In this double-pipe heat exchanger a hot process fluid flowing through the inner pipe
transfers its heat to cooling water flowing in the outer pipe. The system is in steady state until
conditions change, such as flow rate or inlet temperature. These changes in conditions cause
the temperature distribution to change with time until a new steady state is reached. The new
steady state will be observed once the inlet and outlet temperatures for the process and coolant
fluid become stable. In reality, the temperatures will never be completely stable, but with large
enough changes in inlet temperatures or flow rates a relative steady state can be experimentally
observed.
Advantages
Double pipe heat exchangers can handle high pressures and temperatures well.
When they are operating in true counter flow, they can operate with a temperature cross.
The cold side outlet temperature is higher than the hot side outlet temperature.
Very simple to construct
Very easy of operation
U-type or hairpin constructions handle differential thermal expansions.
Disadvantages
The use of two single flow areas leads to relatively low flow rates and moderate
temperature differences.
Can’t be used in handling dirty fluids. (Choking problem)(Used for only clean fluids)
Applications
A primary advantage of a hairpin or double pipe heat exchanger is that it can be operated
in a true counter flow pattern, which is the most efficient flow pattern.
It will give the highest overall heat transfer coefficient for the double pipe heat
exchanger design.
To select an appropriate heat exchanger, the system designers (or equipment vendors)
would firstly consider the design limitations for each heat exchanger type. Though cost is often
the primary criterion, several other selection criteria are important:
Choosing the right heat exchanger requires some knowledge of the different heat
exchanger types, as well as the environment where the unit must operate. Typically in the
manufacturing industry, several differing types of heat exchangers are used for just one process
or system to derive the final product. For example, a kettle heat exchanger for preheating, a
double pipe heat exchanger for the ‘carrier’ fluid and a plate and frame heat exchanger for final
cooling. With sufficient knowledge of heat exchanger types and operating requirements, an
appropriate selection can be made to optimize the process.
CHAPTER 2
HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN
HEAT EXCHANGERS WITH INSERTS
Introduction
The heat exchangers have an important role in the energy storage and recovery. Due to
the development of modern technology, the heat exchangers required in various industries for
high heat-flux cooling to the level of megawatt per meter square. At this level, cooling with
conventional fluids such as water and ethylene glycol and so forth, are challenging. Hence, it is
necessary to increase the heat transfer performance of working fluids in the heat transfer
devices. Heat transfer augmentation techniques (passive, active and compound) are commonly
used in areas such as process industries, heating and cooling in evaporators, thermal power
plants, air-conditioning equipment, refrigerators, radiators for space vehicles, automobiles, etc.
The rate of heat transfer can be increased passively by increasing the surface area, roughness,
and by changing the boundary conditions. The active method involves addition of nano sized,
high thermal conductivity, and metallic powder to the base fluid, to increase the heat transfer
rate. Such a fluid is termed as nano fluid. Passive techniques, where inserts are used in the flow
passage to augment the heat transfer rate, are best suited compared to active techniques.
Because the insert manufacturing process is simple and these techniques can be easily applied
in an existing application.
In many literature gap shows the experimentation on perforated twisted insert like in
experimental analysis of heat transfer characteristics using inserts in tubes. Heat transfer
enhancement techniques refer to different methods used to increase rate of heat transfer without
affecting much the overall performance of the system. Heat transfer augmentation techniques
refer to different methods used to increase these techniques and broadly divided in two groups,
passive and active. Active techniques involve some external power input for the enhancement
of heat transfer.
Passive heat transfer augmentation method does not use any external power input. One
of the ways to enhance heat transfer performance in passive method is to increase the effective
surface area and residence time of the heat transfer fluid. Use of this technique causes the swirl
in the bulk of the fluids and disturbs the actual boundary layer so as to increase surface area,
given time and similarly heat transfer coefficient in existing system. Inserts refer to the
additional arrangements made as an obstacle to fluid flow so as to augment heat transfer rate.
PASSIVE TECHNIQUES
These techniques generally use surface or geometrical modifications to the flow channel
by incorporating inserts or additional devices. They promote higher heat transfer coefficients
by disturbing or altering the existing flow behavior (except for extended surfaces) which also
leads to increase in the pressure drop. In case of extended surfaces, effective heat transfer area
on the side of the extended surface is increased. Passive techniques hold the advantage over the
active techniques as they do not require any direct input of external power. Heat transfer
augmentation by these techniques can be achieved by using:
Treated Surfaces
This technique involves using pits, cavities or scratches like alteration in the surfaces of
the heat transfer area which may be continuous or discontinuous. They are primarily used for
boiling and condensing duties.
Rough surfaces
These surface modifications particularly create the disturbance in the viscous sublayer
region. These techniques are applicable primarily in single phase turbulent flows.
Extended surfaces
Plain fins are one of the earliest types of extended surfaces used extensively in many heat
exchangers. Finned surfaces have become very popular now a day’s owing to their ability to
disturb the flow field apart from increasing heat transfer area.
Coiled tubes:
In these devices secondary flows or vortices are generated due to curvature of the coils which
promotes higher heat transfer coefficient in single phase flows and in most regions of boiling.
This leads to relatively more compact heat exchangers.
ACTIVE TECHNIQUES
These techniques are more complex from the use and design point of view as the method
requires some external power input to cause the desired flow modification and improvement in
the rate of heat transfer. It finds limited application because of the need of external power in
many practical applications. In comparison to the passive techniques, these techniques have not
shown much potential as it is difficult to provide external power input in many cases. Various
active techniques are as follows:
Mechanical Aids:
Examples of the mechanical aids include rotating tube exchangers and scrapped surface
heat and mass exchangers. These devices stir the fluid by mechanical means or by rotating the
surface.
Surface vibration:
They have been used primarily in single phase flows. A low or high frequency is applied to
facilitate the surface vibrations which results in higher convective heat transfer coefficients.
Fluid vibration:
Instead of applying vibrations to the surface, pulsations are created in the fluid itself.
This kind of vibration enhancement technique is employed for single phase flows.
Electrostatic fields:
Electrostatic field like electric or magnetic fields or a combination of the two from DC
or AC sources is applied in heat exchanger systems which induces greater bulk mixing, force
convection or electromagnetic pumping to enhance heat transfer. This technique is applicable
in heat transfer process involving dielectric fluids.
Injection:
In this technique, same or other fluid is injected into the main bulk fluid through a
porous heat transfer interface or upstream of the heat transfer section. This technique is used
for single phase heat transfer process.
Suction:
This technique is used for both two phase heat transfer and single phase heat transfer
process. Two phase nucleate boiling involves the vapour removal through a porous heated
surface whereas in single phase flows fluid is withdrawn through the porous heated surface.
Jet impingement:
This technique is applicable for both two phase and single phase heat transfer processes.
In this method, fluid is heated or cooled perpendicularly or obliquely to the heat transfer surface.
COMPOUND TECHNIQUES
When any two or more techniques i.e. passive and active may be employed
simultaneously to enhance the heat transfer of any device, which is greater than that of produced
by any of those techniques separately, the term known as Compound enhancement technique.
From the above techniques the passive techniques are simple because these techniques
generally use simple surface or geometrical modifications to the flow channel by incorporating
by inserts or additional devices. It does not need any external power input.
INSERTS
The Passive heat transfer augmentation methods does not need any external power
input. In the convective heat transfer one of the ways to enhance heat transfer rate is to increase
the effective surface area and residence time of the heat transfer fluids. By Using this technique
causes the swirl in the bulk of the fluids and disturbs the actual boundary layers which increase
effective surface area, residence time and simultaneously heat transfer coefficient increases in
an existing system. Methods generally used are, extended surface, displaced enhancements
devices, rough surfaces surface tension devices, Inserts.
Inserts requires additional arrangements to make to fluid flow which enhance and
augment the heat transfer. The types of inserts are: twisted tape, wire coils, ribs, baffles, plates,
helical screw insert, mesh inserts, convergent – divergent conical rings, conical rings etc.
TYPES OF INSERTS
Inserts are so many types which are classified based on their shapes and functions.
Some important types of inserts are explained s follows
Swirl flow devices causes swirl flow or secondary flow in the fluid .A variety of devices
can be employed to cause this effect which includes tube inserts, altered tube flow
arrangements, and duct geometry modifications. Dimples, ribs, helically twisted tubes are
examples of duct geometry modifications. Tube inserts include twisted-tape inserts, helical strip
or cored screw–type inserts and wire coils. Periodic tangential fluid injection is type of altered
tube flow arrangement. Among the swirl flow devices, twisted- tape inserts had been very
popular owing to their better thermal hydraulic performance in single phase, boiling and
condensation forced convection, as well as design and application issues.
Twisted tape inserts increases the heat transfer coefficients with relatively small
increase in the pressure drop. They are known to be one of the earliest swirl flow devices
employed in the single phase heat transfer processes. Because of the design and application
convenience they have been widely used over decades to generate the swirl flow in the fluid.
Size of the new heat exchanger can be reduced significantly by using twisted tapes in the new
heat exchanger for a specified heat load. Thus it provides an economic advantage over the fixed
cost of the equipment.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
CMRCET 14
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
Twisted tapes can be also used for retrofitting purpose. It can increase the heat duties of
the existing shell and tube heat exchangers. Twisted tapes with multi tube bundles are easy to
fit and remove, thus enables tube side cleaning in fouling situations. Inserts such as twisted
tape, wire coils, ribs and dimples mainly obstruct the flow and separate the primary flow from
the secondary flows. This causes the enhancement of the heat transfer in the tube flow. Inserts
reduce the effective flow area thereby increasing the flow velocity. This also leads to increase
in the pressure drop and in some cases causes’ significant secondary flow. Secondary flow
creates swirl and the mixing of the fluid elements and hence enhances the temperature gradient,
which ultimately leads to a high heat transfer coefficient.
COILED TUBES
A coiled or curved tube causes secondary flows due to continuous change in the bulk
velocity vector at the curve surface of the duct. Coiled tubes are used in domestic water heaters,
chemical process reactors, solar heating system, industrial & marine boilers, kidney dialysis
devices and blood oxygenators. Secondary flows are generated due the centrifugal force on the
fluid motion, induced because of the curvature of the coils. This curvature induced flow
characteristics of the coiled tubes depends on the geometrical attributes like radius of curvature,
helical number etc.
Displaced enhancement devices displace the fluid elements from the core of the channel
to heated or cooled surfaces and vice versa .Displaced enhancement devices include inserts like
static mixer elements (e.g. Kenics, Sulzer), metallic mesh, and discs, wire matrix inserts, rings
or balls. Different types of conical ring inserts used in circular tubes. These inserts do not alter
heat transfer surface and provide a lot of scope for inter-mixing of the fluid particles. Disks
promote higher heat transfer with moderate increase in friction factor whereas friction factor is
very high for rings and round balls. Burgles found that pressure drop in the turbulent flows are
extremely high. Most of the devices are suitable for laminar flow only. The main objective
behind the use of static mixers is to increase the fluid mixing, so its application is limited to
chemical processes with heat transfer only.
Heatex wire matrix tube insert is one of the commercially available new displaced
enhancement devices as shown in Fig.2.4.Degree of the disturbance and mixing depends on the
coil matrix densities attached to core rod. Megrelian carried out the experiments with spiral
brush inserts for turbulent flows and found out that heat transfer coefficient can be improved as
much as 8.5 times that in a smooth tube, but pressure drop was very high.
TUBE INSERTS
In a refinery furnace, heat exchanger is a vital component required for preheating the
throughput before it reaches the furnace, thus recovering a significant portion of energy
generated in the refinery. Without heat exchangers refining cost will be substantially
higher. The throughput is made to flow through a number of heat exchangers arranged
as cold pre heat train and hot pre heat train before entering the furnace.
It is essential that all heat exchangers must function near optimally in order for the
throughput to achieve the desired CIT (coil inlet temperature) at furnace entry.
Heat exchangers are prone to internal fouling (tube side) and it is more so when the
crude is (bitumen bearing) in nature. This problem will sometimes be so severe that a
shut down needs to be taken before the scheduled end of run.
It is possible to achieve the above, by making the flow of throughput more turbulent
(less laminar). Thus, tube inserts are employed to simultaneously carry out two
functions:
To enhance turbulence in the throughput flow (increase the Reynold’s Number)
Through mechanical action, inhibit the rate of deposition as well as restrict it to a low
level
Tube inserts are used to improve the heat transfer efficiency by cleaning up the existing
fouling and prevention of fouling to improve the heat transfer.
SPIRELF
TURBOTAL
FIXOTAL
For experimentation, the inserts made from aluminum rods with 1m length,15 mm
pitch,2.5 mm depth were used.
1.Plain twisted tape
2.cut twisted tape
ALUMINIUM ROD
With copper and iron as the principle containments, achieve optimum mechanical
properties typical (tensile property) of 70-80Mpa.
ALUMINIUM 99%
SILICON (0.2-0.3%)
COPPER (0.2%-.0.3%)
IRON (0.8%-0.7%)
Modulus of
Elasticity 71 GPa
Thermal
Conductivity 222 W/m.K
Electrical
Resistivity 0.0282 x10^-6 Ω .m
Density of Aluminum
Aluminum has a density around one third that of steel or copper making it one of the
lightest commercially available metals. The resultant high strength to weight ratio makes it an
important structural material allowing increased payloads or fuel savings for transport
industries in particular.
Strength of Aluminum
Pure aluminum doesn’t have a high tensile strength. However, the addition of alloying
elements like manganese, silicon, copper and magnesium can increase the strength properties
of aluminum and produce an alloy with properties tailored to particular applications.
Aluminum is well suited to cold environments. It has the advantage over steel in that
its’ tensile strength increases with decreasing temperature while retaining its toughness. Steel
on the other hand becomes brittle at low temperatures.
Valency 3
Crystal Structure FCC
Melting Point (°C) 660.2
CHAPTER-3
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
COMPUTATIONL FLUID DYNAMICS
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the use of applied mathematics, physics and computational
software to visualize how a gas or liquid flows -- as well as how the gas or liquid affects objects as
it flows past. Computational fluid dynamics is based on the Navier-Stokes equations. These
equations describe how the velocity, pressure, temperature, and density of a moving fluid are related.
Computational fluid dynamics has been around since the early 20th century and many people are
familiar with it as a tool for analyzing air flow around cars and aircraft. As the cooling infrastructure
of server rooms has increased in complexity, CFD has also become a useful tool in the data center for
analyzing thermal properties and modeling air flow. CFD software requires information about the
size, content and layout of the data center. It uses this information to create a 3D mathematical model
on a grid that can be rotated and viewed from different angles. CFD modeling can help an
administrator identify hot spots and learn where cold air is being wasted or air is mixing.
Simply by changing variables, the administrator can visualize how cold air will flow through the
data center under a number of different circumstances. This knowledge can help the administrator
optimize the efficiency of an existing cooling infrastructure and predict the effectiveness of a
particular layout of IT equipment. For example, if an administrator wanted to take one rack of hard
drive storage and split the hard drives over two racks, a CFD program could simulate the change and
help the administrator understand what adjustments would be need to be made to deal with the
additional heat load before any time or money has been spent.
prediction by numerical process", set the basis for modern CFD and numerical meteorology. In fact,
early CFD calculations during the 1940s using ENIAC used methods close to those in Richardson's
1922 book.
The computer power available paced development of three-dimensional methods. Probably the first
work using computers to model fluid flow, as governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, was
performed at Los Alamos National Lab, in the T3 group. This group was led by Francis H. Harlow,
who is widely considered as one of the pioneers of CFD. From 1957 to late 1960s, this group
developed a variety of numerical methods to simulate transient two-dimensional fluid flows, such
as Particle-in-cell method (Harlow, 1957), Fluid-in-cell method (Gentry, Martin and Daly,
1966), Vorticity stream function method (Jake Fromm, 1963), and Marker-and-cell method (Harlow
and Welch, 1965). Fromm's vorticity-stream-function method for 2D, transient, incompressible flow
was the first treatment of strongly contorting incompressible flows in the world.
The next step was the Euler equations, which promised to provide more accurate solutions of
transonic flows. The methodology used by Jameson in his three-dimensional FLO57 code (1981)
was used by others to produce such programs as Lockheed's TEAM program and IAI/Analytical
Methods' MGAERO program. MGAERO is unique in being a structured Cartesian mesh code, while
most other such codes use structured body-fitted grids (with the exception of NASA's highly
successful CART3D code, Lockheed's SPLITFLOW code and Georgia Tech's NASCART-
GT). Antony Jameson also developed the three-dimensional AIRPLANE code which made use of
unstructured tetrahedral grids.
In the two-dimensional realm, Mark Drela and Michael Giles, then graduate students at MIT,
developed the ISES Euler program (actually a suite of programs) for airfoil design and analysis. This
code first became available in 1986 and has been further developed to design, analyze and optimize
single or multi-element airfoils, as the MSES program. MSES sees wide use throughout the world.
A derivative of MSES, for the design and analysis of airfoils in a cascade, is MISES, developed by
Harold "Guppy" Youngren while he was a graduate student at MIT.
The Navier–Stokes equations were the ultimate target of development. Two-dimensional codes, such
as NASA Ames' ARC2D code first emerged. A number of three-dimensional codes were developed
(ARC3D, OVERFLOW, CFL3D are three successful NASA contributions), leading to numerous
commercial packages
METHODOLOGY
In all of these approaches the same basic procedure is followed.
During preprocessing
The geometry and physical bounds of the problem can be defined using computer
aided design (CAD). From there, data can be suitably processed (cleaned-up) and the
fluid volume (or fluid domain) is extracted.
The volume occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the mesh). The mesh
may be uniform or non-uniform, structured or unstructured, consisting of a
combination of hexahedral, tetrahedral, prismatic, pyramidal or polyhedral elements.
The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of fluid motion
+ enthalpy + radiation + species conservation
Boundary conditions are defined. This involves specifying the fluid behavior and properties
at all bounding surfaces of the fluid domain. For transient problems, the initial conditions are
also defined.
The simulation is started and the equations are solved iteratively as a steady-state or
transient.
Finally, a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of the resulting solution.
Discretization methods
The stability of the selected discretization is generally established numerically rather than
analytically as with simple linear problems. Special care must also be taken to ensure that the
discretization handles discontinuous solutions gracefully. The Euler equations and Navier–Stokes
equations both admit shocks, and contact surfaces.
Some of the discretization methods being used are:
The finite volume method (FVM) is a common approach used in CFD codes, as it has an advantage
in memory usage and solution speed, especially for large problems, high Reynolds number turbulent
flows, and source term dominated flows (like combustion).
In the finite volume method, the governing partial differential equations (typically the Navier-
Stokes equations, the mass and energy conservation equations, and the turbulence equations) are
recast in a conservative form, and then solved over discrete control volumes.
This discretization guarantees the conservation of fluxes through a particular control volume. The
finite volume equation yields governing equations in the form,
where Q is the vector of conserved variables, F is the vector of fluxes (see Euler
equations or Navier–Stokes equations), V is the volume of the control volume element,A and is
the surface area of the control volume element.
The finite element method (FEM) is used in structural analysis of solids, but is also applicable to
fluids. However, the FEM formulation requires special care to ensure a conservative solution. The
FEM formulation has been adapted for use with fluid dynamics governing equations. Although
FEM must be carefully formulated to be conservative, it is much more stable than the finite volume
approach. However, FEM can require more memory and has slower solution times than the FVM.
In this method, a weighted residual equation is formed:
where Ri is the equation residual at an element vertex I , Q is the conservation equation expressed
on an element basis, Wi is the weight factor, and Ve is the volume of the element.
The finite difference method (FDM) has historical importance and is simple to program. It is
currently only used in few specialized codes, which handle complex geometry with high accuracy
and efficiency by using embedded boundaries or overlapping grids (with the solution interpolated
across each grid)
where Q is the vector of conserved variables, and F,G , and H are the fluxes in the x ,y ,
and z directions respectively.
Turbulence models
In computational modeling of turbulent flows, one common objective is to obtain a model that can
predict quantities of interest, such as fluid velocity, for use in engineering designs of the system
being modeled. For turbulent flows, the range of length scales and complexity of phenomena
involved in turbulence make most modeling approaches prohibitively expensive; the resolution
required to resolve all scales involved in turbulence is beyond what is computationally possible.
The primary approach in such cases is to create numerical models to approximate unresolved
phenomena. This section lists some commonly used computational models for turbulent flows.
Turbulence models can be classified based on computational expense, which corresponds to the
range of scales that are modeled versus resolved (the more turbulent scales that are resolved, the
finer the resolution of the simulation, and therefore the higher the computational cost). If a majority
or all of the turbulent scales are not modeled, the computational cost is very low, but the tradeoff
comes in the form of decreased accuracy.
In addition to the wide range of length and time scales and the associated computational cost, the
governing equations of fluid dynamics contain a non-linear convection term and a non-linear and
non-local pressure gradient term. These nonlinear equations must be solved numerically with the
appropriate boundary and initial conditions.
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations are the oldest approach to turbulence
modeling. An ensemble version of the governing equations is solved, which introduces
new apparent stresses known as Reynolds stresses. This adds a second order tensor of unknowns
for which various models can provide different levels of closure. It is a common misconception that
the RANS equations do not apply to flows with a time-varying mean flow because these equations
are 'time-averaged'. In fact, statistically unsteady (or non-stationary) flows can equally be treated.
This is sometimes referred to as URANS. There is nothing inherent in Reynolds averaging to
preclude this, but the turbulence models used to close the equations are valid only as long as the
time over which these changes in the mean occur is large compared to the time scales of the
turbulent motion containing most of the energy.
RANS models can be divided into two broad approaches:
This method involves using an algebraic equation for the Reynolds stresses which include
determining the turbulent viscosity, and depending on the level of sophistication of the model,
solving transport equations for determining the turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation. Models
include k-ε (Launder and Spalding), Mixing Length Model (Prandtl), and Zero Equation Model
(Cebeci and Smith). The models available in this approach are often referred to by the number of
transport equations associated with the method. For example, the Mixing Length model is a "Zero
Equation" model because no transport equations are solved; the k-€ is a "Two Equation" model
because two transport equations (one for Ⱪ and one for €) are solved.
This approach attempts to actually solve transport equations for the Reynolds stresses. This means
introduction of several transport equations for all the Reynolds stresses and hence this approach is
much more costly in CPU effort
not use a linear, low-pass filter. Instead, the filtering operation is based on wavelets, and the filter
can be adapted as the flow field evolves. Farge and Schneider tested the CVS method with two flow
configurations and showed that the coherent portion of the flow exhibited the -40/3 energy spectrum
exhibited by the total flow, and corresponded to coherent structures (vortex tubes), while the
incoherent parts of the flow composed homogeneous background noise, which exhibited no
organized structures. Goldstein and Vasilyev applied the FDV model to large eddy simulation, but
did not assume that the wavelet filter completely eliminated all coherent motions from the sub filter
scales. By employing both LES and CVS filtering, they showed that the SFS dissipation was
dominated by the SFS flow field's coherent portion.
PDF methods
Probability density function (PDF) methods for turbulence, first introduced by Lundgren, are based
on tracking the one-point PDF of the velocity, fv(v,x,t), which gives the probability of the velocity
at point x being between v and dv. This approach is analogous to the kinetic theory of gases, in
which the macroscopic properties of a gas are described by a large number of particles. PDF methods
are unique in that they can be applied in the framework of a number of different turbulence models;
the main differences occur in the form of the PDF transport equation. For example, in the context
of large eddy simulation, the PDF becomes the filtered PDF.PDF methods can also be used to
describe chemical reactions, and are particularly useful for simulating chemically reacting flows
because the chemical source term is closed and does not require a model. The PDF is commonly
tracked by using Lagrangian particle methods; when combined with large eddy simulation, this leads
to a Langerin equation for sub filter particle evolution
Vortex method
The vortex method is a grid-free technique for the simulation of turbulent flows. It uses vortices as
the computational elements, mimicking the physical structures in turbulence. Vortex methods were
developed as a grid-free methodology that would not be limited by the fundamental smoothing
effects associated with grid-based methods. To be practical, however, vortex methods require means
for rapidly computing velocities from the vortex elements – in other words they require the solution
to a particular form of the N-body problem (in which the motion of N objects is tied to their mutual
influences). A breakthrough came in the late 1980s with the development of the fast multipole
method (FMM), an algorithm by V. Rokhlin (Yale) and L. Greengard (Courant Institute). This
breakthrough paved the way to practical computation of the velocities from the vortex elements and
is the basis of successful algorithms. They are especially well-suited to simulating filamentary
motion, such as wisps of smoke, in real-time simulations such as video games, because of the fine
detail achieved using minimal computation.[52]
Software based on the vortex method offer a new means for solving tough fluid dynamics problems
with minimal user intervention.[citation needed] All that is required is specification of problem geometry
and setting of boundary and initial conditions. Among the significant advantages of this modern
technology;
It is practically grid-free, thus eliminating numerous iterations associated with RANS and LES.
All problems are treated identically. No modeling or calibration inputs are required.
Time-series simulations, which are crucial for correct analysis of acoustics, are possible.
The small scale and large scale are accurately simulated at the same time.
psilon models
The K-epsilon model is one of the most common turbulence models, although it just doesn't perform
well in cases of large adverse pressure gradients (Reference 4). It is a two equation model, that
means, it includes two extra transport equations to represent the turbulent properties of the flow.
This allows a two-equation model to account for history effects like convection and diffusion of
turbulent energy.
The first transported variable is turbulent kinetic energy, . The second transported variable in this
case is the turbulent dissipation, . It is the variable that determines the scale of the turbulence,
whereas the first variable, , determines the energy in the turbulence.
There are two major formulations of K-epsilon models (see References 2 and 3). That of Launder
and Sharma is typically called the "Standard" K-epsilon Model. The original impetus for the K-
epsilon model was to improve the mixing-length model, as well as to find an alternative to
algebraically prescribing turbulent length scales in moderate to high complexity flows.
As described in Reference 1, the K-epsilon model has been shown to be useful for free-shear layer
flows with relatively small pressure gradients. Similarly, for wall-bounded and internal flows, the
model gives good results only in cases where mean pressure gradients are small; accuracy has been
shown experimentally to be reduced for flows containing large adverse pressure gradients. One
might infer then, that the K-epsilon model would be an inappropriate choice for problems such as
inlets and compressors.
To calculate boundary conditions for these models see turbulence free-stream boundary conditions.
APPLICATIONS OF CFD
Aerospace
Architecture
Automotive
Civil engineering
Movies and computer graphics
Nuclear Thermal Hydraulics
Process industry
Semiconductor industry
Steel industry
Turbomachinery
Glass industry
Water and Wastewater
ADVANTAGES OF CFD
CHAPTER-4
MODELLING AND CFD ANALYSIS OF DOUBLE
PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
A double pipe heat exchanger is modelled using solid works 2016 modelling software.
The procedure follows as: -
Step 1
Selecting top plane and using required dimensions a solid inner shell tube is designed using extrude
command as shown below.
Step 2
Now for this inner tube a cavity is required for the insertion of smaller tubes, for this two cavities
are made using extrude cut command which is available in solid works as shown below.
Step 3
Inner u-tubes of required diameters from which the cold fluid flows is generated using sweep
command
Step 4
Final fluid domain of double pipe heat exchanger is shown below
MODELLING OF INSERTS
Step 1
A rectangle of h/d ratio is created and it should be swept of required length as shown below
Step 3
For cut twisted tape same procedure is followed with including a cut profile on the tape as shown
in below figure
Ansys workbench is opened and under Analysis system tree FLUENT is selected and dragged to
right side of free space to open FLUENT modular as shown below.
After importing geometry, required changes (creating solid domains to fluid) to it have to be
performed in design module as shown below
After updating the geometry from design modular to meshing section, named selections should be
created to identify boundary conditions in fluent solver. This is shown below
Step 5 – MESHING
The main part of CFD analysis is MESHING which is carried out after named selections. In this
project a unstructured tetrahedron mesh is performed. The procedure is shown below
After meshing the geometry, mesh file should be imported to setup module by double-clicking setup
under fluid flow tree. The solving type have to set as pressure based system in setup- general-
pressure based as shown below.
Since the Reynolds number is greater than 2000 the model has to be set has turbulence model k-
epsilon-standard wall treatment. Since the problem is based on heat transfer energy equation should
be activated as shown below figure.
Material selection has to be done from ansys fluent material data base. The fluid in this problem is
water where as solid materials are copper and steel for tubes and shell respectively. The below figure
gives the selection process.
In cell-zone condition everything is set to be fluid because in tubes and shell water is the working
Fluid. By double clicking the desired part shown in cell zone we can change the fluid to water.
In boundary conditions, for cold inlets say 3lpm(0.05kg/s) mass flow rate is given and this flow rate
is varied for different cases say (5lpm ,7lpm, 9lpm, 11lpm, 13lpm, 15lpm,) with 300c c inlet
temperature and for hot inlet 6lpm (0.1 kg/s) constant mass flow rate is maintained with 600c inlet
temperature. Outlets of the tube and shell is selected as pressure-outlet. The interface between shell
and tube is changed to coupled wall for conduction and convection through walls. For walls of shell
and tube 0.003 and 0.002 thickness and their corresponding materials are selected. The boundary
condition window is shown below.
The solution method is set to simple with pressure, momentum, turbulences energies with second
order. Which is shown in below figure.
To observe the temperature behavior while calculating solution a monitor plot is set as shown in
below figure.
For calculating the solution ansys assumes some initial guesses which is done by solution
initialization. For convince and better solution convergence criteria we use hybrid initialization as
shown below.
Final step of solution setup is to mention the number of iterations for solution convergence after this
step fluent will start to calculate at every iteration and checks is convergence criteria. This window
looks as shown below.
When calculation starts this are the residuals equations which are moving for convergence.
When solution converges, or reaches to constant residual criteria, the final step is to extract results,
visualize flow, plot contours and plotting graphs all these are carried out in ansys fluent
postprocessing also known as Results. To start postprocessing double click on the results under fluid
flow tree. The interface of postprocessing window is shown below
To visualize the total volume output of any variable, say temperature volume rendering is used. To
enable it double click on the option volume rendering on top of the window and select temperature
as variable and click ok. This is shown in below figure.
To visualize any variable intensity in between the models or at any section contours are most
advanced option. To activate contours one has to select an appropriate plane i.e. section where one
want to study the variable intensity. After selection of plane select contour option which is available
on top of the tool bar and select required variable and the plane is selected as location. Below figure
gives the clear idea.
To visualize the actual flow and its turbulence stream lines are used in postprocessing. To activate
this, click on stream line and select the inlets and outlets to give the flow direction and click apply.
This appears as shown below.
All the procedure is carried out in same way for the heat exchanger with twisted tape insert and cut
twist tape inserts.
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimental setup consists of a test section, flow meters, chiller, hot fluid tank, cold fluid tank,
pumps, bypass valve arrangement and u-tube manometer. The test section consists of a U-bend
double pipe heat exchanger; the inner tube copper and it has an inner diameter (ID) of 0.017m, and
the annulus tube is made of mild steel with an OD of 0.019 m. The total length of the inner tube is
1.5m and the bend is equidistant from both ends at a distance of 120mm; with radius of 60 mm. The
outside surface of the annulus tube is wounded with asbestos rope insulation to minimize the heat
loss from the test section to atmosphere. The inner tube is concentric to the annulus tube and fully
enclosed by it. The hot fluid is pumped through the annular region and the water/nanofluid flows
through the inner tube by using a pump, and are controlled with by-pass valves, the two flow meters
are used to measure the mass flow rate of cold fluid and hot fluid. Throughout the experiments the
mass flow rate of hot fluid through annulus is kept constant (6 LPM) and the working fluid mass
flow rate is 3LPM, 7LPM, 11LPM, 15LPM. The test section consists of inlet pipe, bend and outlet
pipe.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. It is a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger. Ensure that lagging was provided on
the outer side of outer pipe to reduce the heat loss.
2. The tank contains fluid (water) which is heated with the help of attached heater with hot
water tank. The hot fluid from the hot water tank was going to the annulus side inlet
through pump. Pump was providing between hot water tank and flow meter. Outlet of
hot fluid is collected in hot water tank.
3. Another fluid (cold water) passing to inlet of inner pipe in counter direction through
flow meters. And outlet of cold water is collected in cold water tank.
4. Temperature of both pipes at the inlet as well as the outlet is measured with the Help of
thermocouple.
5. Flow meters at inlet of both pipe measure flow rates. Pressure of fluid in inner pipe can
be measured with the help of manometer.
6. Experiments were performed with various mass flow rates of cold water i.e. are 3LPM,
7LPM, 11LMP, 15LPM and at fixed flow rate i.e. 6LPM of hot water entering the test
section. The hot water flow rate is constant.
7. Before any data were recorded, the system was allowed to approach the steady state.
The flow rates of the water are controlled by adjusting the valve.
8. Once the hot fluid reaches steady state of 60C, readings of thermocouples of cold fluid
inlet were recorded.
9. After that start the both hot fluid pump and cold fluid pump for 5minutes and noted
down the outlet readings of cold fluid and hot fluid.
10. The uncertainties of measurements data and the relevant parameters obtained from the
data reduction process are calculated.
11. Readings are being taken for following types of inserts and noted in the observation
table with 1. Without any insert (plain tube) 2. With twisted tape insert 3. With cut
twisted tape insert.
12. The heat transfer coefficients, Nusselt numbers, Friction factors are calculated; the
surface area related to the bend region is relatively small compared to the surface areas
of the inner and outer pipes. Therefore, the heat transfer in the bend region can be
neglected with no significant loss of accuracy.
FORMULAE USED
QC=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
2. The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
3. For fluid flows in a U-tube heat exchanger, the average heat transfer rate is calculated
from
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg =Aihi∆TLMTD
Where,
Ai= 𝜋dil
(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑜)−(𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑖)
∆TLMTD = 𝑇 −𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln( ℎ𝑖 )
𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑖
5. The average Nusselt number based on the inner diameter of the tube, was then evaluated
by
Nu=
6. The Reynolds number is based on the flow rate at the inlet of the tube
𝑣∗𝑑𝑖
Re =
𝜗
∆𝑝
f= 𝑙 2
( )∗𝜌∗( 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑖 2
Where is, the pressure drop across the test section, is the density of working fluid, is the
inner diameter of tube, v is the velocity of working fluid, and l is the length of tube.
For 3 lpm
V=0.2208 m/s
The Reynolds number is based on the flow rate at the inlet of the tube
𝑣∗𝑑𝑖
Re =
𝜗
0.221∗0.017
Re =
0.740∗10−6
Re=5077.02
Similarly, Reynolds number can be calculated for 5lpm, 7lpm, 9lpm, 11lpm, 13lpm, 15lpm
are below.
Table 5.1: Reynolds number table
SNO Reynolds
number
1 5077.02
2 8133.33
3 11187.66
4 14285.17
5 17299.37
6 20297.87
7 23393.52
Case1-3 lpm
Qc=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
Qc=0.05*4178*(39-30)
Qc=1880.1 j/s
2. The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
Qh=0.1*4178*(60-55)
Qh=2089 j/s
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg=1984.55 j/s
hi=1157.241 w/m2co
Nu=
Nu=31.75128
∆𝑝=49 pascal
∆𝑝
f= 𝑙 2
( )∗𝜌∗( 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑖 2
f= 0.024487
Qc=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
Qc=0.05*4178*(42.5-30)
Qc=2611.25 j/s
2. The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
Qh=0.1*4178*(60-54)
Qh=2506.8 j/s
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg=2559.025 j/s
hi=166.35 w/m2co
Nu=
Nu=45.43
∆𝑝=101pascal
∆𝑝
f= 𝑙 2
( )∗𝜌∗( 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑖 2
f= 0.050474
Qc=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
Qc=0.05*4178*(43-30)
Qc=2715.7 j/s
2. The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
Qh=0.1*4178*(60-53.5)
Qh=2506.8 j/s
2715.7
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg=2715.7j/s
Ai= 𝜋dil
(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑜)−(𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑖)
∆TLMTD = 𝑇 −𝑇𝑐𝑜
ln( ℎ𝑖 )
𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑖
(60−43)−(53.5−30)
∆TLMTD=
ln( 60−43 )
53.5−30
∆TLMTD=20.07
hi=1810.04 w/m2co
Nu=
Nu=49.41
∆𝑝=106 pascal
∆𝑝
f= 𝑙 2
( )∗𝜌∗( 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑖 2
f= 0.052973
similarly, all other calculations can be done for plain tube, plain tube with twisted tape insert and
plain tube with cut twisted tape insert for 5lpm, 7lpm, 9lpm, 11lpm, 13lpm, 15lpm. The following
table gives the calculated values of nusselt number and heat transfer coefficient for all cases
SNO PLAIN TUBE TWISTED TAPE INSERT CUT TWISTED TAPE INSERT
1 31.75 45.43 49.41
2 36.89 50.47 54.87
3 39.09 52.76 57.64
4 43.74 59.23 59.23
5 45.13 64.63 65.83
6 47.54 64.67 67.15
7 49.04 69.99 72.57
SNO PLAIN TUBE TWISTED TAPE INSERT CUT TWISTED TAPE INSERT
1 1157.24 1663.35 1810.04
2 1340.73 1839.64 2001.50
3 1417.96 1918.63 2097.39
4 1585.78 2151.45 2151.45
5 1635.31 2345.92 2387.92
6 1721.23 2344.34 2434.01
7 1774.42 2535.89 2629.17
SNO PLAIN TUBE TWISTED TAPE INSERT CUT TWISTED TAPE INSERT
1 0.0244 0.0504 0.0529
2 0.0191 0.0317 0.0329
3 0.0158 0.0242 0.0246
4 0.0161 0.0228 0.0230
5 0.0151 0.0210 0.0212
6 0.0142 0.0198 0.0200
7 0.0146 0.0198 0.0200
From the above graph, we can say Nusselt number has consistently increased by inserting twisted
tape which clearly indicates the enhancement of heat transfer.
Graph 5.2: Experimental comparison of plain tube and cut twisted tape
From the above graph, Nusselt number has increased after placing cut twisted tape in the hollow
pipe compared to plain tube.
Graph 5.3: Experimental comparison of twisted tape and cut twisted tape
From the above graph, the Nusselt number has further increased after replacing plain twisted tape
with cut twisted tape comparatively.
The above graph shows the comparison of all three cases by indicating Nusselt number and
Reynold’s number in which the enhancement of heat transfer can be observed clearly.
Graph 5.5: Friction factor comparison of plain tube and twisted tape.
From the above graph, we can say Friction factor has consistently increased by inserting twisted
tape which clearly indicates the enhancement of heat transfer.
Graph 5.6: Friction factor comparison of plain tube and cut twisted tape.
From the above graph, Friction factor has increased after placing cut twisted tape in the hollow pipe
compared to plain tube.
Graph 5.7: Friction factor comparison of twisted tape and cut twisted tape.
From the above graph, the Friction factor has further increased after replacing plain twisted tape
with cut twisted tape comparatively.
The above graph shows the comparison of all three cases by indicating Friction factor and
Reynold’s number in which the enhancement of heat transfer can be observed clearly.
Graph 5.9: heat transfer coefficient comparison of plain tube and twisted tape.
From the above graph, we can say Heat Transfer Coefficient has consistently increased by inserting
twisted tape which clearly indicates the enhancement of heat transfer.
Graph 5.10: heat transfer coefficient comparison of plain tube and cut twisted tape.
From the above graph, Heat Transfer Coefficient has increased after placing cut twisted tape in the
hollow pipe compared to plain tube.
Graph 5.11: heat transfer coefficient comparison of twisted tape and cut twisted tape.
From the above graph, the Heat Transfer coefficient has further increased after replacing plain
twisted tape with cut twisted tape comparatively.
CHAPTER 6
TEMPERATURE CONTOUR
From the above contour, cold fluid is gaining heat and hot fluid is losing heat by this we can say
that Heat Transfer is taking place.
PRESSURE CONTOUR
The above figure indicates the pressure drop in both tube side and shell side.
VELOCITY CONTOUR
TURBULANCE CONTOUR
Since it is plain tube the above figure shows high turbulence at the beginning stage and at the bends,
but at the middle of the pipe the turbulence is negligible comparatively.
Qc=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
Qc=0.05*4178*(40.39-30)
Qc=2170.47 j/s
2.The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
Qh=0.1*4178*(60-54.81)
Qh=2168.38 j/s
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg=2169.42j/s
∆TLMTD=22.11
hi=1312.28 w/m2co
Nu=
Nu=35.94
From the above contour, cold fluid is gaining heat and hot fluid is losing heat by this we can say
that Heat Transfer is taking place more than the plain tube.
PRESSURE CONTOUR
VELOCITY CONTOUR
TURBULANCE CONTOUR
From the above turbulence contour it is clear that turbulence created is high compared to plan tube
contour which is the indication of enhancement of Heat Transfer.
Qc=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
Qc=0.05*4178*(43.34-30)
Qc=2786.72 j/s
2.The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
Qh=0.1*4178*(60-53.34)
Qh=2784.54 j/s
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg=2784.63j/s
∆TLMTD=19.81
hi=1879.99w/m2co
Nu=
Nu=51.30
From the above contour, cold fluid is gaining heat and hot fluid is losing heat by this we can say
that Heat Transfer is taking place more than the twisted tape insert.
PRESSURE CONTOUR
The above figure indicates the comparatively more pressure drop in both tube side and shell side
because of cut twisted tape inserts.
VELOCITY CONTOUR
The velocity is fluctuating throughout the system and more at the cut section.
TURBULANCE CONTOUR
From the above figure we can observe the turbulence created at the cut sections, which is slightly
greater compared to twisted tape and largely greater when compared to plain tube. Above is the
proof for heat transfer enhancement with cut twisted tape inserts.
Qc=mccpc(Tco -Tci)
Qc=0.05*4178*(43.88-30)
Qc=2899.53 j/s
2.The heat transfer rate from the hot water in the annulus side
Qh=mhcph(Thi -Tho)
Qh=0.1*4178*(60-53.09)
Qh=2886.99 j/s
𝑄𝑐+𝑄ℎ
Qavg =
2
Qavg=2893.26j/s
∆TLMTD=19.40
hi=1994.61w/m2co
Nu=
Nu=54.40
in the same way, all calculations can be done for plain tube, twisted tape insert and cut twisted tape
insert for 5lpm, 7lpm, 9lpm. 11lpm, 13lpm, 15lpm. The following table shows the calculated values
of all cases.
NUSSELT NUMBER
FRICTION FACTOR
From the above graph, we can say Nusselt number has consistently increased by inserting twisted
tape which clearly indicates the enhancement of heat transfer.
Graph 6.2: CFD comparison of plain tube and cut twisted tape.
From the above graph, Nusselt number has increased after placing cut twisted tape in the hollow
pipe compared to plain tube.
Graph 6.3: CFD comparison of twisted tape and cut twisted tape.
From the above graph, the Nusselt number has further increased after replacing plain twisted tape
with cut twisted tape comparatively.
4. COMPARISION OF ALL CASES
The above graph shows the comparison of all three cases by indicating Nusselt number and
Reynold’s number in which the enhancement of heat transfer can be observed clearly.
Graph 6.5: CFD comparison of plain tube and twisted tape (friction factor)
From the above graph, we can say Friction factor has consistently increased by inserting twisted
tape.
2. PLAIN TUBE VS CUT TWISTED TAPE
Graph 6.6: CFD comparison of plain tube and cut twisted tape (friction factor)
From the above graph, Friction factor has increased after placing cut twisted tape in the hollow pipe
compared to plain tube.
Graph 6.7: CFD comparison of twisted tape and cut twisted tape (friction factor)
From the above graph, the Friction factor has further increased after replacing plain twisted tape
with cut twisted tape comparatively.
The above graph shows the comparison of all three cases by indicating Friction factor and
Reynold’s number in which the enhancement of heat transfer can be observed clearly.
Graph 6.9: CFD comparison of plain tube and twisted tape (HTC)
From the above graph, we can say Heat Transfer Coefficient has consistently increased by inserting
twisted tape which clearly indicates the enhancement of heat transfer.
2. PLAIN TUBE VS CUT TWISTED TAPE
Graph 6.10: CFD comparison of plain tube and cut twisted tape (HTC).
From the above graph, Heat Transfer Coefficient has increased after placing cut twisted tape in the
hollow pipe compared to plain tube.
Graph 6.11: CFD comparison of twisted tape and cut twisted tape (HTC)
From the above graph, the Heat Transfer coefficient has further increased after replacing plain
twisted tape with cut twisted tape comparatively.
CHAPTER 7
Table 7.1: Nusselt number comparison of CFD and Experiment (Plain tube)
Table 7.1: Nusselt number comparison of CFD and Experiment (Plain tube)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of plain tube compared
to Experiment of plain tube with a %Error of 7.98 which is acceptable.
2. TWISTED TAPE
Graph 7.2: Nusselt number comparison of CFD and Experiment (twisted tape)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of twisted tape compared
to Experiment of twisted tape with a %Error of 7.16 which is acceptable.
Graph 7.3: Nusselt number comparison of CFD and Experiment (cut twisted tape)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of cut twisted tape
compared to Experiment of cut twisted tape with a %Error of 7.44 which is acceptable.
Graph 7.4: Heat Transfer Coefficient comparison of CFD and Experiment (Plain tube)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of plain tube compared
to Experiment of plain tube with a %Error of 8.04 which is acceptable.
2. TWISTED TAPE
Graph 7.5: Heat Transfer Coefficient comparison of CFD and Experiment (twisted tape)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of twisted tape compared
to Experiment of twisted tape with a %Error of 6.90 which is acceptable.
Graph 7.6: Heat Transfer Coefficient comparison of CFD and Experiment (cut twisted tape)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of cut twisted tape
compared to Experiment of cut twisted tape with a %Error of 7.42 which is acceptable.
1. PLAIN TUBE
Table 7.7: Comparison table of plain tube(FF)
Graph 7.7: Friction Factor comparison of CFD and Experiment (Plain tube)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of plain tube compared
to Experiment of plain tube with a %Error of 4.14 which is acceptable.
2. TWISTED TAPE
Graph 7.8: Friction Factor comparison of CFD and Experiment (twisted tape)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of twisted tape compared
to Experiment of twisted tape with a %Error of 3.19 which is acceptable.
Graph 7.9: Friction factor comparison of CFD and Experiment (cut twisted tape)
From the above graph, we can say that better results are obtained by CFD of cut twisted tape
compared to Experiment of cut twisted tape with a %Error of 4.97 which is acceptable.
FUTURE SCOPE
The present work has been carried out with twisted tape and cut twisted tape with h/d
ratio of 3 and with a cut depth of 1mm. form the experiment and cfd analysis we have observed
that changing cut depth and changing h/d ratio of twisted tape there is a drastic change in heat
transfer rate. So, we like to carry this project in future with h/d ratios of 5, 7 and with depth of
2mm.
CONCLUSION
The project objective enhancement of heat transfer achieved. The heat transfer and
friction factor analysis have been evaluated and compared experimentally and using simulation
technique(CFD) performed with plain tube, with twisted tape insert and cut twisted tape insert
with h/d ratio of 3 and depth of cut is 1mm. The results show that the average Nusselt numbers
increase with an increase of Reynolds number. It also been proved heat transfer rate is increased
with twist tape insert and cut twist tape insert compared to plain tube.
I. EXPERIMENTAL
1. When the heat transfer coefficient compared with plain tube and tubes with plain twisted
inserts at 3LPM mass flow rate 30.42%, at 7LPM mass flow rate 26.09%, at 11LPM mass flow
rate 30.29% and at 15LPM mass flow rate 30.02% increases. And the average increase is
29.25%. The nusselt number also increases with the rise of Reynolds number.
2.. When the heat transfer coefficient compared with plain tube and tubes with cut twisted
inserts at 3LPM mass flow rate 36.06%, at 7LPM mass flow rate 32.39%, at 11LPM mass flow
rate 31.51% and at 15LPM mass flow rate 32.52% increases. And the average increase is
33.12% which is greater than the plain tube with twisted tape insert. The nusselt number also
increases with the rise of Reynolds number.
1. When the heat transfer coefficient compared with plain tube and tubes with plain twisted
inserts at 3LPM mass flow rate 28.68%, at 7LPM mass flow rate 27.10%, at 11LPM mass flow
rate 27.18% and at 15LPM mass flow rate 27.85% increases. And the average increase is
27.70%. The nusselt number also increases with the rise of Reynolds number.
2.When the heat transfer coefficient compared with plain tube and tubes with cut twisted inserts
at 3LPM mass flow rate 34.20%, at 7LPM mass flow rate 30.53%, at 11LPM mass flow rate
30.14% and at 15LPM mass flow rate 31.40% increases. And the average increase is 31.53%
which is greater than the plain tube with twisted tape insert. The nusselt number also increases
with the rise of Reynolds number.
iii. COMPARISION
Finally, when experimental results of heat transfer is compared to CFD analysis for plain tube with
plain twisted tape insert results there is an %9.72 error and for plain tube with cut twisted tape is
%4.80 which is acceptable.
REFERENCES