BCLS 
UNIT 1  

TOPIC: INTRO TO VIDEO CAMERA 

 

VIDEO CAMERA 
● A video camera is a camera used for electronic motion picture acquisition (as opposed 
to a movie camera, which records images on film), initially developed for the television 
industry but now common in other applications as well. 

●  

WORKING  
● All camera work on same principles whether we shooting with professional or consumer 
camera 

● When the camera is pointed at a subject, the lens gathers the light reflected from that 
scene first and focuses it on the beam splitter. The amount of light can be controlled by 
aperture ring here. 

● The beam splitter (consists of various prisms or filters) splits the white light into red 
green and blue light beams, usually referred to as RGB 

● Once the white light has been divided into the three primary colors, the light beams are 
directed imaging device (CCD or CMOS or a Camera pick-up tube) which converts light 
into electrical signals. Generally 3CCDs are used for separate channels. 

● After the information converted into electric charge, all the electrical charges combine to 
become the video signals for the three primary light colors. These RGB signals makeup 
the chrominance (color) information. The black and white signal (Luminance) 
information is generated internally. 

● Here, these signals are amplified and processed which can be recorded on video tape or 
memory card. 

● These information can be viewed through viewfinder and LCD panel also. 

 
 2 
 

PARTS OF A VIDEO CAMERA 

1. A camera lens​ consists one or more pieces of glass that focuses and frame an image 
within the camera. The lens contains aperture control ring allows the camera operator to 
adjust the lens iris manually to control exposure and the focus control ring on Lens 
allows the camera operator to turn the ring manually to obtain the optimal focus. 
2. Microphone: ​Most portable video cameras include a microphone intended for 
environmental (natural) sound pickup. It may be built in or removable. A foam 
sponge cover over the microphone reduces low-pitched wind rumble. The camera may 
or maynot have sockets for more audio inputs 
3. The power zoom rocker switch​, located on the side of the lens, allows the camera 
operator to electronically zoom the lens. The speed of the zoom may vary, depending on 
the switch pressure. 
4. The focus control ring​ on a lens allows the camera operator to turn the ring manually to 
obtain the optimal focus. 
5. The lens aperture control ring​ allows the camera operator to adjust the lens iris 
manually to control exposure. 
6. Lens shades​ protect the lens elements from picking up light distortions from the sun or 
a bright light. 
7. Viewfinder​: The viewfinder contains a small screen with a magnifying lens that e
​ nlarges
the image to be viewed by the camera operator. Depending on the camera, a
viewfinder can come various shapes and sizes.
8. Battery:​ Battery power is essential for camera use. Every camera is equipped with a
rechargeable battery. Most batteries are lithium-ion based, and each is made and
designed to work specifically with its camera model only. A full battery charge can
usually take 12 hours, meaning an overnight charge will suffice.
9. Controls: ​The camera's main controls include the Power switch and the Record
button. It will also include playback buttons such as Play, Stop, Rewind, Fast Forward
and Pause. The controls also include output ports to connect the camera for
playback. All cameras should include the basic red/white/yellow RCA cables to
connect to any playback machine, but they can also include USB or FireWire controls
for connection to a computer.

 
 3 
 

TOPIC 2: Types of Video Camera, Equipment and 

Accessories 
Modern video cameras are available in a number of different configurations, shapes and sizes 
that suit all kinds of different situations. They range from units that fit in a pocket to cameras 
that are so heavy that they can take a couple of people to lift them. But on the basis of 
manufacturing they can be divided into 2 types: 

Analogue and Digital cameras 

All cameras, analogue and digital, large or small, start out with an analogue video signal. 
The light that is transported through the lens till splitting into three primary colours 
remains analogue. 

Analogue Video cameras :​ After splitting into RGB, the video signal remains analog 
throughout the processing inside the camera and during the recording, assuming that the 
VTR is also analogue. 

Digital Video cameras: ​The RGB video signals are digitized and processed right after 
leaving the CCDs. 

Despite the difference between Analogue and Digital, high end or low end, television 
cameras fall into three groups according to their usage.  

● Studio cameras 
● ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders 
● Consumer cameras 

Studio cameras: S
​ tudio cameras are very high quality cameras including high-definition 
television (HDTV) cameras. They use high quality lenses and CCDs. These cameras are 
heavy and generally need a pedestal or some other mount. These cameras are used for 
various studio based productions such as news, interviews, and panel shows or daily soaps. 
Also used in locations like concert and convention halls and sports. 

Any video camera when used along with other video cameras in a multiple-camera setup is 
controlled by a device known as CCU(camera control unit) in the production control room 
(PCR). Studio cameras are bulky, and have no recording compartments as they are not 
needed to be taken out in the field. 

ENG (Electronic news gathering): ​ENG cameras are larger and heavier (helps dampen 
small movements), and usually supported by a camera shoulder support or shoulder 

 
 4 
 
stock on the camera operator's shoulder, taking the weight off the hand, which is freed to 
operate the zoom lens control.The lens is focused manually and directly, without intermediate 
servo controls. However the lens zoom and focus can be operated with remote controls with a 
television studio configuration operated by a camera control unit (CCU) in case of outdoor 
broadcast. 

EFP(Electronic Field Production): ​These versatile cameras can be carried on the shoulder, 
or mounted on camera pedestals and cranes, with the large, very long focal length zoom 
lenses made for studio camera mounting. 

These cameras are self-contained and hold the whole CCU in them. High quality pictures 
that can be recorded on a separate VTR, or inbuilt VTR. ENG/EFP cameras have more buttons 
and switches than a studio camera or a home camcorder. Option to go for fully automatic and 
manual functions. 

These cameras usually have recording abilities, so that the footage gathered can be cut on 
the edit table. 

Consumer Cameras:   

● Camcorders​ combine a camera and a VCR or other recording device in one unit; 
these are mobile, and were widely used for television production, home movies, 
electronic news gathering (ENG) (including citizen journalism), and similar 
Applications. 
● ​Closed-circuit television (CCTV)​ generally uses pan tilt zoom cameras (PTZ), for 
security, surveillance, and/or monitoring purposes. Such cameras are designed to be 
small, easily hidden, and able to operate unattended. 
● Webcams​ are video cameras which stream live feed to remote computers. 
Camera phones - nowadays most video cameras are incorporated into mobile 
Phones. 
● Special camera systems​ are used for scientific research, e.g. on board a satellite 
or a space probe, in artificial intelligence and robotics research, and in medical use. 
 
For example the hubble space telescope. Such cameras are often tuned for non- 
visible radiation for infrared (for night vision and heat sensing) or X-ray (for medical and 
video astronomy use). 

 
 5 
 

TOPIC 3: Broadcasting 
Broadcasting​ is sending audio or video content to a world wide audience using the 
electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves), for a mass media like TV or radio. It is a classic 
example of one-to-many model of communication.  

Broadcast standard is a system or protocol followed to broadcast and receive television 

signals. 

Transmission of programs from a radio or television stations to receivers at homes across the 
world is known as OTA (over the air) or terrestrial broadcasting and requires a license in 
most of the countries. Thus calling for a standardized approach. The three prime most 
accepted standards of formats for broadcasting are: 

NTSC (National Television Standards Committee)​ t​ he first color TV broadcast system was 
implemented in the United States in 1953. This was based on the NTSC - National Television 
System Committee standard. NTSC runs on 525 lines & 30 frames/second. It used in USA, 
Canada, Japan and Latin America. It has a lower resolution than other standards but a faster 
frame rate, which reduce the flicker. NTSC standards for TV defines a composite video signal 
with 60 half frames (interlaced) per second. 

PAL (Phase Alternating Line) PAL​ - Phase Alternating Line standard was introduced in the 
early 1960's and implemented in most European countries except for France. The PAL standard 
utilizes a wider channel bandwidth than NTSC which allows for better picture quality. A 
standard used almost everywhere else in the world, has the ability to display 625 lines of 
resolution with a frame rate of 25 frames per second. It has higher resolution than NTSC but 
less frame rate. There are 50 fields per second. 

SECAM (Sequential Color Memory)The SECAM​ - Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire or 
Sequential Color with Memory standard was introduced in the early 1960's and 
implemented in France. SECAM uses the same bandwidth as PAL but transmits the colour 
information sequentially. SECAM runs on 625 lines & 25 frame/second. is used sparingly 
around the world and can be found in France, parts of Greece, Eastern Europe, Russia, Africa 
and a few other parts of the world. 

 
 6 
 

TOPIC 4 : Lenses & Filters: Types and Functions 

A Lens is a curved piece of glass that causes Light rays to bend. Because glass is 
denser than air, Lenses bend light so that it can be controlled and Projected in Proper 
focus and size at a specific Point behind the Lens where a Light-Sensitive material can record 
or transmit the image. A camera Lens – consists of one or more pieces of glass that focus 
and frame an image within the camera. Simply Single Lenses fall into two basic 
categories: Concave and Convex.  

1. Concave Lenses​ which are thinner at the Center than at the edges bend Light rays 
away from the center of the Lens.   
2. Convex Lenses​ are thickest at the center and bend light toward the center of the Lens.  
3. Compound lens:​ Modern film and video camera Lenses are composed of more than one 
piece of glass and are called Compound Lenses. Compound Lenses – Combine 
several concave and convex lenses.  

Types of Lenses based on Focal Length 

Here’s a brief list of the main types of lenses:   

1. ​Prime Lenses 

Prime lenses have a fixed focal length, which means you cannot zoom in and out. Prime lenses 
are considered to be of a much higher quality than zoom lenses and are easier on the wallet. 
You also have the advantage of higher maximum apertures which means they perform really 
well in low light settings.   

2. Normal or Standard Camera Lens 

Lenses with a focal length of about 40mm to 60mm are considered “normal” lenses because 
they tend to replicate most accurately what the naked human eye sees. They do not have as 
much distortion as wide-angle lenses, but they are still wide enough to replicate the peripheral 
vision of the human eye.   

3. Wide Angle Lenses 

Angle of view is greater than human eye, achieved at lesser than 50 mm. They are good for 
shooting sceneries and creating illusion of space. A good wide angle will have a focal 
range from 16 mm to 50 mm. Beyond 16 mm, the image starts getting distorted. 

4. Telephoto Lenses 

 
 7 
 

Angle of view is lesser than human eye, achived at focal length greater than 55 mm. 
Telephoto zoom lenses are great for sports enthusiasts and nature photographers. They 
allow you to get close to your subject from a safe distance. A typical telephoto zoom will 
offer a focal length range of 75mm to 300mm..   

5. Macro Lenses 

Macro lenses are used mainly for close-up or macro photography. They allow for sharp focus at 
very close distances while objects further off would be completely out of focus. Their focal 
length ranges from 50 to 200 mm, and they are used to photograph tiny objects. 

Types of Filters 
Ultraviolet Filters  

News photographers often put an ultraviolet filter (UV filter) over the camera lens to 
protect it from the adverse conditions encountered in ENG (electronic news gathering) work. A 
damaged filter is much cheaper to replace than a lens. Protection of this type is particularly 
important when the camera is used in high winds where dirt or sleet can be blown into the lens. 
By screening out ultraviolet light, the filter also slightly enhances image color and contrast and 
reduces haze in distant scenes. 

Neutral Density Filters 

A neutral density filter is a grey filter that reduces light by one or more f-stops without 
affecting colour. Professional video cameras normally have one or more neutral density 
filters included in their internal filter wheels 

Polarizing Filters  

Most people are familiar with the effect that polarized sunglasses have on reducing 
reflections and cutting down glare. Unlike sunglasses, the effect of professional polarizing 
filters can be continuously varied—and, as a result, go much further in their effect. Polarizing 
filters can: 

• Reduce glare and reflections  

• Deepen blue skies  

• Penetrate haze  

• Saturate (intensify) colours  

 
 8 
 

Contrast Control Filters 

For critical exterior scenes the professional videographer must often consider ways to reduce 
the brightness range. One way is with the use of a contrast control filter. There are 
actually three types of these filters—low contrast, soft contrast, and the Tiffen Ultra 
Contrast. The latter filter seems to affect sharpness the least and result in the least amount 
of highlight or shadow flare. 

Special Effect Filters A

​ lthough there are scores of special effect filters available, we’ll just 
highlight four of the most popular: the star filter, the starburst filter, the diffusion or soft focus 
filter, and the fog filter.  

Star Filters 

You’ve undoubtedly seen scenes in which “fingers of light” projected out from the sides of shiny 
objects—especially bright lights. This effect is created with a glass star filter that has a 
microscopic grid of crossing parallel lines cut into its surface. Notice in the picture on the right 
that the four-point star filter used slightly softens and diffuses the image. Star filters can 
produce four, five, six, or eight-point stars, depending on the lines engraved on the surface 
of the glass. The star effect varies with the f-stop used.  

Soft Focus and Diffusion Filters​ - 

Sometimes you may want to create a dreamy, soft focus effect. By using a soft focus filter 
or a diffusion filter (on the right, above) you can do this. These filters, which are available 
in various levels of intensity, were regularly used in the early cinema to give starlets a 
soft, dreamy appearance (while hiding signs of aging).  

The f-stop used will greatly affect the level of diffusion. In the case of soft focus filters or 
diffusion materials it’s important to white balance your camera with these items in place.  

Fog Filters   

A certain amount of “atmosphere” can be added to dramatic locations by suggesting a foggy 

morning or evening. Without having to rely on nature or artificial fog machines, fog filters can 
create somewhat of the same effect.  

 
 

 
 9 
 

TOPIC 5: Camera Control and Adjustment 

 

APERTURE CONTROL 
● Inside the lens, is a mechanism that opens to allow light to pass through the lens into the 
camera (and onto the sensor). The amount or size of the opening varies and is referred to 
as an ‘f’ number, for example f2, f2.8, f4 etc. The range of apertures is: f1.4, f2, f2.8, f4, f5.6 
f8, f11, f16, f22, f32. 

● Smaller the f number, the bigger the opening and the more light allowed in. 

● The aperture opening determines the ‘depth of field’ in a photograph. When you focus on a 
subject, a certain distance, both in front of the subject and behind the subject is also in 
focus. This area is called the depth of field. So, by controlling the aperture, you can 
determine how much of the picture is in focus and use it to be creative. 

DEPTH OF FIELD  
Depth-of-Field: When a lens focuses on a subject at a distance, all subjects at that distance are 
sharply focused. Subjects that are not at the same distance are out of focus and theoretically 
are not sharp. 

DOF is the distance between the nearest and furthest point from the camera within which the 
subject is in focus 

DOF area begins with the object closest to the lens that appears in focus, and ends with the 
most distant object in the scene that is still in focus 

DOF is zone of sharpness 

Factors affecting DOF: 

1. Focal length of the lens  

 
 10 
 
The depth of field is inversely proportional to the focal length of the lens; that is, the 
smaller the focal length number of the lens, the greater the depth of field. For example, a 
28mm lens has the ability to capture more of the picture in sharp focus than a 100mm 
lens.  
 
2. Distance from the camera to the subject  
Depth of field is directly proportional to distance; i.e. a subject at a greater distance will 
have greater depth of field than a close-up subject. Therefore, you need not worry as 
much about a distant subject being out of focus. 
 
3. The size of the aperture or the setting of the f-stop  
Large apertures (smaller f-stop number) give shallow DOF while small apertures (larger 
f-stop number) give greater DOF 

DEPTH OF FOCUS  

D. FOCAL LENGTH 
Focal length is defined as the distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane 
(CCD or target) of the camera when the lens is focused at infinity. 

Focal length is generally measured in millimeters. In the case of lenses with fixed focal lengths, 
we can talk about a 10mm lens, a 20 mm lens, a 100 mm lens, etc. As we will see, this is a 
designation that tells a lot about how the lens will reproduce subject matter. 

E. ASPECT RATIO  
An image's Aspect Ratio, or AR, represents a comparison of its width to height. Notation for 
Aspect Ratio is normally in the form of X:Y, where X represents screen width and Y represents 
height.  

A standard analog TV has an AR of 4:3 which means that for every 4 units of width it's 3 
units high. And 16:9 is resent research and development of high definition television (HDTV) 
HDTV system differ from existing Conventional television system. 

 
 11 
 

1- The first difference is in the shape of the screen. The conventional television frame 
maintains an aspect ratio of 4:3 and the HDTV system provides a wide angle of view with a 
screen ratio of 16:9. 

2-The number of horizontal scanning lines has (625 to 1125) increased to provide greater 
image detail and resolution. 

3- The quality of the audio signal is greatly improved over existing systems.   

For digital files there are really two types of AR. The first, and easiest to understand, is the 
Storage Aspect Ratio, which is simply ratio of horizontal Resolution to vertical resolution. For 
example, a standard NTSC DVD has a Storage AR of 1.5:1 (720 / 480 = 1.5), while a typical PAL 
DVD has a Storage AR of 1.25 (720 / 576 = 1.25). 

UNIT 2 

TOPIC 1 : TYPES OF SHOTS 

A shot is the basic element of any video. It is a span of video recorded between each 
take, or switching on and off the camera. These shots are arranged in sequence to take 
the narrative forward and showing different aspects or elements one by one. The primary job 
of the producer to shoot the shots to emphasize the elements of the narrative to attract the 
attention of the audience, while conveying the meaning. 

1. Extreme Long Shot (ELS) 

A very wide field of view in which the camera takes in the entire viewing area. The subject 
or subjects are small in relation to the background and tend to compete with the 
surroundings for the viewer's attention. The ELS is often used early in a scene as an 
"establishing shot". An establishing shot is used to show the audience where the action is 
taking place. Background in dominating. 

2. Long Shot (LS) or Wide Shot (WS) 

A slightly closer field of view than the extreme long shot, but the subject remains 
dominated by the much larger background area. 

 
 12 
 

3. Medium Long Shot (MLS) 

Used to clearly show body gestures. In the case of a standing actor, the lower frame line cuts 
off his feet and ankles. Some documentaries with social themes favor keeping people in the 
longer shots, keeping social circumstances rather than the individual as the focus of attention. 

4. Medium Shot (MS) 

The subject becomes larger and more dominant. The background is still important but 
now shares space with the subject. Used to help viewers easily recognize the subject and see 
what are the doing. 

5. Close-up (CU) 
The subject becomes the primary focus within the shot. Only a small portion of the 
background is visible. 

6. Extreme Close-up (ECU) 

The subject fills the screen and is clearly the central focus of the shot. It could be a shot of 
eyes, or hands or the object of interest in the frame. 

7. Two-Shot 
When there is a group of subjects, most video directors refer to the shot by the number of 
subjects, i.e., two-shot or three-shot. If there are more than three people in the shot it is 
generally just called a wide shot 

8. Over-The-Shoulder Shot (OS) 

Another grouping that is commonly used is the over-the-shoulder shot (OS). This shot 
establishes a relationship between two characters and also enhances the depth of the shot. 

 
 13 
 

 
 

 
 

TOPIC 2: Camera Angles 

 

It is important to angle your shots and scenes. Not only can a variety of camera angles provide 
the viewer with the most advantageous or interesting viewpoint, but certain camera angles add 
a unique perspective which can affect the audience's perception of what is happening on the 
screen. Here are some of the most commonly used camera angles : 

1. Bird’s Eye View 

● Extreme version of High angle  
● This shows a scene from directly overhead, a very unnatural and strange angle with a 
perspective as though the observer were a bird. 
● Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognizable at first 
(umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs). 
● Ex. setting a location, helicopter 
● In Gilles MacKinnon’s Regeneration (1997), an incredible bird’s-eye shot of a World War I 
battlefield is used to open the movie.  

2. Normal Angle or Eye Level 

● In a normal angle shot the camera is positioned at approximately the subject's eye level, 
shooting the scene as we would normally view the world. 
● Eye level shots are incredibly common because they are neutral. 

 
 14 
 
● They often have no dramatic power whatsoever, thus they are ideal for romantic 
comedies and news casting. 

3. High Angle 
● In a high angle shot the camera is positioned above eye level, with the camera shooting 
down on the subject 
● A high camera angle tends to make the subject appear smaller in size. Looking down on 
a subject suggests a feeling of loneliness, lack of power, weak, submissive, or 
frightened. 
● Extreme high angle shot is called a Bird's eye shot. 

4. Low Angle 
● In a low angle shot the camera is positioned below eye level, with the camera shooting 
up at the subject.  
● Shooting up from a low angle makes the subject appear larger and suggests a feeling of 
power and dominance. 
● Often directors will use this kind of shot to symbolically announce the power and 
authority of one of their characters without literally telling the audience this information. 
For instance, in Star Wars the rst time the audience meets Darth Vader, he is shot from a 
low angle to immediately announce his role as the arch villain in the story 
● Extreme low angle shot is called a worm's eye shot. 

5. Canted Angle or Dutch Angle 

● In a canted angle the camera is tilted on its horizontal plane to produce a slightly 
unstable picture.  
● This suggests a feeling of excitement, suspense or fantasy to the viewer. 
● Since this is a view of the world that we are not used to seeing, this effect is used rarely. 

6. Subjective Angle or point of view shot 

● In a subjective angle the camera is put in place of a character and shows us the 
scene from the character's point of view.  

 
 15 
 
● Subjective angles are useful for bringing the viewer into the action.  
● Think of the difference between showing an auto race from the point of view of 
somebody watching in the grandstand, and showing it from the point of view of a driver 
in a car speeding around the track. When used effectively a subjective camera angle 
can make a great impact on the viewer. 
● The camera effectively acts as the character’s eyes, and so point of view shots are often 
used to create empathy with a character. 

It should be noted that some directors, like the Japanese master Yasujiro Ozu, use only 
eye-level shots in their films. Ozu argued that using anything but straight-on shots implied a 
value judgment by the director against the characters. Ozu wanted to let his characters reveal 
themselves, with all their strengths and weaknesses, and allow audiences to make up their own 
minds based on the simple portrayal presented. 

TOPIC 3: Camera Movements  

Camera movement can help to create dominance or establish visual emphasis in a shot. 
Movement is an obvious way to focus your audience's attention where you want it. Viewers 
tend to direct their attention towards a moving object rather than one standing still. 

Zoom 

● Zooming gives the impression of moving closer or further away from the subject.  
● It can be used effectively to magnify a certain focus point in the frame. 
● Like all other types of movement, zooms should be smooth and slow. 
● Zooms happen at the push of a button. Zoom in refers to seemingly “approaching” the 
subject, thus making it look bigger in the frame. Zoom out refers to seemingly 
“distancing” the subject, thus making it look smaller. 
● Note that zooms change focal length, thus affecting depth of field.  
● Zoom in transforms the lens into telephoto, while zoom out changes it into wide-angle. 
Zooming is considered amateurish and is not preferred by professional 
cinematographers, 

Pan 

● A pan is the horizontal movement of the camera while its base is fixated on a pedestal or 
tripod. 
● To follow a subject or show the distance between two objects. 
● Great for panoramic views such as a shot from a mountaintop to the valley below.  

 
 16 
 
● A special kind of pan called the swish pan or whip pan. This is a rapid move that looks 
like a swish on the screen. 
● The pan is also commonly used to survey surroundings,revealing what is beyond the 
confines of the original frame and to place characters or objects more firmly within their 
environment.  
● One of the earliest and best appearances of panning was in Edwin S. Porter’s 1903 
movie Life of An American Fireman. While the camera follows the fire brigade 
approaching their destination, the operator pans to reveal it – a house burning. 
Remember: the best pans are used to reveal information. 

Tilt 

● A tilt is the vertical movement of the camera on a stationary pedestal or tripod.  

● Used to establish vertical subjects or to follow vertical movement. It is used to view 
the subject's height or other vertically established properties.  
● A tilt should have a definite starting and ending point. 
● These shots are popular when introducing a character, especially one of grandeur, in a 
movie. 

Dolly 

● A dolly is the movement of the entire camera toward or away from the subject or scene. 
● The command is usually "Dolly in" or "Dolly out". The camera is rolled on a special track 
to ensure smooth movement.  
● A dolly gives the illusion that the viewer is walking towards the subject and can be a 
great way of creating a sense of intimacy. 
● though they look very similar at rst glance— when zooming in on an object, by simply 
enlarging part of a frame, the object seems to be propelling itself towards the camera. 
Zooming the camera changes the focal length of the lens, which can introduce 
wide-angle distortion 

Truck 

● A truck is the lateral or side-to-side movement of the entire camera.  

● Often the truck shot is used to follow a moving subject as it crosses the set.  
● It is different from panning to follow a subject because with a truck you are moving the 
whole camera, thereby changing the shooting angle at the same time. 
● Trucking is like dollying, but it involves motion left or right. Truck left means “move the 
camera physically to the left while maintaining its perpendicular relationship.” This is not 
to be confused with a pan, where the camera remains firmly on its axis while the lens 

 
 17 
 
turns to one direction or the other. You might truck left to stay with a pedestrian as she 
walks down a street rather than using a pan, which would show her back after she 
passed the camera. 

Pedestal 

● In a pedestal move, the camera body will physically be lowered or elevated.  

● The difference between tilts and pedestals is that in the former, the camera lens is just 
being aimed up or down, whereas in the latter, the camera is being moved vertically. 

TOPIC 4 : Rules of Composition  

Composition refers to the organization of pictorial elements in a frame. Every image should 
have a single story to tell. The purpose of composition is to direct your viewer's eye to 
the central point or "story" in your scene. Regardless of the particular subject, composition 
of the frame is important. 

1. Rule of Thirds 

Mentally divide your viewfinder into thirds horizontally and vertically. Place your primary 
point of interest on the intersection of two lines. Lines of interest should occur at 1/3 or 
2/3 of the way up (or across) the frame, rather than at the centre. In this shots the main line 
of interest is the imaginary line going through the subject's eyes.   

The theory is that if you place points of interest in the intersections or along the lines that your 
photo becomes more balanced and will enable a viewer of the image to interact with it more 
naturally. 

Studies have shown that when viewing images that people’s eyes usually go to one of the 
intersection points most naturally rather than the center of the shot – using the rule of thirds 
works with this natural way of viewing an image rather than working against it. 

2. Framing 

 
 18 
 

Look for natural "frames" within your scene. Also, beware of horizontal and vertical lines 
in the frame (edges of buildings, counter tops, picture frames, and so forth). Make sure 
the horizontal lines are level and the vertical lines are straight up and down. 

Framing is actually defined by wikipedia as ‘a technique used to bring focus to a subject’. So, 
like more advanced compositions like leading lines, or golden triangles, using elements to 
frame your subject can really make an image a bit more interesting and engaging, and make 
your subject really stand out. 

Framing your subject at eye-level creates a sense of equality. 

The opposite angle creates the opposite feeling. If you film the subject from above, you a create 
a feeling of the subject being powerless, vulnerable and smaller than the viewer. You can go 
even further and go really high up, creating a bird’s eye view of the subject. This sense of 
distance between the subject and the viewer creates a “voyeuristic” feel. 

You can also combine the high and low angle within the scene, to tell your audience who’s in 
command. 

3. Leading Lines 

Direct the viewer's' eyes with leading lines. Use leading lines to direct them to focus on the main 
subject of your shot. The direction of the dominant lines in a picture has psychological 
connotations. 

Horizontal​-serenity and inactivity.  

Vertical​ -strength and dignity. 

Diagonal​-action, imbalance, insecurity.  

Curved​-softness or movement.  

4. Balance 

There are two main forms of balance: 

Symmetrical balance​ creates a formal appearance.  

Asymmetrical balance​ creates a creative and dynamic mood.  

 
 19 
 

Use the form of balance that is most appropriate for your subject. For example, a shot 
of the state Capitol may call for symmetrical balance, whereas, a shot of the county 
fair would be more interesting with asymmetrical balance. 

5. THE 180-DEGREE RULE 

this one is simple and complicated at the same time. The 180-degree rule draws an imaginary 
line that connects the characters in the scene. The camera should be on one side of this line for 
every shot in the scene. This way, the first character is always frame right of the second 
character, and the second one is frame left of the first. This rule helps with continuity and eye 
lines. 

6. Head Room.  

The idea being that you want to have some space between the top of the subject’s head and the 
top of the frame. Similar to the rule of thirds, this rule of thumb is taken largely from painting, 
where the subject’s eyes are placed about 1/3 of the way down the frame, as a center of 
interest. The idea is largely aesthetic, but images of subjects where the head appears to 
approach the end of the frame creates a cramped look to the subject, and if they move around, 
they end up having their heads cut off. It is also important to stay within the TV safe zone of the 
frame for the very same reason. Of course, this can change depending on how close the shot is, 
with extreme close ups having no headroom at all to speak of. But in general shots, you don’t 
want the image to appear like the frame is tugging at the subject because there’s no room. 

Even though the principles that have emerged for good composition seem rather clear, 
they should always be considered guidelines and not rules. Composition is an art and not a 
science. Since composition is part an art, the guidelines can occasionally be broken. But 
when they are broken, it’s generally by someone who understands the principles and 
recognizes how, in the interest of greater impact, they can be successfully transcended in 
specific instances.  

UNIT 3 

TOPIC 1 :Light and its Properties 

The subject of light as a form of radiant energy has been theorized upon, experimented with, 
and studied by many physicists and scientists. Until about three centuries ago, in Europe 

 
 20 
 
no one had developed a reasonable theory of the nature of light. Then Max Planck, a 
physicist, published a theory in which light was supposed to consist of a stream of high-speed 
particles. This then was known as the quantum theory. About the same time other 
physicists, Christiann Huygens and Thomas Young, introduced a theory called the wave motion 
theory. The wave motion theory is used to explain reflection, refraction, diffraction and 
polarization. In wave motion theory, light, speed, wavelength, and frequency are important 
characteristics, and they are interrelated.   

Any photographer who wishes to reach their full creative potential should, likewise, make it a 
point to understand the vital characteristics of light. 

Lighting is the essence of film making. Visual artists refer to lighting as painting with light. 
Alighting director can use lights just as effectively and expressively as any painter uses 
colour pigments to evoke a specific mood or visual impression. Lighting can be used to 
emphasize and dramatize a subject by bringing objects into sharp relief orcontrast, or it 
can be used to soften and toharmonize. Lighting directly affects the overall impressionand 
feelings generated by recorded visualimages. It is a complex art, but basic videoand film 
lighting can be reduced to a limited number of concepts and techniques. 

 
1. Intensity:
The intensity of light is measured in lux or candela. For the purpose of
camera, it can be quantified in terms of aperture or F stops. This is measured with a
light meter, or the meter in the camera. It also varies with the distance from the subject.

2. Colour:
If you turn on an electric stove element you will notice that it radiates both
heat and light - it glows. The hotter the element, the brighter it glows. At the range of
temperatures you can get from a stove, the colour of the radiated light is red. If you
were able to heat up the element further, the colour would change, first becoming
orange, then more yellow and eventually what we see as "white" light. This is the
principle behind colour temperature. Similarly, all light sources have a colour temperature
which is measured in Kelvin.
3. Angle:
The shadows depend on the angle of the source of light.
4. Distance:
The distance has a major impact on the intensity and sharpness of light
5. Source:

 
 21 
 
A point source will have distinct qualities comapred to a scattered one

TOPIC 2: Different types of Lights 

TOPIC 3: Other tools used in Lighting: Diffusers, Reflectors, 

Cutters and Gels 
GELS 
These are flexible sheets of transparent coloured plastic that can act as colour filters when they 
are placed in front of lightsource such as windows or lamps. A gel can be used to convert 
5, 400 degree K light coming through a window to a 3,200 degree K light, which is the same 
colour temperature as interior room lighting. 

DIFFUSER 
To diffuse or soften the light from a hard source instrument, you can use diffusion, 
which is a material, often in a metal frame that spreads the light beam or enlarges the 
light source to give shadows a softer edge. The amount of diffusion is dependent on two 
factors, the density of the diffusing material and its size. Diffusion can be placed on the 
light itself or placed out in front to the light. The actual diffusion material is usually some 
type of flameproof gel, spun glass, or white glass. Cold glass is usually placed over the 
opening of the light housing. Its use is limited in field production because of its breakable 
nature; several companies make a multitude of diffusion materials.  

REFLECTORS 
Unlike flags, reflectors have a light-coloured surface that reflects light into desired areas 
rather than blocking it from certain areas. Reflectors can be stiff boards, metal, or even 
light coloured clod. And can come in sizes ranging from a six-inch square to panels of six-feet 
square. Far and away the most popular form of the reflector is the circular flex-type cloth 
using a highly reflective silver material on one side and a bright white material on the 

 
 22 
 
other. These reflectors can be mounted but are generally hand-held by the camera person or 
other crew members and are usually used to reflect light onto non-moving subjects, such as 
a reporter appearing on camera. 

CUTTERS 
Solid pieces of metal, plastic or cardboard that prevents light from spilling into an undesired 
area. 

TOPIC 4 : Basic Lighting Techniques  

In Television lighting there are two goals: get enough light; use the light you have to shape and 
define objects in the scene. Lighting is often tried out "on paper" by using alighting diagram 
before it's actually set. Many potential problems can be spotted in the process of constructing 
a lighting diagram. The most common of these is to light for a theoretical "stage front" instead 
of lighting for specific camera positions. It's also useful in anticipating problems with shadows 
falling where they're not wanted. Every light casts a shadow. The lighting diagram will make it 
easier to see where those shadows might fall.3.4.1  

1.Three point lighting 

This lighting technique is the most elementary and widely practised one. It consists of 3 lights 
– key, back, fill.  

Key Light 
★ The key lights are the brightest and, in some ways, the most important lights on the set. 
The key light determines the overall recording or exposure level. It's positioned thirty 
to forty-five degrees to the side of the camera and should strike the subject at an angle 
of about forty-five degrees from vertical.  
★ Moving the light closer to the camera will reduce the amount of modelling in the 
face and make the subject appear heavier than he is.Conversely, moving the light farther 
from the camera will throw more of the face in shadow, making it appear narrower.   
★ The key light is focused on the subject by putting the bulb in the "full spot" position 
and centering the beam on the subject. The light is then flooded out until a reasonable 
overall level is reached. 

Fill light   

 
 23 
 

★ Fill light is used to provide general illumination on the set and to fill in the shadows 
created by the key lights. 
★ Fill Light is usually softer than key light. it is frequently diffused by reflectors or 
translucent materials placed in front of the lighting instrument. 
★ The fill light is usually set up opposite of the key light. Often a broad,scoop, or soft light 
is used instead of a spotlight to provide fill.  
★ It’s important to remember that the fill light should not be as bright as the key light. A 
common mistake is having the intensity much too high. This can cause the subject to 
get blown out.  
★ Not using a fill at all can result in stark contrasts (due to shadows) across the subject's 
surface, depending upon the key light's harshness. 

Back Light  
★ The back light is placed directly behind the subject, in line with the camera. The backlight 
is spotted down and aimed at the subject's neck. It is then flooded until it has about the 
same intensity as the key light. 
★ The back light should be adjusted to produce a crisp but subtle border around the 
subject. People with blonde (or missing) hair require less intensity.People with very 
dark hair require more. When the back light is still too bright in the full flood position, 
ascrim can be fitted in front of the housing to soften and reduce the light. 

Background Light 
★ The background light, or fourth light, is often used to locate the subject in the set, that 
is, to show the relationship of the subject to the background.  
★ The placement of this light can vary, but the idea is to illuminate part of the background 
to show its texture, shape, and depth relative to the subject. It may be extra trouble to 
purchase, carry, and set a fourth light, but it becomes very important when you must 
videotape a subject with dark hair or a dark shirt against a dark background. The fourth 
light can give the viewer a better understanding of volume within the shot. 

2. Lighting for Moving Subject 

But what if the subject moves? Depending on the movement, there are two ways of handling 
this problem. Suppose the subject moves from one important area to another along a 
pre-determined path. It is neither necessary nor desirable to provide full key,back, and fill 
along the entire path. It is necessary only to provide about the same overall illumination 
along the path of travel. This may be accomplished either by making sure the lighted areas 

 
 24 
 
overlap sufficiently that no drop in level will be detected by the viewer, or, where distances are 
greater, by adding sufficient fill along the path to keep the level reasonably constant. In 
general,backlight for a movement from one lit area to another isn't necessary. 

When movement of the subject is likely to be random or to cover too large an area of the set, it 
is possible to provide diffuse fill lighting to the entire area. This is commonly called "base light" 
and is designed to keep all shadows within acceptable contrast range. Key and back lights 
are then added for specific areas and camera positions as necessary. While this kind of lighting 
might be helpful in certain situations, it generally results in a flat and dull overall appearance. 
Since every light used creates its own shadows, this technique can also result in multiple 
shadows detracting from the modelling effects rendered by a more orthodox application of 
key, back, and fill techniques. 

3. Managing Contrast 

High Contrast or low key 

The technique of eliminating fill lighting or reducing it to bare minimum, leaving only key and 
back light, is called "high contrast" lighting. While it may be appropriate for some content, 
its use in other contexts should besparing. Not only can it easily be overdone, but it 
also tends to aggravate some technical shortcomings in low-cost cameras and recorders. 
This is used to for high drama situations. 

​Low Contrast or High key light 

The ratio between key and fill is very less. There are almost no shadows. This type of lighting is 
used for low drama, peaceful effect. 

4. Backlighting 
Backlighting is generally used in the attempt to conceal the identity of people on camera 
or to provide an "interesting" background for program title sand credits. Key and fill lights are 
eliminated, leaving only back and background lights. 

4.4.4 Cameo Lighting Certain television shows, especially those of a dramatic nature, are 
staged in the middle of an empty studio againts an unlighted background. This technique 
where the performers are highlighted against a dark background is known as cameo 
lighting.   

 
 25 
 

4.4.5 Silhouette Lighting We use this to conceal the identity of a person appearing 
on-camera. To achieve this lighting, use highly diffused light to evenly illuminate the 
background 

5. Realist Lighting 
Realist lighting appears to come from actual light sources in a setting or location. It enhances 
an illusion of reality. Realist lighting conforms to the audience's expectations of how a scene 
should normally or naturally appear in real life. In conventional popular dramas, the lighting is 
usually realistic. The major problem for the lighting director is to determine the actual light 
source in the scene. The brightest lights are positioned according to the direction and 
intensity of the central or main source of light. Directional lighting continuity is maintained from 
one shot to the next in the same scene. 

6. Expressionist lighting 
Modernist lighting has no real-life referent. The lighting director is much freer to design a 
lighting setup according to purely abstract or subjective emotional criteria. That is, to stylize the 
use of light. The lighting director literally paints with light to create emphasis and special 
impressions. Modernist lighting tries to achieve a specific emotional effector abstract design 
through non-naturalistic patterns of light. 

Unit IV  

Topic 1: Audio Elements in Video Programmes: Lip 

Synchronized Sound, Voice Over, Music, Ambience and 
Sound Effects  
Various audio elements 

Voice:Human voice is one of the prime most elements in audio. Be it a commentry,songs a play 
or news, without human voice, nothing would be possible in audio. 

The dialogue is the foremost of the three “ingredients” of a soundtrack. The dialogue brings 
forth the story by showing the communication and interaction of two or more characters in the 
film. The dialogue is derived from the film script, but there goes more than just recording a 
character speaking in designing the film’s sound track. 

 
 26 
 

Dialogue itself could have been recorded two ways. One is the raw recording of the dialogue on 
filming the scene. This is done using professional audio recording equipment deployed onto the 
set like boom mics, and others. In most cases, the production could opt to bring the actors to 
the studio to re-record the dialogue in a controlled environment to cancel out noises that might 
have been recorded outside. 

Voiceover  

(also known as off-camera or off-stage commentary) is a production technique where a 

voice—that is not part of the narrative (non-diegetic)—is used in a radio, television production, 
filmmaking, theatre, or other presentations.[1] The voiceover is read from a script and may be 
spoken by someone who appears elsewhere in the production or by a specialist voice talent. 
Synchronous dialogue, where the voiceover is narrating the action that is taking place at the 
same time, remains the most common technique in voiceovers. Asynchronous, however, is also 
used in cinema. It is usually prerecorded and placed over the top of a film or video and 
commonly used in documentaries or news reports to explain information. Voiceovers are used 
in video games and on-hold messages,[3] as well as for announcements and information at 
events and tourist destinations. It may also be read live for events such as award 
presentations. 

Voiceover is added in addition to any existing dialogue, and it is not to be confused with the 
process of replacing dialogue with a translated version, which is called dubbing or revoicing. 

Music: 

melodious arrangement of various musical instruments is called music. Music can be used for 
a number of effects. The most obvious way music scores are used is to guide the emotional 
response of the audience.  

Simply adding a track of background music can greatly improve your videos. Music has great 
power to impact your viewers emotionally, and the pros use it all the time to add zing to a 
scene. Listen carefully to the music tracks that accompany the programs that you watch on TV 
tonight. Music often creeps in quietly-unnoticed by the viewer-then builds as emotions 
heighten. Want to tell your audience how to feel? Use music. Some of the most suspenseful 
movies of all time are known by their music tracks (Jaws and Psycho, for instance). The 
anticipation at the sound of the music in these movies could scare an audience out of its seat. 

 
 27 
 

In the same way that it can build tension and fear, music can build joy or excitement. Imagine 
how the music would swell (along with the hearts of the viewers) as a hero triumphantly 
emerged from a smoldering building with a child in his arms. 

Background music is an easy way to add professionalism to a video with dialogue or narration. 
Background music should be mixed low, so as not to interfere with the words that are spoken. 

In other productions, music may be the only audio track. Music montages without nat sound 
can be particularly moving if you make wedding or event videos. You’ll find that it helps to lay 
the song on your timeline, then edit your footage to the music. 

sound effect:​There are two categories of sound in the visual medium:  

Diegetic and Non-Diegetic.Diegetic Sound refers to all those audio elements that come from 
sources inside th eworld we see on the screen, including dialogue, doors slamming, footsteps, 
etc. Non-Diegetic Sound refers to all those audio elements that come from outside of the 
fictional world we see on screen, for example the background score. 

Foley sound effects are those made in a recording studio called a Foley stage, while watching 
the picture a Foley artist performs the acting more or less synchroniously with the picture (the 
perfect example of Foley effects are footsteps, who are always made with this sound effect). 

The Foley sound effects are the most responsible for realistic impression of the movies. 
However, they often exaggerate the real-life sounds to make them audible. Foley recording was 
invented early in the history of film sound by a man named Jack Foley, working at the time at 
Universal Studios.  

However, it is not necesseraly that Foley effects are recorded on the Foley stage. Sometimes, 
like in Godfather II (1974), sound designer Walter Murch had recorded them in spaces that 
duplicated the real space of the scene. 

Ambience 

Ambience is the recording of background sounds present on the location or set. It gives 
artificial "presence" of the space. Ambience most typically consists of more or less continuous 
sound, often with a low-frequency emphasis associated with background noise of spaces. It 
plays a significant role in scene continuity. If ambience stays constant across the picture cut, 
the audience becomes the impression that the action stays in the same space. Conversely, if 
there is an ambience change at a picture change, the audience get the impression of the 
completely new scene.  

 
 28 
 

Ambience is referred to as the atmosphere associated with a particular environment. From 

music to film ambient sound is something that creates an atmospheric setting and 
engages the viewer/listener into the surroundings of said environment. Ambient sound is 
used not only to correlate a particular setting to the story, but to also transition into other 
parts of a specific setting in film, maintaining the current flow the film proceeds to take when 
moving from one scene or cut to another.  

Ambience may even be overlapped across certain scene transitions, either to create an effect 
of the former scene lingering into a new one or to anticipate a cut to a new scene. One crucial 
spatial question about ambience id whether it should include sound in the surround channels 
during the reproduction. The difference between an ambience on the screen and ambience that 
includes surround sound is related to the degree of involvement of the audience. The use of 
surround sound creates greater involvement on the part of the listener by breaking the bounds 
of the rigid screen edges, and brings the audience into the action.   

TOPIC 2: Use of Microphones, Audio Mixers for Recording  

Microphones 
A microphone is a transducer - a device which converts energy from one form to 
another. The microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical energy 
(the audio signal). Different types of microphones have different ways of converting energy 
but they all share one thing in common: The diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material 
(such as paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. The 
diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone. 

When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to vibrate. These 
vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the audio signal.  

Types of Microphones  
There are various types of microphones in common use. The differences can be divided into 
three areas:  

1) The type of conversion technology they use:  

This refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into electricity. The most 
common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal. 

​1. a. Dynamic Microphones  

 
 29 
 

Dynamic microphones are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use. They are relatively 
sturdy and resilient to rough handling. They are also better suited to handling high volume 
levels, such as from certain musical instruments or amplifiers.   

They have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power. The diaphragm 
is attached to the coil. When the diaphragm vibrates in response to incoming sound waves, 
the coil moves backwards and forwards past the magnet. This creates a current in the coil 
which is channelled from the microphone along wires.  

1.b. Condenser Microphones  

This type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into electrical 
energy. It requires power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio signal is 
stronger signal than that from a dynamic. A capacitor has two plates with voltage between 
them. In the condenser mic, one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the 
diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance 
between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the 
plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the 
plates are further apart, capacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs.  

2) The Directional Properties  

Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the microphone's 
sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some microphones pick up sound equally from all 
directions, while others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular combination of 
directions. The types of directionality are divided into three main categories:  

 
 30 
 

2.a. Omni directional  

It picks up sound evenly from all directions. The disadvantage is that it cannot discriminate 
between the sound you want to hear and unwanted sounds such as reflections from walls, 
noises from nearby people or equipment, ventilation noise, footsteps, and so on. Omni sound is 
very general and unfocused - if you are trying to capture sound from a particular subject or area 
it is likely to be overwhelmed by other noise.  

2.b. Bidirectional  

It picks up sound from two opposite directions. Or Uses a figure-of-eight pattern and picks up 
sound equally from two opposite directions. Uses: As you can imagine, there aren't a lot of 
situations which require this polar pattern. One possibility would be an interview with two 
people facing each other (with the mic between them).  

2.c.Unidirectional  

Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. This includes cardioid and hypercardioid 
microphones.  

2.c.a. Cardioid Cardioid means "heart-shaped", which is the type of pick-up pattern these mics 
use. Sound is picked up mostly from the front, but to a lesser extent the sides as well. Uses: 
The cardioid is a very versatile microphone, ideal for general use. Handheld mics are usually 
cardioid.  

2.c.b Hypercardioid This is exaggerated version of the cardioid pattern. It is very directional and 
eliminates most sound from the sides and rear. Due to the long thin design of hypercardioids, 
they are often referred to as shotgun microphones. Uses: Isolating the sound from a subject 
or direction when there is a lot of ambient noise; Picking up sound from a subject at a distance.  

2.d. Variable Directionality  

Some microphones allow you to vary the directional characteristics by selecting omni, cardioid 
or shotgun patterns. This feature is sometimes found on video camera microphones, with the 
idea that you can adjust the directionality to suit the angle of zoom, e.g. have a shotgun mic for 
long zooms. Some models can even automatically follow the lens zoom angle so the 
directionality changes from cardioid to shotgun as you zoom. 

​3). Types according to usage  

Microphones used in Television 

 
 31 
 

The most popular type of camera microphone is the shotgun mic, attached to the top of the 
camera.Plugged into the camera’s external mic socket, this mic will give the best quality 
long-distance pickup from the subject. These mics are known to pick up sound from all around 
the camera, including noise from the camera zoom lens and camera operator sounds. This 
basic microphone is useful for general atmospheric background sounds (traffic, crowds) 
and is almost adequate for close-up voice.  

The handheld microphone 

Handheld microphones with cardioid patterns help reduce the amount of extraneous sound 
overheard, so this type of mic can be used about 1 to 1.5 feet from the person speaking. It is a 
familiar sight on television, as it is used by reporters, interviewers, singers, and 
commentators. 

Lavalier (lapel or clip-on mic) microphones  

The lavalier microphone, also known as a “lav,” lapel, or a clip-on mic, has become a favorite 
mic in productions where it is unimportant whether the viewer sees a mic attached to 
someone’s outside clothing (such as the tie, lapel, shirt, or blouse). These microphones are 
compact, unobtrusive, and provide high sound quality. A lavalier mic can only be relied on to 
effectively pick up the sound of the person wearing it. When two or three people are speaking, 
each will need to wear his or her own microphone. Regular users will conceal the lavalier mic’s 
cable beneath a jacket or shirt.  

AUDIO MIXERS 
Every studios includes some kind of audio mixer – analogue, digital or fully computerized. This 
is essentially a device for mixing together the various programme sources, controlling their 
level or volume, and sending the combined output to the required destination – generally either 
the transmitter or a recorder. Traditionally, it contains three types of circuit function: 

Programme circuits:  

A series of differently sourced audio channels, with their individual volume levels controlled by 
separate slider faders. In addition to the main output, a second or auxiliary output – generally 
controlled by a small rotary fader on each channel – can provide a different mix of programme 
material typically used for public address, echo, foldback into the studio for contributors to 
hear, a clean feed or separate audio mix sent to a distant contributor, etc.  

Monitoring circuits: 

 
 32 
 

A visual indication (either by a programme meter or a vertical column of lights) and an aural 
indication (loudspeaker or headphones) to enable the operator to hear and measure the 
individual sources as well as the final mixed output. 

Control circuits.  

The means of communicating with other studios or outside broadcasts by means of ‘talkback’ 
or telephone. In learning to operate a mixer there is little substitute for first. 

A talkback is a microphone-and-receiver system installed in a recording/mixing console for 

communication between people in the control room and performers in the recording studio. 
Most semi-professional and professional consoles include such a system. The typical setup 
includes an internal microphone built directly into the console, and a series of switches. The 
switches allow the recording engineer to route the microphone signal to a variety of audio paths 
in the studio, such as the performer's headphones, a set of speakers in the recording area, or 
directly to a tape recorder. Using this tool, the engineer can communicate with a performer with 
headphones while they are performing in the studio without interfering with the recording. 
Another use is to announce the title or other relevant information at the beginning of a 
recording (called a "slate"). 

TIPS 

1. In mixing sources together – mics, computer playout, music, etc. – the general rule is to 
bring the new fader in before taking the old one out. This avoids the loss of atmosphere 
which occurs when all the faders are closed. A slow mix from one sound source to 
another is called ‘crossfade’. 
2. The question of how loud speech should be against music depends on a variety of 
factors, including the nature of the programme and the probable listening conditions of 
the audience, as well as the type of music and the voice characteristics of the speech. 
There will certainly be a maximum level which can be sent to the line feeding the 
transmitter, and this represents the upper limit against which everything else is judged. 
3. Probably the most important aspect of mixer operation is self-organization. It is 
essential to have a system for handling any physical items: that is, the running order, 
scripts, CDs, etc. The second requirement is accurate reading of the computer screens. 
The good operator is always one step ahead, knowing what has to be done next and, 
having done it, setting up the next step. 

 
 33 
 

TOPIC 3: Audio Control and Adjustment in Video Camera: 

Audio Level & Audio Channel 
 

TOPIC 4: In-camera Editing and File Formats 

Recording is the process of saving data, and audio in this case, for future references and use. 
Signal processors: devices and software which allow the manipulation of the signal in 
various ways. The most common processors are tonal adjusters such as bass and treble 
controls. Record and playback section: devices which convert a signal to a storage format for 
later reproduction. Recorders are available in many different forms, including magnetic 
tape, optical CD, computer hard drive, etc. 4.2 File Formats  

Different audio formats   

1. wav​ - standard audio file format used mainly in Windows PCs. Commonly used for 
storing uncompressed (PCM), CD-quality sound files, which means that they can be 
large in size - around 10MB per minute of music.   
2. mp3​ - the MPEG Layer-3 format is the most popular format for downloading and 
storing music. By eliminating portions of the audio file that are essentially inaudible, 
mp3 files are compressed to roughly one-tenth the size of an equivalent PCM file 
while maintaining good audio quality.   
3. aiff​ - the standard audio file format used by Apple. It is like a wav file for the Mac.   
4. wma​ - the popular Windows Media Audio format owned by Microsoft. Designed with 
Digital Rights Management (DRM) abilities for copy protection   
5. aac​ - A copy-protected version of this format has been developed by Apple for use 
in music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store.   
6. Real Audio (.ra .ram .rm): ​Real Audio is a proprietary format, and is used for streaming 
audio that enables you to play digital audio files in real-time. To use this type of file 
you must have RealPlayer (for Windows or Mac), which you can download for free. 
Real Audio was developed by RealNetworks.   
7. MIDI​ - Musical Instrument Digital Interface (.mid): Short for musical instrument digital 
interface, MIDI is a standard adopted by the electronic music industry for controlling 
devices, such as synthesizers and sound cards, that emit music. At minimum, a MIDI 
representation of a sound includes values for the note's pitch, length, and volume. It can 
also include additional characteristics, such as attack and delay time.   

 
 34 
 

Different video formats  

1. ​AVI ​– Audio Video Interleave - Developed by Microsoft and introduced to the public in 
November 1992. AVI format is one of the oldest video formats. It is so universally accepted. 
AVI files are able to run on Windows, Macintosh, Linux; is also supported by popular web 
browsers.   
2. FLV (Flash Video Format)​ - FLV files are videos that are encoded by Adobe Flash software. 
They can be played via the Adobe Flash Player, web browser plugins or one of several other 
programs. It has become the most common online video viewing platform used on the 
Web today.Almost all video sharing sites such as Youtube stream videos in Flash, 
practically all browsers support and are compatible with the Flash Video format and can 
play the video with ease.  
3. WMV (Windows Media Video)​ - Developed by Microsoft, WMV was originally designed for web 
streaming applications, as a competitor to Real Video, but it can now cater to more 
specialized content.WMV files are the tiniest video files over the Web, as their file size 
decreases significantly after compression, which results in poor video quality. One advantage 
of this small file size is that it is probably the only video file format that allows users to 
upload and share their videos through the e-mail system. Windows Media Player is the 
main application that is used to play WMV files on all Microsoft’s Windows operating systems, 
but there are also WMV players available.  
4. ​MOV (Apple QuickTime Movie)​ - Developed by Apple. Inc, the QuickTime file format is a 
popular type of video sharing and viewing format amongst Macintosh users, and is often 
used on the Web, and for saving movie and video files. In recent years, Apple came up 
with a newer version called QuickTime X, currently available on Mac OS X Snow 
Leopard, Lion and Mountain Lion. MOV files are most commonly opened via the Apple 
QuickTime Player for the Macintosh Operating System. MOV files can also be played on 
Windows computers. Considered one of the best looking file formats, MOV files are of high 
quality and are usually big in file size.   
5. MP4 (Moving Pictures Expert Group 4) ​- First introduced in 1998, the MPEG-4 video format 
uses separate compression for audio and video tracks; video is compressed with MPEG-4 or 
H.264 video encoding; and audio is compressed using AAC compression. The MP4 file 
format is also another great file sharing format for the Web, MP4 file sizes are relatively 
small but the quality remains high even after compression. MP4 standard is also 
becoming more popular than FLV for online video sharing, as it compatible with both 
online and mobile browsers and also supported by the new HTML5. Commonly used for 
sharing video files on the Web.  

 
 35