Term Paper On DC Motor :-

Name :- Sahil Mehta.

Roll No :- 35

Section :- 256

Reg No :- 10802569

Submitted To :-

Suman Rani

(Department Of Physics)
 Contents :-

1) Intorduction

Intoduction About DC Motors

How Does DC Motor Works

2) Types

Brushed DC Motors.

Coreless DC Motors.

Coreless Or Ironless DC Motors.

3) Review Of DC Motor

Inside A DC Motor.

History And Background.

Articles By Scientist.

4) Sugesstion And Clussion.

5) References.
Introduction:

Industrial applications use dc motors because the speed-torque relationship can be varied to
almost any useful form -- for both dc motor and regeneration applications in either direction of
rotation. Continuous operation of dc motors is commonly available over a speed range of 8:1.
Infinite range (smooth control down to zero speed) for short durations or reduced load is also
common.

Dc motors are often applied where they momentarily deliver three or more times their rated
torque. In emergency situations, dc motors can supply over five times rated torque without
stalling (power supply permitting).

Dynamic braking (dc motor-generated energy is fed to a resistor grid) or regenerative braking (dc
motor-generated energy is fed back into the dc motor supply) can be obtained with dc motors on
applications requiring quick stops, thus eliminating the need for, or reducing the size of, a
mechanical brake.

Dc motors feature a speed, which can be controlled smoothly down to zero, immediately
followed by acceleration in the opposite direction -- without power circuit switching. And dc
motors respond quickly to changes in control signals due to the dc motor's high ratio of torque
DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are
Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor,
which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and
brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating
AC current from the DC source -- so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.

How Does DC Motor Works

Brushed DC electric motor

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a split ring
commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of a coil wound
around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to
press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing
difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator
surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum speed of the machine. The current density per
unit area of the brushes limits the output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes
electrical noise. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself
is subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly
element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. There are three types of DC motor:

1. DC series motor
 2. DC shunt motor
3. DC compound motor - there are also two types:
1. cumulative compound
2. differentially compounded

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an
external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-
90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC
motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet
external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position
of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics.

The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals
from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing
their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor
controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect
sensors to determine position and velocity.

These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured with
the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as outrunner motors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in
computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.)
drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers.
They have several advantages over conventional motors:

• Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much
cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of
the fan's bearings.
• Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly
longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also
tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a
brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or
computers.
• The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient
tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the
tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
• The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise
speed control.
 • Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better
suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone
which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
• Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are
generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
• They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is
affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger
brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find
significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

Coreless or Ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions
of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking
advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or
brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is
constructed without any iron core.

The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket
surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring board)
running between upper and lower stator magnets.

The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with Electrical epoxy potting
systems. Filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time.

These systems are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper
windings on steel laminations, These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of
magnetic tape drives and are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like
radio-controlled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medical
devices, etc.

Universal motors

A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact
that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with
AC supplies.

The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the armature
(and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and
hence the mechanical force generated is always in the same direction.
In practice, the motor must be specially designed to cope with the AC (impedance must be taken
into account, as must the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than
an equivalent pure DC motor.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors is limited
and motors exceeding one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower) are rare. But universal motors also
form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways.

In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low
frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are
universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from a
third rail powered by DC.

The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the
typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if
high running speeds are used.

Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances such as
blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also
commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's
characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM,
while Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.

Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of design limits) if
the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be
avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and
control schemes. In smaller applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft often acts as an
artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling
airflow over the armature and field windings.

With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have previously
used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a permanent magnet field

Inside an Electric Motor

Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple two-pole DC electric motor. A simple
motor has six parts, as shown in the diagram below:
• Armature or rotor
• Commutator
• Brushes
• Axle
• Field magnet
 • DC power supply of some sort

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses magnets to create motion.
If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all magnets:
Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends marked "north"
and "south," then the north end of one magnet will attract the south end of the other. On the other
hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north end of the other (and similarly, south will
repel south). Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational
motion.

Motor Image Gallery

Parts of an electric motor..

In the above diagram, you can see two magnets in the motor: The armature (or rotor) is an
electromagnet, while the field magnet is a permanent magnet (the field magnet could be an
electromagnet as well, but in most small motors it isn't in order to save power).
Toy Motor
The motor being dissected here is a simple electric motor that you would typically find in a toy:

You can see that this is a small motor, about as big around as a dime. From the outside you can
see the steel can that forms the body of the motor, an axle, a nylon end cap and two battery leads.
If you hook the battery leads of the motor up to a flashlight battery, the axle will spin. If you
reverse the leads, it will spin in the opposite direction. Here are two other views of the same
motor. (Note the two slots in the side of the steel can in the second shot -- their purpose will
become more evident in a moment.)

The nylon end cap is held in place by two tabs that are part of the steel can. By bending the tabs
back, you can free the end cap and remove it. Inside the end cap are the motor's brushes. These
brushes transfer power from the battery to the commutator as the motor spins:
More Motor Parts
The axle holds the armature and the commutator. The armature is a set of electromagnets, in this
case three. The armature in this motor is a set of thin metal plates stacked together, with thin
copper wire coiled around each of the three poles of the armature. The two ends of each wire
(one wire for each pole) are soldered onto a terminal, and then each of the three terminals is
wired to one plate of the commutator. The figures below make it easy to see the armature,
terminals and commutator:

The final piece of any DC electric motor is the field magnet. The field magnet in this motor is
formed by the can itself plus two curved permanent magnets:
One end of each magnet rests against a slot cut into the can, and then the retaining clip presses
against the other ends of both magnets.

Electromagnets and Motors

To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the electromagnet
works. (See How Electromagnets Work for complete details.)
An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can understand how things work in the
motor by imagining the following scenario. Say that you created a simple electromagnet by
wrapping 100 loops of wire around a nail and connecting it to a battery. The nail would become
a magnet and have a north and south pole while the battery is connected.
electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe magnet and attracted to the
south end of the horseshoe magnet. The south end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a
similar way. The nail would move about half a turn and then stop in the position shown.
 Electromagnet in a horseshoe magnet

You can see that this half-turn of motion is simply due to the way magnets naturally attract and
repel one another. The key to an electric motor is to then go one step further so that, at the
moment that this half-turn of motion completes, the field of the electromagnet flips. The flip
causes the electromagnet to complete another half-turn of motion. You flip the magnetic field
just by changing the direction of the electrons flowing in the wire.

Armature, Commutator and Brushes

Consider the image on the previous page. The armature takes
the place of the nail in an electric motor. The armature is an
electromagnet made by coiling thin wire around two or more
poles of a metal core.
The armature has an axle, and the commutator is attached to the
axle. In the diagram to the right, you can see three different
views of the same armature: front, side and end-on. In the end-on
view, the winding is eliminated to make the commutator more Armature
obvious. You can see that the commutator is simply a pair of plates attached to the axle. These
plates provide the two connections for the coil of the electromagnet.
The "flipping the electric field" part of an electric motor is
accomplished by two parts: the commutator and the brushes.
The diagram at the right shows how the commutator and brushes
work together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to
flip the direction that the electrons are flowing at just the right
moment. The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle
of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes
are just two pieces of springy metal or carbon that make contact Brushes and commutator
with the contacts of the commutator.

Armature
Motors Everywhere!
Look around your house and you will find that it is filled with electric motors. Here's an
interesting experiment for you to try: Walk through your house and count all the motors you
find. Starting in the kitchen, there are motors in:
• The fan over the stove and in the microwave oven
• The dispose-all under the sink
• The blender
• The can opener
• The refrigerator - Two or three in fact: one for the compressor, one for the fan inside
the refrigerator, as well as one in the icemaker
• The mixer
• The tape player in the answering machine
• Probably even the clock on the oven
In the utility room, there is an electric motor in:
• The washer
• The dryer
• The electric screwdriver
• The vacuum cleaner and the Dustbuster mini-vac
• The electric saw
 • The electric drill
• The furnace blower
Even in the bathroom, there's a motor in:
• The fan
• The electric toothbrush
• The hair dryer
• The electric razor
Your car is loaded with electric motors:
• Power windows (a motor in each window)
• Power seats (up to seven motors per seat)
• Fans for the heater and the radiator
• Windshield wipers
• The starter motor
• Electric radio antennas
Plus, there are motors in all sorts of other places:
• Several in the VCR
• Several in a CD player or tape deck
• Many in a computer (each disk drive has two or three, plus there's a fan or two)
• Most toys that move have at least one motor (including Tickle-me-Elmo for its
vibrations)
• Electric clocks
• The garage door opener
• Aquarium pumps

In walking around my house, I counted over 50 electric motors hidden in all sorts of devices.
Everything that moves uses an electric motor to accomplish its movement

History and background

At the most basic level, electric motors exist to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. This is
done by way of two interacting magnetic fields -- one stationary, and another attached to a part that can
move. A number of types of electric motors exist, but most BEAMbots use DC motors1 in some form or
another. DC motors have the potential for very high torque capabilities (although this is generally a
function of the physical size of the motor), are easy to miniaturize, and can be "throttled" via adjusting their
supply voltage. DC motors are also not only the simplest, but the oldest electric motors.

The basic principles of electromagnetic induction were discovered in the early 1800's by Oersted, Gauss,
and Faraday. By 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre Marie Ampere had discovered that an electric
current produces a magnetic field. The next 15 years saw a flurry of cross-Atlantic experimentation and
innovation, leading finally to a simple DC rotary motor. A number of men were involved in the work, so
proper credit for the first DC motor is really a function of just how broadly you choose to define the word
"motor."
Michael Faraday (U.K.)

Fabled experimenter Michael

Faraday decided to confirm or
refute a number of speculations
surrounding Oersted's and
Ampere's results. Faraday set to
work devising an experiment to
demonstrate whether or not a
current-carrying wire produced a
circular magnetic field around it,
and in October of 1821 succeeded
in demonstrating this.

Faraday took a dish of mercury

and placed a fixed magnet in the
middle; above this, he dangled a
freely moving wire (the free end of
the wire was long enough to dip
into the mercury). When he
connected a battery to form a
circuit, the current-carrying wire
circled around the magnet. Faraday
then reversed the setup, this time
with a fixed wire and a dangling
magnet -- again the free part
circled around the fixed part. This
was the first demonstration of the
conversion of electrical energy into
motion, and as a result, Faraday is
often credited with the invention of
the electric motor. Bear in mind,
though, that Faraday's electric
motor is really just a lab
demonstration, as you can't harness
it for useful work.

Also note that if you plan on

repeating this experiment yourself,
you should use salt water (or some
similar nontoxic but conductive
liquid) for the fluid, rather than
mercury. Mercury can be very
hazardous to your health, and
requires stringent precautions on
its use. The BBC has instructions
on building just such a device
using salt water here.
Joseph Henry
(U.S.)
It took ten years, but by
the summer of 1831
Joseph Henry had
improved on Faraday's
experimental motor.
Henry built a simple
device whose moving
part was a straight
electromagnet rocking on
a horizontal axis. Its
polarity was reversed
automatically by its
motion as pairs of wires
projecting from its ends
made connections
alternately with two
electrochemical cells.
Two vertical permanent
magnets alternately
attracted and repelled the
ends of the
electromagnet, making it
rock back and forth at 75
cycles per minute.

Henry considered his

little machine to be
merely a "philosophical
toy," but nevertheless
believed it was important
as the first demonstration
of continuous motion
produced by magnetic
attraction and repulsion.
While being more
mechanically useful than
Faraday's motor, and
being the first real use of
electromagnets in a
motor, it was still by and
large a lab experiment.

For pictures of Henry's

motor, as well as more
information on his
further explorations,
check out the
Smithsonian Institution's
write-up on him (part of
the Joseph Henry Papers
Project) here.
William Sturgeon (U.K.)
Just a year after Henry's motor was demonstrated, William Sturgeon invented the commutator,
and with it the first rotary electric motor -- in many ways a rotary analogue of Henry's oscillating
motor. Sturgeon's motor, while still simple, was the first to provide continuous rotary motion and
contained essentially all the elements of a modern DC motor. Note that Sturgeon used horseshoe
electromagnets to produce both the moving and stationary magnetic fields (to be specific, he
built a shunt wound DC motor).

The BBC has a good set of instructions on building a replica of this motor
Principles of operation
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying
conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will
experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external
magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and
South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The
internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a
current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion.

Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or
winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South"
polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field
magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that BEAMers will see), the external
magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets1. The stator is the stationary part
of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole
pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator.
The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to
the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the
stator (field) magnets.

You'll notice a few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time (but two others
are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions from one commutator contact to the next, one
coil's field will rapidly collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs within a
few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this later, but in the meantime you can see
that this is a direct result of the coil windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is

put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is
tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly
good motor.

Luckily for you, I've gone ahead and done this in your stead. The
guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same
model that Solarbotics sells) are available for you to see here (on
10 lines / cm graph paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with
2 brushes and three commutator contacts.

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite common, and has a number of
advantages2. First off, the iron core provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a
particularly important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also conducts heat away
from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be driven harder than might otherwise be the case.
Iron core construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other construction types.

But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron armature has a relatively high
inertia which limits motor acceleration. This construction also results in high winding inductances
which limit brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a 'coreless' armature winding.
This design depends upon the coil wire itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is
hollow, and the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil. Coreless DC motors have
much lower armature inductance than iron-core motors of comparable size, extending brush and
commutator life.
Stan Pozmantir ( Location :- Texas)

In 1997-1998 I designed a new type of simple inexpensive brushless motor . It is a reed

switch based motor. This motor is very simple but at the same time fast, reliable and
efficient. It is also easy to understand its principles of operation. This is how my original
project looked:

My second year research was devoted to the further development of this motor. At this time
I improved and simplified its design.

For my 1999-2000 project I designed and built 7 more different brushless motors. All of
these motors shared a common design, and thus I could easily compare them together.
Several of the motors that I used in my project were modified and are now available as kits
on this site. They include the transistor controlled reed switch motor, the optointerrupter
motor, and the motor based on the Hall effect. These motors were simplified to have the
minimum number of parts and to operate as efficiently as possible.

Theodore Gray

Theodore Gray make a world’s simplest motor

The ingredients (L-R): One ferromagnetic screw, one battery cell, a few
inches of copper wire, and a neodymium disk magnet.

I used a drywall screw both because it has a flat head and because it's easy to
tell when it's turning. You can use a nail instead. The battery needn't be any
particular type; an alkaline C-cell works fine and is easy to hold. Just about
any copper wire will work fine for this application. I used some wire with
partially stripped (and partially striped) red insulation that is easy to see in
the photos. Bare copper will work just as well.

The magnet came from an LED throwie with a dead battery. The best
magnets for this job are neodymium disc magnets with a conductive plating.

Set the screw on the magnet, bend the wire.

Attach the magnet to one end of the battery. The weak, single-point contact
that you are making serves as an low-friction bearing. I like to attach it to the
button end, but the other end will work as well. (If you do so, the motor will
spin the opposite direction. You can also reverse the direction by flipping the
magnet up side down.)

(Note to physics geeks: The heavier your magnet plus screw system is, the
lower the friction will be, right up to the point that magnet isn't strong
enough to hold them any more. This is because the friction force is
proportional to the normal force. In other words, a bigger magnet is usually
better.)

Press and hold the top end of the wire to the top end of the battery, making an
electrical connection from the top battery end to the wire.

Here we go: Lightly touch the free end of the wire to the side of the magnet.
The magnet and screw start to spin immediately. We can get ours up to
10,000 RPM in about fifteen seconds.

Watch out: The screw and magnet can easily fly out of control, and you do
not want that screw ending up in your eye. Also note that some of the
components, like the wire, can get very warm while you're doing this. Wear
safety glasses and use common sense!

Conclusion :-
 1) Motors = Generators when operated in reverse
A rotor, which is a large coil of wire, is spun in a magnetic field by an electric
charge that is delivered to the rotor by the armatures that touch the shaft. The
rotors are connected to the shaft and the armature skips a little bit so that it won’t
short out another rotor. Because of this one rotor, of an opposite polarity of the
permanent magnetic, is energized at a time; this action caused the rotors to move
which rotates the shaft, which means the motor spins.

2) The nature of this thesis is one that leaves little to be analyzed and
concluded. The motor runs satisfactorily and that is the thesis objective.
Due to time limitations the motor was not tested in oil inside
the transmission. That has to be done to be able to come to any _nal
conclusions. Some things can however be said about the performance
of the system.
The switch from a normal to a brushless DC motor does not create
any new major problems. Dedicated components help the microcontroller
to handle the more complex control algorithms. The use of the
brushless motor results in a slightly slower system than for a normal
DC motor. However, since it has more torque, a good idea would be
to change gear reduction to speed up the system. That of course depending
on the speed and torque requirements. The results show that the motor runs at around expected
speed and handles the
shifting of the driving positions well. The control algorithm performs
satisfactorily and is well adjusted to the system.

3) Future Work :-The next natural step will be to build the actuator into the
transmission.Then the real system can be tested. After that it is time to build
the transmission into a car and evaluate it. Finally a decision has to
be made, if this is something we want in our future cars. Interesting
would also be to try a brushless motor without hall sensors. That would
probably be required if the system is to go into serial production.

References
http://www.howstuffworks.com/motor.htm
http://www.members.home.net/rdoctors/ http://fly.hiwaay.net/~palmer/motor.html

http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/stripped_down_motor.html
http://www.hb.quik.com/~norm/motor/
http://members.tripod.com/simplemotor/
http://www.qkits.com/serv/qkits/diy/pages/QK77.asp
http://store.jalts.com/elmogekit.html