The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual model used to organize the various functions of data communications

by segregating the distinct functions

into a seven-layer model from the Physical layer. Learn how the OSI model relates to industrial wireless communications.


As we discussed in the last segment, WLANs operate at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model. For those
readers unfamiliar with the model, it is a conceptual model used to organize the various functions of data communications by segregating the distinct functions into a
seven-layer model from the Physical layer (wired or wireless medium) up to the Application layer, where the end user device, such as a PC, resides. The layers,
from the top, are: Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical. Unfortunately, space does not allow for a full discussion of the
functions of each layer.

The Open Systems Interconnection Model

Description
Layer name
7 – Application Graphical user interface; primary user interface with communication system.
6 – Presentation Supports the functionality of the application layer by providing services such as formatting and translation of data.
5- Session Maintains the transmission path by synchronizing packets and controlling access to the medium by the Application layer.
4 – Transport Ensures the quality of transmission and determines the best route for transmission of data using the Network layer below.
3 – Network Finds a route for transmission of data and establishes and maintains the connection between two connected nodes.
2- Data Link Creates, transmits, and receives packets. Controls the Physical layer.
1- Physical Converts data into bits for transmission and converts received bits into usable data for the layers above it.

As data is passed down the stack from sending to receiving computers, it is encapsulated with information or data that is used by each succeeding layer; on the
receiving side, the encapsulation is stripped off as the data proceeds from the Physical layer to the Application layer. For instance, a file is sent from Computer A to
Computer B. As the file leaves the Application layer and enters the Presentation layer, it is wrapped with a new header and trailer containing the instructions or
status bits in a specified manner and in a specified position relative to the file, which is called the payload. In a TCP/IP network, the Transport layer examines the
data it receives from the upper layers to determine the best route to Computer B. It then determines if the data exceeds the maximum transmission unit (MTU) size.
If it does, then the data is broken into segments, each assigned a unique number. This process ensures that the data is received and reassembled in the right order.

The Transport layer then sends the data to the Network layer (sometimes called the Internetwork layer) for routing to the receiving computer. The Transport and
Network layers mark the boundary between data processing and data communication in the system. The Network layer passes the data, now called a packet, or
datagram, to the Data Link layer, which adds addressing data and control information to the datagram, creating a frame. The frame is then passed to the Physical
layer, which puts the frame on to the medium using various techniques. At the receiving end, the process is reversed.

All Wireless LANs operate on the Physical and Data Link layers, layers 1 and 2. All Wi-Fi systems use these layers to format data and control the data to conform
with 802.11 standards. Medium arbitration-controlling when the AP can access the medium and transmit or receive data-is done at these two layers. We will discuss
the very complex technique of wireless medium arbitration in a future segment; for now, it is important to understand the functions of layers 1 and 2.

The Physical layer, or PHY, is the medium through which communication is effected. It is at this layer the transceiver is controlled to access the medium. We are
primarily concerned with the wireless medium. Unlike a bounded, wired medium, WLANs operate "over the air" and are subject to an entirely different set of rules for
accessing and controlling the medium. For instance, wired networks have the ability to detect and mitigate data collisions; wireless networks cannot detect collisions,
instead, elaborate protocols are in place to allow access and control of the medium and to avoid collisions. Wireless networks are also subject to unintentional
interference and intentional disruptions. Wired networks are relatively difficult to hack into while wireless networks can be casually hacked by anyone with a wireless
card within range of an access point. These issues have provided developers with significant challenges to overcome to ensure that WLANs are reliable and secure.

The Data Link layer consists of two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer and the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer. The LLC receives an IP
packet from the Network layer above it and encapsulates the data with addressing and control information. This packet, now called a frame, is passed to the MAC,
which modifies the addressing and control information in the frame header to ensure the data is in the proper form for application to the Physical layer. The MAC
then passes the frame to the PHY, which modulates the data according to the PHY standard in use (DSSS, OFDM), and transmits the bits as RF. The process is
reversed at the receiving end.
Upon successfully receiving the transmitted data, it is demodulated and the resulting frame is passed to the receiving MAC. The frame header is examined to
determine if it is the intended address; if it is, then the MAC data is stripped off and passed to the LLC, which then examines the upper-level addressing data in its
header. It strips off its data and passes the packet to the Network layer, which performs the proper routing to the destination on the local network.

This all happens within an average time span of 500 milliseconds, unless QoS protocols are in play, in which case the processing time is significantly reduced.
Unfortunately, congested networks will cause excessive arbitration for control of the medium, resulting in latency and extended transaction times.

A WPAN (wireless personal area network) is a personal area network - a network for interconnecting devices centered around an individual person's workspace - in
which the connections are wireless. Typically, a wireless personal area network uses some technology that permits communication within about 10 meters - in other
words, a very short range. One such technology is Bluetooth, which was used as the basis for a new standard, IEEE 802.15.

A WPAN could serve to interconnect all the ordinary computing and communicating devices that many people have on their desk or carry with them today - or it
could serve a more specialized purpose such as allowing the surgeon and other team members to communicate during an operation.

A key concept in WPAN technology is known as plugging in. In the ideal scenario, when any two WPAN-equipped devices come into close proximity (within several
meters of each other) or within a few kilometers of a central server, they can communicate as if connected by a cable. Another important feature is the ability of each
device to lock out other devices selectively, preventing needless interference or unauthorized access to information.

The technology for WPANs is in its infancy and is undergoing rapid development. Proposed operating frequencies are around 2.4 GHz in digital modes. The
objective is to facilitate seamless operation among home or business devices and systems. Every device in a WPAN will be able to plug in to any other device in the
same WPAN, provided they are within physical range of one another. In addition, WPANs worldwide will be interconnected. Thus, for example, an archeologist on
site in Greece might use a PDA to directly access databases at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, and to transmit findings to that database.

https://searchmobilecomputing.techtarget.com/definition/WPAN

OSI Layers and WLANs

Let us start with the idea that complex problems are usually broken down into modular components to facilitate understanding and to make the solution more tractable. For this
purpose, data communications make use of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. Given the extensive coverage of this model available in other books, this book
does not intend to provide a complete and exhaustive overview of the OSI reference model. Instead, this section provides a brief summary of the model and focuses on the sections
that are most relevant within the context of this book.

Note

The OSI model was defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was conceived to allow interoperability across the various platforms offered by vendors.
A provisional version of the model was first published in March 1978 and became standardized in 1979 after some minor refinements.

The OSI model breaks the overall task of communication into layers that focus on relatively delimited and well-defined subtasks. Within this framework, two types of
communication occur:

o Interface Layers communicate with their neighbors through an interface. A layer presents or receives information from its respective adjacent layers in a standardized
format through this interface.
o Protocol The second type of communication is with a peer layer by means of a protocol. Peer layers are at the same level but in different nodes. As such, network nodes
can communicate directly on a layer-by-layer basis with other network nodes. However, the semantics of this communication are restricted to each layer.

The seven layers that make up the OSI reference model and the two communication types are illustrated in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1. OSI Reference Model

Note
The number seven has no specific meaning or purpose. The ISO defined the OSI reference model and subsequently tasked subcommittees to work out the details for each layer.

The following sections provide more detail on each of the respective OSI layers.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The purpose of the physical layer is to perform the actual transmission of information across a link. As such, it covers characteristics that are related to the physical properties and
distinctiveness of the network. This includes the transport medium, topology, data encoding techniques, transmission speeds, maximum transmission distances, voltage levels,
connectors, pin functions, conversion of information into signals, and synchronization. The physical characteristics that are most important in the context of this book are the
transport medium, the topology, and the data encoding techniques. An overview of each follows.

Transport Medium

The transport medium defines the type and characteristics of the physical channel that carries information. In its strictest sense, the channel is used as a tunnel for electricity or
electromagnetic waves. For the purpose of this book, this section makes the distinction between electrical, optical, and radio channels.

An electrical channel makes use of copper wires to conduct electrons or electricity from source to destination. An optical channel employs a fiber optic cable to guide light between
the emitter and the receiver. Finally, a radio frequency (RF) channel utilizes the radio band of the electromagnetic spectrum to carry signals. A key difference of RF is that the RF
channel is not bounded or confined to the actual physical systems but relies on the free space of air.

Indeed, RF is truly unbounded because the ether has no borders. Because RF signals are not guided by a conduit, they can theoretically propagate in any direction. This borderless
characteristic of RF has two important implications:

o External influences have a greater impact on unbounded signals and their properties because the lack of a conduit implicitly prevents shielding from external influences.
o Radio communication is always a broadcast in the sense that any device can tune into the signal.

The broadcast nature of radio communication has important implications for both WLAN technology and applications. For example, transmissions can inherently be intercepted by
any network-attached station. When combined with nondirectional antennas, every station intercepts every transmission of every other station. Not only does this have security
implications, but it also requires methods for resolving orderly access to the air. These implications will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 7, "Security and Wireless LANs."

Topology

The following list describes the four basic topologies for networks consisting of three or more nodes:

o Bus Network nodes are connected to a central transmission channelthat is, the bus or backbone.
o Star Nodes are connected to a central hub.
o Ring Network nodes are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop.
o Mesh Devices are directly connected by two or more connections to other network nodes.

Figure 1-2 illustrates the different topologies.

Figure 1-2. Network Topologies

By construction, WLANs adopt a bus topology because they use radio as their transmission channel. The radio spectrum forms the bus, and every node always hears every
transmission from every other node. This is only true for a bus topology. Confusion might arise due to the physical layout of WLANs.

The access point (AP), which acts as a bridge, forwards all data it receives. The impression arises that WLANs adopt a star topology. However, star topologies provide singular and
dedicated connectivity between the stations and the central hub, which is not the case for WLANs. In WLANs, the transport medium is shared among all connected stations. Hence, a
distinction must be made between the physical appearance of a star topology and the logical layout and behavior as a bus topology.

Data Encoding

Data encoding is the transformation of information into a form that is suitable for the transmission medium. Adverse transmission effects such as attenuation, distortion, and
interference are taken into consideration when selecting an encoding method for a particular physical channel.

Attenuation is the loss of signal strength. This can be due to impurities of the transmission medium. Copper has a natural resistance at room temperature. Similarly, fiber optic cables
contain impurities that reduce signal strength with distance. With regard to radio signals, one cause of loss of signal power is materials that the signal encounters. The encountered
materials cause absorption or reflection resulting in a reduction of signal strength (see Figure 1-3). For example, water absorption bands are 22, 183, and 323 GHz, and the oxygen
absorption regions are 60 and 118 GHz.

Figure 1-3. Attenuation of a Radio Signal

Another cause of attenuation of radio signals is the increasing volumetric spread of the signal as the distance from the source increases. Incoherent electromagnetic wavesas opposed
to coherent electromagnetic waves such as laserslose signal focus in function of the distance traveled. The loss of focus corresponds with a loss in power as the power is distributed
over a greater area. This effect can clearly be seen in flashlights. With constant power levels of the source, the beam's footprint increases and the intensity of the light decreases the
farther you are away from the source.

Distortion is the process of the physical medium influencing frequency components of the original signal in different ways. The amount of resistance that a physical entity has on a
signal medium is partly determined by the frequency of the signal that passes through it. Different materials affect the RF signal at different levels. The effect of lead versus glass on
a low-frequency signal will be different from a high-frequency signal. The result is an undesirable change in the shape of the radio wave or distortion of the signal that increases with
transmission distance (see Figure 1-4).

Figure 1-4. Distortion of an RF Signal As It Passes Through Concrete

Note

Common definitions of the frequency band groups are low, high, and ultra-high. Low bands range from 0 to 30 MHz, high bands from 100 to 300 MHz, and ultra-high bands from
300 MHz to 3 GHz.

Interference occurs as a result of outside influences. In copper, inductive currents created by external electromagnetic fields mutate the original signal's character. Sometimes referred
to as noise, in RF, interference is actually the disturbance of one radio signal by another of the same frequency. The various transposed signals either boost or reduce frequency
components of the original signal, leading to modification of the original signal's profile. Figure 1-5 shows both the single undisturbed RF wave and the RF wave when another is
introduced. The second diagram shows that when the other wave is added, it "interferes" with the original wave.

Figure 1-5. Interference of an RF Wave by a Second Signal

Data encoding techniques are used to construct a robust, reconstructable signal for the given medium. The techniques not only define how digital information is encoded into and
decoded from respective electrical, optical, or radio signals, but also provide methods for error detection and correction.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The role of the data link layer is to provide reliable transit of data across a physical link. Specifications define physical addressing, sequencing of frames, flow control, and error
notification. Error notification alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred. Sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are received out of sequence.
Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at any given time.

IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers:

o Logical Link Control (LLC)

o Media Access Control (MAC)

Figure 1-6 illustrates the IEEE sublayers of the data link layer.

Figure 1-6. OSI Data Link Sublayers

The LLC sublayer manages communications between devices over a single link of a network. LLC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specification and supports both connectionless and
connection-oriented services used by higher-layer protocols. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of fields in data link layer frames that enable multiple higher-layer protocols to share a
single physical data link.

The MAC sublayer defines the contention resolution method for access to the physical medium. In addition, the MAC specification defines MAC addresses that, at the data link
layer, uniquely identify devices.

The combination of Layer 1 and MAC specifications define the type of LAN network.

WAN standards are typically defined solely by their Layer 1 characteristics. The same is true for cellular communications standards. For example, a T1/E1 network is defined by its
underlying Layer 1 (physical) network.

Figure 1-7 illustrates the OSI positioning of various common networking standards.

Figure 1-7. OSI Technology Reference Chart

Given the lesser importance of Layers 3 to 7 in the context of this book, a brief overview is provided for the remaining OSI layers. Consult other books, such as the following, if you
would like in-depth coverage of these respective layers:

o Internetworking with TCP/IP, Volume I: Principles, Protocols, and Architecture by Douglas E. Comer
o TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume I: The Protocols by W. Richard Stevens

Layer 3: Network Layer

Layer 3 supports network addressing, route selection, congestion control, and packet fragmentation and reassembly. IP is today's most commonly employed network layer protocol.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer manages end-to-end connections over both connection-oriented and connectionless links. In addition, its specification includes sequencing, flow control, and the
capability for error-free delivery. The Transport Control Protocol (TCP) is an example of a Layer 4 protocol used on the Internet.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between
applications located in different network devices. This layer is typically not encountered in today's Internet environment. However, protocols such as AppleTalk include session layer
implementations.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer ensures that information sent from one system is readable by the receiving system. It employs coding and conversion schemes to provide common data
representation formats and conversion of character representation formats because systems may adopt different ways of representing data. Examples of common data representation
formats are ASCII and Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC). Finally, the presentation layer supplies common data compression (MPEG, JPEG, GIF, TIFF)
and common encryption schemes that enable data encrypted at the source device to be properly deciphered at the destination.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer interacts with software applications that require a communications component. As such, its functions include defining syntax, identifying communication
partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.

Some commonly used programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. For example, Microsoft Internet Explorer does not fall within the OSI framework. The HTTP agent
embedded in Explorer, however, does form part of the OSI application layer.

ne way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry
refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common examples of area network types are:

 LAN - Local Area Network

 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network
 DAN - Desk Area Network
LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution.

Note that these network types are a separate concept from network topologies such as bus, ring and star.
LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN,
though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby
buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.

In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They
also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

WAN - Wide Area Network

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.

A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a routerconnects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router
maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist
under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the
longer distances.

LAN, WAN and Home Networking

Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet WAN via an Internet Service Provider (ISP) using a broadband modem. The
ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and all of the computers on the home network use LAN (so-calledprivate) IP addresses. All
computers on the home LAN can communicate directly with each other but must go through a central gateway, typically abroadband router, to
reach the ISP.

Other Types of Area Networks

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these others:

 Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology
 Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by
a single entity such as a government body or large corporation.
 Campus Area Network - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business campus.
 Storage Area Network - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.
 System Area Network - links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices. This article introduces the standard topologies of networking.

Topology in Network Design

Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the
devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly
unlikely to find a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

 bus
 ring
 star
 tree
 mesh
More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

Definition: The OSI model defines internetworking in terms of a vertical stack of seven layers. The upper layers of the OSI model represent
software that implements network services like encryption and connection management. The lower layers of the OSI model implement more
primitive, hardware-oriented functions like routing, addressing, and flow control.

In the OSI model, data communication starts with the top layer at the sending side, travels down the OSI model stack to the bottom layer, then traveses the network
connection to the bottom layer on the receiving side, and up its OSI model stack.
The OSI model was introduced in 1984. Although it was designed to be an abstract model, the OSI model remains a practical framework for today's key network
technologies like Ethernet and protocols like IP.

Also Known As: Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, OSI seven layer model

Examples:

Internet Protocol (IP) corresponds to the Network layer of the OSI model, layer three. TCP and UDP correspond to OSI model layer four, the
Transport layer. Lower layers of the OSI model are represented by technologies like Ethernet. Higher layers of the OSI model are represented
by application protocols like TCP and UDP.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model has been an essential element of computer network design since its ratification in 1984. The
OSI is an abstract model of how network protocols and equipment should communicate and work together (interoperate).

The OSI model is a technology standard maintained by the International Standards Organization (ISO). Although today's technologies do not
fully conform to the standard, it remains a useful introduction to the study of network architecture.

The OSI Model Stack

The OSI model divides the complex task of computer-to-computer communications, traditionally calledinternetworking, into a series of stages
known aslayers. Layers in the OSI model are ordered from lowest level to highest. Together, these layers comprise the OSI stack. The stack
contains seven layers in two groups:

Upper layers -

7. application
6. presentation
5. session

Lower layers -

4. transport
3. network
2. data link
1. physical

More - OSI Model Layers

Upper Layers of the OSI Model

OSI designates the application, presentation, and session stages of the stack as the upper layers. Generally speaking, software in these layers
performs application-specific functions like data formatting, encryption, and connection management.

Examples of upper layer technologies in the OSI model are HTTP, SSL and NFS.

Lower Layers of the OSI Model

The remaining lower layers of the OSI model provide more primitive network-specific functions like routing, addressing, and flow control.
Examples of lower layer technologies in the OSI model are TCP, IP, and Ethernet.

Benefits of the OSI Model

By separating the network communications into logical smaller pieces, the OSI model simplifies how network protocols are designed. The OSI
model was designed to ensure different types of equipment (such as network adapters, hubs, and routers) would all be compatible even if built
by different manufacturers. A product from one network equipment vendor that implements OSI Layer 2 functionality, for example, will be
much more likely to interoperate with another vendor's OSI Layer 3 product because both vendors are following the same model.

The OSI model also makes network designs more extensible as new protocols and other network services are generally easier to add to a
layered architecture than to a monolithic one.
https://swanand18.blogspot.com/2013/10/network-typestopology-in-network.html
5G is the fifth generation cellular network technology. The industry association 3GPP defines any system using "5G NR" (5G New Radio) software as "5G", a
definition that came into general use by late 2018. Others may reserve the term for systems that meet the requirements of the ITU IMT-2020. 3GPP will submit their
5G NR to the ITU.[1] It follows 2G, 3G and 4G and their respective associated technologies (such as GSM, UMTS, LTE, LTE Advanced Pro and others).

5G networks are digital cellular networks, in which the service area covered by providers is divided into small geographical areas called cells. Analog
signals representing sounds and images are digitized in the phone, converted by an analog to digital converter and transmitted as a stream of bits. All the 5G
wireless devices in a cell communicate by radio waves with a local antenna array and low power automated transceiver (transmitter and receiver) in the cell, over
frequency channels assigned by the transceiver from a common pool of frequencies, which are reused in geographically separated cells. The local antennas are
connected with the telephone network and the Internet by a high bandwidth optical fiber or wireless backhaul connection. Like existing cellphones, when a user
crosses from one cell to another, their mobile device is automatically "handed off" seamlessly to the antenna in the new cell.
There are plans to use millimeter waves for 5G.[2] Millimeter waves have shorter range than microwaves, therefore the cells are limited to smaller size; The waves
also have trouble passing through building walls.[3] Millimeter wave antennas are smaller than the large antennas used in previous cellular networks. They are only a
few inches (several centimeters) long. Another technique used for increasing the data rate is massive MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output).[3] Each cell will have
multiple antennas communicating with the wireless device, received by multiple antennas in the device, thus multiple bitstreams of data will be transmitted
simultaneously, in parallel. In a technique called beamforming the base station computer will continuously calculate the best route for radio waves to reach each
wireless device, and will organize multiple antennas to work together as phased arrays to create beams of millimeter waves to reach the device.[3][4]
The new 5G wireless devices also have 4G LTE capability, as the new networks use 4G for initially establishing the connection with the cell, as well as in locations
where 5G access is not available.[5]
5G can support up to a million devices per square kilometer, while 4G supports only up to 100,000 devices per square kilometer.[6][7]
Usage scenario[edit]
The ITU-R has defined three main uses for 5G. They are Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC), and Massive
Machine Type Communications (mMTC).[8] Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) uses 5G as a progression from 4G LTE mobile broadband services, with faster
connections, higher throughput, and more capacity. Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC) refer to using the network for mission critical applications
that requires uninterrupted and robust data exchange. Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) would be used to connect to a large number of low power,
low cost devices, which have high scalability and increased battery lifetime, in a wide area. Neither URLLC nor mMTC are expected to be deployed widely before
2021.

Performance[edit]
Speed[edit]
5G NR speed in sub-6 GHz bands can be slightly higher than the 4G with a similar amount of spectrum and antennas, [9][10] though some 3GPP 5G networks will be
slower than some advanced 4G networks, such as T-Mobile's LTE/LAA network, which achieves 500+ Mbit/s in Manhattan[11] and Chicago.[12] The 5G specification
allows LAA (License Assisted Access) as well but LAA in 5G has not yet been demonstrated. Adding LAA to an existing 4G configuration can add hundreds of
megabits per second to the speed, but this is an extension of 4G, not a new part of the 5G standard. [11]
Speeds in the less common millimeter wave spectrum can be substantially higher.
Latency[edit]
In 5G, the "air latency" target is 1-4 milliseconds, although the equipment shipping in 2019 has tested air latency of 8-12 milliseconds.[13][14] The latency to the server
must be added to the "air latency." Verizon reports the latency on its 5G early deployment is 30 ms. [15]

Standards[edit]
Initially, the term was associated with the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 standard, which required a theoretical peak download capacity of 20
gigabits, along with other requirements.[16] Then, the industry standards group 3GPP chose the 5G NR (New Radio) standard together with LTE as their proposal for
submission to the IMT-2020 standard.[17][18]
The first phase of 3GPP 5G specifications in Release-15 is scheduled to complete in 2019. The second phase in Release-16 is due to be completed in 2020.[19]
5G NR can include lower frequencies (FR1), below 6 GHz, and higher frequencies (FR2), above 24 GHz. However, the speed and latency in early FR1 deployments,
using 5G NR software on 4G hardware (non-standalone), are only slightly better than new 4G systems, estimated at 15 to 50% better. [20][21][22]
IEEE covers several areas of 5G with a core focus in wireline sections between the Remote Radio Head (RRH) and Base Band Unit (BBU). The 1914.1 standards
focus on network architecture and dividing the connection between the RRU and BBU into two key sections. Radio Unit (RU) to the Distributor Unit (DU) being the
NGFI-I (Next Generation Fronthaul Interface) and the DU to the Central Unit (CU) being the NGFI-II interface allowing a more diverse and cost-effective network.
NGFI-I and NGFI-II have defined performance values which should be compiled to ensure different traffic types defined by the ITU are capable of being carried.
1914.3 standard is creating a new Ethernet frame format capable of carrying IQ data in a much more efficient way depending on the functional split utilized. This is
based on the 3GPP definition of functional splits. Multiple network synchronization standards within the IEEE groups are being updated to ensure network timing
accuracy at the RU is maintained to a level required for the traffic carried over it.
5G NR[edit]
Main article: 5G NR

5G NR (New Radio) is a new air interface developed for the 5G network.[23] It is supposed to be the global standard for the air interface of 3GPP 5G networks.[24]
Pre-standard implementations[edit]

 5GTF: The 5G network implemented by American carrier Verizon for Fixed Wireless Access in late 2010s uses a pre-standard specification known as 5GTF
(Verizon 5G Technical Forum). The 5G service provided to customers in this standard is incompatible with 5G NR. There are plans to upgrade 5GTF to 5G NR
"Once [it] meets our strict specifications for our customers," according to Verizon. [25]
 5G-SIG： Pre-standard specification of 5G developed by KT Corporation. Deployed at Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympics.[26]
Internet of Things[edit]
In the Internet of Things (IoT), 3GPP is going to submit evolution of NB-IoT and eMTC(LTE-M) as the 5G technology for the LPWA (Low Power Wide Area) use
case.[27]
Deployment[edit]

5G 3,5 GHz Cell Site of Deutsche Telekom in Darmstadt, Germany

See also: List of 5G NR networks

Beyond mobile operator networks, 5G is also expected to be widely used for private networks with applications in industrial IoT, enterprise networking, and critical
communications.
Initial 5G NR launches will depend on existing LTE (4G) infrastructure in non-standalone (NSA) mode (5G NR software on LTE radio hardware), before maturation of
the standalone (SA) mode (5G NR software on 5G NR radio hardware) with the 5G core network.
As of April 2019, the Global Mobile Suppliers Association had identified 224 operators in 88 countries that are actively investing in 5G (i.e. that have demonstrated,
are testing or trialling, or have been licensed to conduct field trials of 5G technologies, are deploying 5G networks or have announced service launches). [28] The
equivalent numbers in November 2018 were 192 operators in 81 countries.[29] The first country to adopt 5G on a large scale was South Korea, in April 2019.
When South Korea launched its 5G network, all carriers used Samsung, Ericsson and Nokia base stations and equipment, except for LG U Plus, who also used
Huawei equipment.[30][31] Samsung was the largest supplier for 5G base stations in South Korea at launch, having shipped 53,000 base stations at the time, out of
86,000 base stations installed across the country at the time. [32]
The first fairly substantial deployments were in April 2019. In South Korea, SK Telecom claimed 38,000 base stations, KT Corporation 30,000 and LG U Plus 18,000;
of which 85% are in six major cities.[33] They are using 3.5 GHz (sub-6) spectrum in non-standalone (NSA) mode and tested speeds were from 193 to
430 Mbit/s down.[34] 260,000 signed up in the first month and the goal is 10% of phones on 5G by the end of 2019.[35]
Nine companies sell 5G radio hardware and 5G systems for carriers: Altiostar, Cisco Systems, Datang
Telecom, Ericsson, Huawei, Nokia, Qualcomm, Samsung and ZTE.[36][37][38][39][40][41][42]
Spectrum[edit]
Large quantities of new spectrum (5G NR frequency bands) have been allocated to 5G[43] in order to support its increased throughput requirements. For example, in
July 2016, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) freed up vast amounts of bandwidth in underused high-band spectrum for 5G. The Spectrum
Frontiers Proposal (SFP) doubled the amount of millimeter-wave unlicensed spectrum to 14 GHz and created four times the amount of flexible, mobile-use spectrum
the FCC had licensed to date.[44] In March 2018, European Union lawmakers agreed to open up the 3.6 and 26 GHz bands by 2020.[45]
As of March 2019, there are reportedly 52 countries, territories, special administrative regions, disputed territories and dependencies that are formally considering
introducing certain spectrum bands for terrestrial 5G services, are holding consultations regarding suitable spectrum allocations for 5G, have reserved spectrum for
5G, have announced plans to auction frequencies or have already allocated spectrum for 5G use.[46]
5G devices[edit]

[47]
Samsung Galaxy S10 5G, the world's first smartphone able to connect to 5G networks

In March 2019, the Global Mobile Suppliers Association released the industry's first database tracking worldwide 5G device launches. [48] In it, the GSA identified 23
vendors who have confirmed the availability of forthcoming 5G devices with 33 different devices including regional variants. There were seven announced 5G device
form factors: (phones (×12 devices), hotspots (×4), indoor and outdoor customer-premises equipment (×8), modules (×5), Snap-On dongles and adapters (×2), and
USB terminals (×1)).[49]
In the 5G IoT chipset arena, as of April 2019 there were four commercial 5G modem chipsets and one commercial processor/platform, with more launched expected
in the near future.[50]

Technology[edit]
New radio frequencies[edit]
See also: 5G NR frequency bands

The air interface defined by 3GPP for 5G is known as New Radio (NR), and the specification is subdivided into two frequency bands, FR1 (below 6 GHz) and FR2
(mmWave),[73]each with different capabilities.
Frequency range 1 (< 6 GHz)[edit]
The maximum channel bandwidth defined for FR1 is 100 MHz, due to the scarcity of continuous spectrum in this crowded frequency range. The band most widely
being used for 5G in this range is around 3.5 GHz. The Korean carriers are using 3.5 GHz although some millimeter wave spectrum has also been allocated.
Frequency range 2 (> 24 GHz)[edit]
The minimum channel bandwidth defined for FR2 is 50 MHz and the maximum is 400 MHz, with two-channel aggregation supported in 3GPP Release 15. In the
U.S., Verizon is using 28 GHz and AT&T is using 39 GHz. 5G can use frequencies of up to 300 GHz.[74] The higher the frequency, the greater the ability to support
high data transfer speeds without interfering with other wireless signals or becoming overly cluttered. Due to this, 5G can support approximately 1,000 more devices
per meter than 4G.[75]
FR2 Network coverage[edit]
5G can use higher frequencies than 4G, and as a result, some 5G signals are not capable of traveling large distances (over a few hundred meters), unlike 4G or
lower frequency 5G signals. This requires placing 5G base stations every few hundred meters in order to utilize higher frequency bands. Also, these higher
frequency 5G signals cannot easily penetrate solid objects, like cars, trees and walls, because of the nature of these higher frequency electromagnetic waves.[76]

5G on FR2 base station types Max. number Output power Max. distance from
Deployment environment
(cell types) of users (mW) base station

Home: 4−8 indoors: 10−100

Femto cell Homes, businesses 10s of meters
Businesses: 16−32 outdoors: 200−1000

Public areas like shopping malls, indoors: 100−250

Pico cell 64 to 128 10s of meters
airports, train stations, skyscrapers outdoors: 1000−5000

Micro cell Urban areas to fill coverage gaps 128 to 256 outdoors: 5000−10000 few hundreds of meters

Metro cell Urban areas to provide additional capacity more than 250 outdoors: 10000−20000 hundreds of meters

Wi-Fi indoors: 20−100

Homes, businesses less than 50 few 10s of meters
(for comparison) outdoors: 200−1000

Massive MIMO[edit]
Massive MIMO (multiple input and multiple output) antennas increases sector throughput and capacity density using large numbers of antennas and Multi-user
MIMO (MU-MIMO). Each antenna is individually-controlled and may embed radio transceiver components. Nokia claimed a five-fold increase in the capacity
increase for a 64-Tx/64-Rx antenna system. The term "massive MIMO" was coined by Nokia Bell Labs researcher Dr. Thomas L. Marzetta in 2010, and has been
launched in 4G networks, such as Softbank in Japan.[77]
Of over 562 separate 5G demonstrations, tests or trials globally of 5G technologies, at least 94 of them have involved testing Massive MIMO in the context of 5G.[78]
Edge computing[edit]
Main article: Mobile edge computing

Edge computing is delivered by cloud computing servers closer to the ultimate user. It reduces latency and data traffic congestion.[79][80]
Small cell[edit]
Main article: Small cell

Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes that operate in licensed and unlicensed spectrum that have a range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small
cells are critical to 5G networks, as 5G's radio waves can't travel long distances, because of 5G's higher frequencies.
Beamforming[edit]
Main article: Beamforming

Beamforming, as the name suggests, is used to direct radio waves to a target. This is achieved by combining elements in an antenna array in such a way that
signals at particular angles experience constructive interference while others experience destructive interference. This improves signal quality and data transfer
speeds. Because of the improved signal quality 5G uses beamforming. Beamforming can be accomplished using Phased array antennas.
Wifi-cellular convergence[edit]
One expected benefit of the transition to 5G is the convergence of multiple networking functions to achieve cost, power and complexity reductions. LTE has targeted
convergence with Wi-Fi band/technology via various efforts, such as License Assisted Access (LAA; 5G signal in unlicensed frequency bands that are also used by
Wi-Fi) and LTE-WLAN Aggregation (LWA; convergence with Wi-Fi Radio), but the differing capabilities of cellular and Wi-Fi have limited the scope of convergence.
However, significant improvement in cellular performance specifications in 5G, combined with migration from Distributed Radio Access Network (D-RAN) to Cloud-
or Centralized-RAN (C-RAN) and rollout of cellular small cells can potentially narrow the gap between Wi-Fi and cellular networks in dense and indoor deployments.
Radio convergence could result in sharing ranging from the aggregation of cellular and Wi-Fi channels to the use of a single silicon device for multiple radio access
technologies.[citation needed]
NOMA (non-orthogonal multiple access)[edit]
Main article: NOMA (5G)

NOMA (non-orthogonal multiple access) is a proposed multiple-access technique for future cellular systems via allocation of power.
SDN/NFV[edit]
Main articles: Software-defined networking, SD-WAN, Network function virtualization, and 5G network slicing
Initially, cellular mobile communications technologies were designed in the context of providing voice services and Internet access. Today a new era of innovative
tools and technologies is inclined towards developing a new pool of applications. This pool of applications consists of different domains such as the Internet of
Things (IoT), web of connected autonomous vehicles, remotely controlled robots, and heterogeneous sensors connected to serve versatile applications.[81] In this
context, network slicing has emerged as a key technology to efficiently embrace this new market model.[82]
Channel coding[edit]
Main article: Polar code (coding theory)

The channel coding techniques for 5G NR have changed from turbo in 4G to polar for the control channel and LDPC for the data channel.[83][84]
Operation in unlicensed spectrum[edit]
Like LTE in unlicensed spectrum, 5G NR will also support operation in unlicensed spectrum (NR-U).[85] In addition to License Assisted Access (LAA) from LTE that
enable carriers to use those unlicensed spectrum to boost their operational performance for users, in 5G NR it will support standalone NR-U unlicensed operation
which will allow new 5G NR networks to be established in different environments without acquiring operational license in licensed spectrum, for instance for localized
private network or lower the entry barrier for providing 5G internet services to the public.[85]

Concerns[edit]
Interference issues[edit]
Spectra used by various 5G proposals will be very near that of passive remote sensing such as by weather and Earth observation satellites, particularly for water
vapor monitoring. Interference will occur and will potentially be significant without effective controls. An increase in interference already occurred with some other
prior proximate band usages.[86][87]Interference to satellite operations impairs numerical weather prediction performance with substantially deleterious economic and
public safety impacts.[88][89] The concerns prompted US Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross and NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine in February 2019 to urge the
FCC to delay some spectrum auction proposals, which was rejected. [90] The chairs of the House Appropriations Committee and House Science Committee wrote
separate letters to FCC chair Ajit Pai asking for further review and consultation with NOAA, NASA, and DoD, and warning of harmful impacts to national
security.[91] Acting NOAA director Neil Jacobs testified before the House Committee in May 2019 that 5G out-of-band emissions could produce a 30% reduction
in weather forecast accuracy and that the resulting degradation in ECMWF model performance would have failed to predict the track and thus impact of Superstorm
Sandy in 2012. The Navy in March 2019 wrote a memorandum warning of deterioration and made technical suggestions to control band bleed-over limits, for testing
and fielding, and for coordination of the wireless industry and regulators with weather forecasting organizations. [92]
Surveillance concerns[edit]
Further information: Concerns over Chinese involvement in 5G wireless networks

Further information: Criticism of Huawei § Espionage and security concerns

Because of espionage fears on foreign users by Chinese equipment vendors, several countries (including Australia, United Kingdom, Netherlands as of early-
2019)[93] have taken actions to restrict or eliminate the use of Chinese equipment in their respective 5G networks. Chinese vendors and the Chinese government
have denied these claims.
Health concerns[edit]
See also: Mobile phone radiation and health

The development of the technology has stoked fear that 5G radiation could have adverse health effects, [94] characterized by Wired as conspiracy theory.[95] In April
2019, the city of Brussels in Belgium blocked a 5G trial because of radiation laws.[96] In Geneva, Switzerland, a planned upgrade to 5G was stopped for the same
reason.[97] The Swiss Telecommunications Association (ASUT) has said that studies have been unable to show that 5G frequencies have any health impact.[98]

Health concerns related to radiation from cell phone towers and cell phones are not new. Although electromagnetic hypersensitivity is not scientifically recognised,
effects such as headaches and neurasthenia has been claimed from 4G and wifi.[99] 5G technology presents a couple of new issues which depart from 4G
technology, higher microwave frequencies from 2.6 Ghz to 28 Ghz, compared to 700-2500 Mhz typically used by 4G. Because the higher millimeter wave used in 5G
do not easily penetrate objects, this requires the installation of antennas every few hundred meters, which has sparked concern among the public. [94]
Critics of 5G say that these millimeter wave frequencies used by 5G have not been extensively tested on the general public and some experts believe that more
scientific research is required, even as millimeter wave technology has been used in technology such as radar for many decades.[100][101][102][103]
In 2018, RT America, a propaganda outlet for the Russian government,[104][105][106] began airing programming linking 5G to harmful health effects without scientific
support. Attempts to damage 5G's reputation increased in 2019. Several RT stories have warned of health impacts such as "brain cancer, infertility, autism, heart
tumors and Alzheimer’s disease" and have spread to hundreds of blogs and websites. [107] Meanwhile, Russian president Vladimir Putin ordered the launch of
Russian 5G network in February 2019. Ryan Fox, an executive of a technology firm that tracks disinformation, said, “Russia doesn’t have a good 5G play, so it tries
to undermine and discredit ours.” Molly McKew, the head of a U.S.-based firm[which?] that seeks to counter Russian disinformation, said the Russian government
“would really enjoy getting democratic governments tied up in fights over 5G’s environmental and health hazards.” [107][108]
In January 2019, over 180 scientists and doctors from 36 countries sent a letter to officials of the European Union demanding a moratorium on 5G coverage in
Europe until potential hazards for human health have been fully investigated. [109]. According to the “Statement on emerging health and environmental issues (2018)“
edited by European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks (SCHEER), “5G networks will soon be rolled out for mobile
phone and smart device users. How exposure to electromagnetic fields could affect humans remains a controversial area, and studies have not yielded clear
evidence of the impact on mammals, birds or insects. The lack of clear evidence to inform the development of exposure guidelines to 5G technology leaves open the
possibility of unintended biological consequences.” [110]
According to the CNET, "In April [2019], the Belgian government halted a 5G test in Brussels over concerns that radiation from the base stations could be harmful.
Members of Parliament in the Netherlands are also calling on the government to take a closer look at 5G. Switzerland is taking steps to monitor 5G's impact on
people. In the US, New Hampshire is considering establishing a commission to study the health effects of 5G networks. Several leaders in Congress have written to
the Federal Communications Commission expressing concern about potential health risks. And in Mill Valley, California, the city council blocked the deployment of
new 5G wireless cells."[111][112][113][114][115]Similar concerns were raised in Vermont.[116]
Security concerns[edit]
On 18 October 2018, a team of researchers from ETH Zurich, the University of Lorraine and the University of Dundee released a paper titled “A Formal Analysis of
5G Authentication”.[117][118] It alerted that 5G technology could open ground for a new era of security threats. The paper described the technology as “immature and
insufficiently tested,” the one that “enables the movement and access of vastly higher quantities of data, and thus broadens attack surfaces.” Simultaneously,
network security companies like Fortinet,[119]Arbor Networks,[120] A10 Networks,[121] and Voxility[122] advised on personalized and mixed security deployments against
massive DDoS attacks foreseen after 5G deployment.
IoT Analytics estimated an increase in the number of IoT devices, enabled by 5G technology, from 7 billion in 2018 to 21.5 billion by 2025. [123] This can raise the
attack surface for these devices to a substantial scale, and the capacity for DDoS attacks, cryptojacking, and other cyberattacks could boost proportionally.[124]
Marketing[edit]
5G is often sold as a universal solution for all internet connectivity issues. As Member of Parliament of Canada David de Burgh Graham says, "5G is not a magic
bullet that will fix everything."[125]
Marketing of non-5G servicesMain articles: 5G Evolution, LTE Advanced Pro, and LTE Advanced
In various parts of the world, carriers have launched numerous differently branded technologies like "5G Evolution" which advertise improving existing networks with
the use of "5G technology".[126] However, these pre-5G networks are actually existing improvement on specification of LTE networks that are not exclusive to 5G, and
thus they are being described as "misleading".[127]

History[edit]

 In April 2008, NASA partnered with Geoff Brown and Machine-to-Machine Intelligence (M2Mi) Corp to develop 5G communications technology.[128]
 In 2008, the South Korean IT R&D program of "5G mobile communication systems based on beam-division multiple access and relays with group cooperation"
was formed.[129]
 In August 2012, New York University founded NYU WIRELESS, a multi-disciplinary academic research centre that has conducted pioneering work in 5G
wireless communications.[130][131][132]
 On 8 October 2012, the UK's University of Surrey secured £35M for a new 5G research centre, jointly funded by the British government's UK Research
Partnership Investment Fund (UKRPIF) and a consortium of key international mobile operators and infrastructure providers,
including Huawei, Samsung, Telefonica Europe, Fujitsu Laboratories Europe, Rohde & Schwarz, and Aircom International. It will offer testing facilities to mobile
operators keen to develop a mobile standard that uses less energy and less radio spectrum while delivering speeds faster than current 4G with aspirations for
the new technology to be ready within a decade.[133][134][135][136]
 On 1 November 2012, the EU project "Mobile and wireless communications Enablers for the Twenty-twenty Information Society" (METIS) starts its activity
towards the definition of 5G. METIS achieved an early global consensus on these systems. In this sense, METIS played an important role of building
consensus among other external major stakeholders prior to global standardization activities. This was done by initiating and addressing work in relevant global
fora (e.g. ITU-R), as well as in national and regional regulatory bodies.[137]
 Also in November 2012, the iJOIN EU project was launched, focusing on "small cell" technology, which is of key importance for taking advantage of limited and
strategic resources, such as the radio wave spectrum. According to Günther Oettinger, the European Commissioner for Digital Economy and Society (2014–
2019), "an innovative utilization of spectrum" is one of the key factors at the heart of 5G success. Oettinger further described it as "the essential resource for
the wireless connectivity of which 5G will be the main driver".[138] iJOIN was selected by the European Commission as one of the pioneering 5G research
projects to showcase early results on this technology at the Mobile World Congress 2015 (Barcelona, Spain).
 In February 2013, ITU-R Working Party 5D (WP 5D) started two study items: (1) Study on IMT Vision for 2020 and beyond, and; (2) Study on future technology
trends for terrestrial IMT systems. Both aiming at having a better understanding of future technical aspects of mobile communications towards the definition of
the next generation mobile.[139]
 On 12 May 2013, Samsung Electronics stated that they had developed a "5G" system. The core technology has a maximum speed of tens of Gbit/s (gigabits
per second). In testing, the transfer speeds for the "5G" network sent data at 1.056 Gbit/s to a distance of up to 2 kilometers with the use of an 8*8
MIMO.[140][141]
 In July 2013, India and Israel agreed to work jointly on development of fifth generation (5G) telecom technologies. [142]
 On 1 October 2013, NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone), the same company to launch world's first 5G network in Japan, wins Minister of Internal Affairs
and Communications Award at CEATEC for 5G R&D efforts[143]
 On 6 November 2013, Huawei announced plans to invest a minimum of $600 million into R&D for next generation 5G networks capable of speeds 100 times
faster than modern LTE networks.[144]
 On 3 April 2019, South Korea became the first country to adopt 5G.[145] Just hours later, Verizon launched its 5G services in the United States, and disputed
South Korea's claim of becoming the world's first country with a 5G network, because allegedly, South Korea's 5G service was initially launched for just 6 South
Korean celebrities so that South Korea could claim the title of having the world's first 5G network. [146] In fact, the three main South Korean telecommunication
companies (SK Telecom, KT and LG Uplus) added more than 40,000 users to their 5G network on the launch day.[147]

Other applications[edit]
Automobiles[edit]
5G Automotive Association have been promoting the C-V2X communication technology that will first be deployed in 4G. It provides for communication between
vehicles and communication between vehicles and infrastructures, leading to increase in autonomous(self-driving) cars and IOT(Internet of Things).[148]
Automation (factory and process)[edit]
5G Alliance for Connected Industries and Automation - 5G-ACIA promotes 5G for factory automation and process industry.[149]
Public safety[edit]
Mission-critical push-to-talk (MCPTT) and mission-critical video and data are expected to be furthered in 5G.[150]
Fixed wireless[edit]
Fixed wireless connections intended to replace fixed line broadband (ADSL, Fiber optic, and DOCSIS connections) with 5G connections.[151][152][153]
5G requirements

As work moves forwards in the standards bodies the over-riding specifications for the mobile communications system have been defined by the ITU as part of
IMT2020.

The currently agreed standards for 5G are summarised below:

SUGGESTED 5G WIRELESS PERFORMANCE

PARAMETER SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE

Peak data rate At least 20Gbps downlink and 10Gbps uplink per mobile base station. This represents a 20
fold increase on the downlink over LTE.

5G connection density At least 1 million connected devices per square kilometre (to enable IoT support).

5G mobility 0km/h to "500km/h high speed vehicular" access.

5G energy efficiency The 5G spec calls for radio interfaces that are energy efficient when under load, but also
drop into a low energy mode quickly when not in use.

5G spectral efficiency 30bits/Hz downlink and 15 bits/Hz uplink. This assumes 8x4 MIMO (8 spatial layers down, 4
spatial layers up).

5G real-world data rate The spec "only" calls for a per-user download speed of 100Mbps and upload speed of
50Mbps.

5G latency Under ideal circumstances, 5G networks should offer users a maximum latency of just 4ms
(compared to 20ms for LTE).

5G communications system

The 5G mobile cellular communications system will be a major shift in the way mobile communications networks operate. To achieve this a totally new radio access
network and a new core network are required to provide the performance required.

 5G New Radio, 5G NR: 5G new radio is the new name for the 5G radio access network. It consists of the different elements needed for the new radio access
network. Using a far more flexible technology the system is able to respond to the different and changing needs of mobile users whether they be a small IoT
node, or a high data user, stationary or mobile.
 5G NextGen Core Network: Although initial deployments of 5G will utilise the core network of LTE or possibly even 3G networks, the ultimate aim is to have a
new network that is able to handle the much higher data volumes whilst also being able to provide a much lower level of latency.
5G technologies

There are many new 5G technologies and techniques that are being discussed and being developed for inclusion in the 5G standards.

These new technologies and techniques will enable 5G to provide a more flexible and dynamic service.

The technologies being developed for 5G include:

 Millimetre-Wave communications: Using frequencies much higher in the frequency spectrum opens up more spectrum and also provides the possibility of
having much wide channel bandwidth - possibly 1 - 2 GHz. However this poses new challenges for handset development where maximum frequencies of around
2 GHz and bandwidths of 10 - 20 MHz are currently in use. For 5G, frequencies of above 50GHz are being considered and this will present some real
challenges in terms of the circuit design, the technology, and also the way the system is used as these frequencies do not travel as far and are absorbed almost
completely by obstacles. Different countries are allocating different spectrum for 5G.
 Waveforms : One key area of interest is that of the new waveforms that may be seen. OFDM has been used very successfully in 4G LTE as well as a number
of other high data rate systems, but it does have some limitations in some circumstances. Other waveform formats that are being discussed include: GFDM,
Generalised Frequency Division Multiplexing, as well as FBMC, Filter Bank Multi-Carrier, UFMC, Universal Filtered MultiCarrier. There is no perfect waveform,
and it is possible that OFDM in the form of OFDMA is used as this provides excellent overall performance without being too heavy on the level of processing
required.
 Multiple Access: Again a variety of new access schemes are being investigated for 5G technology. Techniques including OFDMA, SCMA, NOMA, PDMA,
MUSA and IDMA have all been mentioned. As mentioned above it appears that the most likely format could be OFDMA
 Massive MIMO with beamsteering: Although MIMO is being used in many applications from LTE to Wi-Fi, etc, the numbers of antennas is fairly limited. Using
microwave frequencies opens up the possibility of using many tens of antennas on a single equipment becomes a real possibility because of the antenna sizes
and spacings in terms of a wavelength. This would enable beams to be steered to provide enhanced performance.
 Dense networks: Reducing the size of cells provides a much more overall effective use of the available spectrum. Techniques to ensure that small cells in the
macro-network and deployed as femtocells can operate satisfactorily are required. There is a significant challenge in adding huge numbers of additional cells to
a network, and techniques are being developed to enable this.
These are a few of the main techniques being developed and discuss for use within 5G.

5G timeline & dates

5G is developoing rapidly and it needs to meet some demanding timelines. Some trial deployments have occurred and some of the first real deploymets are
anticipayed in 2020.

Many countries are rushing to deply 5G as effective communications enable economimc growth and are seen as an essential element of modern day life and
industry.

Read more about . . . . 5G timeline & dates.

5G is rapidly developing and it is becoming the technology that everyone is moving towards. Not only will it be able to accommodate the superfast speeds required
of it, but it will also be possible to accommodate the low data rate requiremets for IoT and IIoT applications. As such 5G will be able to encompass a huge number of
different applications, and accommodate very many differnet data types.
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/connectivity/5g-mobile-wireless-cellular/technology-basics.php

Big Players in 5G technology

There are many major companies in the race of 5G technology. Various 5G patent owners and market leaders are there in the market by enabling 5G connectivity in
various markets. The annual increase in the 5G patent in time is remarkably huge. There were around 3600 patents in 2016, and they surge to 5600 in 2018. Also, the
number of 5G patent registrations has increased rapidly in recent years. The 5G SEP owners are Samsung Electronics, Huawei Technologies, ZTE and Ericsson Inc.
However, Intel, Nokia and Qualcomm are also in the SEP race of 5G technology. In consideration of the technical contribution to the 5G standard. The 5G standard is
developed and drafted at international meetings where companies present and submit technical contributions. Huawei, Hisilicon, Samsung, Nokia, Qualcomm and Ericsson
are actively involved in deciding technical specification of the 5G standard.
http://ttconsultants.com/blog/5g-the-future-of-communication-networks/

5G

Fifth-generation wireless (5G) is the latest iteration of cellular technology, engineered to greatly increase the speed and responsiveness of wireless networks. With 5G, data
transmitted over wireless broadband connections could travel at rates as high as 20 Gbps by some estimates -- exceeding wireline network speeds -- as well as offer latency of 1 ms
or lower for uses that require real-time feedback. 5G will also enable a sharp increase in the amount of data transmitted over wireless systems due to more available bandwidth and
advanced antenna technology.

In addition to improvements in speed, capacity and latency, 5G offers network management features, among them network slicing, which allows mobile operators to create multiple
virtual networks within a single physical 5G network. This capability will enable wireless network connections to support specific uses or business cases and could be sold on an as-
a-service basis. A self-driving car, for example, would require a network slice that offers extremely fast, low-latency connections so a vehicle could navigate in real time. A home
appliance, however, could be connected via a lower-power, slower connection because high performance is not crucial. The internet of things (IoT) could use secure, data-only
connections.

5G networks and services will be deployed in stages over the next several years to accommodate the increasing reliance on mobile and internet-enabled devices. Overall, 5G is
expected to generate a variety of new applications, uses and business cases as the technology is rolled out.

How 5G works

Wireless networks are composed of cell sites divided into sectors that send data through radio waves. Fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) wireless technology
provides the foundation for 5G. Unlike 4G, which requires large, high-power cell towers to radiate signals over longer distances, 5G wireless signals will be transmitted via large
numbers of small cell stations located in places like light poles or building roofs. The use of multiple small cells is necessary because the millimeter wave spectrum -- the band of
spectrum between 30 GHz and 300 GHz that 5G relies on to generate high speeds -- can only travel over short distances and is subject to interference from weather and physical
obstacles, like buildings.

Previous generations of wireless technology have used lower-frequency bands of spectrum. To offset millimeter wave challenges relating to distance and interference, the wireless
industry is also considering the use of lower-frequency spectrum for 5G networks so network operators could use spectrum they already own to build out their new networks. Lower-
frequency spectrum reaches greater distances but has lower speed and capacity than millimeter wave, however.

5G wireless features
What is the status of 5G deployment?

Wireless network operators in four countries -- the United States, Japan, South Korea and China -- are largely driving the first 5G buildouts. Network operators are expected to spend
billions of dollars on 5G capital expenses through 2030, according to Technology Business Research Inc., although it is not clear how 5G services will generate a return on that
investment. Evolving use cases and business models that take advantage of 5G's benefits could address operators' revenue concerns.

TECHNOLOGY BUSINESS RESEARCH

5G market landscape

Simultaneously, standards bodies are working on universal 5G equipment standards. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) approved 5G New Radio (NR) standards in
December 2017 and is expected to complete the 5G mobile core standard required for 5G cellular services. The 5G radio system is not compatible with 4G radios, but network
operators that have purchased wireless radios recently may be able to upgrade to the new 5G system via software rather than buying new equipment.

With 5G wireless equipment standards almost complete and the first 5G-compliant smartphones and associated wireless devices commercially available in 2019, 5G use cases will
begin to emerge between 2020 and 2025, according to Technology Business Research projections. By 2030, 5G services will become mainstream and are expected to range from the
delivery of virtual reality (VR) content to autonomous vehicle navigation enabled by real-time communications (RTC) capabilities.

What types of 5G wireless services will be available?

Network operators are developing two types of 5G services:

1. 5G fixed wireless broadband services deliver internet access to homes and businesses without a wired connection to the premises. To do that, network operators deploy
NRs in small cell sites near buildings to beam a signal to a receiver on a rooftop or a windowsill that is amplified within the premises. Fixed broadband services are expected
to make it less expensive for operators to deliver broadband services to homes and businesses because this approach eliminates the need to roll out fiber-optic lines to every
residence. Instead, operators need only install fiber optics to cell sites, and customers receive broadband services through wireless modems located in their residences or
businesses.

2. 5G cellular services will provide user access to operators' 5G cellular networks. These services will begin to be rolled out in 2019 when the first 5G-enabled (or -compliant)
devices are expected to become commercially available. Cellular service delivery is also dependent upon the completion of mobile core standards by 3GPP.

5G VS. 4G

Each generation of cellular technology is separated by not just their data transmission speed, but also a break in encoding methods which requires end-users to upgrade their
hardware. 4G can support up to 2Gbps and are slowly continuing to improve in speeds. 4G featured speeds up to 500 times faster than 3G. 5G can be up to 100 times faster than 4G.

The main difference between 4 and 5G is the level of latency, of which 5G, will have much lower of. 5G will use OFDM encoding, similar to 4G LTE. 4G, however, will use 20
MHz channels, bonded together at 160 MHz. 5G will be up to between 100-800MHz channels, which requires larger blocks of airwaves than 4G.

Samsung is currently researching into 6G. Not too much is currently known on how fast 6G would be and how it would operate; however, 6G will probably operate in similar
magnitudes more than the differences between 4 and 5G. Some think 6G may use millimeter waves on the radio spectrum and may be a decade away.

Why 5GE is not really 5G

AT&T has released a 5GE network, and in an update, 4G LTE users have gotten an “upgrade” to 5GE. However, 5GE—standing for 5G Evolution—really is just a rebranding of
AT&T’s gigabit 4G LTE network. AT&T argues that the speeds are close enough to 5G, but it is technically not 5G. The G stands for generation, typically signaling a compatibility
break with former hardware. 5GE does not follow this trend and is technically not 5G. This marketing strategy may mislead individuals who do not know 5GE is not actually 5G.

https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/5G

In order to achieve the objectives of 5G technology, the wireless researchers and service providers are planning and designing new technologies agenda. The major
technologies including in 5G include millimeter waves, small cells, MIMO, full duplex, and the beamforming. In collaboration when these technologies are implemented
together, will deliver data with less delay which is approximately less than one millisecond, when compared to 4G networks speed which is approximately 70 ms and
brought peak download speeds of 20 gigabits per second as compared to 1 Gb/s on 4G to users.
You can't go far in 5G-land without encountering the term 'end to end' (or E2E) with reference to network architecture. That's because there's a lot more involved in
being a network operator than winning RF spectrum and building a radio-access network (RAN): other key components are backhaul (or transport) from the base
stations to the core network, plus supporting IT operations. A full 5G deployment requires architecture changes at every stage:
Huawei Shows LTE and 5G antenna
External LTE antennas have usually been noticed as rather large and not very shapely. The Chinese network supplier Huawei has now for the first time demonstrated a
transparent LTE antenna at its Global Mobile Broadband Forum in London, which can be comparatively inconspicuously integrated into a window. The antenna is not
ready for market yet, but it is worth taking a first look, especially as the frequency range is also supported by 3.5 GHz planned for 5G.

Of course, Huawei’s antenna is not completely invisible, but it can still be better attached to a pane of glass than the usual black or gray “antenna box”, which is customary
with external LTE antennas. At least the antenna should be relatively inconspicuous. The antenna shown at the Global Mobile Broadband Forum and is still 450 x 240 x
0.11 millimeters in size, the final version will be significantly more compact with 300 x 200 x 0.11 mm.

The antenna amplifies a fairly wide frequency spectrum between 1710 and 2690 MHz and thus also covers the frequency bands B1 (2100 MHz), B3 (1800 MHz) and B7
(2600 MHz) used in Europe for UMTS and LTE. The gain is up to 5dBi. In addition, the frequency range between 3.4 GHz and 3.8 GHz is supported. The so-called C-band is
regarded as the worldwide base spectrum for the next generation of mobile communications 5G.
When the LTE antenna will be available, what it will cost and whether a market launch is planned in Europe, cannot be know now.

3.5GHz May Be the 5G Frequency Band

The development of the next mobile communication standard 5G is progressing. Now it becomes clear that the frequency range of around 3.5 gigahertz will be the basis
for 5G mobile networks worldwide. Confirmed Eros Spadotto from Canadian provider TELUS at the Huawei Global Mobile Broadband Forum in London. Even the network
outfitter Huawei pleads for this frequency range in a position paper, summarizes it at 3.3 to 4.2 GHz but something further. Frequency spectrum in the range between 3.4
GHz and 3.8 GHz will be awarded in 2018 in many European countries, including a corresponding frequency auction is planned in Germany. In Canada, according to TELUS,
an auction is expected in 2019.

5G Network Frequency: 3.5 GHz to start

The frequency range around 3.5 GHz will be available worldwide in many countries for mobile phone use. However, the area is not exactly defined yet, in most countries
preparations are currently underway for the allocation of frequencies to the mobile network operators and the exact “limits” of the auctioned radio spectrum are not yet
known. Huawei speaks in its position paper from the C-band, more specifically between 3.3 to 4.2 and 4.4 to 5.0 GHz. In order to expand 5G networks in a timely manner,
the core range between 3.3 and 3.8 gigahertz is important, according to Huawei, and should be made available to network providers as quickly as possible.

Some carriers in Europe uses the frequency range of 3.7 GHz in its 5G test network in Berlin, where it reaches speeds of 2 GBit/s, and the range is around 400 meters. The
network provider expects the launch of the first 5G networks in exactly this frequency range, more specifically between 3.5 GHz and 3.9 GHz

5G: more frequency ranges later

Although the range around 3.5 GHz will probably be used in many countries worldwide as a “base band” for 5G: significantly more radio spectrum is needed to achieve the
need for bandwidth on the one hand and very good network coverage on the other. Huawei proposes three different “layers” in its position paper: the 3.5 GHz band should
be sufficient as a “coverage and capacity layer” for most applications. On the other hand, very high speeds will demand significantly more radio spectrum, which will then
be made available in the “Super Data Laye ” – probably in the cmWave range around 28 gigahertz. Bruno Jacobfeuerborn, head of technology at Germany Telekom, assumes
that at the start of 5G in the year 2020, this “super data layer” is not available, but only later expanded.

The third very important part in the 5G frequency spectrum is the so-called “Coverage Layer“. So the area with which a huge network coverage can be achieved. It does not
depend on extremely high data rates, but on the fact that a basic supply of 5G can be made available almost everywhere. Huawei proposes in its position paper for the
“Coverage Layer” the frequency range below 2 GHz, which is currently used by GSM, UMTS and LTE. It is conceivable, therefore, that the network operators integrated the
existing LTE networks into their 5G networks, making LTE an integral part of 5G. According to Eros Spadotto, the Canadian provider TELUS assumes that the frequency
range around 600 MHz will be used in North America for the “Coverage Layer” of 5G. In Europe, the area around 700 MHz is more likely to be used for this purpose.
Posted on2017-11-17Categories4G LTE News, 4G Technology, 5G TechnologyTags3.5GHz, 5g, 5G frequency band, 5G network frequency range, Coverage Layer, HUAWEI
5G

HUAWEI Will Invest $600 Million for 5G Research Before 2018

Huawei has announced that the company would invest at least $ 600 million before 2018, for the 5G technology research and innovation. This investment will focus on the
study including a series of air interface technology, including key enabling technologies.

Huawei said that in 2020 it is expected to achieve commercial 5G mobile networks, mobile broadband users will achieve peak rate of more than 10Gbps, which is 100
times of the current 4G network speeds.

Huawei CEO Xu Zhijun said, “Innovation is an ongoing process, and we continue to upgrade the existing 4G network capabilities, within the next five years, we plans to
invest at least $ 600 million, for the 5G mobile network technology research and innovation (excluding products of investment). As the increasing demand for high-
speed networks, in order to meet the future needs from consumers, people can download multiple HD movies in a couple of seconds and get immersive video
communications experience. ”

In 2009, Huawei began early 5G related technology researches, respectively, and in 2011 & 2012 Mobile World Congress showed the industry-leading peak rates of up to
50 Gbps 5G prototype base stations.

Till now, Huawei has been involved in the relevant EU cooperation projects and participated in the 5G Innovation Centre (5GIC) creation in the United Kingdom, what’s
more, Huawei have carried out joint research with more than 20 universities worldwide. Meanwhile, China will also build 5G industry standards and make a positive
contribution to the industrial chain, promoting 5G technology to become globally consistent standards in the industry.

Xu Zhijun pointed out that “before the truly commercial 5G networks, we have to solve a large number of outstanding issues, such as the 5G spectrum allocation. Moreover,
we also face many technical challenges, including how to design network architecture, handle larger amount of data for more user at same scenarios, and achieve faster
speeds as possible.

According to statistics, mobile data communications network number worldwide is expected to reach 6.5 billion by 2020. In addition, hundreds of billions of ‘Machines’,
such as automotive, metering, medical equipment and appliances and so on, may be connected to the 5G networks.
It is understood that there are multiple 5G research organization worldwide, of which the EU’s METIS research project is most influential. It is reported that in November
2012, the EU set up a research project 5G – METIS (build Information Society with key technology of wireless mobile communications by 2020). It is reported that the
project consists of 29 members, including major global telecom equipment vendors and operators, such as Ericsson, Huawei, Alcatel • Lucent, Nokia Siemens, France
Telecom, Telefonica, NTT docomo, as well as AAU, Aalto, CTH, etc. And more than a dozen universities and research institutions, including even non-telecommunications
industries BMW Group, Anite, Elektrobit and so on.

EU METIS 5G communications technology project team set 5G goals include: in terms of capacity, 5G communications technology to achieve data traffic grew 1,000 times
in unit area than the 4G mobile; in the transmission rate, the typical user peak data rates increased by 10 to 100 times, i.e. transfer rate reach up to 10Gbps (4G as
100Mbps), end to end delay time shorten up to 5 times; in accessibility aspects, the number of connected devices can be increased by 10 to 100 times; in terms of
reliability, the battery life of low-power MMC ( machine type equipment ) increased by 10 times.

According to EU METIS 5G project team, the EU 5G project plan to complete the explore the new framework, the basic principle and system concepts relevant basic
theoretical work in 2015 and to reach consensus on a global scale; during the 2015-2018, with the further development of the basic principles, 5G will begin the system
optimization, standardization, off- stage trials; during 2018-2020, 5G will enter the pre-commercial phase. So EU predicts 5G will be commercially available on a global
scale.