Human Behavior and VICTIMOLOGY

Chapter I
Development

A. Development Defined

Development refers to a progressive series of changes of an orderly and coherent life

leading toward maturity.

B. Significant Facts about Development

a. Early foundation is critical (first two years of life, (physical and emotional))

Attitudes, habits, and pattern of behavior established during the early years
and determine to a large extent how successfully individuals will adjust to life as they
grow older.

b. Maturation and learning play important role in development

Maturation – refers to the growth following the birth that is determined

primarily by genetic factors and occurs more or less independently
of learning.

Learning – development that comes from exercise and effort on the individual’s
part.

 Three Important facts emerge from our present knowledge of the

interrelationship of maturation and learning as the cause of development.

1. Because human beings are capable of learning, variation is possible.

2. Maturation sets limit beyond which progress, even with the favorable
learning methods and the strongest motivation.

3. There is definite time table or learning.

c. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern

The importance of this is that it makes it possible to predict what people will
do at a given age and to plan their education and training to fit into this pattern.

d. All individuals are different

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 All individuals are biologically and genetically different from the others. No two
people can be expected to react in the same manner to the same environment stimuli.

e. Each phase of development has characteristics pattern of behavior

 Phases of Development
1. Equilibrium – when individuals adopt easily to environmental demands.

2. Disequilibrium – when the individuals experience difficulties in adaptation

makes poor personal social adjustment.

f. Each phase of development has its hazards

Each period in the life can has associated with certain developmental hazards,
physical, psychological and environmental.

g. Development is aided by stimulation

Directly encouraging the individual to use ability is the process of development.

Stimulation of the muscles during the early years results in earlier and better
coordinated motor skills.

h. Development is affected by cultural changes

Individual development is molded to conform to cultural standards and ideals.

i. There are social expectations for every stage of development

Cultural groups expects its member to master certain essential skills and
acquire certain approved patterns of behavior.

j. There are traditional beliefs about people of all ages

These beliefs about physical and psychological characteristics affect the

judgments of others as well as their self evaluation.

C. Characteristics of Development

1. Dependence to Self – direction

2. Pleasure to Reality
3. Ignorance to Knowledge

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 4. Incompetence to Competence
5. Diffuse to Articulated Self – identity

D. Stages in Human Life Span

1. Prenatal period
- Conception to birth (0 – 9 months)
2. Infancy
- Birth to the end of second week
3. Babyhood
- End of the second week to the end of the second year

4. Early Childhood
- Two to Six years
5. Late Childhood
- Six to Ten or Twelve years
6. Puberty or Pre – Adolescence
- Ten or Twelve to 13 or 14 years
7. Adolescence
- 13 or 14 to 18 years
8. Early Adulthood
- 18 to 40 years
9. Middle Age
- 40 to 60 years
10. Old Age or Senescence
- 60 to Death

E. Developmental Tasks During Life Span

Developmental Tasks – A tasks which arises at or about a certain period in the

life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to happiness and to
success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later
tasks.

a. Babyhood and Early Childhood

- Learning to take solid food

- Learning to walk
- Learning to talk
- Learning to control the eliminations of body wastes
- Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
- Getting ready to read

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 - Learning to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to develop a
conscience

b. Late Childhood

- Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

- Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as growing organism
- Learning to get along with age mate
- Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles
- Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
- Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
- Developing conscience, sense of morality, and scale of values
- Attitudes toward social groups and institutions
- Achieving personal independence

c. Puberty and Adolescence

- Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
- Achieving a masculine and feminine social role
- Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
- Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behavior
- Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
- Preparing or an economic career
- Preparing or marriage and family life
- Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior

d. Early Adulthood

- Getting started in an occupation

- Selecting a mate
- Learning to live with a marriage partner
- Starting a family
- Rearing children
- Managing a home
- Taking on civic responsibility
- Finding a congenial social group

e. Middle Age

- Achieving adult civic and social responsibility

- Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
- Developing adult leisure time activities

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 - Relating oneself to one’s spouse person
- Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age
- Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational
career
- Adjusting to aging parents

f. Old Age

- Adjusting to decreasing, physical strength

- Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
- Adjusting to death of spouse
- Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group
- Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
- Adapting to social roles in a flexible way

 Purposes of Developmental Tasks

1. They are guidelines that enable individuals to know what societies expect
of them at given ages.

2. Motivate individuals to do what the social group expects them to do at

certain ages during their lives.

3. Show individuals what lies ahead and what they will be expected to do
when they reach their next stage of development.

F. Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believes that all human beings pass through a series of psychosexual
stages, each stages dominated by the development and sensitivity in a particular
erogenous or measure – giving spot in the body. If individuals are unsuccessful in
resolving the conflict, their solving frustration becomes chronic and remains a central
feature of their psychological make – up.

As a result of their frustration or over indulgence, individuals experience

fixation at a particular stage of their development.

 Fixation – is the tendency to stay at a particular stage: The individuals

troubled by the conflict that characterizes the stage and seeing to reduce it
by means of the behavior characteristics of that stage.

a. The Oral Stage – reflect the infants need for gratification from the mother.

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b. The Anal Stage (2nd to the 3rd year of life) – reflects the toddlers need for
gratification along the rectal area. During this stage, children must endure
the demand of toilet training.

c. The Phallic Stage (4th to 5th year of life) – reflects the preschooler’s
gratification involving the genitals. Children of this stage gratify their sex
instinct by foundling their genitals and developing incestuous desire for the
opposite sex parent.

d. The Latency Stage (6th year of life to puberty) – is Freud’s fourth stage of
psychosexual development. During this time, sexual desires are repressed
and all the Childs available libido is socially acceptable outlets such as school
– work or vigorous play that consume most of Childs physical and psychic
energy.

e. The Genital Stage ( from puberty onwards) – is characterized by maturation

of the reproductive system, production of sex hormones, and reactivation of
the genital zone as an area of sensual pleasure. The adolescent may openly
expresses libidos toward member of the opposite sex. But for the first time,
the underlying aim of sex instinct is reproduction.

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 Chapter II
Human Behavior

A. Human Behavior Defined

Human Behavior – It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person adopts in

order to fit society’s idea of right and wrong. It’s partly determined by heredity and
environment and modified through learning. It is also the way human being act.

B. Causation of Human Behavior

a. Sensation – feeling or impression of stimulus

- the process by which organism responds to stimulus

a.1. visual – sight

a.2. olfactory – smell
a.3. cutaneous – touch
a.4. auditory – hearing
a.5. gustatory – taste

b. Perception – knowledge of stimulus

- sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli from our
sensory organ.
- process by which sensory stimuli are interpreted, analyzed, and
integrated

c. Awareness - psychological activity, it is in accordance with the interpretation

and experience of object of stimulus

C. Two Basic Types of Human Behavior

a. Inherited Behavior – behavioral response or reflex exhibited by people due to their

genetic endowment or the process of natural selection.

b. Learned Behavior – involves cognitive adaptation that enhances the human beings
ability to cope with changes in the environment in ways which improve the changes
for service.

D. Motivation of Human Behavior

a. The Needs Theory of Human Behavior

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 This theory states that, throughout life, desires, wishes, and drives, collectively
called needs, motivate all. When not fulfilled, these needs lace the individuals under
stress and in order to relieve the tensions created, one has to strive for appropriate
satisfactions. However, the ways to satisfy these needs are governed by the society
whose mechanics are not always identical to the individual’s constant struggle for
food, warmth, affection, achievement, recognition, and economic and emotional
security.

These needs are arranged according to its hierarchy, to wit:

1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. The sense of belonging and love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. The need for self – actualization

b. The Psychodynamics of Human Motivation

Psychodynamics, which literally means motivation to action, define human

behavior in terms of inner personality of the inner self. The concept of subjective life
and the inner forces within, called mental personality.

This theory viewed that what person do and how they act are reflections of the
operations of their inner personality. This inner personality of the inner self is a
system of forces or network energy, called psychic forces and makes one act and feel
in certain ways its interplay.

The seat of these psychic forces is the mind, which is a symbol of mental life
and mental activity. The mind has three levels on which the symbols of these psychic
forces operate, namely: Id, Ego, and Superego. These are not structures or entities,
but are symbolic terms used to describe certain emotional and psychological activities
which motivate behavior and affect personality. The organization of total personality
depends upon the adequate and harmonious functioning of these three dynamically
interacting forces.

Id – the raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality whose sole purpose is

to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and
irrational impulses. These drives are fueled by “psychic energy” called libido. The id
operates according to the pleasure principle in which the goal is the immediate
reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction.

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 Ego – provides a buffer between the id and realities of the objective outside
world. In contrast to the pleasure seeking nature of the id, the ego operates according
to the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain
the safety of the individual and help integrate the person in society.

Superego – the final personality structure to develop, represents the rights and
wrongs of the society as handed down by person’s parents, teachers and other
important figures. The superego actually has two parts, the conscience and the ego –
ideal.

- Conscience – prevents us from doing morally bad things

- Ego – Ideal – motivates us to do what is morally proper.

E. Viewpoints in the Study of Human Behavior

a. Neurological – emphasizes human actions in relation to events taking place inside

the body, especially the brain and the nervous system.

b. Cognitive – concerned with the way the brain processes and transforms
information in various ways.
c. Psychoanalytical – emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from repressed
sexual and aggressive impulses in childhood.

d. Behavioral – focuses on external activities that can be observed and measured.

e. Humanistic – focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom of choice, and

motivation

F. Factors that Affect Human Behavior

a. Heredity – It is determined by genes. Genes are segments of cell structures called

chromosomes by which parents pass on traits to their offspring.

b. Environment – Consists of conditions and factors that surround and influence on

individual.

c. Learning – Is the process by which behavior changes as a result of experience or

practice.

G. Characteristics of Behavior

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 1. Primarily native or learned
2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal need
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor or intentional

H. Kinds of Behavior

a. Overt or Covert Behavior

Behavior that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable are
overt behaviors. On the other hand, the covert behaviors are behaviors that are
hidden and not visible to the naked eye.

b. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior

Behavior is conscious when act are within the level of awareness. It is

unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s sub – consciousness.

c. Simple or Complex Behavior

These are act categorized according to the number of nervous involved in the
process of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of neurons, while complex
behavior involves more number of neurons, a combination of simple behavior.

d. Rational or Irrational Behavior

There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and there
is irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent reason or exploitation.

e. Voluntary or involuntary Behavior

Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition or will such as when we
discriminate, decide, or choose; while involuntary behaviors refer to the bodily
processes that function whether we are awake or asleep.

I. Personality Dimensions That Affect Human Behavior

a. Extraversion

The diversion that dictates conditionability and is therefore the principal factor
in anti – social behavior. It represents a central nervous system tendency that
determines need for stimulation and excitement.

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 Extroverts not only have high needs for stimulation, but they also do not
condition easily. They frequently seek stimulation excitement and thrills, all of which
can get them in trouble.

b. Neuroticism

It reflects an innate biological predisposition to react physiologically to

stressful or upsetting events. Basically, it represents emotionality. Persons high to
neuroticism react intensely much longer to stress and are generally moody, touchy,
sensitive slights and anxious or nervous.

Neuroticism is most important in understanding some adult criminals, less

important in understanding adolescents and even younger children.

c. Psychoticism

It is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity, disregard for danger,

troublesome behavior, dislike of others and attraction toward the unusual.

The individual high on psychoticism tends to be impulsive, aggressive

individual without appreciable conscience or concern for others.

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 Chapter III
Adjustment

A. Adjustment Defined

Adjustment, on the psychological point of views, can be defined simply as a

process where the internal demands of motivations are brought into harmonious
relation with the external demands of reality. As a means to adjustments, persons
resorted to what is known as defense mechanism or adjustment mechanism.

a. Defense mechanism or adjustment mechanism

- Used to defend the ego
- Unconscious strategies people use to anxiety by concealing the source
from themselves and others.

B. General Principles of Adjustment

a. Biological Level

Immunological defenses against disease and damage repair mechanism

b. Psychological and Interpersonal Level

There are learned coping patterns and self – defenses

c. Socio – cultural Level

Groups of labor unions, religious organization and law enforcement agencies.

C. Types of Defense mechanism

a. Repression

Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into unconsciousness.

Repression is the most direct method of dealing with anxiety; instead of handling an
anxiety – producing impulse on a conscious level, one simply ignores it.

b. Suppression

Involve the individual’s and conscious attempt to stop anxiety – provoking

thoughts by simply not thinking about them.

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c. Denial

Refers to a person’s refusal to perceive an unpleasant event in external reality.

d. Displacement

The expression of unwanted feeling or thought is redirected from a more

threatening, powerful person to a weaker one.

Unconscious attempt to obtain gratification for id impulses by shifting them to

substitute objects that would directly satisfy the impulses are not available.

e. Scapegoating

Blaming other for his failure

f. Rationalization

It involves the inventing of excuses or reasons for behavior that is inadequate,

unacceptable, or damaging to personal integrity and status.

Types of Rationalization

f.1. Sour – Grape mechanism – this involved self – deception by adopting a

conviction, and giving up and relinquishing all efforts towards a goal because it
is not worth the efforts anyway.

f.2. Sweet – Lemon mechanism – desirable qualities are found in what was not
truly wanted.

g. Projection

The process of shifting the responsibility for an act or thought from oneself to
another person

Attributing unwanted impulse and feeling to someone else.

h. Substitution or Transferred Compensation

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 A device which makes it possible to discharge tensions by diverting one’s
energies from a desired goal to a substitute one. Working on the principles of
substitution are:

h.1. Compensation – the mechanism where the individual devotes time and
effort to a pursuit with increased vigor in an attempt to make up for real or
imagined inadequacy.

h.2. Overcompensation – the concentration of efforts on a narrow field at the

expense of well rounded and complete adjustment to a variety of life’s
demands.

i. Reaction Formation

Defense mechanism where urges that are not acceptable to the consciousness
are repressed and opposite attitudes or modes of behaviors are expressed with
considerable force.

j. Avoidance Mechanism

Way of adjusting to a threatening situation by escaping from it.

Types:

j.1. Fantasy – mental mechanism where a person substitute real satisfaction for
imaginary satisfactions.

j.2. Regression – process relieving anxiety or threat falling back on thoughts,

feelings, or behavior in which worked successfully during the earlier period of
life.

j.3. Negativism – the refusal to participate in a tense situation. This is a type of

avoidance mechanism manifested through either active or passive resistance
towards the external demands on the individual.

- Active resistance – doing the opposite of what is supposed to be done.

- Passive resistance – doing what is expected to be avoided

j.4. identification mechanism where the individual enhance self – esteem by

patterning him/herself another person. This is done in fantasy or actual
behavior.

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k. Sublimation

People divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or

behavior. This type of defense mechanism is particularly healthy and socially
acceptable.

l. Intellectualization

Here, a person gains detachment from threatening event in order to remain

untouched by it emotionally. An emotional event is dealt with analytic, intellectual
terms as if it where something to study or be merely curious about, rather than to be
emotionally involved about.

These adjustment or defense mechanisms serve a useful purpose in that they

protect the person against pain. Also they are normal and universally use. However,
defense mechanism can be potentially pathogenic when they are used
indiscriminately, compulsively, and in ways that continually contradict the reality of
the situation.

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 Chapter IV
Abnormal Behavior

A. Abnormal Behavior

A behavior that fails to meet the characteristics of a normal person such as:

1. Free expression of personality

2. Adequate security feeling
3. Efficient contact with reality
4. Adaptability to group norms
5. Emotional maturity
6. Adequate self knowledge
7. Integrated and consistent personality

B. Types of Abnormal Behavior

a. Personality Disorder

It originates during early development process leading to maladaptive behavior.

Classification of Personality Disorder

Classification
1. Passive – Aggressive
2. Hysterical Personality Disorder
3. Compulsive Personality Disorder
4. Paranoid Personality Disorder
Characteristics
Passive – dependent Aggressive due to
indulgence
Easily excitable emotional instability,
dramatically attention getting, immature,
with tendency to sexualize contacts with
opposite sex
Excessive concern for conformity, rigid,
maybe intelligent but trait of character
explains his undoing.
Hypersensitive, unwarranted suspicion,
jealousy, envy, and feelings of excessive
importance.

b. Neuroses

Neuroses or psychoneuroses are behavioral disorder brought about by

emotional tension resulting from frustration, conflicts, repression, or insecurity. The
persons who develop a neurosis breaks down under the pressure of outer and inner
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stresses and displays a host of distress symptoms, although not serious enough to
require institutionalization. They compromise with reality by developing imaginary
ailments, phobias, obsessions, compulsions, anxiety or depression.

 Behavioral Characteristics of Neurotic Reactions

1. Presence of anxiety
2. Inability to function at capacity level
3. Rigid or repetitive behavior
4. Egocentricity
5. Hypersensitivity
6. Immaturity
7. Somatic Complaints
8. Unhappiness
9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behavior

 Factors to be Considered in Understanding the Causes of Neuroses

1. Predisposing or Constitutional factors

2. Childhood Development Patterns
3. The Immediate Life Situation
4. The Cultural Factors

b.1. Classification of Neuroses According to Most Striking Symptoms

b.1.1. Anxiety Reactions

These are principally manifested in diffused and consciously experienced

feelings of anxiety and apprehension for which there seems to be no specific
basis in reality. The condition may be chronic and continuous, where the
person is always tense and worried, easily upset, and preoccupied with future
calamities. Repeated unsatisfactory life situations, conditions that arouse fears
of the breakdown of defensive processes, may constitute the precipitating
cause of the anxiety. The reaction built on a lifetime pattern of insecurity and
immaturity.

b.1.2. Hysteria

A disorder in which the individual manifests, without identifiable

physical pathology, one or more symptoms usually due to organic disease.
These symptoms insulate the individual from real life stresses. Disabilities
developed include paralysis of the limbs, intense aches and pains, deafness,

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blindness, loss of voice, continuous vomiting, and head or hand tremors. The
hysteric may develop an anesthesia, where he or she becomes insensitive to
pain and cannot feel a needle or a burn. He or she fits or seizures, or faint at
the least provocation.

 Forms of Hysteria

b.1.2.1. Amnesia

A disorder in which the individual cannot recall his or her name and
remembers little or nothing about the past. It is obliteration through
repression of awareness of the self and of the historical data of all part of
one’s previous existence.

 Types of Amnesia

b.1.2.1.1. Anterograde – the inability to retain information which has just

been seen or read.

b.1.2.1.2. Retrograde – the inability to recall any event which took place
during certain period of time.

b.1.2.1.3. Localized – the inability to recall events which are related to a

particular situation.

b.1.2.2. Fugue

An amnesia state where one wonders away from his or her home or usual
surroundings and, when awareness set in, there is no recollection as to how
he or she came to be there. It may last for few hours, days or months. It is
an escape mechanism from a highly distressful situation.

b.1.2.3. Multiple Personality

A dramatic form of hysteria where the patient develops two or more

separated and very different personalities. The personalities achieved vary
in degree of completeness, and may or may not be consciously different.
Shifting from one personality to another last for from a few hours to several
months or years apart.

b.1.2.4. Somnambulism

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 A dream like state where the person walks about and carries on certain
activities which are not remembered later. The somnambulist will get out of
bed, with eyes open but not awake, and gives the appearance of trying to
reach a definite goal. Obstacles that blocks or are injurious are violated. The
somnambulist even responds to questions or demands without awakening.

b.1.3. Psychastenia

A psychoneurotic condition accompanied by a vast range of mental and

emotional symptoms which cannot be controlled. The person is fear – ridden by
unreasonable dreads or phobias, obsessions and compulsion. Other symptoms
of psychastenia are unreasonable elation, constant depression, or over
inhibition.

 Forms of Psychastenia

b.1.3.1. Phobias

An irrational or exaggerated fear of an object, person, act or situation.

These may be developed towards any imaginable aspect of environment.

 Characteristics of Phobia

1. Reasons for the fear do not make sense

2. The fear paralyzes instead of enhances the ability to deal
with the problem
3. The fear seems to be caused by the threat of a discharge of
self destructive aggressions
 Some Examples of Phobias

1. Achluphobia or nyctophobia – fear of dark

2. Acrophobia – fear of high places
3. Aerophobia – fear of flying
4. Agoraphobia – fear of open spaces
5. Ailurophobia – fear of cats
6. Algophobia – fear of pain
7. Amaxophobia – fear of vehicles and driving
8. Anthophobia – fear of flowers
9. Antrophobia – fear of people
10.Aquaphobia – fear of water
11.Arachnephobia – fear of spiders

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 12.Astraphobia- fear of thunder, lightning or storms
13.Cheimphobia – fear of cold
14.Claustrophobia – fear of closed places
15.Cynophobia – fear of dogs
16.Dipsophobia – fear of drinking
17.Ecophobia or Oikophobia – fear of home
18.Electrophobia – fear of electricity
19.Erythrophobia – fear of blushing
20.Gamophobia – fear of marriage
21.Hematophobia – fear of blood
22.Hydrophobia – fear of water
23.Ideaphobia – fear of thoughts
24.Ochlophobia – fear of crowds
25.Ophidiophobia – fear of snakes
26.Ornithophobia – fear of birds
27.Pathophobia – fear of disease
28.Phobophobia – fear of developing a phobia
29.Rypophobia – fear of dirt
30.Sitophobia – fear of eating
31.Taphophobia – fear of being buried alive
32.Thermophobia – fear of heat
33.Xenophobia – fear of strangers

b.1.3.2. Obsession

An idea or series of ideas which recur so frequently that it

interferes with normal thinking. The thought continues to intrude no
matter how hard one tries and what activities are undertaken. Common
obsessions are self – accusatory thoughts, thoughts about losing the
mind, committing immoral acts, superstitious worries, etc. in their
neurotic form; the obsessions are usually morbid in content and
dominate the walking behavior of the individual for long periods of time.

b.1.3.3. Compulsion
An irresistible tendency to perform an act or ritual which the
individual feels compelled to carry out even though it is recognized as
irrational he or she must do so in order to reduce the tension.
Completing the act makes the individual temporarily at ease; failure to do

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 so makes him or her extremely nervous. In its fleurotic form, compulsion
are mere persistent and more absurd, and may grow to such dimensions
as to interfere seriously with the patient’s ability to carry out normal
routine.

Some examples of Compulsion

1. Arithmomania – the impulse to count everything

2. Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor
3. Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill
4. Kleptomania – the impulse to steal
5. Megalomania – the impulse for fame or power
6. Pyromania – the impulse to set things on fire
7. Suicidal mania – the impulse to takes one’s life

b.1.4. Traumatic Neuroses

It is manifested in a situation where the individual fears for his or her

safety. It is caused by inhibitory process which is protective to the individual. In
the effort to safeguard him/herself from injuries, certain physiological and
psychological symptoms are inhibited. The person manifests certain symptoms
making others care for him or her, and therefore reduces the possibilities of
being hurt and increases the feeling of security.

b.1.5. Operational Fatigue

Otherwise known as war neurosis, it is manifested in response to a battle

environment. It is a reactive state resulting from the physical and emotional
stresses of continued danger and hardships. It is the result of sustained combat
action and tension.

c. Psychoses

Psychoses are serious mental illness where behavior is unpredictable. Psychotic

persons have a wholly unrealistic interpretation of the self and the life around them.
Their ego has lost control over the personality. They have great mood swings –
extreme depression to extreme exaltation. They are quit and docile at one moment
and hyperactive, even violent, the next. They are socially inept.

Person suffering psychoses significantly lost or distort of contact from reality

such as delusion, hallucination, and regression. (Disturbances in thinking, thought

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content, perception, mood and effect, judgment) and dementia praecox. Psychotic
almost completely out of touch with the real world.

c.1. Classification of Psychoses

c.1.1. Organic/Somatogenic

Organic or somatogenic psychoses stem from a wide variety of

causes, but damage or injury to the brain or other parts of the central
nervous system is always involved.

(Symptoms of Organic Psychoses)

1. Impairment of intellectual functions

2. Emotional instability, shown by general irritability or violent
mood swings without apparent cause.
3. Inappropriate behavior and changes in general conduct,
including lack of interest in personal appearance, neglect of
responsibilities, and an antisocial behavior.

(Types of Organic Psychoses)

1. Psychoses associated with infectious diseases

2. Psychoses associated with toxins
3. Psychoses associated with head injuries
4. Psychoses associated with old age

c.1.2. Functional Psychoses

Functional Psychosis is a serious mental disorder involving the

total personality with no observable tissue damage. Having no organic
basis, these ailments are believed to result from years of living under
emotional stress.

c.1.2.1. Forms of Functional Psychoses

c.1.2.1.1. Schizophrenic Disorders

Schizophrenia is a psychotic condition marked by

withdrawal from reality, indifference concerning everyday
problems, and the tendency to live in a world of fantasy. It
was formerly called dementia praecox by Emil Kraeplin, a

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 German Psychiatrist. The term schizophrenia was given by
Eugene Bleuler which literally means splitting of the mind”.

(Symptoms of Schizophrenia)

1. Disorganized patterns of feeling and thinking where there

is no logic or reason in the thoughts and feelings
expressed.
2. Apathy or absence of feelings and emotions in situations
which call for such reactions.
3. Bizarre actions, which include absurd and eccentric
gestures or such activities as hoarding and over self –
decorating.
4. Seclusiveness or the narrowing of interests and social
contacts
5. Disorganized patterns of speech
6. Delusions and hallucinations (usually auditory)
7. Deterioration of conduct and personal habits.

Types of Schizophrenia

1. Simple Schizophrenia – Manifests a gradual decline of interest and

ambition. The person withdraws from practically all social contacts, as
well as become irritable and inattentive. No encouragement or
reasoning can make him or her renew interest or activity. He or she no
little effort to work or play; careless about personal habits and prefers
to daydream. He or she frequently gives the impression of being stupid
or mentally retarded although actual intellectual impairment occurred.
The simple schizophrenic loses all sense of responsibility and becomes
dependent and parasitic.

2. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia – usually begins in early adolescence and

develops gradually. The person has fits of laughter or childish giggling,
grimacing for hours without apparent reasons. He or she exhibits weird
gestures or mannerisms, such as walking backward, makes peculiar
movement, crawling on hands and feet, and talking gibberish.
Abnormal speech reactions are exhibited, such as repeating
meaningless phrases, coining new words and placing together words
that are not related. The hebephrenic can be analyzed as a person so
overwhelmed by life’s stresses that he or she retreats to an infinite
level of adjustment.

23
3. Catatonic Schizophrenia – it is marked by cycles of psychomotor
reactions in stupor (partial or complete loss of consciousness) and
excitement phases.

In the stupor phase of catatonia, the person loses all animation,

remaining motionless and in a stereotyped posture for hours or even
days. He or she is mute and unable to react even to a powerful
stimulation; refuses food and show no effort to control bowel or
bladder. Extreme negativism is present.

Although in a stupor state, the person is aware of what is going on

around him or her. Sometimes he will imitate the behavior of others, or
will carry out commands automatically, or repeat phases in mechanical
fashion. Hallucinations and delusions occur which may involve the
person in a conflict of symbolic fantasy experience.

Individuals in catatonic excitement states exhibit intense

psychomotor activity. They are noisy, aggressive, and impulsive. They
become agitated and frightened, apparently as a result of visual or
auditory hallucinations, and can be violent. There is a continuous state
of motor unrest. A condition manifested principally in agitated activity
and sleeplessness.

Catatonics have no insight of their condition and are completely

disoriented. However, some experience lucid periods during which they
are aware of what is going on around them.

4. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is marked by delusions and hallucinations

which are illogical and loosely organized, as well as grandiose and/or
persecutory nature. Paranoids are moody, irritable, and suspicious.
They can become dangerous, both to themselves and their alleged
persecutors. They do not leave their home for fear of being stalked,
watched, followed or called disparaging names, etc. their delusions can
impel him towards violence. Their become excited and incoherent.

c.1.2.1.2. Affective Disorder

Affective reactions of manic – depressive psychosis are

characterized by periods of depression or elation or both.
The condition may arise in a previously well adjusted
personality but with a strong hereditary predisposition. It
occurs more frequently in women than in men. The illness

24
persists for 6 to 18 months and responds well to shock
therapy. Although even without shock therapy, there can be
spontaneous recovery and return to the normal personality.

Forms of Affective Disorder

a. Manic – types are marked by periods of elation where the

patients are unduly boastful, excited, and hyperactive. They
are irritable, angry, and shows abusive behavior when
contradicted. Heightened activity I accompanied by physical
changes, such as increased perspiration, rapid pulse,
elevated blood pressure, stronger muscle tones, and loss of
sleep.

b. Depressed – person feel sad and hopeless. There is

psychomotor retardation, difficulty in thinking, and
sometimes suicidal tendencies. Delusions hallucinations
may be present, which most frequently grow out of feelings
of unworthiness and guilt.

c. Mixed types – person manifest symptoms of both manic

and depressive types. In one instance, the patient is
talkative and yet be markedly depressed; in another, he or
she is elated while at the same time negativistic.

c.1.2.1.3. Paranoia

Another psychotic reaction is paranoia, where the main

symptom is characterized by suspicion. The reaction range
from paranoia, where the personality structure remains
relatively well organized, through paranoid states, where
the personality loses some of its integration, to paranoid
schizophrenia, where there is a severe disorganization of
the personality structure.

Paranoids have well systematized delusions, but have a

good contact with reality. There is little or no intellectual
deterioration.

Common Types of Paranoia

25
 1. Persecutory Paranoia – having delusions or persecution.
The person believes that some persons are plotting to harm
him or her in some way.

2. Litigious Paranoia – having delusions of both persecution

and grandeur, and may go to great lengths to bring alleged
persecutors to court. In some cases, he or she will go from
court seeking legal redress.
3. Erotic Paranoia – also called amorous paranoia – having
delusion that a certain person is in love with him or her.
The person will interpret a casual smile or a helpful
remarks a a indication of affection and will send love
letters, flowers and gifts to the object of his affection.
Failure to acknowledge these letters and gifts is interpreted
as a test of his love, or due to the interference of someone
who is opposed to his suit.

4. Exalted Paranoia – having grandiose delusions and believes

him/herself as someone with great power or importance;
usually a religious crusader, a social reformer, or inventor.

5. Jealous Paranoia – the most numerous, marked by extreme

and irrational jealousy.

d. Anti – Social Personality

This is a mentally – disturbed person who is opposed to the principles upon

which society is based.

d.1. Characteristics of an Anti – Social Personality

d.1.1. Sociopath – A person who lacks any sense of social or moral

responsibility due to mental illness.

d.1.2. Psychopath – A person having personality disorders characterized

by anti – social behavior, indifference to immorality and abnormal
changes in mood or activity.

d.2. Characteristics of Psychopath/Sociopath

1. A classic manipulator or con artist.

26
 2. One of the most significant characteristics of this personality is the
absence of conscience or any guilt feelings.
3. The person has not incorporated the moral values of society into his
life.
4. He is often a glib and convincing speaker and presents himself
extremely well.
5. The anti – social personality is selfish and strives for physical pleasure.
6. Most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating people to acquire
personal gains.
7. He is often impulsive and demands immediately satisfaction
8. He is unable to learn from past experiences
9. He is also a chronic liar.

C. Handling of Different Abnormal and Deviant Behavior

Abnormal Behavior Proper Handling and Hints

1. Anxiety Reassurance
2. Depressed Put self on the shoes of the sufferer; place in
the hospital; word of caution; alert of
possible suicide
3. Obsessive – Compulsive Understand that sufferer is disturbed and
not crazy; refer to appropriate facility
4. Phobia Supportive intervention
5. Psychoses Display of guns, force and restrains should
be avoided unless there is a manifestation of
danger to the life and send the psychotic to
the hospital. If he desists, be firm regardless
of pleading
6. Psychopath 1. Review arrest record
2. Recognize con – man’s glib conversation
3. Don’t bluff, he is a master of this and
certainly better than anybody
4. The best is to interview him after knowing
every detail of the case
5. Psychopathic can beat lie detector. He is
immune to anxiety unless placed under
stress
6. Be firm and clear. Psychopath maybe
charming but can also make very angry
and may maneuver to violate his rights
7. Drug Dependent Behavior 1. Patience, but firm – the person is not
himself
2. Ignore the belligency unless going to hunt,
keep him talking to relieve the stress; use
form of restraints.
3. Do not place in drunk tank, but
27
 appropriate hospital
4. Referral fro medical institution
8. Paranoid Behavior 1. Understanding – never give an impression
that he is crazy
2. Friendliness & neutrality is usually the
best approach
3. Do not further or heightens anxieties, to
provoke anxiety is to invite violent
reaction
4. Assure the paranoid that your presence is
to help and protect him
5. Do not frighten or order the paranoid
around with weapon, Paranoid may panic
and react violently. However, not to let down
guard. Remember, paranoid is suicidal and
homicidal

28
 Chapter V
Deviant Sexual Behavior

A. Sexuality

Behavior associated with relation between sexes and reproductive organ.

B. Normal Sexuality

Sexual completion that leads to mature and adjusted individual capable of entering
relationships with a member of the opposite sex which are physically and mentally stable
and satisfying heterosexual.

C. Abnormal Sexuality/Sexual Deviancy

Sexual behavior which seeks stimulation and gratification by means other than
heterosexual.

D. Classification of Sexual Abnormalities

d.1. As to the Choice of Sexual Partner

Types of Abnormality Characteristics

1. Heterosexual Sexual desire towards opposite sex; socially
and medically acceptable
2. Homosexual Sexual desire towards the same sex
3. Infantisexual Sexual desire towards an immature person
4. Bestosexual Sexual desire towards animal
5. Autosexual A form of self – abuse or solitary vice carried
without the cooperation of another person
6. Gerontophilia Sexual desire with elder person
7. Necrophilia Sexual perversion characterized by erotic
desire or actual sexual intercourse with a
corps
8. Incest Sexual relations between person who by
reason of blend relationship cannot legally
married

d.2. As to Instinctual Sexual Urge

Types Characteristics
1. Satyriasis Excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse
2. Nymphomania Strong sexual feeling of woman
29
3. Sexual Anesthesia Absence of sexual desire or arousal during
sexual act in women
4. Dyspareunia Painful sexual act in women
5. Vaginisimus Painful spasm of the vagina during sexual
act
6. Old Age Weakening of sexual feeling in the elderly

d.3. As to the Mode of Sexual Expression or Way of Sexual Satisfaction

Types Characterisitcs
1. Oralism (Irrumation) The use of the mouth as a way of sexual
gratification such as Fellatio, Cunning
Lingus, Anilingus
2. Sado – Masochism (Algolagnia) Pain or cruel acts as a factor for gratification
such as: sadoism masochism
3. Fetishism A form of sexual perversion wherein the real
or fantasized presence of an object or bodily
part is necessary for sexual stimulation or
gratification. Ex. Anatomic, Clothing,
Necrophilia, Odor etc.

d.4. As to the Part of the Body

Types Characteristics
1. Sodomy Sexual act through the anus of another
human being
2. Uranism Sexual gratification is attached by fingering,
fondling the breast, licking parts of the body
etc.
3. Frottage A form of sexual gratification characterized
by the compulsive desire of a person to rub
his sex organ against some parts of the body
of another
4. Pantialism A form of sexual deviation wherein a person
has special affinity to certain parts of the
female body

d.5. As to Visual Stimulus

Types Characteristics
1. Voyeurism A form of sexual perversion characterized by
a compulsion to peep to see person undress
or perform other personal activities
30
2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilla) Sexual perversion wherein sexual pleasure is
attached by watching couple undress or
during their sex intimacies

d.6. As to Number

Types Characteristics
1. Froilism (Menageatrios) A form of sexual perversion in which three
(3) persons are participating in the sexual
orgies (Suixante – neve)
2. Pluralism A form of sexual deviation in which a group
of person participates in the sexual orgies
(sexual festival)

d.7. Other Sexual Deviates

Types Characteristics
1. Corpolalia A form of sexual deviation characterized by
the need to use obscene language to obtain
orgies
2. Don Juanism It describes a form of sexual deviation
characterized by promisevity and making
seduction of many women as part of his
career
3. Indescent Exposure (Exhibitionism) The willful exposure in public place of one’s
genital organ in the presence of other
person’s; usually of the opposite sex

31
 Chapter VI
Victimology

Scientific study of physical, emotional and financial harm people suffer because of illegal
activities.

Included in this definition is the victimization occurring for victims within the criminal
justice system.

Victimization

Is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive, painful, destructive, parasitical,

and unfair.

Law forbids certain forms of victimization – oppressive and exploitative acts – but not all types of
harmful activities.

Victimology

 Victims – individuals who experience loss, injury, or hardship for any reason.
 Crime Victims – above as result of an illegal act.
 Direct/Primary – experiences criminal act and its consequences first hand.
 Indirect/Secondary – family and those who suffer emotionally or financially but are not
immediately involved or physically injured.

Studying of Victimization Scientifically

 Subjective Approach

- Issues are approached from standpoint of morally, ethics, philosophy, personalized

reactions, and emotions.

 Objective Approach

- Requires observer to be fair, open – minded, even – handed, dispassionate, neutral,

and unbiased.

 Why should victimologists NOT be pro – victim?

 “Ideal victim”: person who suffered harm was weaker than aggressor, acting virtuously or not
looking for trouble or breaking any laws, and wrongdoer was a stranger acting illegally and
was unprovoked.

Victims or Offender?

 Who is the victim and who is the offender?

32
  Not always clear cut – consider the following:

- Subway Vigilante
- Menendez Brothers
- Bobicks

Criminals as Victims

 Predatory persons prey each other

- Organized crime “takes out a contract”

- “Drive – by” shooting between two gangs
- “Drug deal gone bad”

Cycle of Violence

 Cycle of violence over time can transform a victim(s) into victimizer(s).

- Group of picked on students may gang up against the bully

- Battered wife may launch a vengeful attack against husband
- Convicts much more likely to have been abused physically or sexually as children
- Violence Begets Violence

Victims vs. “Good Guys”

 Victimologists do not limit their studies to clashes between victims and offenders
 They also consider the social reaction to victimization
 Victims outraged by media coverage – sensationalism
 Investigation of charges in high profile cases require victimologists to be detached and
disinterested in carrying out analysis
Victimology’s Undeserved “Bad Reputation”

 Victimology during the 90s and into the twentieth century has become to many a “dirty
word”.
 (Paglia, 1993) A critic of contemporary feminism declared on national TV, “I hate victimology.
I despise a victim – centered view of universe”.
 (Leo, 1994) A news magazine commentator complained, “We are deep into the era of the
abuse excuse”. The doctrine of victimology – claiming victim status means you are not
responsible for your actions – is beginning to warp the legal system”.
 An author of a book about race relations called a well – known preacher who is a civil rights
activist a “Professional Victimologist”. (Dreher, 2001).
 (Harrop, 2003) A review of a book noted, “The art of victimology requires three easy steps:

(1.) Identify a group suffering from real or perceived injustices

(2.) Exaggerate the problem
33
 (3.) Blame the problem on a group you don’t like.

Conservatives have long condemned the “victimology industry” as a racket, especially when
practiced by women and minorities.

 Victimology is a new academic discipline that only means “the study of” victims.
 It is focused on the research about people harm by criminals
 It does not impose a partisan point of view or a set or predictably blased conclusions
 The ideology of “victimism” is a coherent, integrated set of beliefs that shapes interpretations
and leads to political action
 Do not confuse “victimism” with “victimology”
 Victimological research must tell the whole truth regardless of who is disappointed or
insulted
 Three types of biases undermine the ability to any social scientist to achieve objectivity – they
include:

Three types of biases

1. May arise from personal experience, taking the form of individual preferences and
prejudices.
2. Derives from the history of the discipline itself:

- Pioneers in the study of victimology first introduced the concept of victim –

blaming
- Today, majority of victimologists are pro – victim
3. A subtle bias traced back to the mood of the times:

- 60s – 70s: a demand for government to devise ways to help victims get back on
their feet financially, medically, and emotionally
- 80s: a theme of self – reliance and a reduction in government social spending and
tax cutting gained popularity

Three Origins of Victimology

 Significant gains in the United States when the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement
and the Administration of Justice urged criminologists to pay more attention to victims.
 By the 70s victimology became field of study
 By 1990, 240 colleges and universities offered courses in victimology
 Most states passed crime victims rights amendments to their state constitution
 2004 – Congress enacts the Crime Victims’ Rights Act which provides for fair treatment and
opportunities for input in federal court proceedings

Victimology vs. Criminology

 Victimology is best viewed as an area of specialization within criminology

34
  Criminology embraces the scientific study of crimes, criminals, criminal laws and the justice
system, societal reactions, and crime victims.
 Criminologists ask why certain individuals become involve in lawbreaking while others do
not.
 Victimologists ask why some individuals, households, and entities are targeted while others
are not, and why over and over again.
 Criminologists apply their findings to devise crime prevention strategies
 Victimologists use patterns and trends to develop victimization prevention strategies and risk
– reduction tactics.
 Both Criminologists and Victimologists study how the criminal justice system actually works
versus how it is supposed to work.
 Boundaries

- Boundaries are clear cut for Criminology

- Boundaries for Victimology still unclear
- Overlap due to lack of boundaries (Crime rates vs. Victimization rates)

Division within the Discipline

 Political ideologies shape policy recommendations:

- Conservative
- Liberal
- Radical

1. Conservative influence

- Focuses on basically street crimes

- Everyone to be held accountable for their decisions and actions
- Emphasis on self reliance, NOT government
- Individual responsibility for preventing, avoiding, resisting and recovering from
critical acts
- Strictly punish offenders on behalf of their victims

2. Liberal influence

- Scope of field to extend beyond street crimes

- Endorse government intervention
- Extend ‘safety net’ mechanisms for all kinds of misfortunes
- Look to wrongdoers repaying their victims to allow for reconciliation

3. Radical / Critical / Conflict Influence

- Victimization is a result of oppressive social system

- Scope of the field to include:

35
Industrial polluters, hazardous workplaces, fraudulent advertisers, brutally violent law enforcement
agencies, poverty, malnutrition, family dysfunction, unemployment and substance abuse; these are
social problems of which the criminal justice system is part of the problem.

36
 Chapter VII
THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION

A. What Victimologist Do?

Victimologists explore the interactions between victims and offenders, victims and the
criminal justice system, and victims and society.

Four step process victimologists follow when carrying out their research:
 Step 1: Identify, Define, and Describe the Problem
 Step 2: Measure the True Dimensions of the Problem
 Step 3: Investigate How Victims Are Handled
 Step 4: Gather Evidence to Test Hypotheses

B. Key Figures

As mentioned, the origins of scientific victimology can be attributed to a few key figures in
criminology, including Hans Von Hentig, Benjamin Mendelson, Stephen Schafer, and Marvin
Wolfgang (Karmen, 2012). Their early work represents the first attempts to study the victim –
offender relationship in a systematic fashion, however misguided by generalizations, personal bias,
and professional agendas. Each discussed in turn, as their approaches to victims study are arguably
the most relevant to modern concerns.

1. Hans von Hentig (1887 – 1974)

A criminologists in Germany during the first half of the las century, Hans von Hentig sought
to developcrime prevention strategies. Having researched the factorsthat predisposed one to
criminality; he began to wonder what might cause a victim to become a victim. He ultimately
determined that certain victim characteristics did play a role in shaping the crimes suffered
(Doerner and Lab, 2011: Meadows, 2007)

The characterisitcsand forces that tend to make a criminal are diverse and complicated. A
contributing factor may be ugliness, deafness, a physical handicap.

Victims, Dr. Hans von Hentig believes, are born or shaped by society much as criminals are.
Some types of criminals are attracted to slum areas; so are their victims. Feeblemindedness,
common among some types of criminals, is also common among their victims.

Certain characteristics of law – abiding citizens arouse a counter reaction in the criminal.the
inexperienced businessman, for example, invites embezzlement; the nagging wife is flirting with
murder; the alcoholic is a natural for robbery. Thus the victim becomes the “temper”

Von Hentig originally classified victims into categories, which could easily be described as a
list of characteristics that increase victim vulnerability or exposure to danger.

 The Young: Von Hentig was referring to children and infants. From a contemporary point of
view, children are physically weaker have less mental prowess, have fewer legal rights, and
are dependent on their caretakers (e.g., parents, guardians, teachers, and day – care
providers); they also have the potential to be exposed to a wider range of harm than adults.
Moreover, they are less able to defend themselves and sometimes less likely to believed
should they report abuse. This includes children who suffer emotional, physical, and sexual
37
 abuse at home because of abusive parents (often under the influence of drugs and alcohol);
children who are bullied at school because of some aspect of their appearance or personality;
and children who are forced into acts of prostitution or sold into slavery by impoverished
parents.

 The Acquisitive: Von Hentig was referring to those who are greedy and looking for quick
gain. In other words, those focused in acquiring wealth and possessions. Such individuals
may suspend their judgment, or intentionally put themselves in dangerous situations, to get
the things of value that they desire.

 The Wanton: Von Hentig was referring to promiscuous individuals. People who engage in
indiscriminate sexual activity with many different partners expose themselves to different
levels of disease and varying personalities. Some of these personalities may be healthy and
supportive; some may be narcissistic, possessive, jealous, and destructive.

 The Lonesome or Heartbroken: Von Hentig was referring to widows, widowers, and those in
mourning. From a contemporary standpoint, loneliness is at epidemic proportions, with more
than half of marriages ending in divorce, the rise of the culture of narcissism since the late
1970s and diminishing intimacy skills across all cultures. This category does not apply only
to those in mourning; those who are lonely or heartbroken are prone to substance abuse, and
can be easy prey for con men, the abusive and the manipulative.

 The Tormentor: Von Hentig was referring to the abusive parent. In contemporary terms,
there are abusive caretakers, intimates, and family members of all kids. Such abusers expose
themselves to the harm they inflict, the resulting guilt and angst, and the potential for their
victims to fight back. For example, an abusive mother who gets drunk and punches a child
exposes herself to the dangers of injuring her hand, of misjudging her strike and even her
balance, of feeling bad about it, and of the child punching back.

 The Blocked, Exempted, or Fighting: Von Hentig was referring to victims of blackmail,
extortion, and confidence scams. In such cases, the attention of law enforcement, and any
subsequent publicity, is something that this victims wish to avoid. They fins a means of
dealing with the crimes being committed against them (e.g., giving in to demands) without
avoiding harm or loss – and without involving the authorities.

From a research point of view, these are interesting and even somewhat useful
classifications with important theoretical implications, although the terminology is
sometimes inappropriate. However, the case working victimologists must study each victim to
determine the extent to which such classification has a bearing on the harm suffered within a
particular crime. Some children are smart and fast; many women are strong and self –
assured; some of the elderly are quick and resourceful; immigrants and travelers can learn
languages and customs; and the “blocked” may decide to go to the police. In short, many of
the generalizations suggested in this typology may not when applied to a specific crime or
victim.

2. Benjamin Mendelsohn

38
 Benjamin Mendelsohn was a French – Israeli lawyer who began studying victims in 1947
(Karmen, 2012). While working for the defense on a rape case, he became interested in the
correlations between rapists and their victims. He found that there was often a strong interpersonal
relationship between the two, and that it could lead some victims to unknowingly invite or even
cause their own victimization (Meadows, 2007). He referred to this as victim precipitation.

Mendelsohn ultimately believed that many victims shared an unconscious capacity for being
victimized, and referred to this as being victim prone. Similar to Von Hentig, Mendelsohn developed
a typology that categorizes the extent to which the victim is culpable in his or her own demise.
However, while Von Hentig’s typology explains contribution based on personal characteristics,
Mendelsohn’s typology uses situational factors. Mendelsohn’s six victim types, as adopted from
Meadows (2007; p.22) are as follows:

 Completelt Innocent Victim: This person exhibits no provocative or contributory behavior

prior to the offender’s attack.
 Victim due to Ignorance: this person unwittingly does something that places him or her in a
position to be victimized.
 Voluntary Victim: Victims make a conscious and deliberate choice to suffer harm or loss.
This includes suicides, or those injured while participating in high – risk activities crimes
such as drug abuse or prostitution.
 Victim more Guilty than the Offender: The victim provokes a criminal act (e.g., throws the
first punch to start a fight but ends up a loser).
 Most Guilty Victim: This person is the initial aggressor, but due to circumstances beyond his
or her control ends up the victim (e.g., attempts to rob a convenience store but is short by the
storeowner).
 Simulating or Imaginary Victim: this person is a pretender, or false reporter. No crime has
happened yet the person reports suffering harm or loss.

The danger with Mendelsohn typology is that doesn’t always apply that well to actual cases. It
does have some important conceptual value, in showing a continuum of possible victim culpability
or precipitation. However, if applied broadly, simplistically, and without careful investigation into
the facts, it could be misused. Before these descriptors can be applied to a specific case, attention
must be paid to the details. This means accepting that not every prostitute or drug user is a
voluntary victim; not every bar fight involves a more guilty or most guilty victim; and not everyone
who fails to exhibit provocative behavior prior to an attack is completely innocent. While
Mendelsohn’s typology is interesting in theory, its application to specific cases can be problematic,
if not entirely inappropriate, when contextual information is not investigated and considered.

3. Stephen Schafer, Ph. D

Dr. Stephen Schafer was a professor of sociology at Northeastern University in Boston,

Massachusetts. In 1968, he published what is regarded by some as the first textbook on the subject
of victimology. The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional Responsibility. According to Van
Dijk, this work was significant to the advance of victimology, as it was an “independent study of
relationships and interactions between offender and victims, before, during and after the crime”.
Schafer’s study involved interviews with criminals and aimed to build upon the typologies presented
in previous works by focusing on victim culpability.

According to Doerner and Lab (2011), Schafer proposed seven types of victim responsibility
(or victim precipitation), which are essentially a variation on the work of Von Hentig (1948):

 Unrelated Victims: No victim responsibility

 Provocative Victims: Victim shares responsibility
39
  Precipitative Victims: Some degree of responsibility
 Biologically Weak Victims: No responsibility
 Socially Weak Victims: No Responsibility
 Self – Victimizing: Total victim responsibility

In reviewing this typology, we find it to be less of an inclusive measure and more of an

incomplete list of circumstances that mitigate victim responsibility because they increase general
vulnerability. While it is true that lines are drawn between their provocative, the precipitative, and
the self – victimizing, from the examples cited in the literature, it is unclear how these categories
would be applied to a specific case, as the defining elements are highly subjective. Also, Schafer has
inappropriately defined (and therefore presumptively assumed) the specific responsibility of each
victim type. There appears to be no room for mitigating circumstances once a victim is put in a
particular slot, which is what a pedantic or bureaucratic victimologist could do with this labeling
system.

Socially Weak Victims, such as immigrants, are regarded as having no responsibility, but what
if they are shot while robbing a convenience store?

Biologically Weak Victims, such as the elderly, are also regarded as having no responsibility,
but what if they are abusing alcohol and become rancorous precipitative drunks, only to start a
physical altercation at home that they lose? As discussed throughout this text, the relationships
between victims and criminals are far too complex for such rigid presumptions.

However problematic, Dr. Schafer’s contribution to the field of victimology must not be
dismissed. As Young and Stein explain: “The importation of victimology to the United States was
due largely to the work of the scholar Stephen Schafer, whose book The Victim and His Criminal: A
Study in Functional; Responsibility became mandatory reading for anyone interested in the study of
crime victims and their behaviors” (Young and Stein, 2004). With his research, our efforts have the
benefit of being that much more informed.

C. Victim Precipitation Theory

According to victim precipitation theory, some people may actually initiate the confrontation
that eventually leads to their injury or death. Victim precipitation can be either active or passive.

Active precipitation: occurs when the victim act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even
attack first.

Passive precipitation: occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristics that
unknowingly either threatens or encourages the attacker.

D. Lifestyle Theory

Some criminologist believed people may become victims because their lifestyle increases their
exposure to criminal offenders. Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors as associating
young men, going out in public places late at night, and living in an urban area.

 High-Risk Lifestyles

People who have high-risk lifestyles- drinking, taking drugs, getting involved in crime-
maintain a much greater chance of victimization. Groups that have an extremely risky life, such as
young runaways living on a street, are at high risk for victimization; the more time they are exposed
to street life, the greater their risk of becoming crime victims.
40
  Victims and Criminals

One element of lifestyle that may place people at risk for victimization is ongoing
involvement in a criminal career.

Carrying a weapon was another surefire way to become a crime victim. Males who carried
weapons are approximately three times more likely to be victimized than those who did not carry
weapons. Another study of high school youth, conducted Pamela Wilcox, David May, and Staci
Roberts, also found that kids who carry weapons to school are much more likely to become crime
victims than those who avoid carry weapons.

E. Deviant Place Theory

According to deviant place theory, the greater their exposure to dangerous places, the more
likely people will become victims of crime violence. Victims do not encourage crime but are victim
prone because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where they have the greatest
risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or lifestyle.

F. Routine Activities Theory

 The availability of suitable targets

 The absence of capable guardians
 The presence of motivated offenders

 Guardianship

Even the most motivated offenders may ignore valuable targets if they are well guarded.
Despite containing valuable commodities, private homes and/or public businesses may be
considered off-limits by seasoned criminals if they are well protected by capable guardians and
efficient security systems.

 Hot spots

Motivated people- such as teenage males, drug users, and unemployed adults- are the ones most
likely to commit crime. If they congregate in a particular neighborhood, it becomes a “hot spot” for
crime and violence.

 Lifestyle, Opportunity, and Routine Activities

Routine activities theory is bound up in opportunity and lifestyle. A person’s living

arrangements can affect victim risk; people who live in unguarded areas are at the mercy of
motivated offenders. Lifestyle affects the opportunity for crime because it controls a person’s
proximity to criminals, time of exposure to criminals, attractiveness as a target, and ability to be
protected.

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 Effect of Crime Victimization

Introduction

Criminal victimization is a frightening and unsettling experience for many individuals. It is

unpredictable, largely unpreventable and often unexpected. Unlike normal life experiences,
victimization is not sought out and never welcomed. It is debilitating and demoralizing. Its effect
can be often long – term and difficult to overcome.

Victims may be confused, fearful, frustrated and angry. They want to know why this
happened, and why it happened to them. Victims often have no knowledge of who or where to turn
in the aftermath of crime. They feel insecure and do not know who to trust or rely on for support,
understanding, and help. Not only do they suffer physically, emotionally, psychologically, and
financially from their victimization, they are also burdened by the complexity of the criminal justice
system.

How does crime affect people?

Crime affects everyone differently. Victimization often causes trauma and depending the
level of trauma that a person has already experienced in their lifetime, crime can be devastating. In
general, victimization often impacts people on an emotional, physical, financial, psychological and
social level.

A. Types of Losses

I. Tangible Losses

 Property damage and loss (property damaged, taken, and not recovered)
 Medical care (payments for hospital and physicians, emergency medical transport,
rehabilitation, prescription, medical devices, and premature funeral expenses )
 Mental health care ( payments for services to crime victims by : psychiatrists, psychologists,
and social workers )
 Productivity ( wages, benefits, housework, and school days lost by victims and their families,
productivity lost by co – workers and supervisors/agency recruiting and training
replacements for disabled workers, people stuck in traffic jams caused by vehicular accident )

II. Intangible Losses

 Pain ( physical )
 Suffering ( mental – anti – social behavior, emotional – trauma )
 Reduced quality of life ( physical disability / incapacity )

B. Sufferings

I. Physical

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 Physical injuries (such as gunshot wounds, lacerations, broken bones, sprains, and burns)
 Physical injuries that lead to other health conditions (such as heart attack, stroke, fractures
from falling, and loss of dexterity)
 Physiological anxiety (including rapid heart rate, hyperventilation, and stomach distress)
 Permanent disability
 Disfigurement
 Sleep disorders
 Inability to work
 For sexual assault victims: possible exposure to sexually transmitted diseases, exposure to
HIV, and unwanted pregnancy

II. Mental

 Slowed thinking
 Confusion
 Disorientation
 Memory problems
 Intrusive memories or flashbacks
 Nightmares
 Inability to concentrate
 Difficulty in making decisions

III. Financial

 Medical bills (e.g., emergency transportation, hospital stays, inpatient and outpatient physical
care, medical supplies)
 Medication and prescription drugs
 Replacement of eyeglasses, hearing aids, or other sensory aid items damaged, destroyed,
or stolen
 Physical therapy
 Occupational therapy
 Job retraining
 Mental health counseling and therapy
 Loss of wages due to incapacitation, rehabilitation, or taking time off from work to repair
damage from property crimes, participate in criminal or juvenile justice proceedings, or
seek medical or mental health treatment
 Loss of or damage to personal property
 Costs of replacing locks and changing security devices
 For families of homicide victims, funeral and burial expenses and loss of income

IV. Emotional

 Shock, disbelief and denial – Initially, victims may find it difficult to believe they have
become victim of crime. They may even pretend that it did not happen at all. These reactions
can last for a few moments or they may be present for months and even years. It is not
uncommon for victims to assume a ‘childlike’ state and may even need to be cared for by
others for some time. It is also common for victims to feel as though the crime occurred
43
 when they were in a dreamlike state. Once the initial shock of the crime has worn off, victims
may experience other emotions such as anger, fear, frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and
grief.

 Anger or rage – Victims may be angry with God, the offender, service providers, family
members, friends, the criminal justice system, or even themselves. Many victims experience
strong desires for revenge or getting even. Hate may even felt by victims. These strong
emotions are often disapproved of by the rest of society, which can leave the victim feeling
like an outcast. It is certainly justified for victims to feel anger toward the person or people
who harmed them.

 Fear or Terror – It is common for victims to feel terror or fear following a crime that involved
a threat to one’s safety or life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can cause a
person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of the crime. Fear can last for quite
some time following the commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it can
become debilitating. Fear or terror that becomes overwhelming is unhealthy and victims
should consult their family physician about it as soon as possible.

 Frustration – Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of helplessness or powerlessness

that surface when the crime takes place. This can be especially true if victims were unable to
fend off an offender, call for help or run away. After the crime, victims may continue to feel
frustration if they cannot access the support and information that is necessary to their
healing.

 Confusion – Victims of crime may become confused if they are unsure of what actually
happened, as crimes often occur quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become
confused while searching for answers to questions like “why did this happen to me?” It may
be impossible to find out why someone else intended to hurt them.

 Guilt or self-blame – blaming one is common. Many victims believe they were “in the wrong
place at the wrong time.” If the victim does not have someone to blame, they will often blame
themselves. Guilt is also common when no offender is found. Later on, when reflecting upon
the crime, victims might feel guilty for not doing more to prevent what happened. Lastly,
some victims will experience ‘survivor guilt’ – they feel guilty that they survived while
someone else was injured or even killed. If a loved one is murdered, surviving family and
friends may even blame the victim. Too often, society blames victims as well.

 Shame and humiliation – Sadly, some victims blame themselves, particularly victims of
sexual abuse/assault or domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders often
degrade the victim by making them do humiliating things. Victims of rape, for example, have
long-lasting feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be “washed away.” Some
victims even feel self-hatred because they believe that they can no longer be loved by those
who are close to them.

 Grief or Sorrow – Intense sadness is often the most powerful long-term reaction to crime. It
is common for victims to become depressed after a crime occurs.

Some ideas that may help you cope with the trauma or loss:

 Find someone to talk with about how you feel and what you are going through. Keep the phone
number of a good friend nearby to call when you feel overwhelmed or feel panicked.
44
 Allow yourself to feel the pain. It will not last forever.
 Keep a journal.
 Spend time with others, but make time to spend time alone.
 Take care of your mind and body. Rest, sleep, and eat regular, healthy meals.
 Re-establish a normal routine as soon as possible, but don’t over-do.
 Make daily decisions, which will help to bring back a feeling of control over your life.
 Exercise, though not excessively and alternate with periods of relaxation.
 Undertake daily tasks with care. Accidents are more likely to happen after severe stress.
 Recall the things that helped you cope during trying times and loss in the past and think about
the things that give you hope. Turn to them on bad days. These are things to avoid:
 Be careful about using alcohol or drugs to relieve emotional pain. Becoming addicted not only
postpones healing, but also creates new problems.
 Make daily decisions, but avoid making life changing decisions in the immediate aftermath, since
judgment may be temporarily impaired.
 Don’t blame yourself—it wasn’t your fault.

 Your emotions need to be expressed. Try not to bottle them up. For some victims and families
of victims, life is forever changed. Life may feel empty and hollow. Life doesn’t “mean” what it
used to. Part of coping and adjusting is redefining the future. What seemed important before
may not be important now. Many victims find new meaning in their lives as a result of their
experience. It is important to remember that emotional pain is not endless and that it will
eventually ease. It is impossible to undo what has happened but life can be good again in time.

For family and friends of a victim of crime:

 Listen carefully.
 Spend time with the victim.
 Offer your assistance, even if they haven’t asked for help.
 Help with everyday tasks like cleaning, cooking, caring for the family, minding the children.
 Give them private time.
 Don’t take their anger or other feelings personally.
 Don’t tell them they are “lucky it wasn’t worse”—traumatized people are not consoled by such
statements.
 Tell them that you are sorry such an event has occurred to them and you want to understand
and help them.

1. Stages of Crisis

a. Impact Stage
b. Re – call Stage
c. Re – organization Stage
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C. Fear

Many people fear crime, especially the elderly the poor and minority group members. Their
fear is escalated by lurid news accounts of crime and violence. While hearing about crime causes
fear, those who experience it are even more likely to be fearful and charge their behaviors.
Victims of violent crime are the most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their attack.

D. Anti-Social Behavior

There is growing of correlation between crime and victimization. Kids are victims share many
of those same characteristics as those who are delinquent, such as antisocial behavior tendencies
and impulsive personalities.

Victims may seek revenge the people who harmed them or who they believe are at fault for
their problems. In some cases, these feelings become generalized to others who share the same
characteristics of their attackers.

Characteristics of Victims

A. Gender

Characteristics of child sexual abuse victims were determined through a high

comparison of 87 victims of lone female perpetrators to 93 victims of lone male
perpetrators according to age, gender, and relationship of perpetrator to victim. Lone
female perpetrators abused children 3.3 years younger (M = 6.0 years) than lone female
perpetrators (M = 9.3. years). Both lone female and male perpetrators abused more girls
(62%, 76%, respectively) than boys. Female perpetrators were more likely to be caretakers
than male perpetrators, whereas male perpetrators were more likely to be strangers the
female perpetrators. Lastly, lone female perpetrators, lone male perpetrators, and
male/female co – perpetrators did not differ regarding severity of abuse. Thus, contrary to
popular assumption, abuse by female perpetrators was not less severe than abuse by male
perpetrators. Males are more likely than females to be the victims of violent crime. Men are
almost twice as likely as women to experience robbery. Women are six times more likely
than men to be victims of rape, domestic violence, and sexual assault.

B. Age

For females of most age categories, nonfatal intimate partner victimization declined
over time. In general, females ages 12 to 15 and age 50 or older were at the lowest risk of
nonfatal intimate partner violence. During 2005, females ages 35 to 49 were at a greater risk
of nonfatal intimate partner violence than older females. With the exception of males and
females age 65 or older, average annual rates from 2001 through 2005 for nonfatal intimate
partner victimization were higher for females than males within each age category. Female
ages 20 to 24 were at the greatest risk of nonfatal intimate partner violence. In general,
males ages 12 to 15 and age 65 or older experienced the lowest rates of nonfatal intimate
partner violence. Young people face a much greater victimization risk than do older
persons. Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25: teens 16 to 19 suffer 45 violent crimes
per 1, 000, whereas people over 65 experience only 2 per1,000. Teens and young adults
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 experience the highest rates of violent crime. Violent crime rates declined in recent years
for most age groups.

C. Social Status

The poorest people are also the most likely victims of violent and property crime.
Homeless people suffer very high rates of assault. This association occurs across all gender,
age, and racial groups.

D. Ethnicity

African Americans are more likely than whites to be victims of violent crime because
of income inequality. Racial and minority group members are often forced to live in
deteriorated urban areas beset by alcohol and drug abuse, poverty, racial discrimination,
and violence. Their lifestyle places them in the most at – risk population group. However,
this seems to be declining and the racial gap seems to be narrowing.

E. Repeat Victimization

Households that have experienced victimization in the past are the ones most likely to
experience it again in the future. Most repeat victimization occur soon after a previous
crime has occurred, suggesting that repeat victims share some personal characteristics that
makes them a magnet for predators. Repeat victimization refers to the repeated criminal
victimization of person, household, place, business vehicle or other target however defined.
Near repeat victimization or near repeats refer to targets with similar characteristics or
situations also in virtual repeats. Repeats can be the same or different crime types. It is
generally accepted that a small proportion of any population of potential targets experience
a vastly disproportionate amount of the crime because they are repeatedly victimized. Even
within the population of repeats, a smaller set of super targets experience chronic crimes.
The significance for many policy purposes, but particularly crime prevention, is that focus
upon repeats can greatly increase the efficiency with which resources are used. Most repeat
victimization research relates to how it can be prevented, so crime prevention is the
backdrop for much of this bibliography.

Types of victims

A. Homicide Victims

Homicide is an act of a human killing another human. Criminal homicide takes several
and includes certain unintentional killings. The crime committed in a criminal homicide is
determined by the state of mind of the defendant and statutes defining the crime. Murder, for
example, is usually an intentional crime. In some jurisdictions, certain types of murders
automatically qualify for capital punishment, but if the defendant in capital cases is
sufficiently mentally disabled in the United States he or she may not be excluded, for reasons
described in Atkins v. Virginia, similar to those utilizing an insanity defense. Varying by
jurisdiction, a homicide that occurs during the commission of a felony may constitute murder

47
 regardless the felon’s state with regard to the killing. This is known as the felony murder
rule. Much abbreviated. And incomplete, the felony murder rule says that one committing a
felony may be guilty of murder if someone, including the felony victim, a bystander or a co –
felon, dies as a result of his acts, regardless his intent – or lack thereof – to kill.

B. Female as Victims

Sexual violence against women and girls can take many forms and is carried out in
different situations. The WHO’s world report on violence and health lists the following ways
in which sexual violence against females can be committed. Systematic rape during armed
conflict, rape within marriage or dating relationships, rape by strangers, unwanted sexual
advances or sexual harassment, including demanding sex in return for favors, sexual abuse of
mentally or physically disabled people. Sexual abuse of children, forced marriage or
cohabitation, including the marriage of children, denial of the right to use contraception or to
adopt other measures to protect against sexually transmitted diseases, forced abortion,
violent acts against the sexual integrity of women, including female genital mutilation and
obligatory inspection for virginity and forced prostitution and trafficking of people for the
purpose of sexual exploitation. Sexual violence is one of the most common and widespread
violations to which women are subject in wartime. It also figures among the most traumatic
experiences, both emotionally and psychologically, women suffer during conflict sexual
conflict, in particular rape, is often considered as a method of warfare: it is used only to
“torture, injure, extract information, degrade, displace, intimidate, punish or simply destroy”,
but also a strategy to destabilize communities and demoralize men. Feminist scholars and
activists have made unique contributions to the discourse on sexual violence against women.
They have proposed that the root causes of sexual violence lie in the social structure
characterized by severe inequality, in which the male is dominant and the female exploited.
Feminists also hold that the weak institutional arrangements in place to address
consequences of sexual violence, as well as unfair treatment of the victims or survivors, an
alternatively proposed terminology are direct reflections of the ways in which society regards
men, women and the sexual relations between them. Furthermore, feminist critique has led to
a closer convergence between feminism and psychology in the study of sexual violence.
Conveying a connection between gender – based sexual violence and concepts of power –
seeking and subordination was pioneered in 1970s and has proven to be very influential.
Within this context, rape has been assessed as a foremost toll of intimidation used by men
against women. Similarly, domestic violence can be viewed as a particularly severe from of
patriarchal domination and oppression. Feminist interpretation of pornography also suggest
a link between rape and pornography, by which pornography that degrades, humiliates and
exercises violence upon the female body feeds a culture which validates this kinds of
behavior.; however, there is little evidence to prove this.

i. Sexual Violence

Sexual violence is any sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by violence or
coercion, unwanted sexual comments or advances, acts to traffic a person or acts directed
against a person’s sexuality, regardless of the relationship to the victim, in any setting. It
occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread and is considered to be

48
one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations. Sexual
violence is a serious public health problem and has a profound short or long – term impact
on physical and mental health, such as an increased risk of sexual and reproductive health
problems or an increased risk of suicide or HIV infection. Murder occurring either during a
sexual assault or as a result of an honor killing in response to a sexual assault is also a factor
of sexual violence. Though women and girls suffer disproportionately from these aspects,
sexual violence can occur to anybody at any age; it is an act of violence that can be
perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and strangers, as well as intimate partners.
It is rarely a crime of passion, and is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims to express
power and dominance over the victim. Sexual violence remains highly stigmatized in all
settings, thus level of disclosures of the assault vary between regions. In general, it is a widely
underreported phenomenon, thus available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the
problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected area of research, thus deeper
understanding of the issue is imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement
against it.

ii. Theories of sexual violence

1. Sexual Motivation

Some theorists charge that the acceptance of these sexual practices increase
sexual violence against women by reinforcing stereotypical views about women, who are seen
as sex objects which can be used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this being
one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex industry. They argue that pornography
eroticizes the domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and
cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. The anti – pornography
feminist, Andre Dworkin, has famously argued this point in her controversial pornography –
men possessing women (1981).

2. Socialization

Factors operating at a societal level that influences sexual violence include laws
and national policies relating to gender equality in general and to sexual violence more
specifically, as well as norms relating to the use of violence. While the various factors operate
largely at local level, within families, schools, workplaces and communities, there are also
influences from the laws and norms working at national and even international level. There is
evidence to suggest that sexual violence is also a learn behavior in some adults, particularly
as regards child sexual abuse. Studies on sexuality abused boys have shown that around one
in five continue in later life to molest children themselves. Such experiences may lead to a
pattern of behavior where the man regularly justifies being violent, denies doing wrong, and
has false and unhealthy notions about sexuality. Childhood environments that are physically
violent, emotionally unsupportive and characterized by competition for scarce resources have
been associated with sexual violence. Sexually aggressive behavior in young men, for instance,
has been linked to witnessing family violence, and having emotionally distant and uncaring
fathers. Men raised in families with strongly patriarchal structures are also more likely to

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become violent, to rape and use sexual coercion against women, as well as to abuse their
intimate partners, than men raised in homes that are more egalitarian.

3. Biological Factors

The unfortunate prevalence of the “impulse” model has been fostered, in part,
by the recent resurgence of more sophisticated biological theories of sexual assault. These
theories assert that while there is no “gene” that causes men to rape, the existence of a
predisposition to rape may be a consequence of evolution. According to this theory, men who
are predisposed to rape may have more reproductive success such as a higher number of
offspring. Over long periods of time, this reproductive advantage results in a widespread
predisposition to rape among males. Other theorists argue that predisposition to rape is not
an adaptation itself, but the side – effect of reproductive adaptations, such as the pursuit of a
number of partners. Paired with these biological explanations of the perpetrator’s behavior
have been biological explanations of the behavior of a victim of sexual assault. For women,
sexual activity with a limited number of partners is desirable and thus women have evolved
to resist rape. Further, these theorists argue, the experience of “trauma” associated with
sexual assault was a reproductively successful response because women who experienced
such trauma subsequently avoided being raped. Although some biological theorists maintain
that acknowledging a biological basis for rape does not excuse rape, such theories can
contribute to and perpetuate beliefs that excuse perpetrators from responsibility their actions
and blame the victims. For example, some proponents of biological theories argue that
because men cannot control their irresistible impulses to rape, it is women’s responsibility to
avoid dressing provocatively. According to this view, women who are raped must have put
themselves in circumstances that led to rape and the appropriate response is to teach them
how to avoid being raped. Biological explanations for rape also tend to “naturalize” the
perpetrator’s behavior – thus leading to the conclusion that it is “acceptable” and potentially
unchangeable. These theories also diminish the victim’s pain and suffering. Further,
biological theories have significant implications for criminal justice responses to rape. If rape
is a biological adaptation, responses should include monetary penalties; further, such
theories would call for chemical castration or hormonal treatments that can themselves
constitute human rights violations. Finally, biological theories also lack explanatory power –
they do not explain why men rape women who cannot bear children, or why they rape their
intimate partners and spouses. This model proposes that over time, natural selection and
evolution have favored rape, because it led to an increase in reproductive success for the
male. According to this theory, women have more mating choices, thereby causing them to be
more selective when choosing a mate. For males, rape was a tool to circumvent that female
selectiveness and increase their mating and reproductive success throughout history.

4. Psychological Factors

This theory suggests that men who sexually assault have harsh histories where
coercion and violence were acceptable ways of maintaining a relationship. Past relationships
during development would have been impersonal and short – lived. Researchers have found
that perpetrators develop either along an “impersonal sex pathway” or a “hostile masculinity
pathway”. There has been considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive

50
 variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape. Sexually violent men have been
shown to be more likely to consider victims responsible for the rape and are less
knowledgeable about the impact of rape on victims. Such men may misread cues given out by
women in social situations and may lack the inhibitions that act to suppress associations
between sex and aggression. They may have coercive sexual fantasies, and overall are more
hostile towards women than are men who are not sexually violent. In addition to these
factors, sexually violent men are believed to differ from other men in terms of impulsively
and antisocial tendencies. They also tend to have an exaggerated sense of masculinity. Sexual
violence is also associated with a preference for impersonal sexual relationships as opposed
to emotional bonding with having many sexual partners and with the inclination to assert
personal interests at the expense of others. A further association is with adversarial attitudes
on gender, that hold women are opponents to be challenged and conquered.

5. Culture of Violence

Our families are torn by violence. Our communities are destroyed by violence.
Our faith is tested by violence. We have an obligation to respond. Violence – in our homes,
our schools and streets, our nation and world – is destroying the lives, dignity and hopes of
millions of our sisters and brothers. Fear of violence is paralyzing and polarizing our
communities. The celebration of violence in much of our media, music and even video games
is poisoning our children. Beyond the violence in our streets is the violence in our growing
culture of violence. Verbal violence in our families, communications and talk shows
contribute to this culture of violence. Pornography assaults the dignity of women and
contributes to violence against them. Our social fabric is being torn apart by a culture of
violence that leaves children dean on our streets and families afraid in our homes. Our
society seems to be growing numb to human loss and suffering. A nation born in a
commitment to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” is hunted by death, imprisoned by
fear and caught up in the elusive pursuit of protection rather than happiness. A world
moving beyond the cold war is caught in bloody ethnic, tribal and political conflict. It doesn’t
have to be this way. It wasn’t always this way. We can turn away from violence; we can build
communities of greater peace. It begins with a clear conviction: respect for life.

C. Child Victims

i. Theories regarding Child Abuse

1. Theory of Physical Abuse

Child abuse has been noted to have many causes: as a childhood symptom of
mental illness in parents, as the culmination of a lifelong experience of violence toward the
caregiver, of environmental and social stresses on the family, and of society’s acceptance and
promotion of physical violence. Contained in each causal explanation is a theory of etiology.
And within each theory, researchers extract from the complexity of families’ live those
particular factors that are believed to be causal agents for violence against children.
Clinicians are frequently frustrated by the limited focus and use of the diverse theories on
child abuse. In order to select which factors to study, researchers must exclude other factors.

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 Clinicians, facing a variety of distinctive life events, personal characteristics and unique
circumstances of the families and children they serve, are not always content with the
explanations for the origin abuse found in the research literature.

2. Theory of Child Neglect

Child abuse and child neglect are catch – all euphemisms for a variety of childhood
injuries that are believed to be derived from parental acts of omission or commission. The
diagnostic tags focus attention on symptoms and propose entirely too simple formulations of
etiology. Child abuse refers to the many problems suggested by child abuse and child neglect.
This is to focus more on the causes than on the manifestations of child maltreatment.

3. Theory of Child and Sexual Abuse

Child sexual abuse or child molestation is a form of child abuse in which an adult or
older adolescent uses a child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse include
asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities regardless of the outcome, indecent
exposure of genitals, female nipples, etc. to a child with intent to gratify their own sexual
desires or to intimidate or groom the child, physical sexual contact with a child, or using a
child to produce child pornography. Child sexual abuse can occur in a variety of settings,
including home, school, or work places where child labor is common. Child marriage is one of
the main forms of child sexual abuse (UNICEF has stated that child marriage “represents
perhaps the most prevalent form of sexual abuse and exploitation of girls”. The effects of
child sexual abuse can include depression, post – traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, complex
post – traumatic stress disorder, propensity for further victimization in adulthood, and
physical injury to the child, among other problems. Sexual abuse by a family member is a
form of incest, and can result in m ore serious and long – term psychological trauma,
especially in the case of parental incest.

D. Elder Victims

i. Theories of Elder Abuse

1. Cycle of Violence

Cycle of violence refers to repeated and dangerous acts of violence as a cyclical

pattern, associated with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. The pattern,
or cycle, repeats and can happen many times during a relationship. Each phase may last a
different length of time and over time the level of violence may increase. A cyclical nature of
domestic violence is most prevalent in intimate terrorism (IT), which involve a pattern of
ongoing control using emotional, physical and other forms of domestic violence and is what
generally leads victims, who are most often women, to women’s shelters. It is what
traditionally the definition of domestic violence and is generally illustrated with the “Power
and Control Wheel” to illustrate the different and inter – related forms of abuse. Intimate
terrorism is different from situational couple violence, which are isolated incidents of varying
degrees of intensity.

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 The cycle of violence is a model developed to explain the complexity and co –
existence of abuse with loving behaviors. It helps those who have never experienced domestic
violence understand that breaking the cycle of violence is much more complicated than just
“getting out” or leaving.

There are three phases in the cycle of violence:

1. Tension – building Phase;

2. Acute or Crisis Phase,
3. Calm or Honeymoon Phase

Without intervention, the frequency and severity of the abuse tends to increase
over time.

Tension Phase – this usually lasts for a period of time, perhaps weeks or
months. Stress builds and communication breaks down. The abuser often verbally abuses
their partners and “minor” incidents may occur. Victims sense a growing danger and often
refer to feeling as though they are “walking on eggshells” during this period, trying to
anticipate the abuser’s mood. Family and friends may deny or minimize the danger at this
time.
Acute or Crisis Phase – in this phase, the tension has built up and finally erupts
into violence. This is an explosive and unpredictable period, usually lasting between 24 and
72 hours, which may result in serious injuries or death. The incident is a result of the
emotional state of the abuser or an external event rather than something the victim has done.
During this period the victim takes actions to survive the abuse. These may include
accommodating the abuser’s demands or trying to escape.

Calm or Honeymoon Phase – following the violent crisis phase of the cycle, the
abuser moves into a calmer period sometimes referred to as the Honeymoon Phase. This
phase may last from days to weeks or sometimes months. During this phase, the abuser may
become apologetic, beg for forgiveness, and promise it will never happen again. The victim
wants to believe this is true. The abuser may look vulnerable, causing the victim to feel guilty
and responsible for the welfare of the abuser. The victim may feel worn down and children
may became caretakers, taking on responsibility to keep the peace.

2. Psychological

Sexual violence can result in both short – term and long – term harm, including
psychopathology in later life. Indicators and effects include depression, anxiety, eating
disorders, poor self – esteem, somatization, sleep disturbances, and dissociative and anxiety
disorders including post – traumatic stress disorder. While children may exhibit regressive
behaviors such as a return to thumb – sucking or bed – wetting, the strongest indicator of
sexual abuse is sexual acting out and inappropriate sexual knowledge and interest. Victims
may withdraw from school and social activities and exhibit various learning and behavioral

53
 problems including cruelty to animals, attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
conduct disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Teenage pregnancy and risky
sexual behaviors may appear in adolescence. A causal relationship has been found between
elder sexual abuse and various adult psychopathologies, including crime and suicide, in
addition to alcoholism and drug abuse. Males who were sexually abused as children more
frequently appear in the criminal justice system than in clinical mental health setting.
3. Social Exchange Theory
This theory is based on the belief that certain societal attitudes toward older
people make it easier for abuse to occur without remorse on the part of the caregiver. These
attitudes can also reduce the likelihood of outside detection or intervention. Negative
attitudes can lead to devaluation and lack of respect for older people, who are often
stereotyped as frail, incompetent and powerless. When regarded in this way, there can be
social failure to recognize the importance of assuring dignity, support and safety for every
older person.

Social Exchange Theory explains interactions between people as a process of

negotiated exchanges. The theory has roots in economics and psychology and was developed
by sociologist George Caspar Homans in the 1950s. social behavior is considered an exchange
of material and non – material goods. Material goods include things like money, living
arrangements, inheritance, and non – material goods.

4. Family Stress Theory

Family Stress Theory states that the family go through four stages when face
with a crisis. These stages are crisis, disorganization, recovery and reorganization. Based on
the premise that providing care for an elder induces stress within the family. The “family
stress theory” asserts that elder abuse is caused by the stress and additionally, a victim
complaining that something was stolen from him or her.

5. Neutralization Theory

Neutralization theory holds that internalized social norms and moral standards
are neutralized within the doer of deviant acts through a process of rationalization or
justification of the acts. Some techniques of neutralization are denial of responsibility, denial
of injury to the victim, blame attributed to the victim, condemnation of those who disapprove
of the abuse, appeal to higher loyalties, the defense of necessity, and the rationalization that
the abuse is but a minor deviation from a life filled with good deeds. The article concludes
with a discussion of the implications of neutralization theory for the treatment of the abused
elderly victim and the treatment of the abuser. Was originally developed by Sykes and Matza
to explain juvenile delinquency in our society.

E. Hate Crimes

Hate crime is also known as bias – motivated crime. It is a usually violent, prejudice
motivated crime that occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her
perceived membership in a certain social group. Examples of such groups include but are not

54
 limited to: ethnicity, gender identity, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, or
sexual orientation. Hate crime generally refers to criminal acts that are seen to have been
motivated by bias against one or more of the types above, or of their derivatives. Incidents
may involve physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or
insults, or offensive graffiti or letters or hate mail.

A hate crime occurs when a person is targeted because of hostility or prejudice

towards their:

 Disability
 Race or Ethnicity
 Religion or belief
 Sexual orientation
 Transgender identity

This includes a person’s property, as well as the person themselves and a victim does
not have to be a member of the group at which the hostility is targeted. In fact, anyone could
be a victim of a hate crime. Being a victim of this kind of crime can be a particularly
frightening experience as you have been victimized because of who you are, or who or what
your attacker thinks you are.

Hate incidents can feel like crimes to those who suffer them and often escalate to
crimes or tension in a community. You can report such incidents, but the police can only
prosecute when the law is broken. In order to prevent any type of escalation of the situation,
police can work with other organizations.

Hate crimes can have significant and wide – ranging psychological consequences, not
only upon the direct victim but others as well.

 Effects on people – psychological and affective disturbances; repercussion on the

victim’s identity and self – esteem; both reinforced by the degree of violence of a hate
crime, usually stronger than that of a common one.
 Effect on the targeted group – generalized terror in the group to which the victim
belongs, inspiring feelings of vulnerability over the other members, who could be the
next victims.
 Effect on other vulnerable groups – ominous effects over minority groups or over
groups that identify themselves with the targeted one, especially when the referred
hate is based on an ideology or doctrine that preaches simultaneously against several
groups.

A. Victims Services Programs

1. Victim Compensation Program

can help pay bills and expenses that result from certain violent crimes. Victims of
crime who have been injured or have been threatened with injury may be eligible for help.

55
 Who Qualifies for Victim Compensation?

VCP can help victims of crimes such as:

 Domestic Violence
 Child Abuse
 Assault
 Sexual Assault
 Elder Abuse
 Homicide
 Robbery
 Drunk Driving
 Vehicular Manslaughter
 Hate Crimes

What Expenses Can VCP Help Pay?

VCP may help pay for expenses related to a crime such as:

 Medical and dental treatment

 Mental health services
 Income loss
 Funeral and burial expenses
 Loss of support for dependents when a victim is killed or disabled because of a crime
 Home or vehicle modifications
 Home security
 Relocation
 Crime scene cleanup

Who may apply for compensation?

 A person who was unjustly accused convicted and imprisoned and subsequently
released by virtue of a judgment of acquittal;
 A person who was unjustly detained and released without being charged;
 A person who is a victim of arbitrary detention by the authorities as defined in the
Revised Penal Code under a final judgment of the court; or
 A person who is a victim of a violent crime which includes rape
and offenses committed with malice which resulted in death or serious physical
and/or psychological injuries, permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion,
serious trauma, or committed with torture, cruelty or barbarity.
When should a claim be filed?

The claim should be filed with the Board by he person entitled to compensation under this
Act within six (6) months after being released from imprisonment or detention or from
the date he suffered damage or injury; otherwise he is deemed to have waived his claim.

How is a claim filed?

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A claimant may file a claim with the board by filling up an application form provided for the
purpose with the Secretariat of the Board of Claims, Department of Justice, Padre Faura
Street, Ermita, Manila. Thereafter, he will be interviewee

How much is given to a qualified applicant?

For the victims of unjust imprisonment, the compensation shall be based on the number of
months of imprisonment and every fraction thereof shall be considered one month, but in no
case shall such compensation exceed ONE THOUSAND PESOS (P1,000.00) per month.

In all other cases the maximum for which the Board may approved a claim shall not exceed
TEN THOUSAND PESOS (P10,000.00) or the amount necessary to reimburse the claimant
the expenses incurred for hospitalization, medical treatment, loss of wage, loss of support
or other expenses directly related to the injury, whichever is lower to be determined by the
Board.

2. Public Education

Victim Services makes presentations upon request to schools, groups and communities
on topics related to victims of crime.

3. Crisis Intervention

Crisis intervention is a proven effective method that is used by trained advocates to

assist individuals who have been victimized or have experienced a traumatic event. The
purpose of providing crisis intervention is to allow the victim to begin regaining the control
that was lost as a result of their victimization.

Crisis intervention entails two simple yet crucial actions, listening and talking. This
includes but is not limited to, assessing the victims’ safety and creating safety plans,

57
normalizing the victims’ emotions, assessing basic needs such as clothing, food and shelter,
and informing the victim about the investigative and judicial process.

According to a study conducted by the National Institute of Justice, “when advocates

can offer coordinated, early, victim-focused interventions, victims are more likely
to participate in court-proceedings, access community-based advocacy programs and
report decreases in distress, post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, depression and
fear.”

Victim Assistance Program provides crisis intervention through a variety of ways:

CRIME SCENE RESPONSE

While on scene, a police officer has tasks to complete and the victim cannot be the
officer's primary focus. Therefore, officers request advocates to help alleviate some of the
victims’ emotional concerns and questions. Advocates have been trained to help the victim
in conjunction with the officer. The investigation is of the utmost importance
and advocates will not interfere or hinder the investigation; we are not there to provide any
facts about the case to the victim. Responsible agencies are there to provide emotional
support, education about the police and investigative process, act as a liaison with the
police and provide crisis intervention.

In addition to the police, fire departments, medical examiner’s offices and local
hospitals contact the responsible office or unit to meet with victims in their jurisdiction.

DEATH NOTIFICATION

The Medical Examiner or the local police department has the job of telling loved ones
that a family member has died. Due to the trauma that many family members endure from
hearing such devastating news, Victim Assistance staff is often asked to accompany law
enforcement to someone’s home, the hospital or the medical examiner’s office to support
the victim and, in some cases, provide the notification.

The advocate’s primary goal after providing or witnessing a death notification is to

ensure the individual has a dependable support system in place. It is strongly suggest
individuals are not left alone after hearing such news, advocates may help individuals
contact family members or friends and ask them to come to the individual’s aid.

There are many details to consider surrounding the burial and/or investigation
surrounding a death. The advocate will contact the family the following day to address any
immediate questions or concerns.

INDIVIDUALIZED CRISIS INTERVENTION

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 Crisis intervention occurs both in person and via phone. Volunteers, interns and staff
answer a 24-hour crisis hotline, which is based out of main office in to provide crisis
intervention based on the caller’s needs.

GROUP CRISIS INTERVENTION

Victim Assistance Program facilitates structured group intervention sessions, adopted

from the National Organization for Victim Assistance, which have been proven to be
effective in helping communities address the aftermath of a victimization and/or tragedy.
Scheduled group interventions address communities or large groups (ideal size is 20-25)
but can be provided to groups of varying sizes. Depending on the group, a session can last
anywhere from 1 ½ hours to 3 hours to ensure everyone has the opportunity to speak. The
goal of the session is to “guide the release of the emotional steam,” provide an opportunity
for peer group validations of individual reactions, establish social support within the group,
rebuild a sense of community bond, educate the group about trauma and its aftermath, and
affirm hope for the future.

POLICE AND INCIDENT REPORT FOLLOW UP

The Police Department provide Victim Assistance Program with police and incidents
reports on a daily basis. Advocates, interns and volunteers contact victims listed on the
reports to assess their safety, see how they are doing and offer any assistance that can
provide

4. Victim Offender Reconciliation Program

Has been bringing victims and offenders together in safe mediation or family group
conference settings to permit the offender to take responsibility for his or her actions, to
make things as right as possible with the victim, and to be clear about future intentions.

B. Empowering Victims

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 One common feeling experienced by victims of crime when they become involved in
the criminal justice system is helplessness. Victim service providers can assist victims in
overcoming this feeling of helplessness by providing them with advice regarding the different
ways that they may become involved in the system

1. MEDIA

The media have the ability to bring crime directly into our living rooms. It is therefore critical
for victim service providers to understand how the media works and how to effectively
communicate with them.

2. Relations with the Media

 Occasional conferences between the victim services provider and the news director of
the television, or radio station, and the editor or publisher of the newspaper
 Establishing an ongoing relationship with the media is necessary
 Based on trust and mutual respect

3. Preparing for and conducting the Interview

 Understanding the goal of the media assists in the preparation

 Preparation before the interview can help relieve some anxiety
 Knowledge about the facts of the incident and the agency’s position can enhance the
communication
 Speak clearly in everyday language and avoid jargon
 Be professional

4. LEGISLATION

The Legislative Process

- How a bill becomes a law

Advocacy

Most common form is lobbying

- Purpose is to inform, educate, and persuade elected

officials to support certain legislative goals

5. PUBLIC SPEAKING

Preparing for the Speech

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  Rules of communication change when moving from one-on-one to a group setting
 Possible equipment malfunctions

Drafting the Speech

 Prepare an outline of the topics to be discussed

 Draft an outline of the main points of discussion
 Revise the outline several times
 Remember, we write differently than we speak
 Prepare an outline and deliver the speech based on the outline
 When writing a speech, start at the middle or end

Some Do’s and Don’ts of Public Speaking

 Understand the topic of the speech

 Know the audience and direct the speech to their interests and knowledge level
 Humor is excellent, but it can backfire
 Always be on time and dress appropriately
 Do not read the speech verbatim
 Understand how long the speech is to last and stay within that time limit
 When possible, use visual aids to assist in making your points
 Rehearse as often as possible
 Ask for honest feedback from the person that requested the speech

6. Fundraising

Some victim assistance programs receive a steady flow of funds to administer their
programs. However, most must participate in fundraising activities.

Types of Fundraisers

 Grants
 Cash donations, by either the federal or state government, or private foundations, for
specific projects

Local fundraising events

 Dinners
 Banquets
 Auctions
 House or garden tours
 Sporting events

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MEASURING OF CRIME AND ITS EFFECT

How is crime measured? How much crime is there? What strategies are available for
measuring crime? Crime is a fundamental dependent variable, also can be an independent variable.

Crime measurement involves devising valid and reliable measures designed to calculate the
amount and trends of criminal activity: How much crime occurs annually? Who commits it? When
and where does it occur? Which crime are the most serious?

Measuring the actual crime rate is not easy. There is a dark side of crime, those crimes
undetected. From this chapter let us examine some available measures of crime along with their
strengths and weaknesses and explore some independent measures of crime.

- Three general purposes in measuring crime are the following:

1. Monitoring

- Same as we monitor stock market, HIV infection rates, population

- monitoring crime is necessary to develop policy and ensure the basic public safety
based on resource allocation

2. Agency accountability

- Also is necessary for agency accountability or performance evaluation

3. Research

- Provides necessary information for basic research data

Some factors affecting the crime measurement are the following:

1. Not all crimes counted. There are a large number of crimes unreported. Part are reported
and counted such as motor vehicle robbery, murder, manslaughter, forcible rape etc. These crimes
are counted only if there is an arrest involved.

2. Crimes are difficult to collect because different states define these various crimes
differently. The operational definitions are different. This produces more measurement error

- Some agencies send their reports to collection points in where the data is summarize and
then sent to the NBI

- Error occurs in the summarization process. Some of the reports are incomplete. Some
incidents are counted more than once by several competing jurisdictions

3. The hierarchy rule is used to classify crimes committed in a single incident.

- If a robbery is committed and a rape occurs during the

incident, only the rape is counted in the UCR (Uniform Crime Report) the
most serious crime

WAYS OF MEASURING CRIMES

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1. Measuring Crime through Surveys

- Using surveys have several advantages

1. Collect information not reported to police

2. Measure crime not officially recorded by police

3. Provides data on individual units of analysis

4. When conducted properly, surveys have high reliability

- Using surveys have several disadvantages

1. Victim may not remember the incidence

2. Telescoping may occur. Forward telescoping occurs when victims report

crimes that occurred more than six months ago; backward telescoping means
the victim will recall a recent crime as occurring at an earlier time

3. Especially problematic when there are multiple offenses involved

- Domestic violence, assaults involving friends, non-stranger crimes,

viewed as a personal problem, may feel shame or embarrassment

2. Drug Surveillance Systems

 Alternative measures have been sought to overcome validity and reliability issues

3. Police Reports

 Most measures of crime are based on police records

 This means crimes not reported are unknown
 Police detect crime in two ways:

1. Observation
- Traffic offenses and victimless crimes like drug sales, prostitution

2. Reports by other people

- Victims and witnesses

 Crimes measured by police observation are not valid measures because many
crimes are not observed
 All crimes are not reported
- Petty thefts, certain assaults between non-strangers are not reported
- Many feel the crime is not important enough, or won’t do any good to report
because offender will not be caught or property recovered
 Police do not always make reports
- Assaults between non-strangers considered private matter
- Victim many urge police not to report because it may cause an unwanted arrest to
occur

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 - Victims of higher social class more often reported
- If the event fits a certain stereotype, it is more likely to be reported

A. Crime Statistics

-attempt to provide statistical measures of the crime in societies. Given that crime is usually
secretive by nature, measurements of it are likely to be inaccurate. Several methods for measuring
exist, including household surveys, hospital or insurance records, and compilations by police and
similar law enforcing agencies.

B. Importance of Crime Statistics

Crime statistics are used by different groups for different things. On a political level, it
provides a measure for the success or failure of certain criminal justice policies. On an operational
level, it provides important information on how best to allocate state resources. From a civil society
perspective, it provides indicators against which to measure criminal justice performance and
therefore an important tool to hold accountability the various role-players in the criminal justice
system.
The precinct level statistics should also be used by community safety and security
practitioners to develop, implement and measure the success of social crime prevention initiatives.
It is critical that the crime statistics are credible and reliable else national, provincial, local and
community level decision-makers and crime prevention/reduction practitioners may plan and act
inappropriately to crime problems.
In 2006, the British Home Office reviewed the United Kingdom`s Official Crime Statistics because:
The Home Secretary is concerned that public trust in the crime statistics produced by the
Home Office has declined to such an extent that it is no longer possible to have a debate about
alternative criminal justice policies on the basis of agreed facts about the trends in crime. He wishes
to be advised on what changes could be made to the production and release of crime statistics so
that public trust is re-established.
Therefore, without accurate crime statistics, criminal justice policies and their impact cannot
be quantified. However, crime statistics alone cannot provide all the answers but they do assist us to
plan and monitor local level and national level crime prevention initiatives.

C. Socio Economic Factors Affecting the Crime

Social risk factors for involvement in crime

This brief provides an introductory discussion of five areas of social risk factors for
involvement in crime: family, education, economics, community and peers, and alcohol and other
drugs.

Family

Parental behaviors play a strong role in shaping a child’s risk of later involvement in
criminality. Parental criminality appears to be strongly correlated with an increased risk of a child
of developing conduct problems and later criminal involvement. The influence of parental
criminality is complex because of the multiple mechanisms (shared environmental factors, genetic
and other biological risk factors, negative modeling by parents) involved that potentially pass on a
parent’s risk of criminal involvement to their child.

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 Poor parenting practices, such as poor parental supervision and parents’ rejection of a child,
are modest predictors of subsequent delinquency by the child. Children who experience severe or
harsh parental practices have increased rates of conduct problems, substance abuse, depression
and anxiety and violent crime in early adulthood, compared to those whose parents did not use
physical punishment.

Family violence and maltreatment of children have significant inter-generational effects on an

individual’s likelihood of becoming involved in crime. Some research suggests that maltreatment
during childhood doubles an individual’s probability of engaging in many types of crime.

The effect of family influences appear to be greatest during the early years of a child’s life and
reduces as they get older, although poor parental supervision and low levels of warmth between
parents and their teenage children have also been identified as a contributing risk factors for
future offending.

Education

Education has an important role in influencing an individual’s opportunity for success in

society. Non-participation in school level education is a risk factor for later delinquency and criminal
activity. Education changes the relative opportunities afforded by crime, and in particular property
crime, compared to legitimate employment. Greater levels of education ensure greater returns from
employment, making it more attractive than crime.

A low level of parental education (neither parent having a school qualification) have also
been identified as a risk factor for future offending for children aged under 13 years.

Economic

Economic factors that influence criminal behavior include relative wealth (disparity),
poverty (deprivation) and unemployment.

The balance of evidence suggests a link between disparity and violent crime. The
strength of this relationship is debated but international analysis suggests that a relationship
exists after controlling for other factors.

Evidence suggests that deprivation is associated with criminal offending across the spectrum.
Analysis from the Christchurch Health and Development Study argues that socio-economic
deprivation is associated with self-reported crime and officially recorded convictions, even after
controlling for parental, individual, school, and peer factors.
Unemployment is a predictor of involvement related to crime, but in particular property crime
and not violent crime. The strength of the relationship between unemployment and crime is
contested; it is unclear how significant this relationship is compared to other social and economic
factors.

65
Community and peers

Community and neighborhood effects on criminality are hard to measure but they do appear
to exert an influence on antisocial behaviour and crime. Neighborhood effects become more
important as a child gets older.

Many studies have shown that antisocial peer groups play an important part in the
development of deviancy and violence.

D. Generation of Crime Statistics

Study: Second generation immigrants commit more crimes than their parents

“These studies never take into consideration that new immigrants who commit crimes are
removed from the country and therefore they are not around to be counted in things like this,” she
continued. “Criminal immigrants are the first priority for immigration enforcement and are flushed
out of the system as soon as they are convicted of a crime… That tends to suppress the numbers of
new immigrants who commit crimes within the larger population.”

The study has important implications for U.S. immigration policy.

“We need to be very careful about who we are admitting as immigrants,” she concluded.

Pew cited an expert who claimed the crime statistics were the negative side of assimilation.

“Second generation immigrants appear to be catching up to and resemble the typical native-
born (white) population, at least in regard to their offending profile,” wrote Bianca E. Bersani, a
sociologist at the University of Massachusetts-Boston.

E. Statistical Formula

I. Crime Volume

Total Crime Volume = Index + Non-index Crimes

II. Index Crimes

Index crimes: Murder, homicide, physical injury and rape (crimes against persons) and
robbery and theft (crimes against property)

III. Non – Index Crimes

Non-index crimes: Crimes against persons (parricide/infanticide, maltreatment, kidnapping);

crimes against property (estafa and falsification, malicious mischief and damage to property);
crimes against morals and order (prostitution, vagrancy, alarm and scandal, assault/resistance to
authority, corruption of public official, gambling, slander and libel, threat and coercion and
trespassing), crimes against chastity (abduction, seduction, lascivious acts) and other crimes (illegal
possession of firearms, explosives and ammunition, concealment of deadly weapons, smuggling, car
napping and prohibited drugs)

IV. Crime Solution Efficiency

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 The percentage of solved cases out of the total number of crime incident handled by law
enforcement agencies for a given period of time.

CSE = solve cases / crime volume x 100%

V. Crime rate

The number of crimes committed per 100,000 population. (crime rate) the ratio of crimes in
an area to the population of that area; expressed per 1000 population per year

Crime rate= crime volume/(population/100,000)

VI. Average Month Crime Rate

It need to calculate the monthly crime committed for all crime depending on individual states
then compare it with the previous month crime rates to see if there is a increase or decrease.

Number of crimes committed in a year divided by 12.

VII. Crime Analysis

Crime analysis is a law enforcement function that involves systematic analysis for identifying
and analyzing patterns and trends in crime and disorder. Information on patterns can help law
enforcement agencies deploy resources in a more effective manner, and assist detectives in
identifying and apprehending suspects. Crime analysis also plays a role in devising solutions to
crime problems, and formulating crime prevention strategies. Quantitative social science data
analysis methods are part of the crime analysis process; though qualitative methods such as
examining police report narratives also play a role.

1. Percentage share of crime volume of certain area

Crime down nationwide, but dramatically higher in Metro Manila

By: Abigail Kwok, InterAksyon.com

MANILA, Philippines - The Philippine National Police said on Tuesday that crime has gone
down all over the country, except in Metro Manila, where the incidence rate has actually skyrocketed
over the first half of 2012.
From January to June, there were 29,231 crimes recorded in the National Capital Region, or
an increase of more than 10,000 incidents over the same period in 2011.
This was the highest crime volume in the country. Crime volume includes index crimes
(crimes against persons and property) and non-index (petty) crimes.
During President Benigno Aquino III's State of the Nation Address Monday, he boasted of a
lower crime rate and a significant decline from 2009's more than 500,000 cases to around 247,000
cases in 2011.
Aquino also boasted that the past years have seen carjacking incidences go down.
PNP spokesman Chief Superintendent Generoso Cerbo attributed the high crime rate in Metro
Manila to a higher population density in the capital region, as well as the presence of organized
crime.
"Aminado kami na talagang percentage-wise malaki ang crime volume sa populated areas like
Region 3, 4A, 7 at Metro Manila, for example. Even NCRPO umamin na tumaas crime volume sa
Metro Manila (We admit that percentage-wise, crime volumes in populated areas like Regions 3, 4A,
67
7 and Metro Manila are high. Even the NCRPO admits that the crime volume in Metro Manila has
gone up)," Cerbo said. He added that the PNP has doubled its efforts to record crime incidences in
the country, and a more efficient recording system in highly populated areas also factor into their
reports.

2. Percentage share of the occurrence of a type of crime

NPD had fewest robbery cases in Metro Manila

The Northern Police District (NPD) composed of the cities of Caloocan, Malabon, Navotas and
Valenzuela posted the fewest robbery and theft cases in Metro Manila from January to November
last year. According to data from the Philippine National Police, the NPD accounted for 9 percent, or
4,840, out of 52,529 robbery and theft cases recorded in the metropolis.—Marielle Medina, Inquirer
Research

Philippine Daily Inquirer

11:50 pm | Sunday, January 12th, 2014

3. Variance

A method for analyzing the differences in the means of two or more groups. Specifically, this
procedure partitions the total variation in the dependent variable into two components: between-
group variation and within-group variation. It allows researchers to determine if the differences
between a control group and a treatment group are attributed to the independent variable or
treatment.

SITUATIONER (Period Covered: September to December 2012)

I. INTRODUCTION

This report contains information relevant to the peace and security situation of Tacloban City
for the period of September to December 2012.

II. GENERAL SITUATION

A. Threat to Internal Security (CNN)

There are no indicators on the presence of a guerrilla and/or military component of the
CPP/NPA/NDF (CNN). However, Tacloban City is tagged as a safe haven for the insurgents. Much of
the propaganda and info-dissemination are done in the city by militant groups affiliated with CNN
as it is where they air their grievances to the government by conducting lightning rallies and
mobilization works.

B. Comparative Crime Statistic

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 C. Criminality Situation

CRIME VOLUME

From 01 September to 31 December 2012, this Office recorded a total of 133 incidents,
manifesting a decreased of 124 cases compared to 257 incidents of the same period of last year. Of
the 133 crime volume, 106 were Index Crimes and 27 were Non-Index Crimes.

Index Crimes and Non- Index Crime

Index Crimes for the period has accounted for a total of 106 with a decreased of 107 compared to
the 213 incidents of the same period of last year.

Non-Index Crimes posted 27 from 01 September to 31 December 2012, indicating a

decrease of 17 incidents as compared to last year’s figure of 44 incidents. (Figure 2)

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 Index crimes are broken down as follows; 28 are crimes against persons and 78 on crimes
against property. Of the crimes against persons, physical injuries registered with 21 incidents, 5
cases for murder and 2 incidents for the crime of homicide. (Figure 3)

On Crimes against property, Twenty-one (21) were robbery cases, while theft accounted a
total of Fifty Seven (57) cases. Significantly, Crime against property figure posted a decrease of 95
incidents compared to same period of last year. (Figure 4)

AMCR and AMICR

On the Average Monthly Crime Rate (AMCR) for the period, it was posted at 13.25
incidents per 251,000 populations reflecting a decrease of 12.35 as compared to last year’s record
of the same period with 25.60 incidents. Relatively, the Average Monthly Index Crime Rate (AMICR)
decreased by 10.66 from 21.22 to 10.56 incidents of the same period of last year.(Figure 5)

Crime Solution Efficiency

Significantly we were able to increase our CSE by 19.77% compared to the same period of last
year. (Figure 6)
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 Crime Clearance Efficiency

Crime Clearance Efficiency increases by 17.54% compared to the same period of last
year. (Figure 7)

III. ASSESSMENT

The peace and order situation in Tacloban City remain peaceful.The trend in the continuous
decrease in the crime volume, particularly on crimes against property, is attributable to the
responsive adjustments made by our police stations, MPU and CPSC in the strategic
realignment/deployment of more personnel to area of convergence to conduct mobile and beat
patrols.

Victims Compensation Program R.A. 7309

A. What is the law creating the Board of Claims?

Republic Act No. 7309 is the law creating the Board of Claims under the Department of
Justice Granting compensation for victims of unjust imprisonment or detention and victims of
violent crimes.

B. Who may apply for compensation?

 A person who was unjustly accused convicted and imprisoned and subsequently
released by virtue of a judgment of acquittal;
 A person who was unjustly detained and released without being charged;
 A person who is a victim of arbitrary detention by the authorities as defined in the
Revised Penal Code under a final judgment of the court; or
 A person who is a victim of a violent crime which includes rape and offenses
committed with malice which resulted in death or serious physical and/or
psychological injuries, permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion,
serious trauma, or committed with torture, cruelty or barbarity.

C. How much is given to a qualified applicant?

 For the victims of unjust imprisonment, the compensation shall be based on the
number of months of imprisonment and every fraction thereof shall be considered
one month, but in no case shall such compensation exceed ONE THOUSAND PESOS
(P 1,000.00) per month.
 In all other cases the maximum for which the Board may approved a claim shall not
exceed TEN THOUSAND PESOS (P10,000.00) or the amount necessary to reimburse
the claimant the expenses incurred for hospitalization, medical treatment, loss of
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 wage, loss of support or other expenses directly related to the injury, whichever is
lower to be determined by the Board.

Anti – Violence against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 R.A. 9262

A. Section 3. Definition of terms – As used in this Act.

(a). “Violence Against Women and their Children” refers to any act or a series of acts
committed by any person against a woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with
whom the person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has a common child,
or against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate, within or without the family abode, which
result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse
including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty. It includes, but is not limited to, the following acts:

 “Physical Violence” refers to acts that include bodily or physical harm;

 “Sexual Violence” refers to an act which is sexual in nature, committed against a
woman or her child. It includes, nut is not limited to:

- rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness, treating a woman or her

child as a sex object, making demeaning and sexually suggestive remarks,
physically attacking the sexual parts of the victim’s body, forcing her/him to
watch obscene publications and indecent shows or forcing the woman or her
child to do indecent acts and/or make films thereof, forcing the wife and
mistress/lover to live in the conjugal home or sleep together in the same
room with the abuser;

- acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to engage in any sexual

activity by force, threat of force, physical or other harm or threat of physical
or other harm or coercion;

- prostituting the woman or child.

 “Psychological Violence” refers to acts or omissions causing or likely to cause

mental or emotional suffering of the victim such as but not limited to intimidation,
harassment, staking, damage to property, public ridicule or humiliation, repeated
verbal abuse and mental infidelity. It includes causing or allowing the victim to
witness the physical, sexual or psychological abuse of a member of the family to
which the victim belongs, or to witness pornography in any form or to witness
abusive injury to pets or to unlawful deprivation of the right to custody and/or
visitation of common children.

 “Economic Abuse” refers to acts that make or attempt to make a woman

financially dependent which includes, but is not limited to the following:

- withdrawal of financial support or preventing the victim from engaging in

any legitimate profession, occupation, business or activity, except in cases
wherein the other spouse/partner objects on valid, serious and moral
grounds as defined in Article 73 of the Family Code;

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 - deprivation or threat of financial resources and the right to the use and
enjoyment of the conjugal, community or property owned in common;

- destroying household property;

- controlling the victim’s own money or properties or solely controlling the

conjugal money or properties.

Protection against child abuse, exploitation and discrimination R.A. 7610

Definitions of Terms.

(a) “Children” refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or those over but are unable to fully
take care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or
discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition;

(b) “Child abuse” refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not, of the child which includes
any of the following:

(1) Psychological and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty, sexual abuse and emotional
maltreatment;

(2) Any act by deeds or words whish debases, degrades or demeans the intrinsic worth and
dignity of a child as a human being;

(3) Unreasonable deprivation of his basic needs for survival, such as food and shelter; or

(4) Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an injured resulting in serious

impairment of his growth and development or in his permanent incapacity or death.

(c) “circumstances which gravely threaten or endanger the survival and normal development of
children” include, but are not limited to, the following:

(1) Being in a community where there is armed conflict or being affected by armed conflict –
related activities;

(2) Working under conditions hazardous to life, safety and normal which unduly interfere
with their normal development;

(3) Living in or fending for themselves in the streets of urban or rural areas without the care
of parents or a guardian or basic services needed for a good quality of life;

(4) Being a member of an indigenous cultural community and/or living under conditions of
extreme poverty or in an area is underdeveloped and/or lacks or has inadequate access to basic
services needed for a good quality of life;

(5) Being a victim of a man- made or natural disaster or calamity; or

(6) Circumstances analogous to those above – stated which endanger the life, safety or normal
development of children.
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(d) “Comprehensive program against child abuse, exploitation and discrimination” refers to the
coordinated program of services and facilities to protected children against:

(1) Child prostitution and other sexual abuse;

(2) Child trafficking;

(3) Obscene publications and indecent shows;

(4) Other acts of abuses; and

(5) Circumstances which threaten or endanger the survival and normal development of
children.

Program on Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination

B. Section 4. Formulation of the Program. These shall be a comprehensive program to be

formulated, by the Department of Justice and the Department of Social Welfare and Development in
coordination with other government agencies and private sector concerned, within one (1) year from
the affectivity of this Act, to protect children against child prostitution and other sexual abuse; child
trafficking, obscene publications and indecent shows; other acts of abuse; and circumstances which
endanger child survival and normal development.

Anti – Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 R.A. 9208

A. Section 3. Definition of Terms – As used in this Act:

(a) Trafficking in Persons – refers to the recruitment, transportation, transfer, or harboring, or

receipt of persons with or without the victim’s consent or knowledge, within or across national
borders by means of threat or use of force, or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception,
abuse of power or of position, taking advantage of the vulnerability of the person, or, the giving or
receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another
person for the purpose of exploitation which includes at a minimum, the exploitation or the
prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery,
servitude or the removal or sale of organs.

The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child for the purpose of
exploitation shall also be as “trafficking in persons” even if it does not involve any of the means set
forth in the preceding paragraph.

Human trafficking and the prostitution of children are significant legal and moral issues in the
Philippines, due to control and power of organized crime syndicates. Enforcement of penal laws is,
however, reported to be inconsistent.

R.A. 9208 is only one of the laws which give protection to workers, children, and women, inter alia.
The Philippines has a long history of legislation aimed at protecting the rights and welfare of
children. The 1974 Labor Code of the Philippines (Presidential Decree No. 441) set the minimum age
of employment at 15 years and prohibited the employment of persons below 18 years of age in
hazardous undertakings. Presidential Decree No. 603 (The Child and Youth Welfare Code) permits
the employment of children aged 16 years and below only if they perform light work, which is not
harmful to their safety.

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The Philippines is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked
for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor. A significant number of Filipino men and
Women who migrate abroad for work are subjected to conditions of involuntary servitude in Kuwait,
the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, South Africa, North
America, and Europe. Women and children are also trafficked within the Philippines, primarily from
rural areas, such as the Visayas and Mindanao, to urban areas for forced labor as domestic workers,
and factory workers, and in the drug trade, and for sexual exploitation. A smaller number of women
are occasionally trafficked from the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C), South Korea, Japan, and
Russia to the Philippines for sexual exploitation. The government of the Philippines failed to fully
comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, but made significant efforts.

Rape Victims Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 R.A. 8505

A. Section 2. Declaration of Policy – it is hereby declared the policy of the State to provide
necessary assistance and protection for rape victims. Towards this end, the government shall
coordinate its various agencies and non – government organizations to work hand in hand for the
establishment and operation of a rape crisis center in every provinces and city that shall assist and
protect rape victims in the litigation of their cases and their recovery.

B. Section 3. Rape Crisis Center – the Department of Social Welfare and Development, the
Department of Health, the Department of the Interior and Local Government, the Department of
justice, and a lead non – government organization with proven track record or experience in
handling sexual abuse cases, shall in every province and city a rape crisis center located in a
government hospital or health clinic or in any other place for the purpose of:
(a) Providing rape victims with psychological counseling, medical and health services,
including their medico – legal examination;

(b) Securing free legal assistance or service, when necessary, for rap victims;

(c) Assisting rape victims in the investigation to hasten the arrest of offenders and the filling
of cases in court;
(d) Ensuring the privacy and safety of rape victims;

(e) Providing psychological counseling and medical services whenever necessary for the
family of rape victims;

(f) Developing and undertaking a training for law enforcement officers, public prosecutors,
lawyers, medico – legal officers, social workers, and barangay officials on human rights and
responsibilities; gender sensitivity and legal management of rape cases.

(g) Adopting and implementing programs for the recovery of rape victims.

The DSWD shall be the lead agency in the establishment and operation of the Rape Crisis Center.

C. Section 4. Duty of the police Officer – Upon receipt by the police of the complaint for rape, it
shall be the duty of the police officer to:

(a) Immediately refer the case to the prosecutor for inquest/investigation if the accused is
detained; otherwise, the rules of court shall apply;

(b) Arrange for counseling and medical services for the offended party; and

(c) Immediately make a report on the action taken.

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It shall be the duty of the police officer or the examining physician, who must be of the same gender
as the offended party, to ensure that only persons expressly authorized by the offended party shall
be allowed inside the room where the investigation or medical or physical examination is being
conducted.

For this purpose, a women’s desk must be established in every police precinct throughout the
country to provide a police woman to conduct investigation of complaints of women rape victims. In
the same manner, the preliminary investigation proper or inquest of women rape victims must be
assigned to female prosecutor or prosecutors after the police shall have endorsed all the pertinent
papers thereof to the same office.

Anti – Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 R.A. 7877

A. Section 2. Declaration of policy – the State shall value the dignity of every individual, enhance
the development of its human resources, guarantee full respect for human rights, and uphold the
dignity of workers, employees, applicants for employment, students or those undergoing training,
instruction or education. Towards this end, all forms of sexual harassment in the employment,
education or training environment are hereby declared unlawful.

B. Section 3. Work, Education or Training – Related, Sexual Harassment Defined – Work, Education
or Training – Related, Sexual Harassment is committed by an employer, employee, manager,
supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher, instructor, professor, coach, trainer, or any other person
who, having authority, influence or moral ascendancy over another in a work or training or
education environment, demands, requests or otherwise requires any sexual favor from the other,
regardless of whether the demand, request or requirement for submission is accepted by the object
of said Act.

(a) In a work – related or employment environment, sexual harassment is committed when:

- The sexual favor is made as a condition in the hiring or in the employment,

re – employment or continued employment of said individual, or in granting
said individual favorable compensation, terms of conditions, promotions or
privileges; or the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in limiting,
segregating or classifying the employee which in any way would
discriminate, deprive or diminish employment opportunities or otherwise
adversely affect said employee;

- The above acts would impair the employee’s rights or privileges under
existing labor laws; or

- The above acts would result in an intimidating, hostile or offensive

environment for the employee.

(b) In an Education or training environment, sexual harassment is committed:

- Against one who is under the care, custody or supervision of the offender?

- Against one whose education, training, apprenticeship or tutorship is

entrusted to the offender;

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 - When the sexual favor is made a condition to the giving of a passing grade,
or the granting of honors and scholarships, or the payment of a stipend,
allowance or other benefits, privileges or consideration; or

- When the sexual advances result in an intimidating, hostile or offensive

environment for the student, trainee or apprentice

Any person who directs or induces another to commit any act of sexual harassment as herein
defined, or who cooperates in the commission thereof by another, without which it would not have
been committed, shall also be held liable under this Act.

Homosexuality

From the meaning “same”, and meaning “sex” is attraction, or between members of the same
or as an homosexuality refers to “an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual,
affectionate, or romantic attractions” primarily or exclusively to people of the same sex. There is no
substantive evidence which suggest parenting or early childhood experiences play a role when it
comes to sexual orientation; when it comes to same sex sexual behavior, shared or familial
environment plays no role for men and minor role for women.

The most common term for Homosexual people are for females and for males, though gay is
also used to refer generally to both homosexual males and females. The number of people who
identify as gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who have same – sex sexual experience are
difficult for researchers to estimate reliably for a variety of reasons, including many gay people not
openly identifying such due to homophobia.

History of homosexuality

The term homosexuality was invented in the 19th century, with the term heterosexuality
invented later in the same century to contrast with the earlier term. The term bisexuality was
invented in the 20th century as sexual identities became defined by the predominate sex to which
people are attracted and thus a label ws needed for those who are not predominantly attracted to
one sex.

This points out that the history of sexuality is not solely the history of different – sex
sexuality plus the history of same – sex sexuality, but a broader conception viewing of historical
events in light of our modern concepts of sexuality taken at its most broad and or liberal
definitions.

Historical personalities are often described using modern sexual identity terms such as
straight, or those who favor the practice say that this can highlight such issues as discriminatory,
historiography by, for example putting into relief the extent to which same – sex sexual experiences
are excluded from biographies of noted figures, or to which sensibilities resulting from same – sex
attraction are excluded from literary and artistic consideration of important works, and so on. As
well as that, an opposite situation to possible in the modern society;
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Africa

Homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms.
Anthropologist reported that women engaged in social sanctioned “long term, erotic relationships”
called motsoalle, also recorded that male warriors in the northern routinely took on young male
lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty, who helped with household tasks and participated in
with their older husbands. The practiced had died out by the early 20 th century after Europeans had
gained control of African countries.

The first recorded homosexual couple in history is commonly regarded as an Egyptian male
couple, who lived around the 2400 BC. The pair are portrayed in a nose kissing position, the most
intimate pose in Egyptian art surrounded by what appear to be their heirs and wives. This is
contested, as may archeologists, including David O’connor, believed these two to be blood relatives,
most likely twins.

Americans

Among indigenous peoples of the Americans prior to European colonization, a common form
of same – sex centered around the figure of the two – spirit individual. Typically this individual was
recognized early in life, given a choice by the parents to follow the path and if the child accepted the
role, raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen, Two –
Spirit individuals were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shaman. Their sexual life
was with the ordinary tribe members of the same sex.

Europe

In regard of male homosexuality such documents depict a world in which relationships with
women and relationships with were the essential foundation of a normal man’s life. Same – sex
relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another.
The formal practice, an erotic yet often restrained relationships between a free adult male and a free
adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, though
occasionally blamed for causing disorder.

Middle East

There are handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe during the mid – 1800s. two of
these travelers, Rifa al – Tahtawi and Muhammad as – Saffar, show theirsurprise that the French
sometimes deliberately mistranslated love poetry about a young boy, instead to a young female, to
maintain their social norms and morals.

Israel is considered the most tolerant country in the Middle East and Asia to Homosexuals
with being named “the gay capital of the middle east”, and is considered one of the most gay
friendly cities in the world. The annual in support of homosexuality takes place in Tel Aviv.

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 On the other hand, many governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of,
or criminalized homosexuality. Homosexuality is illegal in almost all Muslim countries. Officially
carries the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran. Iranian President during his
asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. However, the probable reason is that they keep their
sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.

Ancient Persia

In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public

places, from monasteries and seminaries to Taverns, Military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses.
In the early era (1501 – 1723), male houses of (armrad khane) were legally recognized and paid
taxes. Persian poets, wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly
documented forms were commercial sex with transgender young males or males enacting
transgender roles exemplified by the spiritual practices in which the practitioner admired the form
of a beautiful boy in order to enter ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god.

Ancient Greece

Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown by some of the earliest documents
concerning same – sex relationships. Though slaves boys could be bought, free boys had be courted,
and ancient materials suggest that the father also had to consent to the relationship. Such
relationship did not replace marriage between man and woman, but occurred before with it.

Some research has shown that Ancient Greeks believed semen to be the source of knowledge,
and that these relationships served to pass wisdom on from the erastes to the eronemos.

South Pacific

In many societies of especially in same – sex relationship were an integral part of the culture
until the middle of the last century. In many traditional Melanesian cultures a pre pubertal boy
would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and who would
“inseminate” him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on the tribe) over a number of years in
order for the younger to also reach puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become
hostile towards same – sex relationships.

Orientation and Behavior

Sexual orientation is commonly discusses as a characteristics of the individual, like biological

sex, gender identity, or age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is always
defined in relational terms and necessarily involves relationships with other individuals. Sexual acts
and romantic attractions are categorized as homosexual or heterosexual according to the biological
sex of the individuals involved in them, relative to each other. Indeed, it is by acting or desiring to
act with another person that individuals express their heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality.
This includes actions as simple as holding hands with or kissing another person. Thus, sexual
orientation is integrally linked to the intimate personal relationships that human beings from with
others to meet their deeply felt for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to sexual behavior,

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these bonds encompass nonsexual physical affection between partners, shared goals and values,
mutual support, and ongoing commitment.

Coming out of the closet

Coming out of the closet is a phrase referring to one’s disclosure of their sexual orientation
or gender identity, and it described and experienced variously as a psychological process or journey.
Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first is that of “knowing oneself”, and the
realization emerges that one is open to same – sex relations. This is often described as an internal
coming out. The second phase involves one’s decision to come out to others like family, friends, or
colleagues. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United
States today, people often come out during high school or college is not accepted in society.
Sometimes their own families are not even informed.

Gender Identity

Transgender people maybe attracted to men, women or both, although the prevalence of
different sexual orientations is quite different in these two populations. An individual homosexual,
heterosexual or bisexual person maybe masculine feminine or and in addition, many members and
supports of lesbian and gay communities now see the “gender – conforming heterosexual” and the
“gender – nonconforming homosexual” as negative. However, studies have found out that a majority
of gay men and lesbians report being gender – nonconforming during their childhood years.

Same – Sex Relationship

Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want succeed in having committed and
durable relationships. Survey data indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45%
and 80% lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship. Survey data also indicate that
between 18% and 28% of gay couples and between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have
lived together ten or more years. Studies have found same – sex and opposite – sex couples to be
equivalent to each other in measures of satisfaction and commitment in relationships, that age and
gender are more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and commitment to a
relationship, and that people who are heterosexual of homosexual share comparable expectations
and ideas with regard to romantic relationships.

Gender and Fluidity

In a 2004 study, the female subjects (both gay and straight men) became sexually aroused
when they viewed heterosexual as well as lesbian erotic films. Among the male subjects, however
the straight men were turned on only by erotic films with women, the gay ones by those with men.
The study’s senior researcher said that women’s sexual desire is less directed toward a particular
sex., as compared with men’s and it’s more changeable over time.

Parenting

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 Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are
as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well
– adjusted reared by heterosexual parents, according to scientific literature reviews, there is no
evidence to the contrary.

A review study suggested that the children with lesbian or gay parents less traditionally
gender – typed and are more likely to be open to homoerotic relationships. Partly due to genetic
(80% of the children being raise by same –sex couples in U.S. are their biological children and family
socialization process, (children grow up; in relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social
contexts, which are less heterosexual), even through majority of children raised by same – sex
couples identify as heterosexual. One study suggested that children of gay and lesbian parents were
more likely adopt non – heterosexual identities, especially daughters of lesbian parents (inter
generational transfer was not significant in some analysis for son).

Gay and Lesbian Youth

Gal and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide abuse, school problems, and isolation
because of a “hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and
isolation from family and peers”. Further, LGBT youths are more likely to report psychological and
physical abuse by parents of caretakers, and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity
are that (1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their sex or gender no –
conforming appearance and (2) that “risk factors associated with sexual minority status, including
discrimination, invisibility, and rejection by family members, may lead to an increase in behaviors
that are associated with risk for victimization, such as substance abuse, sex with multiple partners,
or running away from home as a teenager”.

Military Service

Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian personnel vary widely around to world. Some
countries allow gay men, lesbians, and bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the
same rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many countries neither ban nor
support LGB service members. A few countries to ban homosexual personnel outright.

A. Crimes committed against homosexual or lesbian (LGBT)

 Hate crimes (Murder, Homicide and Robbery)

B. Percentage of crimes committed against homosexual or lesbian (LGBT)

 Afraid: “Killings of LGBT’s in the Philippines on the rise”

By: Joseph Holandes Ubalde, Inter Aksyon.com
June 27, 2011 5:30 p.m.

Manila, Philippines – There has been a steady and alarming rise in violence against members
of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community in the Philippines over the past 15

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years, new research conducted by an LGBT advocacy group suggest, in line with a call for the Police
and the Commission on Human Rights to acknowledge and formally look into the troubling trend.

For the first half of 2011 alone, as of June 17, the Philippine LGBT Hate Crime Watch says it
has documented 28 killings within the gay community. This figure already nearly equals homicide
and murder figures for 2010, which is pegged at 29.

“Expanding the timeframe to as early as 1996, a total of 103 (killings of LGBTs have been
monitored)”. Of the 103 cases that group considers hate crimes, 61 attacks were against gay men, 26
against transgender, 12 against lesbians, and four targeted bisexuals.

“Homophobia and transphobia (negative attitudes against transexualism) present among

most of the victims’ families also made it possible to procure sworn statements, narratives which
would have expounded on the situations surrounding each murder”.

Lacsamana, who founded the group after two of his gay friends were brutally killed in 2009,
said the victims’ relatives would rather have the police tag the incident as “mere robberies” than an
overt and targeted attack on homosexuals. The victims’ families also feel stigmatized when the
media sensationalize such crimes.

“They feel ashamed that their loved one is gay”. ”They often decide not to pursue the case
anymore especially when the tabloids sensationalize the crime in the headlines”. With these
obstacles in sight, Lacsamana said the figures they have may be incomplete, but they definitely
represent just a “tip of the iceberg”.

In 2009, following the tragic deaths of his friends – one was killed in March, the other in
August – Lacsamana, a librarian by profession, started collecting reports and archival data on hate
crimes. Lacsamana, who is also openly gay, said there is a need for legislation protecting the LGBT
community from these brutal crimes. Based on the group’s study, victims of hate crimes endure
deaths like being stabbed multiple times, tortured, suffocated, and dismembered or being burned
alive. Labilles is calling on Congress to investigate these crimes and to make people more aware of
the LGBT community’s vulnerability to such attacks.

Currently, the Anti – Discrimination Act of 2010 or House Bill 1483, filed by Rep. Teddy
Casino of Bayan Muna, remains pending in Congress. The proposed law seeks to protect LGBTs
against unlawful discrimination in employment, education, health services, commercial and medical
establishments including protection from police and military harassment.

Without a law in the country that explicitly deals with hate crimes, most killings involves the
LGBTs are simply reported generically as murders or homicides, with no provisions for
deconstructing and analyzing the reports along the sector’s concerns.

The group is reaching out to the Commission on Human Rights and the Philippine National
Police to help them verify each of the reported cases and to help identify other victims of hate
crimes. While the group attests that a more thorough analysis of the reported cases is needed to

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verify that these are indeed prejudiced or hate crimes, they consider the killed individuals as victims
because they are members of a minority group.

For their part, the CHR welcomes the study from the Hate Crime Watch and invited them to
send their study to them. “It’s a cause for the CHR”’ said lawyer Chris Ocampo, CHR executive
assistant. “The CHR is already attending various for a on LGBT rights with these reported cases”.

C. Government action for the protection of (LGBT)

 Philippine police backs special desk for crimes against LGBTI people

Manila: The Philippine National Police (PNP) has thrown its support behind a House measure
seeking the creation of a special desk in all police stations across the country so as to tackle crimes
against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. The desk is to administer and attend to
ceases involving crimes against sexual harassment, hate crimes and other forms of abuses
committed against the LGBT community (tempo.com.ph).

Police Senior Superintendent Juanita S. Nebran, chief of the PNP Women and Children
Protection Center told that the Philippine National Police supports the House Bill 2571, which was
filed by House Representative Sol Aragones. HB 2571 seeks to be in line with the Republic Act 8551
that mandates the creation of Women’s desks in all police stations to ensure that the crimes and
abuses committed against women and their children are duly addressed.

James Costello is led out of Barnstable

Superior Court Wednesday. Costello pleaded
guilty to killing his boyfriend, David Walton in
Provincetown in April 2011.
By STEVE DOANE
sdoane@capecodonline.com
September 27, 2012

BARNSTABLE —the emotion was audible in

James Costello's voice.

Standing in Barnstable Superior Court on Wednesday, he read from a crumpled piece of paper held
between cuffed hands. Minutes earlier, he had pleaded guilty to killing his boyfriend of 10 years in
an intoxicated haze at a Provincetown campground in April 2011. Now, he wanted to apologize.

"I'm sorry," he said in a low, throaty voice. "I know my actions have caused terrible pain."

Judge Gary A. Nickerson sentenced Costello to 15 years in state prison on a reduced charge of
voluntary manslaughter and 2½ years for assault and battery, to be served concurrently.

The plea was the latest step for Costello, 46, of Taunton, who was indicted last year on a murder
charge that stemmed from the brutal killing of David Walton, 43, also of Taunton, at the Coastal
Acres Campground in Provincetown.

Costello strangled Walton during an argument that followed a night of drinking and drug abuse,
Cape and Islands Assistant District Attorney Lisa Edmonds said in court Wednesday.
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The two were in town to seek summer jobs and the argument was over whether the couple would
continue to stay at the campground, Edmonds said. The argument devolved into physical violence,
and Costello began to kick and punch Walton before eventually strangling him.

The next day, a Provincetown patrol officer found Costello and Walton lying motionless under
blankets on the porch of the campground office, according to court documents. Costello, who was
lying with his arm across Walton's chest, was "incoherent, was slurring his speech and was unable to
form words," according to court documents.

Rescuers tried to revive Walton but declared him dead at the scene.

Police initially spoke with Costello at the campground and then again at Cape Cod Hospital in
Hyannis, according to court documents. Costello was taken to the hospital because his hand was
injured and required stitches.

Once there, he was held overnight after hospital staff determined he "posed a risk of serious harm
by reason of mental illness," according to court documents.

The statements were going to be the subject of a hearing Wednesday on a motion to suppress
evidence, but Costello decided to plead guilty to the lesser charge.

The decision was an act of contrition for Costello, a small way for him to atone for the killing, said
his attorney, William White, outside the courthouse.

"He didn't want to put the family through a trial," he said. "Mr. Costello had strong feelings for Mr.
Walton and continues to miss him to this day."

Following Costello's plea, members of Walton's family cried quietly in the gallery as Dennis Samson,
a longtime friend, stood to read an impact statement to the court.

Sampson described the vacuum left by Walton's death.

"Now I wake every morning and I think of him. I see him in pictures, I see him in the backyard where
he planted so many trees and shrubs," he said.

"I see his name on a headstone. He may be resting in peace, but I'm not."

Reference:
http://www.capecodonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20120927/NEWS/209270325

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