Defects and Different Properties - Module3 - Updated PDF

Defects, strengthening mechanism
and mechanical properties of material

IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS
Introduction: In reality, perfect order does not exist throughout
crystalline materials on an atomic scale. As a matter of fact,
many of the properties of materials are profoundly sensitive
to deviations from crystalline perfection; the influence is not
always adverse, and often specific characteristics are
deliberately fashioned by introducing controlled amount or
numbers of particular defects.
Crystalline defect: Crystalline defect means a lattice having
irregularity in one or more of its dimensions on the order of
an atomic diameter.
Defects may be (i) point defects, (zero dimensional),(ii) line defects,
(one dimensional),(iii) surface defects, (two dimensional) and
(v) bulk defects, (three dimensional).
Point defects can be: (i) vacancies, (ii) interstitials, (iii) substitutionals,
(iv) Frenkel defects and (v) Schottky defects.
IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS cont.
Point defects:
(a) It is not possible to have crystals perfect in all respects.
(b) Above absolute zero some defects are always expected.
(c) It takes energy to create defects.
(d) The presence of defects increases entropy of the crystal.
(e) Non-stoichiometry also results in defects.
(f) Defects affect primarily all properties (electrical, optical,
mechanical, magnetic and kinetic) of materials.
(g) Point defects may be present in appreciable concentrations
even though the material is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
(j) While dislocations and interfaces raise the free energy, addition of
a certain no of point defects to a perfect crystal reduces its free
energy to a minimum value.
(k) This is because of raise in entropy at various places in the crystal
where point defects exist.
Point defects cont.:
The simplest of a point defect is a vacancy, or a vacant lattice site,
one normally occupied from which an atom is missing.
Vacancies are formed during solidification, and also as a result of
atomic vibrations, which can cause displacement of atoms
from their lattice sites.
How many vacancies are required to minimize the free energy?:
nv = nbulk e [ –{(Qv)/kT}]
nv: equilibrium no. of vacancies in bulk crystal
nbulk: total no. of atom/lattice sites in bulk crystals.
Qv: energy required for formation
of a vacancy,
k: Boltzmann’s constant,
[1.38 x 10-23 J/atom-K, or,
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
T: Absolute Temperature in Kelvin.
For most metals, nv/nbulk = ~ 10-4,

that is, one lattice site out of 10000 will be empty.
A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded into
an interstitial site, a small void space that under ordinary
circumstances is not occupied.
In metals, a self-interstitial introduces relatively large distortions
in the surrounding lattice because the atom is substantially
larger than the interstitial space it occupies. Thus, these
defects exist in very small concentrations, significantly
lower than number of vacancies.
PROBLEM: Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter for Cu
at 10000C. Qv: 0.9 eV/atom. For Cu, (at 10000C) the atomic weight: 63.5 g/mol and
density: 8.4 g/cc.
PROBLEM: Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter
for Cu at 10000C. Qv: 0.9 eV/atom. For Cu, (at 10000C) the atomic weight: 63.5
g/mol and density: 8.4 g/cc.
Solution:
First, nbulk is to be calculated from density, atomic number and
Avogadro’s number: [{(6.023x1023 atoms/mol)(8.4 g/cc)(106 cc/m3)} /
(63.5 g/mol)]
= 8.0 x 1028 atoms/m3
Thus, the number of vacancies at 10000C = 1273 K is equal to:
nv = nbulk exp[ - Qv/kT]
= (8.0 x 1028 atoms/m3) exp[ - (0.9 eV) / {(8.62 x 10-5 eV/K)(1273K)}]
= 2.2 x 1025 vacancies/m3

Point defects - Types:
Point Defects may occur in isolation due to the increase in entropy of
the crystal:- Intrinsic point defects: TWO types – (a) Schottky and
(b) Frenkel.
Defects may occur in isolation to balance the presence of an
impurity:-Extrinsic point defects.
Defects may occur throughout the crystal:- Extended defects.
Schottky defect: NaCl:

Charge balancing (both) cation
and anion vacancies in their
regular lattice sites.
At RT: 1 in 1015 sites are vacant.

Creation energy: 200 kJ/mol.
the crystal:- Intrinsic point defects: TWO types – (a) Schottky and (b)
Frenkel.
Frenkel defect: AgCl:
Charge balancing interstitials

and vacancies. Can be cation or
anion Frenkel defect.
Creation energy: 130 kJ/mol.

the crystal:- Intrinsic point defects: TWO types – (a) Schottky and (b)
Frenkel.
Enthalpy of formation of Schottky and Frenkel defects in some selected

compounds: (1 eV = 1.60219 x 10-19 J)
Defects: compound ∆H (10-19 J) ∆H (eV)

Schottky: MgO 10.57 6.60
LiCl 3.40 2.12
NaCl 3.69 2.30
Frenkel: ZrO2 6.57 4.10
AgCl 2.56 1.60
β-AgI 1.12 0.70
Typical values of the defect concentration: (1) most simple ionic solids
have low defect concentrations, (2) however, small changes in energetic
for defect formation can lead to high defect concentrations.
Values of ns/N
T/K ∆Hs = 5 x 10-19 J ∆Hs = 1 x 10-19 J
300 6.12 x 10-27 5.72 x 10-6
1000 1.37 x 10-8 2.67 x 10-2

Point defects cont.: Impurities in solids:
(a) Always it is not possible to have only one type of atoms, impurity
or foreign atoms will always be present, and some of them
will exist as crystalline point defects.
(b) A metal of even 99.9999% purity will have 1022 to 1023 impurity
atoms per one cubic meter of material.
(c) Most family of metals are not pure, they are rather alloys,
impurities added with a purpose of improving properties
like mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.
Ex: Sterling alloy (92.5% Ag + 7.5% Cu)
(d) Addition of impurity atoms to form alloy usually result in solid
solutions. Solvent is the element present in greater
proportion and provide host atoms, and the solute is present
in minor concentrations.
Point defects cont.: Impurities in solids cont.:
(e) Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions.
Those are of two types: substitutional and interstitial.
For substitutional, solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute
for the host atoms. There are several features of the solvent
and solute atoms that determine the degree to which the solute
will dissolve in the solvent. Those are:
1: Atomic size factor: Accommodation is easy without change in

phase when the atomic radii of solvent and solute are within
±15%. Otherwise substantial lattice distortion and new phase.
2: Crystal structure: Solid solubility is appreciable when the crystal
structure of both the solvent and solute atoms is the same.
3: Electronegativity: A more electropositive solvent with a more

electronegative solute favor intermetallic, not substitutional.
4: Valences: Other factors being equal, a solvent metal will have more
tendency to dissolve a solute metal of higher valency.
Ex: Substitutional: Copper and Nickel; (a) atomic radii:0.128
and 0.125 nm, (b) both FCC, (c) electronegativities: 1.9
and 1.8 and (d) valency +1 or +2 for Cu and +2 for Ni
For Interstitial, solute or impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices

among the host atoms. Since the metals have high atomic packing
factors, these interstitial positions are relatively small and hence,
solute atoms with small radii can be accommodated and up to a
small concentration (<10%).
Interstitial, Ex: Iron-Carbon: Atomic radius of iron is 0.124 nm

and radius of carbon is 0.071 nm. Solubility is up to 2% C.
Specification of composition: It is often necessary to express the

composition (or concentration) of an alloy in terms of its
constituent elements. Those are two ways to do so:
1: Weight Percent (wt%): It is the weight of a particular element

relative to the total alloy weight:
C1 = [m1/(m1 + m2)] x 100
2: Atom Percent (at%): It is the number of moles of an element in

relation to the total moles of the elements in the alloy:
C’1 = [nm1/(nm1 + nm2)] x 100
Composition conversions as well as determination of density can be

made using suitable basic rules.
MISCILLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS:
Dislocations – Linear defects:
 Linear disturbance of atomic arrangement, which can move very
easily on slip plane through crystal
 Occurs during recrystallization process or during slip
 Created along a line, which is also boundary between slipped and
unslipped regions of crystals
 Defect is known as ‘dislocation’ and boundary is known as
‘Dislocation Line’
 Region near dislocation, where distortion is extremely large is
called ‘Core of Dislocation’ (very high local strain)
MISCILLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS cont.:
Dislocations – Linear defects: (a) Edge dislocation: An extra-
portion of a plane of atoms, or half-plane, the edge of which terminates
within the crystal, is edge dislocation.
 Accompanied by zones of
compression and tension and
there is a net increase in energy
along dislocation
 Displacement distance for atoms
around dislocation is called
‘Burger Vector’, which is at right
angle to edge dislocation
 Berger vector is determined by
drawing a rectangle in region by
connecting an equal number of
atoms on opposite sides (circuit
fails to complete).
Sometimes the edge dislocation is represented by the symbol ┴,
which also indicates the position of the dislocation line.
Dislocations – Linear defects: (b) Screw dislocation:
A B
 Originate from partial slipping of a section of crystal plane

 Shear stresses are associated with adjacent atoms and extra energy is
involved along the dislocation
 Successive atom planes are transformed into the Surface of Helix of
Screw (plane is distorted), which accounts for its name as screw
dislocation. (Line AB is the dislocation line).
 Displacement vector is parallel to the line defect
Dislocations – Linear defects: (b) Screw dislocation cont.:
 The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated with a

dislocation is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector, denoted by ‘b’
 The nature of dislocation (edge/screw/mixed) is defined by the relative
orientations of dislocation line and Burgers vector. For an edge, they are
perpendicular; for screw, parallel; for mixed, neither perpendicular nor
parallel.
Dislocations – Linear defects: (c) Mixed dislocations: Most
dislocations found in crystalline materials are neither pure edge nor pure
screw, but are components of both, and hence called mixed dislocations.
 Even though a dislocation changes direction and nature within a crustal, the
Burgers vector will remain the same at all points in the line.
 For metallic materials, the Burgers vector for a dislocation will point in a
closed-packed crystallographic direction and will be of magnitude equal
to the inter-atomic spacing.
Dislocations – Linear defects cont.:
Comparison of (a) Edge dislocation and (b) Screw dislocation:
Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation
Arise due to introduction or Arise due to partial slipping of section
elimination of an extra row of atoms of crystal plane, where planes of atoms
are transformed into surface of helix of
screw
Tensile, compressive or shear stress Only shear stress field is present
field may be present
Lattice disturbance extends along an Lattice disturbance extends into two
edge inside crystal separate planes at right angles to each
other
Burger’s vector is always Burger’s vector is parallel to
perpendicular to dislocation line dislocation line
Dislocations can climb and glide Dislocation can only glide
Force required is less as compared to Force required is more as compared to
that for screw dislocation that of edge dislocation
Dislocation Energy per unit length
𝐺𝑏2
𝑈=
2
Forces on dislocation:
Force on dislocation is always defined as force
F (per unit length) = t b, where t is shear stress
Shear stress required to bend a dislocation to a radius R
𝐺𝑏
𝜏≈
2𝑅
Forces between dislocation:

Forces between two parallel screw dislocations : Since the stress field of a screw
dislocation is radially symmetrical the force between the dislocations is a radial force
which depends only on the distance of separation ‘r’.
𝐺𝑏2
𝐹𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑟
The force is attractive for dislocation of opposite sign and repulsive for same sign
Force between two parallel edge dislocations
𝐺𝑏2 𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )
𝐹𝑥 =
2𝜋 1 − 𝜗 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2
The equilibrium spacing between partial dislocation is
𝑔𝑏2
𝑑=
2𝜋 (1 − 𝜗)𝛾
Where g is stacking fault per unit area, J/m2

The activation energy for climb is given by:
Uc = Uj + Uv + Um
Uj = Activation energy to nucleated a jog
Uv = the energy of formation of vacancy
Um = the energy of movement of a vacancy
Ud = Um + Uv
Ud = the Activation energy for self diffusion
The energy of dislocation is agb2 (where a is about 0.5 to 1.0), the
energy of a jog of length b2 in a dislocation of Burgers vector b1 is
𝑈𝑗 = 𝛼𝐺 𝑏12 𝑏2 the energy of a jog is about 0.5 to 1.0 eV in metals

Energy required to form a vacancy or an interstitial atom at a job in an fcc metal are
𝑈1 = 𝛼1 𝐺𝑏3
The work done by the applied stress in moving the jobs forward one atomic spacing by the
formation of vacancies or interstitial is
W = tb2l, where l is spacing between two jogs
The shear stress required to generate a defect and move the dislocation in the absence of thermal
activation
𝐺𝑏
𝜏 = 𝛼1
𝑙
The activation energy for the movement of the jog or the formation of defects at the jog will be
U = a1Gb3 - tb2l
The tensile stress normal to a line OP is given by
3 𝐿 𝜃
𝜎 = ( )1/2 𝜏𝑠 sin 𝜃 cos
2 𝑟 2
The maximum value of s occurs at cosθ = 1/3 or t = 70.5o. For this situation
2 𝐿 1/2
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) 𝜏𝑠
3 𝑟
The shear stress acting in the plane OP is given by
𝐿
𝜏 = 𝛽𝜏𝑠 ( )1/2
𝑟
Where b is an orientation –dependent factor
Grain
Boundar
y
Dislocati
on pile
up along Dislocati
GB on pile
up along
GB
Dislocation pileup – Frank-Read source
Dislocation moves and makes the slip traces
Dislocation interaction with particle
Slip lines due to movement of dislocations in Al alloy
Dislocations – Interfacial defects: Interfacial defects are boundaries
that have two dimensions and normally separate regions of materials that have
different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations.
These imperfections include: (a) external surfaces, (b) grain boundaries, (c)
twin boundaries, (d) stacking faults and (e) phase boundaries.
(a) External Surfaces: One of the most obvious boundaries is the
external surface, along which the crystal structure terminates.
 Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest
neighbors , and are therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at
interior positions.
 The bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to a
surface energy, expressed in units of energy per unit area (J/m2 or
erg/cm2).
 To reduce this energy, materials tend to minimize the surface area
(liquid droplets becoming spherical).
Grains
Grain boundary
TWIN boundary
10μm
TEM characterization
Dislocation movement at
Twin growth twin channel
Before deformation
Dislocation Interaction in different
crystallografic direction
<111> orientations form more junctions

compared to <101> and <001>
After deformation
Dislocations – Interfacial defects cont.:
(b) Grain Boundaries:
 Grain boundaries separate

two grains or crystals having
different crystallographic
orientations in
polycrystalline materials.
 The boundary region is just
several atomic distances
wide.
 There is some atomic
mismatch in a transition
from the crystalline
orientation of one grain to
that of an adjacent one.
(b) Grain Boundaries cont.:  Various degrees of crystallographic
misalignments between adjacent
grains are possible.
 When the orientation mismatch is
slight, on the order of a few
degrees, then the term small-angle
grain boundary is used.
 The atoms are bonded less
regularly along a grain boundary,
hence, there is an interfacial or
grain boundary energy similar to
surface energy.
 The magnitude of this energy is a
function of the degree of
disorientation, being larger for
high-angle boundaries.
(b) Grain Boundaries cont.:
 The small angle
grain boundaries
can be described
in terms of
dislocation arrays.
 One simple small-
angle grain
boundary is tilt
boundary with an
angle of
misorientation, θ,
formed from an
alignment of edge
dislocation.
 When the angle of mis-orientation is parallel to the boundary, a

twist boundary results, which can be described by an array of screw
dislocation.
 Grain boundaries are more chemically reactive than grains themselves as a

consequence of the grain boundary energy.
 Impurity atoms prefer to segregate along these grain boundaries because of
their higher energy state.
 The total interfacial energy is lower in large or coarse-grained material since
there is less total boundary area.
 Grains grow at elevated temperatures to reduce the total boundary energy.
 In spite of these disordered arrangement of atoms and lack of regular bonding
along grain boundaries, a polycrystalline material is still strong and cohesive
and has virtually same density as the single crystal.
Dislocations – Interfacial defects cont.: (c) Twin Boundaries:
 A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which

there is a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side
of the boundary are located in mirror image positions of the atoms on
the other side.
Dislocations – Interfacial defects cont.:(c) Twin Boundaries cont.:
 Twins result from atomic displacement produced from (i) applied mechanical
shear forces (mechanical twins), and (ii) during annealing heat treatments
following deformation (annealing twins).
 Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific
direction, both of which depend on the crystal structure. Annealing twins are
found on FCC, and mechanical twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.
Bright field image of twin structure HRTEM image of twin structure
Partial dislocations Partially transformed twin HRTEM image
CTB
ITB
Dislocations – Interfacial defects cont.:(d) Stacking faults:
Panels (a) and (b) show the perfect FCC

(111) stacking, and panels (c) and (d) show
an intrinsic stacking fault.
 Stacking faults are found in FCC metal when there is an interruption
of the ABCABCABC… stacking sequence of close-packed planes. (In
HCP, interruption in ABABAB… stacking sequence.)
Twins and Stacking Faults in NiTiPd Shape Memory Alloy
Stackin
Twin Boundary g
Faults
KV Ramaiah & Gouthama, IITK

Dislocations – Interfacial defects cont.:(d) Phase Boundaries:
 Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials across which there is a

sudden change in physical and/or chemical characteristics.
Dislocations – Interfacial defects cont.:(d) Ferromagnetic domain walls:
 For ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, the boundary that

separates regions having different directions of magnetization is termed
a domain wall.
Normally, the interfacial energy will be greatest for external surfaces and
least for domain walls
BULK OR VOLUME DEFECTS:
Bulk defects are three dimensional in nature and include pores, cracks,
foreign inclusions and other phases. These are normally introduced
during processing and fabrication steps and are quite large in comparison
to the ones discussed so far.
Atomic vibrations: Every atom in a solid is vibrating very rapidly

about its lattice position within the crystal. In a sense, these vibrations
may be considered as imperfections or defects.
 All atoms do not vibrate at same frequency and amplitude, nor with the
same energy.
 With rising temperature, the average energy increases and also the
average vibrational activity of atoms and molecules. At RT, a typical
vibrational frequency: ~ 1013 vibrations/sec, amplitude: few thousand
nano meters.
Many properties and processes in solids are manifestations of this
vibrational atomic motions
STRENGTHENING OF METALS
Basic Concepts:
In crystalline solids, plastic deformation most often involves the motion of
dislocations. Edge and screw, along with the mixed ones, constitute the
dislocation types; the motion of which results in plastic deformation. The
number of dislocations, or dislocation density in a material, is expressed as
the total dislocation length per unit volume, or, equivalently, the number of
dislocations that intersect a unit area of a random section.
STRENGTHENING OF METALS cont.
Basic Concepts cont.:
Dislocation motion is analogous to the mode of locomotion employed by a
caterpillar. The caterpillar hump and its motion correspond to the extra half-
plane of atoms in the dislocation model of plastic deformation.
Dislocation densities may be as low as 103 per mm2 for carefully

crystallized solids, as high as 109 – 1010 /mm2 for heavily deformed
metals decreasing to 105 – 106 /mm2 after heat treatment.
Basic Concepts cont.:
The process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion
is termed slip; the crystallographic plane along which the dislocation line
traverses is the slip plane. Macroscopic plastic deformation simply
corresponds to permanent deformation that results from the movement of
dislocations, or, slip, in response to an applied shear stress.
For an edge, the dislocation line moves in the direction of the applied shear
stress, whereas, for a screw, the dislocation line motion is perpendicular to
the stress direction.
Charactristics of dislocations:
Several characteristics of dislocations are important with respect to the
mechanical properties of metals. These include strain fields that exist around
dislocations, which are influential in determining the mobility of the
dislocations, as well as their ability to multiply.
(a) and (b) Repelling and attracting dislocations;

(c) and (d) annihilation of attracting dislocations
When metals are plastically deformed, some fraction of the deformation energy
(~ 5%) is retained internally; the remainder is dissipated as heat. Major portion
of this stored energy is associated as strain energy with dislocations. In an edge
dislocation, the half-plane imposes lattice strains (C, T, and S) in the neighboring
atoms. C and T regions, and edge of +ve and –ve signs emerge.
Charactristics of dislocations cont.:
For screw dislocations, lattice strains are pure shear only. These lattice strains
cause lattice distortions which may be considered as strain fields. All the
strain fields surrounding the dislocations in close proximity to one another
exert a combined influence.
Two dislocations of opposite sign and having the same slip plane will be
attracted to each other and dislocation annihilation will occur when they meet.
Charactristics of dislocations cont.:
During plastic deformation, the number of dislocations increase dramatically
(~ 1010/mm2). One important source for these new dislocations is the existing
dislocations, which multiply. The other sources are grain boundaries, internal
defects, and surface irregularities (scratches and nicks), which act as stress
concentrations and may serve as dislocation formation sites during
deformation.
Various phenomena are possible with various resultant effects.

Slip systems:
Dislocations do not move with the same degree of ease in all crystallographic
planes of atoms and in all crystallographic directions. Ordinarily, there is a
preferred plane and in that plane there are preferred directions. This plane is
called slip plane and the preferred directions are called slip directions.
The combination of the slip plane and the slip directions is termed: slip system.
Metals with FCC or BCC crystal structures have a relatively large number of slip
systems (at least 12). These metals are quite ductile because extensive plastic
deformation is normally possible along the various systems. Conversely,
HCP metals, having few active slip systems, are normally quite brittle.
Slip in single crystals:
Edge, screw, and mixed dislocations move in response to shear stresses
applied along a slip plane and a slip direction. Even though an applied stress
may be a pure tensile (or compressive), shear components exist at all but
parallel or perpendicular alignments to the stress direction. These are termed
resolved shear stress, and their magnitude depend not only on the applied
stress, but also on the orientation of both the slip plane and direction within
that plane.
The resolved shear stress, τR = σ cosφ cosλ
A metal single crystal has a number of different slip systems capable of operating. The
resolved shear stress differs for each one of them and there will be one where it is maximum.
Slip in single crystals cont.:
The maximum resolved shear stress, τR (max) = σ (cosφ cosλ)max .
In response to an applied tensile or compressive stress, slip in a single crystal
commences on the most favorably oriented slip system when the resolved shear stress
reaches some critical value, termed the critical resolved shear stress, τcrss; it represents
the minimum shear stress required to initiate slip. The single crystal plastically deforms
or yields when τR (max) = τcrss, and the magnitude of the applied stress required to
initiate yielding: σy , = [τcrss /(CosφCosλ)] . The minimum stress necessary to introduce
yielding occurs when a single crystal is oriented such that φ = λ = 450, hen, σy = 2τcrss
For a single crystal stressed

Slips in a zinc
single crystal. in tension, slip occurs along
a number of equivalent and
most favorably oriented
planes and directions at
various positions along the
Macroscopic slips specimen length. The slip
in a single crystal. deformation forms as small
steps on the surface, parallel
to one another and loops
Deformation of poly-crystals.
around the circumference.
Slip in single crystals cont.:
For BCC and FCC metals, slip may eventually begin along a second slip system.
For HCP crystals having few slip systems, if, for the most favourable slip
system, the stress axis is either perpendicular to the slip direction(λ = 900) or
parallel to the slip plane (σ = 900), the critical resolve stress = 0. For these
extreme orientations the crystal fractures rather than deforming plastically.
Plastic deformation of polycrystalline materials:
Deformation and slip for polycrystalline materials is more complex, because of
variance in direction of slip from grain to grain due to random crystallographic
orientation in those grains.
during deformation, mechanical integrity and coherence is maintained along the
grain boundaries; they do not open up. As a result, the grains are constrained. The
equiaxed grains get elongated after deformation.
Polycrystalline materials are stronger than single crystals; hence need higher stress to
initiate slip and yielding.
Bright-field TEM images illustrating the equiaxed (a) and

elongated (b) UFG structures after ECAP (Fe-36Ni Invar alloy)
Even though a single grain is favorably oriented with the applied stress for slip, it can
not deform until the adjacent less favorably oriented grains are capable for slip; hence
need for higher stress
Deformation by twinning:
In addition to slip, plastic deformation in some metallic materials can occur by the
formation of mechanical twins, or, twinning. Mechanical twinning is favorable for (a)
BCC and HCP crystal structures, (b) at low temperatures, and (c) at high rates of loading
(shock loading), conditions under which slip process is restricted (few slip systems).
The displacement magnitude within the twinning region (arrows) is proportional to the
distance from the twin plane.
Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction that depend
on crystal structure. Ex: BCC: twin plane (112), twin direction [111]; FCC: (111) & [11-2].
Deformation by twinning cont.:
Slip and twinning processes differ from one another in various ways:
For slip, the crystallographic orientations above and below the slip plane is the same
before and after deformation, whereas for twinning, there will be a reorientation across
the twin plane.
Slip occurs in distinct atomic spacing multiples, whereas the atomic displacement for
twinning is less than the inter-atomic separation.
Twinning with new crystallographic orientations may make slip processes favorable.
Mechanism of strengthening in metals
It is often necessary to design alloys having high strengths yet some ductility
and toughness. Plastic deformation is related to motion of dislocations and the
ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of dislocations
to move. Reducing the mobility of dislocation strengthens the material,
whereas, enhancing motion of dislocation makes the metal easy to deform, but
softer and weaker.
Mechanism of strengthening in metals cont.
Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on the simple principle: restricting
and hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger. The
methods of strengthening of metals are: by grain size reduction, solid-solution
alloying, and strain hardening.
Strengthening by grain size reduction
The size of the grains, or average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline metal
influences the mechanical properties. Different grains are separated by grain
boundaries. These grain boundaries act as a barrier to motion of dislocation
for the following reasons:
(a) Passage of dislocation from one grain to another is hindered because the
grains have different crystallographic orientations and the dislocation is to
change direction to pass though which is difficult,
(b) The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will result in a
discontinuity of slip planes from one grain into the other.
High angled grain boundaries are quite

effective. However, a stress concentration
ahead of a slip plane in one grain may
activate sources of new dislocations in an
adjacent grain
(i) Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in blocking the slip motion. (ii) Twin
boundaries will effectively block slip and increase the strength of the material. (iii)
Boundaries between two different phases (complex alloys) can effectively block slip.
Strengthening by grain size reduction cont.
A fine-grained material is harder and stronger than one that is coarse grained,
since the former has a greater total grain boundary area to impede dislocation
motion. For many materials, the yield strength, σy, varies with grain size
according to: (σ0 and k are constants for specific materials)
(Hall-Petch equation)
Grain size may be regulated by the rate of solidification from the liquid phase, and
also by plastic deformation followed by an appropriate heat treatment. It should also
be mentioned that grain size reduction improves not only strength, but also the
toughness of many alloys.
Solid-solution strengthening
Impurity atoms, either substitutional or interstitial solid solutions, also
strengthen and harden the metal which is known as solid-solution hardening.
Solid-solution strengthening cont.
The resistance to slip is greater when impurity atoms are present because the
overall lattice strain must increase if a dislocation is torn away from them.
Further, the same lattice strain interaction existing between the impurity
atom and dislocation (figure below) will exist during motion and hence higher
stress is needed to initiate and move the dislocation.
Compressive
lattice strain
Tensile lattice strain

Possible location of larger/smaller impurity atoms relative to an edge dislocation such
that there is partial cancellation of impurity-dislocation lattice strain.
Strain hardening
Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder
and stronger as it is elastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work
hardening, or, cold working, because the deformation takes place at a cold
condition relative to the melting temperature of the metal. Percent Cold Work:
%CW = [(A0 – Ad)/A0] x 100
Strain hardening cont.
For steel, brass, and copper yield and tensile stress increase with cold work. The
price for this enhancement of hardness and strength is in the ductility of the metal.
Strain hardening cont.
The dislocation density in a metal increases with deformation or cold work, due to
dislocation multiplication or the formation of new dislocations. Consequently, the average
distance of separation between dislocations decreases – the dislocations are positioned
closer together. On the average, dislocation – dislocation strain interaction are repulsive. The
net result is that the motion of a dislocation is hindered by the presence of other
dislocations.
The parameter ‘n’,

called the strain
hardening exponent,
is a measure of the
ability of a metal to
strain-harden; the
larger its magnitude,
the greater the strain
hardening for a given
amount of plastic
strain.
Strain hardening is utilized commercially to enhance the mechanical properties of

metals during fabrication procedure. The effects of strain hardening may be removed by
an annealing procedure.
Recovery, re-crystallization, and grain-growth
Cold working produces micro-structural and property changes such as: (1) a change in
grain shape, (2) strain hardening and (3) an increase in dislocation density. A fraction of
the energy expended in deformation is stored in the metal as strain energy associated
with tensile, compressive, and shear zones around the newly created dislocations.
Further, other properties such as electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance may
be modified as a consequence of plastic deformation.
These properties and structures may revert back to the pre-cold-worked states by
appropriate heat treatment. Such restoration results from two different processes and
occur at elevated temperatures: recovery and re-crystallization, which may be followed
by grain-growth.
Recovery
During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of
dislocation motion (in the absence of an externally applied stress), as a result of
enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature. There is some reduction in the
number of dislocations, and dislocation configurations are produced having low strain
energies. In addition, physical properties such as electrical and thermal conductivities
are recovered to their pre-cold-worked states.
Recovery, recrystallization & grain growth
Plastically deformation of metals produces change in grain shape, strain
hardening, and an increase in dislocation density. Some fraction of energy
expended in deformation is the metal as strain energy which is associated
to dislocation density
Recovery
- Relieve of some of the stored internal strain energy by dislocation
motion – atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature
- Reduction of dislocation density and dislocation configurations
Recrystallization
- Formation of new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains
- Driving force – difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material
- Metals become softer, weaker and ductile
- Recrystallization temperature typically (0.3-0.5) Tm
- Min. cold work (5-15%), otherwise no recrystallization
Grain growth
- Strain free grains continue to grow by migration of grain boundaries
- Grain size increases, total boundary area decrease
- Driving force-energy associated with grain boundaries
Static and dynamic recrystallization
Recrystallization
• Dynamically – during deformation (e.g., roll gap during hot rolling
• Statically – between deformation stage
• Static recrystallization occurs high stacking fault energy

• Dynamic recrystallization occurs low stacking-fault energy
S. L. Semiatin, ASM handbook, Vol 14, ASM international, 2
Structural change during recovery
• Rearrangement of dislocations into cellular structures (for high SFE
materials and most hot-deformed metals this occurs simultaneously with
deformation
• Elimination of free dislocations within cells
• Formation of subgrain boundaries and rearrangement of dislocations into
low energy configurations
Kinetic relation Where
d and d0 final and initial subgrain size
n, k3 are constants
Dislocation structure changes during recovery – random dislocation tangles through cell
structures to subgrains
Verlinden et al, Thermomechanical processing of metallic materials, Elsevier,

Evolution of microstructure during hot deformation
Dynamic Recovery Dynamic Recrystallization

Verlinden et al, Thermomechanical processing of metallic materials, Elsevier,
Cold work microstructure
Dislocations entangle with one another during

cold work.
Dislocation motion becomes more difficult.
Dislocation density =
Total dislocation length/unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2
With increasing cold work
• Yield strength (sy) increases

• Tensile strength (TS) increases
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases
Recovery & Polygonization
Cold working increases dislocations in the material which increases
strength, hardness and electrical resistance, and it decreases ductility
- Recovery annihilating the excess dislocations by coming together of
dislocation segments of opposite sign (i.e negative edges with positive
edges, left hand screws and right hand screws)
- Another recovery process called polygonization associated with crystals
that have plastically bent.
- When bent crystal annealed, the curved crystal breaks upto into number
of closely related small perfect crystal segments
Realignment of edge dislocation during

polygonization
C - region of recrystallization
Abbaschian et al, Physical Metallurgy principles, 4th ed, Cengage learning,

Recrystallization
• Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high
strain energy state.
• Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and
equiaxed grains that have low dislocation densities (pre-cold work
state).
• The driving force to produce the new grain structure is the internal
energy difference between strained and unstrained material.
• The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they
consume the parent material.
• Recrystallization temperature is 1/3 <Tm <1/2.
Grain Growth
• After recrystallization is complete, the

strain-free grains will continue to grow
if the metal specimen is left at
elevated temperatures.
• As grains increase in size, the total
boundary area decreases, as does the
total energy.
• Large grains grow at the expense of
smaller grains.
Ideal grain growth law
𝐷2 − 𝐷𝑜2 = 𝐾𝑡
D – Average Grain diameter

D0- Initial grain size
K – constant
Softening kinetics during annealing of cold worked metals
- The deformation structures developed during thermomechanical
processing are unstable
- On annealing, substructure evolution occurs by thermally activated
process
- These process reduces stored energy and softens the plastically
deformed materials
At low T (0.4-0.5 Tm)
- Recovery dominates
- Hardness decreases
At high T (>0.7 Tm)
- Recrystallization occurs
without much prior
recovery
At intermediate T
- Both recovery and

recrystallization occurs
Schematic illustration of annealing process
Deformed state Recovered Partially recrystallized
Fully recrystallized Grain growth Abnormal grain growth

F.J. Humpreys and M. Hatherly.,, Recryst. Ann. Phenomena, Elsevier
Stages of recrystallization process
CW 33% 580°C-3s 580°C-4s
Cold worked Initial stage of RDX Formation of fine recrystallized

grains
580°C-8s 580°C-10min 700°C-10min
Complete recrystallization Grain growth Grain growth
Callister and Rethwisch, Fund. Mater. Sci. Eng., 3rd ed, John-Wiley,
Influence of grain size on yield strength
• Grain boundaries are barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength“ increases with increasing angle of misorientation.
• Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip.
Hall-Petch relationship
𝝈𝒚 = 𝝈𝟎 + 𝒌𝒚 𝒅−𝟏/𝟐
d-Avg. grain diameter

𝝈𝒚 - Yield strength
𝝈𝟎 , 𝒌𝒚 -constant
Callister and Rethwisch, Fund. Mater. Sci. Eng., 3rd ed, John-Wiley,
Plastic deformation of Aluminum
5% deformation 30% deformation 50% deformation

Cell structure formation due to dynamic recovery
Deformation at high temperature (al at 400C)
5% deformation 30% deformation 50% deformation
Cell structure formation due to dynamic recovery

Re-crystallization
Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high strain energy
state. Re-crystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains
(i.e., having approximately equal dimensions in all directions) that have low dislocation
densities and are characteristic of the pre-cold-worked condition.
The driving force to produce this new grain structure is the difference in internal energy
between the strained and unstrained material; and the processes involve short-range
diffusion.
Re-crystallization cont.
Re-crystallization is a process the extent of which depends on both time and
temperature. The temperature of re-crystallization depends on several factors: (i) extent
of prior cold work and (ii) purity of the alloy. Increase in PCW enhances the rate of re-
crystallization; with the result that the re-crystallization temperature is lowered. Below a
critical ( 2 – 20%)PCW, re-crystallization can not be made to occur.
Re-crystallization cont.
Re-crystallization proceeds more rapidly in pure metals than in alloys. Thus alloying
raises the re-crystallization temperature, sometimes substantially. For pure metals it is
normally 0.3Tm (Tm is absolute MP), whereas, for some common alloys it may be as high
as 0.7Tm.
Re-crystallization and Melting temperatures for various metals and Alloys
Metal/Alloy Re-crystaln. T., 0C MP, 0C

Lead/Tin -4/-4 327/232
Zinc 10 420
Aluminum (99.999 wt%) 80 660
Copper (99.999 wt%) 120 1085
Brass (60 Cu-40 Zn) 475 900
Nickel (99.99 wt%) 370 1455
Iron 450 1538
Tungsten 1200 3410
Grain-growth
After re-crystallization is complete, the strain-free grains will continue to grow if the
metal specimen is left at the elevated temperature; this phenomenon is called grain-
growth. Grain-growth does not need to be preceded by recovery and re-crystallization;
it may occur in all polycrystalline material, metals and ceramics alike.
As grain size increases, grain-boundary area decreases, the total energy decreases which
is the driving force for grain-growth.
grain-growth occurs by the migration of grain boundaries; not all grains can enlarge,
but large grains grow at the expense of the small ones.
Boundary motion is just the short range diffusion of atoms from one side of the
boundary to the other; the direction of boundary movement and atomic motion are
opposite to each other.
Grain-growth cont.
Grain size depends on time and temperature. For many poly-crystalline materials, the
grain diameter, d, varies with time t according to the relationship:
dn - d0n = Kt
where, d0 is the initial grain diameter at t = 0, and K and n are time-independent
constants; the value of n is generally equal to or greater than 2.
At lower temperature the curve is linear. As temperature rises, diffusion rate

increases and hence grain-growth proceeds more rapidly resulting in larger grains.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical Properties of metals
- Many metals/materials are subjected to forces or load; and
it is necessary to know their characteristics and also to
design in such a way that they stand the operation without
any failure.
- The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the
relationship between its response or deformation to an
applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are
strength, hardness, ductility, and stiffness.
- These properties are of concern for various parties and
therefore, must be derived from tests and made available for
reference. Professional Societies, very often, maintain
standard records of these properties.
- Stress – Strain behavior is one important parameter related
to various mechanical properties.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES cont.
Concept of Stress and strain
If a load (static or changing with time, tension, compression, shear
or torsional) is applied uniformly over a cross section or surface of a
member, the mechanical behavior can be ascertained by stress –
strain test.
Concept of Stress and strain
Output of a Stress-Strain Test:
(a) True and Engineering Stress
and (b) True and engineering
strain.
Under Tension Test: Engineering
stress and strain:
Under Compression Test the same

equations hold good, however,
stress and strain become
negative, since F and ∆l are – ve.
Under Shear or Torsional Tests the
equations are:
τ = F/A0 and γ = tanθ
(φ for torsional).
Elastic deformation: Stress-Strain behavior:
In case of elastic deformation, the stress is
directly proportional to the strain and a plot
of stress versus strain results in a linear
relationship: σ = Eε, (Hooke’s Law)
where the constant of proportionality E is
known as modulus of elasticity, or
Young’s modulus.
In case of shear loading, the relationship
is identical: τ = Gγ.
This modulus may be thought of as
stiffness, or a material’s resistance to
elastic deformation.
Elastic deformation is non-permanent.
The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material; or,
the smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a given stress. The
modulus is an important design parameter used for computing elastic deformation.
Elastic deformation: Stress-Strain behavior cont.:
When a tensile stress is imposed on

a metal specimen, besides the
elongation in z direction, there may
be contractions in the x and y
directions with compressive strains
εx and εy. In such cases a parameter
termed as Poisson’s Ratio ν is
defined as the ratio of the lateral
and axial strains.
Poisson’s Ratio: ν = - εx/εz = -εy/εz
Shear and elastic moduli are
related to each other and to
Poisson’s ratio as:
E = 2G (1 + ν)
Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s Ratio (PR)
for Various Metal Alloys
Modulus of elasticity Shear modulus
Metal/Alloy GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi PR
Aluminum 69 10 25 3.6 0.33
Brass 97 14 37 5.4 0.34
Copper 110 16 46 6.7 0.34
Magnesium 45 6.5 17 2.5 0.29
Nickel 207 30 76 11.0 0.31
Steel 207 30 83 12.0 0.30
Titanium 107 15.5 45 6.5 0.34
Tungsten 407 59 160 23.2 0.28
For most typical metals the magnitude of Young’s modulus ranges

between 45 GPa for magnesium to 407 GPa for tungsten
There are some materials like
grey cast iron, concrete, and
many polymers, for which
this initial elastic portion of
the stress-strain curve is not
linear.
For these non-linear curves,

the modulus of elasticity is
determined either as the
tangent modulus or the
secant modulus.
On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small

changes in the inter-atomic spacing and the stretching of inter-atomic bonds
Modulus of elasticity is
proportional to the slope of
the inter-atomic force –
separation (r) curve at the
equilibrium spacing:
E = ∞ (dF/dr)r0
The curves for the materials

with strong and weak inter-
atomic bonds are different
with different r0
The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the resistance to

separation of adjacent atoms, i.e., the inter-atomic bonding force.
Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are

characteristically higher than the metals; for polymers they are lower
With increasing temperature, the modulus of elasticity diminishes

Anelasticity It is assumed that elastic
deformation is time independent.
The applied stress produces an
instantaneous strain. However, it is
not so. Some finite time is needed
for complete recovery. This time
dependent elastic behavior, which
is due to the time-dependent
microscopic and atomistic
processes related to deformation, is
known as anelasticity.
For metals this anelastic

component is small and neglected.
However, for some polymers it is
significant; in this case it is termed
viscoelastic behavior.
Plastic deformation: For most metallic materials, elastic
deformation persists only to strains of about 0.005. As the material is
deformed beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to
strain as per Hooke’s Law; and permanent, non-recoverable, or
plastic deformation occurs. From an atomic perspective, plastic
deformation corresponds to the breaking of bonds with original neighbors and
having reforming bonds with new neighbors.
The mechanism of plastic deformation is different for crystalline (slip

mechanism) and non-crystalline (viscous flow mechanism) materials
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Yielding and yield strength
Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation
will result when a stress is applied. It is therefore desirable to know
the stress level where deformation begins, or, the yielding occurs.
The point of initial departure from linearity is known as
proportional limit (P). Yield strength is determined (a) by offset
method or (b) from yield point phenomenon.
Range of yield strength for metals: 35 MPa for low strength Al to 1400 MPa
for high strength steels
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Tensile strength
The highest stress at the engineering stress-strain curve is the tensile
strength. All deformation till this point is uniform throughout the
narrow section of the specimen. At maximum stress a constriction or
neck appears to form at some point; subsequent deformation is
confined at the neck. This phenomenon is called ‘necking’ and
ultimately fracture occurs at the neck; this stress is fracture strength.
Range of tensile strength for metals: 50 MPa for low strength Al to 3000 MPa
for high strength steels. For design purpose the yield strength is used.
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Ductility
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of
the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. The
material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation on
fracture is termed brittle; and the one that sustains higher degree of
deformation is called ductile.
Brittle materials have less than 5% fracture strain

TENSILE PROPERTIES – Ductility cont.
As with modulus of elasticity, the magnitudes of both yield and
tensile strengths decline with increasing temperature; just the
reverse holds for ductility – it usually increases with temperature.
Knowledge of ductility of materials is important for the designers to have an

idea of the degree of (a) plastic deformation before fracture and (b) allowable
deformation during fracture.
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Ductility cont.
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively by:
(1) percentage elongation: %EL = [(lf – l0)/l0] x 100
shorter is l0, greater is %EL
(2) percent area reduction: %AR = [(A0 – Af)/A0] x 100
independent of both lo andA0
Typical Physical properties of Metals/Alloys in an annealed state
Metal/Alloy Yield strength Tensile strength Ductility, %EL
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) [in 50 mm (2 in)]
Aluminum 35 (5) 90 (13) 40
Copper 69 (10) 200 (29) 45
Brass (70 Cu+30Zn) 75 (11) 300 (44) 68
Iron 130 (19) 262 (38) 45
Nickel 138 (20) 480 (70) 40
Steel (1020) 180 (26) 380 (55) 25
Titanium 450 (65) 520 (75) 25
Molybdenum 565 (82) 655 (95) 35
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy
recovered. The associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur,
which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a
material from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding.
Ur = 0∫σy σdε assuming a linear region: Ur = σyεy
We have σ = Eε therefore, Ur = σyεy = ½ σy(σy/E) = σy2/2E
Thus, resilient materials are those having high yield strengths and low moduli
of elasticity; such alloys would be used in spring applications.
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Toughness
Toughness is a mechanical term that is used in several contexts;
loosely speaking, it is a measure of the ability of a material to
absorb energy up to fracture. For the static situation (low strain rate)
situation, it is the area under σ – ε curve up to the point of fracture.
For a material to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility; and
often, ductile materials are tougher than brittle materials even though the
later may have higher yield and tensile strengths.
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Toughness cont.
For the dynamic loading (high strain rate) situation, and when a notch
is present, notch toughness is assessed by using an impact test.
Fracture toughness is a property indicative of a material’s resistance to

fracture when a crack is present.
True stress and strain:
It may appear that the material is becoming weaker after point M.
However, it is not so, rather it is increasing in strength. The material
is yielding because of necking (decrease in CS area). True stress
becomes significant at this point.
Under Tension Test: True stress and strain: (actual l and A, not
initial l0 and A0 are used). σT=F/A and εT = ln(l/l0)
If no volume change occurs

during deformation, Al = A0l0 ,
then, true stress, σT and true
strain, εT are: σT = σ(1 + ε)
εT = ln(1 + ε)
This is valid only up to necking,
beyond which actual l and A are
to be used.
Elastic recovery during plastic deformation:
Upon release of the load during the course of a stress-strain test, some fraction
of the total deformation is recovered as elastic strain. During the unloading
cycle, the curve traces a near straight-line path from the point of unloading
parallel to the initial elastic portion of the curve. The magnitude of this elastic
strain recovered during unloading corresponds to the strain recovery.
When the load is reapplied the curve will take back the same unloading path
and there will also be an elastic recovery associated with fracture.
Compressive, Shear and torsional deformation:
Metals may experience plastic deformation under the influence of applied
compressive, shear, and torsional loads. The resulting stress-strain behaviour
into the plastic region (yielding and the associated curvature) will be similar to
the tensile counterpart.
For compression, there will be no maximum, since necking does not occur;
furthermore, the mode of fracture will be different
Johann Bauschinger (1834 – 1893 )
Bauschinger Effect: was professor of Engineering
Mechanics at Munich Polytechnic.
Based on the cold work structure

TWO types of mechanisms may
explain the Bauschinger Effect :
(1) First, local back stresses may be present (at the piled-up dislocations at grain
boundaries and around strong precipitates) which may assist the movement of
dislocations in the reverse direction easily making σy lower).
(2) Second, when the strain direction is reversed, dislocations of opposite sign can
be produced by the same source that produced the slip – causing dislocations in
the initial direction; with opposite signs can attract and annihilate each other.
HARDNESS:
Another important mechanical property is HARDNESS, which is a measure of
a material’s resistance to localised deformation (a small dent or a scratch). The
hardness scale/tests are: (a) Mohs Hardness Scale, (b) Rockwell Hardness test,
(c) Brinell Hardness Test, (d) KNOOP and (e) Vickers Hardness Scales.
There are also other hardness tests such as (f) ultrasonic micro-hardness, (g)
dynamic (Scleroscope), (h) durometer (for plastics), and scratch hardness test
HARDNESS cont.
Details about the following tests (b) Rockwell Hardness test, (c) Brinell
Hardness Test, (d) KNOOP and (e) Vickers Hardness Scales are given below.
HARDNESS cont.
Details about the following tests (b) Rockwell Hardness test, (c) Brinell
Hardness Test, and some others are given below.
HARDNESS cont.
(a) Rockwell Hardness Scales, and (b), Hardness Conversion Table are given
below.
Correlation between hardness and tensile strength
Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation. Consequently, they are roughly proportional. Following
figure shows the proportionality for cast iron, steel, and brass.
As a thumb rule for most steels, the HB and the tensile strength are related as:
TS(MPa) = 3.45 x HB, or, TS(psi) = 500 x HB
Effect of temperature on hardness and tensile strength
Temperature has an effect on hardness as well as strength of the metals.
Variation in test results for many specimens of the same material is a normal
phenomenon. Designers should take the average value (also note the ± deviations).
SOME MATERIALS AND THEIR MECHANICAL PRPERTIES
SOME MATERIALS AND THEIR MECHANICAL PRPERTIES cont.
SOME MATERIALS AND THEIR MECHANICAL PRPERTIES cont.
DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS
Uncertainty is always associated with the characteristics of the engineering
materials as well as their measured values ; and also with the estimated stress
levels for in-service applications. Therefore, design allowance is a most. There
are two ways this can be achieved.
One way: a design stress, σd is estimated by multiplying the calculated stress,
σc with a design factor, N’: σd = σc x N’.
The other way: a safe stress or working stress, σw is used instead of design
stress. The safe stress is based on the yield strength of the material and is
defined as the yield strength, σy divided by a factor of safety, N:
σw = σy/N.
Use of the design stress is usually preferred.
The choice of an appropriate value of N is necessary. A large value of N will

result in over-design and unnecessary material usage; a lower value puts the
design at risk. In practice, N ranges between 1.3 to 4. It depends on factors
such as: (a) economy, (b) previous experience, (c) accuracy of determination of
the material property, and most important, (d) consequence of failure in terms
of loss of life and/or property damage.
References:
W D Callister, Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction (Wiley Publication)
The Science and Engineering of Materials by Donald R. Askeland(Author), Pradeep P.

Fulay(Author), WendelinJ. Wright (Author)
Materials Science and Engineering Properties Charles M. Gilmore:

Better world books
Mechanical Metallurgy: G. Dieter, Mc Graw Hill

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Defects, strengthening mechanism

and mechanical properties of material

For most metals, nv/nbulk = ~ 10-4,

Thus, the number of vacancies at 10000C = 1273 K is equal to:

nv = nbulk exp[ - Qv/kT]

= (8.0 x 1028 atoms/m3) exp[ - (0.9 eV) / {(8.62 x 10-5 eV/K)(1273K)}]

= 2.2 x 1025 vacancies/m3

Schottky defect: NaCl:

At RT: 1 in 1015 sites are vacant.

Frenkel defect: AgCl:

Charge balancing interstitials

Creation energy: 130 kJ/mol.

Enthalpy of formation of Schottky and Frenkel defects in some selected

Defects: compound ∆H (10-19 J) ∆H (eV)

300 6.12 x 10-27 5.72 x 10-6

1000 1.37 x 10-8 2.67 x 10-2

1: Atomic size factor: Accommodation is easy without change in

3: Electronegativity: A more electropositive solvent with a more

For Interstitial, solute or impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices

Interstitial, Ex: Iron-Carbon: Atomic radius of iron is 0.124 nm

Specification of composition: It is often necessary to express the

1: Weight Percent (wt%): It is the weight of a particular element

2: Atom Percent (at%): It is the number of moles of an element in

Composition conversions as well as determination of density can be

 Originate from partial slipping of a section of crystal plane

 The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated with a

Shear stress required to bend a dislocation to a radius R

Forces between dislocation:

The equilibrium spacing between partial dislocation is

Where g is stacking fault per unit area, J/m2

𝑈𝑗 = 𝛼𝐺 𝑏12 𝑏2 the energy of a jog is about 0.5 to 1.0 eV in metals

<111> orientations form more junctions

 Grain boundaries separate

 When the angle of mis-orientation is parallel to the boundary, a

 Grain boundaries are more chemically reactive than grains themselves as a

 A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which

Panels (a) and (b) show the perfect FCC

KV Ramaiah & Gouthama, IITK

 Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials across which there is a

 For ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, the boundary that

Atomic vibrations: Every atom in a solid is vibrating very rapidly

Dislocation densities may be as low as 103 per mm2 for carefully

(a) and (b) Repelling and attracting dislocations;

Various phenomena are possible with various resultant effects.

For a single crystal stressed

Bright-field TEM images illustrating the equiaxed (a) and

High angled grain boundaries are quite

Tensile lattice strain

The parameter ‘n’,

Strain hardening is utilized commercially to enhance the mechanical properties of

• Statically – between deformation stage

• Static recrystallization occurs high stacking fault energy

Verlinden et al, Thermomechanical processing of metallic materials, Elsevier,

Dynamic Recovery Dynamic Recrystallization

Dislocations entangle with one another during

With increasing cold work

• Yield strength (sy) increases

Realignment of edge dislocation during

Abbaschian et al, Physical Metallurgy principles, 4th ed, Cengage learning,

• After recrystallization is complete, the

D – Average Grain diameter

At high T (>0.7 Tm)

- Both recovery and